Available online at http://www.ifgdg.org

Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 13(3): 1582-1595, June 2019

ISSN 1997-342X (Online), ISSN 1991-8631 (Print)

Original Paper http://ajol.info/index.php/ijbcs http://indexmedicus.afro.who.int

The socio-economic contribution of seeds to rural livelihoods in Togo (West Africa)

Fifonsi Ayélé DANGBO1*, Kossi ADJONOU1, Kouami KOKOU1 et Juergen BLASER2

1 Laboratoire de recherche forestière, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Lomé, BP 1515 Lomé, Togo. 2School of Agricultural, Forest and Food Sciences, Bern University of Applied Science (HAFL), Switzerland. *Auteur correspondant; E-mail: [email protected]

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to express sincere thanks to African Forest Forum (AFF) for their financial support to this work.

ABSTRACT

Detarium senegalense J. F. Gmel., of the family, is one of the most used in the natural forest area of Togo. The rural population uses several parts of the species to enhance their income. Detarium senegalense provides in particular a high economic valued seed. However, there are only few scientific studies on the contribution of the species to the income of rural households. The objective of this study is to contribute to the promotion of multi-purpose tree species in Togo with particular emphasis on better knowledge of Detarium senegalense. The methodology used is based on semi-structured interviews as well as participatory observations. Detarium senegalense contributes to the economy and livelihood of the rural population through income generated by the collection and trading of seeds. Collectors and traders of the seed are mostly women. The average amount of seed harvested is 45.6 (± 25.3) kg per year per collector and revenue per year per collector is US $ 59 (± 58). Local people can have an important role to secure Detarium senegalense in the degraded natural forests of Togo. However, the sustainable management of this species in the future can only be secured through an active promotion of natural regeneration, enrichment planting and domestication. © 2019 International Formulae Group. All rights reserved

Keywords: Detarium senegalense, seed harvesting, impact, rural income, Togo.

INTRODUCTION Neumann and Hirsch, 2000; Belcher and Non timber forest products (NTFPs) Vantomme, 2003; Bayeli et al., 2019; Balde et are an important component to rural al., 2019). They are particularly important for livelihoods and make significant and timely ensuring food security and maintaining income contributions to poor households nutritional balance in the diet of populations. (Malleson et al., 2014). Many studies have NTFPs contribute to the annual total revealed the socio-economic value of these household income. Observations range from resources such as those from Adansonia 15% in Malawi to roughly 40% in Mali digitata, Irvingia gabonensis / Irvingia (Heubes et al., 2012). In many rural wombolu, Dacryodes edulis, Ricinodendron communities, especially in the dry tropics, heudelotii, Garcinia kola, Chrysophyllum people depend solely on agriculture and albidum, Cola spp etc. to the national marketing of NTFPs for their income and economy and livelihoods in West Africa subsistence (Agbelade and Onyekwelu, 2013). (Timko et al., 2010; Heubes et al., 2012) ; The poorest households in remote areas are

