Copyrighted material – 9780230294103 Contents List of Maps ix Introduction x 1 Middle and Later Stone Age 1 Homo sapiens and other early modern humans 1 Scientific dating and climates: 244 kya–present day 2 Genetics and ‘African Eve’: 244 kya–190 kya (mis/ois-7) & 190 kya–130 kya (mis/ois-6) 5 Shell beads and ochre pigments: 130 kya–74 kya (mis/ois-5) 7 Worldwide dispersal of modern humans: 74 kya–60 kya (mis/ois-4) 9 Middle to Later Stone Age transition: 60 kya–24 kya (mis/ois-3) 10 Twa, Khoe, and San hunter-gatherers 12 Diversification of the Wilton LSA: 24 kya–11.5 kya (mis/ois-2) & 11.5 kya–today (Mis/Ois-1 Holocene) 13 Pottery, sheep & cattle from East Africa 15 Rock art: painting & engraving 17 2 Early & Middle Iron Age to c.1300 21 Bantu origins in West Africa c.2250 BCE 21 Early Iron Age people of the Western Stream c.250 BCE–CE 700 24 Early Iron Age people in East Africa 25 Eastern Stream Early Iron Age people 25 Central Stream Early Iron Age people 26 Khoe-San history during the Early Iron Age 27 The medieval warm epoch c.900–1300 29 Indian Ocean trade before c.945 30 Ivory, iron, & copper trade c.790–1020 32 Gold trade & the Mapungubwe kingdom c.950–1300 34 Other Middle Iron Age chiefdoms c.1030–1450 36 Nguni & Sotho-Tswana royal ancestry 37 Khoe-San transformation c.850–1250 38 3 Later Iron Age Societies to c.1685 43 Blackburn pottery & Nguni origins 43 Moloko pottery & Sotho-Tswana origins 45 v Copyrighted material – 9780230294103 Copyrighted material – 9780230294103 vi Contents Nguni invasions onto the Highveld 47 Indian Ocean trade 48 Great Zimbabwe & Shona origins 49 Portuguese incursions 52 Munhumutapa & the Portuguese 54 Khami (Butwa) kingdom 56 Early Venda & coastal chiefdoms 57 4 Early States & European Colonies c.1600–c.1790 61 French, English, Dutch & Danish ships call at the Cape 62 Dutch settlement at the Cape 64 Rozvi & Venda kingdoms 66 Tsonga & Nguni near Delagoa Bay 67 Nguni descendants in the interior 68 Tswana & Pedi states in the interior 69 Delagoa Bay shipping & northern Nguni states 73 Cape colonial settlement 74 Expanding Cape frontiers 75 Destruction of the mountain San 78 Cape raiders in the interior 79 5 Coastal & Interior Frontier Wars c.1790–c.1868 83 Cape Colony under Dutch, Batavian & British rule 84 Slave raiding from Delagoa Bay & Cape Colony 87 London missionaries in the interior 88 Rise of Shaka’s Zulu kingdom 89 Ngoni invasions across the Limpopo & Zambezi 92 Mantatee raiders on the Highveld 93 Sebetwane’s Kololo 94 Sotho-Tswana ‘refuge kingdoms’ 95 Mzilikazi’s Ndebele kingdom 96 Trekkers & Ndebele 97 Boer trekkers in Kwa-Zulu & Natalia 99 Moravians, Presbyterians & Anglicans 101 British Cape & Natal colonies 102 Orange River & Transvaal Boer states 104 6 Scramble for Africa Part 1, 1868–1902 109 European imperialism in Africa 110 Mineral revolution 111 Copyrighted material – 9780230294103 Copyrighted material – 9780230294103 Contents vii Confederation plans & Transvaal annexation 113 Cape Colony, Griqualand-West & more ‘gun wars’ 115 Restoration of Transvaal independence 116 British Bechuanaland & German South West Africa 117 Gold on the Witwatersrand 118 Cape Colony, Natal & the Zulu kingdom 119 Founding Rhodesia 121 Railway rivalry & the Jameson Raid 123 South African War 1899–1902 126 7 Scramble for Africa Part 2, 1902–1919 131 Post-war reconstruction 131 Political union of four provinces 133 High Commission Territories 134 Witwatersrand mining & industrialization 135 Land segregation & African Congresses 137 Germany & Nama-Herero resistance 138 Conquest & resistance in Portuguese Africa 140 Southern Africa & First World War 141 Colonial rule in Southern Rhodesia 143 Colonial rule in South West Africa 145 Independent churches 146 8 Golden Years for Colonialism, 1919–1948 152 South Africa under Jan Smuts 1919–24 152 Pact & National Party governments 1924–36 154 Fusion government 1934–39 159 High Commission Territories 1920–39 161 Southern Rhodesia & Northern Rhodesia 1923–39 165 Second World War 167 Portuguese Mozambique 1910–60 171 9 Apartheid & African Nationalism 1948–1967 176 South Africa under apartheid 176 Popular resistance in South Africa 179 Two Rhodesias & Nyasaland 1945–63 183 The end of the High Commission Territories 186 National ferment in Basutoland 187 Colonial development in Swaziland 188 Colonial underdevelopment in Bechuanaland 190 Copyrighted material – 9780230294103 Copyrighted material – 9780230294103 viii Contents Anti-fascist struggles in Angola & Mozambique 191 Challenges to the South West Africa mandate 194 Rhodesia remains a settler colony 195 The new Republics of Zambia and Malawi 196 South Africa’s outward policy 196 10 Years of Revolutionary Insurgence 1967–1990 200 Zambia under President Kaunda 200 Malawi under President Banda 202 Botswana under President Seretse Khama 203 Swaziland & Lesotho under Kings Sobhuza II & Moshoeshoe II 204 Revolutions in Portuguese Angola & Mozambique 206 