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The Millbank Penitentiary: Excavations at the Tate Gallery (Now Tate Britain), City of Westminster

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The Millbank Penitentiary: Excavations at the Tate Gallery (Now Tate Britain), City of Westminster THE MILLBANK PENITENTIARY: EXCAVATIONS AT THE TATE GALLERY (NOW TATE BRITAIN), CITY OF WESTMINSTER Catherine Edwards With contributions from Karl Hulka, Martin Bates and Lucy Whittingham SUMMARY INTRODUCTION AND CIRCUMSTANCES OF EXCAVATION An archaeological watching-brief and excavation carried out by AOC Archaeology at Tate Britain, City An archaeological watching-brief and excav- of Westminster (site code MBK 97) revealed the remains ation at Tate Britain was conducted by of Millbank Penitentiary which occupied the site AOC Archaeology Group in advance of the between 1812 and 1890. The penitentiary comprised redevelopment of the north-west quadrant six pentagons surrounding an inner hexagon with of the Gallery (Fig 1). Tate Britain lies on the a chapel at its centre; it was three stories high, with north bank of the Thames (TQ 3003 7857) basement cells in some of the pentagons. Millbank was and is bounded to the east by the Millbank the first ‘super-prison’ of its day. The archaeological embankment, to the south by Atterbury investigation revealed segments of Pentagon 6, which Street, to the west by John Islip Street, and would have accommodated the prisoners’ cells, and to the north by various office buildings. the inner hexagon which was occupied by civilian The Centenary Development site was offices. The remains of the prison were substantially located in the north-west quadrant of Tate truncated by the construction of the Tate Gallery. Britain and comprised an open courtyard The archaeological evidence largely related to the area surrounded by various galleries and exterior walls of the prison and its large concrete raft workshops. The development involved the foundation, the first of its kind in Britain. Some construction of a new approach to the gallery internal structures were also recorded, including a from Atterbury Street and a new basement relatively well-preserved segment of the inner hexagon level within the quadrant area. which revealed internal room divisions, a corridor and The archaeological investigations com- part of a network of culverts that removed water and menced in 1997—1998 with an archaeological sewage from the penitentiary to the perimeter moat and watching-brief on geotechnical investigations ultimately to the River Thames. Millbank Penitentiary (Fig 1). The investigation comprised 12 was eventually abandoned and demolished, being test pits, varying in size, spread across the superseded by the construction of Pentonville and other development site. The test pits revealed the centralised prisons. structural remains of Millbank Penitentiary, including sections of the large concrete base that supported the entire structure, thick exterior walls, internal corridor walls, brick and flagstone surfaces, and brick culverts (AOC 157 158 Catherine Edwards Fig 1. Site location 1998). Three further phases of archaeological material from the area surrounding the site investigations were subsequently undertaken has been recovered from the Thames, often at the site: a watching-brief on the general as the result of dredging operations. Bronze ground reduction and other intrusive ground- Age weapons, thought by some to have been works; a watching-brief on the ground red- deliberately deposited in the water as votive uction and excavation work for the new entr- offerings, are possibly the most common ance; and an open area excavation within the single class of prehistoric object from the courtyard area of the Gallery. Thames. A leaf-shaped sword was recovered during the early 19th-century excavation for Archaeological And the foundations for Millbank Prison (GLHER Historical Background No. 081252); however due to the date and circumstances of the find, no exact location Prehistoric or description can be determined. With a few exceptions, most of the prehistoric The Millbank Penitentiary: Excavations at the Tate Gallery (now Tate Britain), City of Westminster 159 Roman (c.AD 43—450) (Weinreb & Hibbert 1983, 534). By the end of the Saxon period a complex of buildings Westminster is something of a conundrum in had developed at Westminster, following the the study of Roman London. It is postulated construction of the Palace and Minster by that it was possible to