© 2019 International Formulae Group. All rights reserved. 8109-IJBCS DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v13i3.30 F. A. DANGBO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 13(3): 1582-1595, 2019 most dependent on income from the collection Detarium senegalense are scarce and often of NTFPs as it represents one of the few incomplete. For the rational management of opportunities to earn some money in those the species and for developing restoration areas (Malleson et al., 2014). Income from strategies, it is essential to find answers to NTFPs, particularly from species such as some research questions about the availability Arthocarpus sp, Canarium schweinfurthii, of Detarium senegalense products for the Dacryodes edulis, Gambeya Africana, local population in Togo and the economic Ricinodendron heudelotii, may become even contribution of Detarium senegalense seeds to more important to rural households in West their income. Despite the threat to the species, Africa, as we move forward towards there are no up-to-date, reliable data on the changeable and uncertain times, characterized use of seed and the survival of the species in by rapid and inequal economic growth, Togo. To establish a good policy for the population expansion and an ever changing conservation of a species, this information is and unpredictable climate (Heubes et al., very important (Kebenzikato et al., 2014). The 2012). Some NTFPs are characterized by general objective of this study was to relatively low yields, but the importance of contribute to the promotion of multi-purpose their contribution to reduce poverty is found tree species in Togo with particular emphasis in their role in reducing risk through a on a better understanding of economic value diversified livelihood strategy (Malleson et al. of Detarium senegalense. The specific 2014). Among the forest tree species that objectives are: (i) determine the availability of produce a tradeable NTFP, Detarium Detarium senegalense seeds for local senegalense JF Gmel is one of the most population in Togo; (ii) evaluate the economic exploited species in West Africa, particularly contribution of Detarium senegalense seeds to in Togo (Atato et al., 2010). Since many rural population around Togo's Atakora chain. years, the timber is exploited locally in Togo (Adjossou, 2009). Detarium senegalense MATERIALS AND METHODS produce and their seeds have a high Site selection and sampling economical value. Detarium senegalense is a The selection of the study sites was very popular and its pulp is widely done in two distinct phases. In the first phase, consumed in Senegal (Diop et al. 2010). In several villages being major sources of addition, the fruit also has therapeutic supply of Detarium senegalense were properties for treating coughs, kidney pain and selected. In the second phase preliminary leprosy (Diop et al., 2010). Detarium surveys (prospective study) were carried out senegalense is used for its medicinal to choose the interested villagers to study in properties and sale of seeds is said to be terms of resources (Loubelo, 2012). The economically promising (Atato et al., 2010). main criteria for village selection are (i) the The pulp of Detarium senegalense (green) is geographical location of the village in used to relieve cough in Senegal and Guinea relation to ecological zones for Togo: II (dry (Lykke, 2000). In Côte d'Ivoire and Guinea, zone of the littoral), IV (forest zone) and V they are used in local friction against the evils (southern coastal zone), (ii) the accessibility of chronic kidney and back pain (Ambé, of local populations to forest containing 2001). Although there is little information on Detarium senegalense and (iii) the harvesting the nutritional composition of Detarium and trade of the species seeds by the senegalense fruit, it seems to be a very healthy villagers. The data collected are from sixteen product (Ayessou et al., 2014). According to (16) villages located in Zone II and IV (Table Diop et al. (2010), they are rich in nutrients. 1). The villages were surveyed by targeting In Togo, the seeds are subject to international the major markets representing the main trade (Atato et al., 2010). The same authors points of entry and trade of seeds. In order to have also shown that Detarium senegalense estimate the quantities of seeds collected has become a highly sought species in the during a year, information was also collected country and is the subject of collective harvest from traders who used to sell seeds in rural in which men are now involved (traditionally, markets. this activity is done by women). However, as for most of NTFPs, data and statistics on