Armed struggle in Rhodesia-Zimbabwe 207 Post-colonial Angola 211 Namibia’s liberation war 212 Destabilization in Mozambique 213 Independent Zimbabwe’s decade of prosperity 216 Front-Line States, SADCC & regional ‘destabilization’ 217 Black consciousness & moves towards liberation in South Africa 218 11 Southern Africa since 1990 227 The end of apartheid 228 Southern African Development Community (SADC) 229 Three republics: Botswana, Zambia & Malawi 231 Two kingdoms: Lesotho & Swaziland 234 Angola & Mozambique 236 Independent Namibia 237 Zimbabwe in decline under Robert Mugabe 239 The ‘rainbow nation’ under Nelson Mandela 242 South Africa under Thabo Mbeki & Jacob Zuma 243 Southern Africa’s HIV-AIDS epidemic 246 Southern Africa’s globalization & climate challenges 246 Notes 252 General Bibliography 254 Index 260 Copyrighted material – 9780230294103 Copyrighted material – 9780230294103 1 Middle and Later Stone Age During the past two or three decades there has been a revolution in our understanding of the remote human past. There have been scientific advances in genetics, ecology and climatology, and new techniques for dating the age of remains, as well as advances in historical-linguistics and cultural analysis. History as the continuous story of human identities, actions, ideas, customs and crafts is pushing its way deeper and deeper back into prehistory. The Stone Age refers to the period of the past when people’s tools, notably knives and arrow heads, were crafted from stone. Middle Stone Age ‘industries’ emerged out of the Early Stone Age roughly 300 kya (300,000 years ago), and merged with the Later Stone Age roughly around 35 kya (35,000 years ago). It was during the Middle Stone Age that modern humans like us first appeared. The typical tools made by people in the Middle Stone Age were blades – flakes of rock that were twice as long as broad, with parallel sharp sides. During the Later Stone Age the characteristic stone tool was the microlith: a pear-shaped miniature flake not much larger than a finger nail, attached as barbs on the heads of arrows and harpoons or used as a sharp scraper on wood, bones, and grass twine. HOMO SAPIENS AND OTHER EARLY MODERN HUMANS Every person on Earth today is a member of the same biological species, Modern Humans or Homo sapiens – we vainly call ourselves sapient or ‘wise’ in Latin. Homo sapiens developed out of earlier humans known as Heidelberg Man or Homo heidelbergensis – named after Heidelberg in Germany, where a skull and bones were first discovered and classified. These people origi- nated in Africa and spread into Asia and Europe. Middle Stone Age tools of Heidelberg people excavated at Twin Rivers, south of Lusaka in Zambia, are dated between 400 kya and 350 kya. A Heidelberg skull, found by mining north of Lusaka at Kabwe (Broken Hill Man), dated around 300 kya, is heavy- boned with a prominent brow-ridge and evidence of strong neck muscles to support a heavy head. By contrast, Modern Humans developed a thinner-boned and more globe- shaped skull, compressed during childbirth and then expanding. The brain 1 Copyrighted material – 9780230294103 Copyrighted material – 9780230294103 2 A History of Southern Africa was not bigger but better, giving us increased power of speech and manual dexterity using our fingers. Creases in the brain gave it more power of thought and expanded working memory (analogous to computer memory-doubling). Rapid talking was enabled by a thick and highly mobile short tongue and by the voice-box dropping as a child grows older. Language became more complex as it drew on memory and shared mean- ings with other people. People could tell complex stories and sing and dance. They could also love, believe, and joke. They could certainly run fast, and over long distances, because of their relatively lightweight bones and long, strong muscles. Hairless bodies enabled people to keep cool by sweating, and rela- tively thin skulls prevented the brain overheating. At the time when this book is being written, the earliest known remains of Homo sapiens have been found at Jebel Irhoud in Morocco (dated around 315 kya) and at Florisbad in South Africa (around 260 kya). Homo sapiens remains in Israel (Misliya) and Ethiopia (Omo) have been dated around 186 kya and around 178 kya. No doubt other and earlier examples can and will be found. Modern Humans slowly developed out of Heidelberg humans. Early childhood nutrition was essential. Fatty acids like Omega-3 have been iden- tified as essential brain food for infants in the womb and in breast milk. Fatty acids could be obtained by mothers sucking the marrow out of animal bones or from a heavy diet of shellfish such as mussels. The other great advance was improved cooking, making high-energy foods easy to digest. Meat and root crops retain nutrition by being basted on slabs of rock over a fire – using animal dung as flambant – rather than burnt dry in the wood ashes.