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Collection of socio-economic data version 12.0 for Windows was used for Data collection was based on semi- tabulation of completed questionnaires and structured interviews as well as participator socio-economic data processing. The data observations (Kothari, 2004; McLafferty, analysis was done under the Excel sheet. 2003). The semi-structured interviews were The trade of Detarium senegalense is administered to 160 collectors and traders of essentially organized in the informal sector Detarium senegalense seeds. A combination and for this reason, the quantification of the of closed and open questions was developed seeds collected and sold is not easy. The unit in order to obtain information from the of measurement for the seeds is the local collectors of Detarium senegalense seeds. bowl. To find out the weight (in kg) of a bowl These questions are related to the accessibility of Detarium senegalense, 10 bowls of the of the harvesting site of Detarium senegalense seed were weighed separately using a seeds, the quantity of seed harvested, the precision scale. Thus, the average weight of a harvest period, the price and the income bowl has been determined and equals to 3 kg. generated by the sale of Detarium senegalense The seeds of Detarium senegalense are seeds, the main actors, the exploitation of available on the market from October to April Detarium senegalense wood. The annual according to ecological zones. The selling income derived from the sale of Detarium price depends on supply and demand, which is senegalense seeds was calculated for each between US $ 0.59 and US $ 0.85 per interviewee on the basis of the average kilogram. The average selling price is quantities of seeds sold as well as the market calculated from the average of the lowest and price. The socio-demographic characteristics highest prices collected during the survey of the people interviewed (age, occupation, (Sounou et al. 2019). The average quantity of sex) were also collected. Since interviewees seeds harvested per collector is estimated by may have difficulty recalling the exact amount the formula: of fruit harvested, the quantity of fruit reported by them may underestimate or Qt: quantity of Detarium senegalense overestimate the actual amount harvested harvested per collector; n: total number of (Heubes et al., 2012). To reduce the margin of collectors surveyed. The average income error, some interviewees were followed in the (Rm) per collector and per village was fruit harvesting area to weigh the harvested estimated by multiplying the average seeds on site. An exploratory study was quantities of Detarium senegalense harvested carried out in the month of January 2016 in (Qm) at the average market price (Pm). The Badou. The actual survey was conducted from formula of Rm is as follows: Rm=Qm* Pm March 6 to April 30, 2017. The investigative The average income from the sale of team consisted of two (2) persons including Detarium senegalense seeds does not take into one (1) principal investigator and one (1) local account the quantities consumed. This is interpreter. The surveys were conducted in because the seeds of Detarium senegalense local languages. The interviewees responded are not consumed by the local population in easily to the various questions asked because Togo. Therefore, the quantity of seed they were quickly reassured by the presence collected is substantially equal to the quantity of the local interpreter in the team. of seed sold. Also the average income from the sale of Detarium senegalense is compared Statistical analysis to the per capita gross annual income of US $ A descriptive statistic was used for the 406 in ecological zone II and US $ 350 in analysis of socio-economic data since the ecological zone IV (Repubique du Togo, study is descriptive and explanatory. The 2013). Social Science Statistics Software (SPSS) 1584 F. A. DANGBO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 13(3): 1582-1595, 2019

Table 1: Local name and level of knowledge of Detarium senegalense in different localities of the study site

Localities Zone Number of collectors Local name of Level of knowledge of and traders Detarium senegalense the species (%) Fazao II 26 Agbakpa/ Agbakpateo 80

Hezoude II 15 kpoye 90 Solimde II 11 kpoye 90 Brefou IV 10 kpekpe 80 Akakope IV 11 kpekpe 80 Kougnohou IV 12 kpekpe 95 Avegame IV 10 kpekpe 90 Afereh IV 7 kpekpe 95 Djonatikassa IV 7 kpekpe 98 Enyawale IV 6 kpekpe 90 Kemoze IV 8 kpekpe 95 Efoukpa IV 7 kpekpe 95 Nyawali IV 8 kpekpe 90 Ave maria IV 6 kpekpe 90 Lomnava IV 6 kpekpe 90 Badou IV 10 Kpekpe/ Akpa 95

RESULTS In the villages of zone II (Fazao, Knowledge of Detarium senegalense in the Hezoude, Solimde), villages near the Fazao study area Malfakassa national park, the seeds of The people surveyed (12% men and Detarium senegalense are collected illegally 88% women) age range is between 25 to 55 because access to the park is prohibited to the years. This age group is justified by the fact local population. In the villages of zone IV that for most of the case, these categories of (Brefou, Akakopé, Kougnohou, Avegame, people is mainly involved in the activities of Afereh, Djonatikassa, Enyawale, Kemoze, valorization and marketing of NTFPs such as Efoukpa, Nyawali, Ave Maria, Lomnava), the those from Detarium senegalense in several populations have easy access to the seed regions across the country. The high rate of collection area. Indeed, Detarium senegalense women is explained by the fact that they are are found in rural areas in the degraded the main managers of natural resources. natural forest areas, and scattered in coffee According to the information obtained, seeds and cocoa plantations (Figure 1). trade began in the year 2000 by Nigerians who discovered seed supply sites in Togo.

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The information collected in different mature. The seeds are available on the market villages on the knowledge of the species is not from October to April depending on the area. identical (Table 1). In the area of Badou (zone It is possible to find the seeds on the market in II), more than 90% of all the people surveyed May especially with collectors who had claim to have a good knowledge of Detarium stocked seeds. senegalense. In that zone, different local Accessibility to harvesting areas and names are given to the seeds of Detarium harvesting techniques senegalense namely "Kpekpe" or "Akpa" or Access to the harvesting areas is easy "the seed of Nigeria" because of its trade in Akposso, Akebou and Badou and is not which is much oriented towards Nigeria. With subject to any authorization. Thus, according regard to the area around the sacred “Have to the interviewees, during the fruiting period, forest” (in zone V), the people surveyed have the collectors start by prospecting in the fields no knowledge of the use of seeds and other and areas where Detarium senegalense exist parts of the species. They are totally unaware to monitor the trees. It is at the stage of that the seeds of Detarium senegalense have maturity that the fruits begin to fall from the any use. The surveys in the sacred forest of trees and the harvest is done by the collection “Have” have made it possible to note the of fruits on the ground. In Badou, 80% of the presence of the species feet in that zone. interviewees reported that they used to go to Surveys have shown that Detarium the forest and to the fields sometimes very senegalense is used in the area of forest of early in the morning (3 am or 4 am) to “Have” as timber and for wood energy maximize the fruit harvest. In Zone IV, 75% (charcoal). In order to facilitate the transport of the population estimate the travel time to of seeds, collectors generally decorticate the two (2) hours of walking. This is explained by fruits in the forest to remove the seeds. the fact that the harvesting areas, generally Conflicts of interest usually break out cocoa/coffee plantations (Figure 2) are quite between Detarium senegalense fruit collectors close to the villages. In the villages and plantation owners in some areas. In zone surrounding Fazao National Park (Zone II) the IV, the feet of the species are generally seeds of the collected species are carried on located in coffee and cocoa plantations. In the head. More than 90% of those interviewed these areas, seeds are collected in general by in Fazao report spending eight (8) hours per the plantation owners. However, clandestine trip to collect Detarium senegalense seeds. In intrusions into the plantations for seed that region, the collection area which is the harvesting are sometimes noted. According to National Park is very far from villages and the the respondents, the owners who cannot local population used to walk almost ten benefit from the sale of seeds used to cut the kilometers to collect seeds (Photo 1). trees in the majority of cases. In the villages According to the information obtained, surrounding the Fazao National Park the the fruit harvesting activity is tedious, and the problem did not arise. On the other hand, collectors are preferably associated in small there is a certain solidarity between the groups of two to three people in order to be collectors given the fact that access to the able to collect the maximum of fruit and share collection points is prohibited and is done the income after the sale of the seeds. The clandestinely. fruits harvested by collectors are then sold to the intermediate traders who can make the Techniques and frequency of Detarium storage. These intermediate traders decorticate senegalense seeds harvesting the fruits with the cutter (Photo 2) and seeds Availability period of Detarium senegalense are sold to wholesale traders who are seeds generally Nigerians. These seeds are no longer More than 90% of surveyed claim that processed further before being exported to flowering occurs from February to May. After Nigeria. flowering, fruits take about 5 to 6 months to 1586 F. A. DANGBO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 13(3): 1582-1595, 2019

Average quantity of seeds collected price of the species in Nigeria could not be The average quantity of seeds collected per collected. This would have allowed us to collector varies considerably between calculate the profit margin of the different villages. This quantity seems to be actors involved in the value chain. determined by the quantity which can be The actors of the sector face several carried on the head at home by a collector constraints which are among others: during a single return trip. The average - The high level of poverty and the non- amount of seeds per trip is 10 kg. According consumption of the species by local to the information collected, the average population in Togo. This is the reason why quantity of seeds harvested is 45.62 ± 25.31 Detarium senegalense seeds are sold at prices kg per year per collector. The villages imposed by buyers. bordering the national park (Fazao, Solimde The lack of adequate transport and Hezoude) have the largest quantities of infrastructure; seeds harvested per collector (Figure 3). This The lack of information at all levels, on the can be explained by the fact that these importance of Detarium senegalense in terms villages do not have enough alternative of benefits it can provide in Nigeria. This sources of income. This drives them to lack of information leads the actors to sell the collect non-timber forest products seeds of the species at a very low price. Use particularly Detarium senegalense seeds. of Detarium senegalense seeds The average annual income from the In the different study areas, the seeds sale of Detarium senegalense seeds varies of Detarium senegalense are not consumed considerably depending on the amount of by the local populations because they do not seed harvested and the market price (US $ have any knowledge from the seeds value. 0.72 ± 0.18 per kilogram). This income is on An individual interview with ten (10) average very low (Figure 3) compared to the Nigerians wholesale buyers of the Detarium gross annual income per capita of $ 406 in senegalense seeds provided additional ecological zone II and $ 350 in ecological information on the value chain of the species. zone IV. The seed traders are usually the According to these Nigerians, the quantity of collectors. These revenues are more seed purchased in Kougnohou area during the significant in Fazao, Hezoude and Solimde year 2016 was between 150 and 300 bags, where fruit collection and sales activities are meaning 10500 to 21000 kg of Detarium more important. senegalense seeds. The purchase price of the seed varies Actors involved in marketing of Detarium between 7000 and 15000 US $ per year for senegalense seeds the entire season, for trader. In addition, The harvesting and sale of Detarium seeds sold on the market of Kougnohou do senegalense seeds is in the informal sector. not come only from this locality but also The main actors are collectors, traders, from neighboring villages. Seeds bought on wholesalers and consumers. The harvesting the markets in Togo are sold in Nigeria period of Detarium senegalense fruits is in where they are used as sauce thickener. In average, three (3) months during the year. year 2000 (beginning of Detarium Therefore, the trade of Detarium senegalense senegalense seeds trade), the price of a seeds is a secondary activity for these kilogram of seed was between 2 and 3 US $ collectors (Figure 4). The average annual depending on localities. Nowadays, the price income per collector is US $ 59 ± 58 has fallen on the market (US $ 0.59 and US $ depending on the amount of seed collected. 0.85 per kg) because others seed supply Wholesalers are generally Nigerians who locations have been discovered in other used to buy the seeds from the collectors. countries such as Cameroon and Guinea. The average purchase price of seeds is US $ 11000 ± 5657 per year. The average selling

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Other uses of Detarium senegalense fuelwood. This is because trees of this species In Zone IV, most of Detarium are generally found in the national park. senegalense are located in forest relics that are However, there are clandestine intrusions in mostly degraded natural forests, coffee the area. The degree of removal of Detarium plantations and cacao, the species is senegalense wood can be potentially considered as owned by the land owner. In important in some areas (Badou, Akakope, rare cases, Detarium senegalense is exploited Kougnohou, Enyawale, Afereh) where the as timber in ecological zone IV (Figure 5). population is the owner of the forest land. Populations around Fazao Malfakassa Park Therefore, trees are scarce in those areas (Fazo, Hezoude, Solimde) do generally not especially in Badou (Figure 5). cut Detarium senegalense for timber or

Figure 1 : Study area.

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Figure 2: Main harvesting areas of Detarium senegalense seeds : (IV) stand for ecological zone IV; (II) stand for ecological.

Photo 1: Harvest site of Detarium senegalense seed in Fazao park.

Photo 2: Decortication of Detarium senegalense fruit in the village of Fazao Malfakassa.

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Figure 3: Mean quantity of seeds harvested and average annual income from the sale of Detarium senegalense seeds by collector.

Figure 4: Mains activities of actors involved in Detarium senegalense seeds collecting.

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Figure 5: Use of Detarium senegalense tree in differents surveyed localities: (IV) stand for ecological zone IV; (II) stand for ecological.

DISCUSSION The results of this study confirm this Contribution of Detarium senegalense seeds observation. The sale of Detarium to the improvement of rural population senegalense seeds is a source of cash income living conditions for collectors. It should be noted as presented The amount of seeds collected is in the results that neither fruits nor seeds are important in the villages surrounding the consumed locally in Togo. Even if the income National Fazao Park (zone II). This is from the sale of seeds is low, it contributes to probably because these villages are isolated the economy of poor households. Several and have few sources of income. This result other studies (Haarmeyer et al., 2013; matches those of the study by Malleson et al. Famuyide et al., 2013; Farinola et al., 2014; (2014) who shown that households located in Heubes et al., 2012) have shown the economic isolated areas are the most dependent on importance of NTFPs, such as those derived income from NTFPs, as they represent one of from Arthocarpus sp., Canarium the few income generating opportunities in schweinfurthii, Dacryodes edulis, these areas. Heubes et al. (2012) has Ricinodendron heudelotii, Gambeya africana) demonstrated that in a region where both in terms of subsistence and income. alternative income is virtually absent, Detarium senegalense seeds are sold only especially for women, NTFPs harvesting three (3) months per year; thus the income activities help families to sustain themselves. from the sale of the species per collector is 1591 F. A. DANGBO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 13(3): 1582-1595, 2019 less than the per capita gross annual income of harvest is systematically done by the US $ 406 in ecological zone II and US $ 350 collection of mature fruits from trees in ecological zone IV. This is why the measuring 15 to 30 m high. As a result, majority of those who sold seeds of the specie Detarium senegalense that grows up near use to sell it with other forest products, such forests is becoming rare in some areas, such as as Parkia biglobosa and Vitellaria paradoxa Badou. Today, people have to walk several (shea butter) (Atato et al., 2010). According to kilometers to remote natural forest areas to Malleson et al. (2014), the income find Detarium senegalense trees. Loubelo contribution of NTFPs, and the role its play in (2012) has shown that harvesting of mature providing a safety-net, will remain important fruit is detrimental to the harvested species if both to the poorest rural households who may fruit collection is systematic and regular. This not be able to access new economic can reduce the chance of regeneration of new opportunities and may need to fall back on individuals and affect specific dynamics NTFPs income. The sale of Detarium (Loubelo, 2012). The results of the present senegalense seeds is dominated by women. study confirm this observation. In addition, The high rate of women is explained by the the surveyed population has a very limited fact that they are the main and most frequent notion of the sustainability or domestication collectors of forest products (e.g., firewood, of species. According to the majority of the non-timber forest products) (Mwangi et al., population, resources of the forest are 2011). Also, Ahenkan and Boon (2011) inexhaustible, even if they have to be picked shown that sex plays an important role in the up at very distant places of the village. commercialization of NTFPs in West Africa, Loubelo (2012) noted the same population with women being the majority in this reaction when he studied the impact of non- activity. The results of this study thus confirm timber forest products on the household the importance of NTFPs like Detarium economy and food security in Congo. More senegalense to the local population in Togo. than 50% of the respondents are waiting for the help of the State to make them aware of Impact of Detarium senegalense the domestication of this species and to offer exploitation and issues related to them, if possible, the seedlings of the species sustainability to be planted. The forest inventories carried out per Dangbo, (2015) in the same area have shown Future conservation and management that there is a low rate of regeneration strategies domestication Detarium senegalense in the forest area. From Long-term management of Detarium this study it can be deduced, for example, that senegalense individual is necessary to the exploitation of seeds and wood of improve the livelihoods of the local Detarium senegalense would have a negative population. To this end, effective awareness- impact on the regeneration capacity of the raising among local population for the species. A study of Peres et al. (2003) shown protection and domestication of the species that studying the impact of fruit harvesting is could enable its future preservation (Sourou et important for species with seed reproduction al., 2016). Therefore, further studies should be such as Detarium senegalense. Their done on the domestication of the species as excessive harvest can have a negative impact well as silvicultural tests of reproduction and on the sustainability of these species, germination. For a better evaluation of the especially in the long term. Gaoue and Ticktin different actors involved in the Detarium (2010) have shown how the biological senegalense value chain, socio-economic responses of NTFP species can vary. It surveys should be done in Nigeria and Benin. depends on several factors, namely the part of This survey will allow to evaluate the profit the that is harvested, the ecological margin of the various actors involved in the conditions and the harvesting practices. The value chain. 1592 F. A. DANGBO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 13(3): 1582-1595, 2019

Conclusion gabonensis in Ondo State, Nigeria. ISRN This study has described the socio- Forestry. DOI: economic value of Detarium senegalense for http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/376247. the rural population in Togo. Detarium Ahenkan A, Emmanuel B. 2011. Improving senegalense can potentially contribute in a the supply chain of non-timber forest specific period of the year (tree month) to the products in Ghana. In Supply Chain economy and livelihoods of the rural Management-New Perspectives, population through generating cash income by IntechOpen, Renko S. (ed). University of the sale of seeds collected in the wild. The Zagreb, Croatia intensity of the harvest of Detarium Ambé G. 2001. Les fruits sauvages senegalense seeds however can pose problems comestibles des savanes guinéennes de of its sustainable management. Priority must Côte-d’Ivoire: état de la connaissance be given to secure the presence of the species par une population locale, les Malinké. in rural and forest areas and through In Biotechnologie, Agronomie, Société et domestication in agroforestry fields or as Environnement, Delgado F (ed). Pérou; enrichment in degraded forest patches. Indeed, 43–58 the sustainable management of Detarium Atato A, Wala A, Batawila K, Woegan A, senegalense is important because of their Akpagana K. 2010. Diversité des value as a sustainable source of subsistence fruitiers ligneux spontanés du Togo. income. Thus, it is necessary to support the Fruit Veg. Cereal Sci. Biotechnol, 4(1): improvement of the methods of sustainable 1–9. harvest of the species. The challenge is how to Ayessou N, Ndiaye C, Cisse M, Gueye M, integrate communities, ecology, forestry, law, Sakho M, Dornier M. 2014. Nutrient economics and decentralization into the composition and nutritional potential of management of NTFPs in general and wild fruit Dialium guineense. Journal of Detarium senegalense in particular. The Food Composition and Analysis, 34 (2): success of this process will depend on all 186–191. DOI: actors, including policy makers, technicians, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2014.01.00 local people, researchers, extension agencies 2. and funding agencies. Balde S, Ayessou N, Gueye M, Ndiaye B, Sow A, Cisse O, Diop C. 2019. COMPETING INTERESTS Investigations ethnobotaniques de The authors declare that they have no Momordica charantia Linn competing interests. (Cucurbitaceae) au Sénégal. International Journal of Biological and AUTHORS’ CONTRIBUTIONS Chemical Sciences, 13(1): 466-47. DOI: KK and JB designed the research https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v13i1.37 proposal. FAD realized the field work and KA Bayeli G, Joiris V, Lohandjola G, Habari J. contributed to the writing of the manuscript. 2019. Contribution à l’étude des plantes médicinales utilisées dans le traitement REFERENCES des abcès dans le territoire de Bikoro, Adjossou K. 2009. Diversité, structure et province de l’Equateur en RDC. dynamique de la végétation dans les International Journal of Biological and fragments de forêts humides du Togo: Chemical Sciences, 13(1): 353-368. les enjeux pour la conservation de la DOI: biodiversité. PhD thesis, University of https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v13i1.28 Lome. p.190. Belcher B, Vantomme P. 2003. « What isn’t Agbelade A, Onyekwelu J. 2013. Poverty an NTFP? ». The International Forestry alleviation through optimizing the Review, 5(2): 161–168. DOI: marketing of Garcinia kola and Irvingia 1593 F. A. DANGBO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 13(3): 1582-1595, 2019

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