ford the Thames Edward the Confessor. The Domesday Book between Lambeth and Westminster, and it indicates that the Abbey estate had pasture has been suggested that this could be the site to support 11 teams of oxen, an estimated of the first Roman crossing of the Thames 250 acres out of Westminster’s total of 1000 (Margary 1955). While this is possible, there acres. The Domesday Book also records 41 is currently a lack of conclusive evidence cottagers with gardens, probably largely supporting this theory (Perring 1991). The situated on the fringes of the higher ground archaeological record in the surrounding and along the river (Sullivan 1994). locality does, however, suggest Roman utilis- The Tothill Fields area, in the south of ation of the wider landscape, for example, the modern day borough of Westminster, at Thorney Island (approximately the area is likely to have comprised market gardens now covered by Parliament Square and and dispersed settlement along parts of the Westminster Abbey), to the north of the site riverside, with the remaining area likely to (Thomas 1993). have been waterlogged and marshy waste There is only one known discovery of ground, used for rubbish disposal (Watson Roman date within the immediate study area: 2002). Excavations at 1 and 17 Elverton a partially burnished Antonine greyware Street (just over 500m north-west of the site) vessel found between 1901 and 1910 ‘in Mill- recorded scores of animal burials dating to the bank Prison’; the prison no longer existed 15th century, largely of horses but including at this point, and it seems most likely that it a few dogs (Cowie & Pipe 1998). There is was recovered during the construction of the no evidence of settlement activity within the extensions to the Tate at this time. A further site area during this period. The site would possible indication of Roman activity on the have remained part of Westminster Abbey’s site is an ‘orange-brown roof tile fragment’ extensive properties until the dissolution of found in a layer of peat buried beneath the monasteries in the 16th century. 650mm of clay in Probe 3 (Gallery 18) (AOC 1997). Its presence within the alluvial Post-medieval (c.1485—modern) material suggests that it must be of some antiquity, and its description suggests that it Henry VIII assumed direct royal control of could be Roman. Westminster Abbey in 1539 and granted it cathedral status by charter in 1540, simultan- Saxon (c.AD 450—1066) eously issuing letters patent establishing the During the early medieval period the site Diocese of Westminster. (In 1579, Elizabeth area was known as Bulinga Fen (MoLAS I re-established Westminster as a ‘Royal 1996) and was clearly still marshy, although it Peculiar’ and made it the Collegiate Church may have been in pastoral or agricultural use of St Peter.) At the same time, Henry vacated during this period. To the north-west of the Westminster Palace and moved north site, the place name ‘Tothill’ is thought to to Whitehall, confiscated from Cardinal be of Saxon origin and is possibly connected Wolsey, leaving the palace as the seat of gov- with the use of a (no longer extant) mound ernment. These two changes quickly led near Horseferry Road as a watch hill (Pepper to the transformation of the landscape of 1996). Westminster. By the 1640s Westminster had spread well south of Great Peter Street, and Medieval (c.1066—1485) Market Street, and the future Horseferry Road, had been formed. The place-name ‘Millbank’ is believed to 18th-century cartographic evidence, in- derive from the Westminster Abbey mill cluding a plan of 1720 produced by William (probably itself of medieval origin) which Stukeley, suggests that a Civil War star or was demolished around 1736 by Sir Robert tenaille fort was constructed in the area of the Grosvenor to make way for his house site but no archaeological evidence has yet 160 Catherine Edwards been recorded for this structure. Otherwise until the end of 1812 that the construction the area of the Tate Britain site is thought to of the perimeter wall commenced but by the have remained undeveloped and likely still summer of 1813 the first group of prisoners marshy waterlogged ground. Indeed Tothill was admitted. Horwood’s map of 1813 shows Fields is recorded as having been so marshy the new Millbank Penitentiary. However by that it was possible to go duck shooting there 1816 cracks were appearing in the walls and as late as the early 1800s, whilst it was still floors and a section of the outer wall sank. undeveloped enough for various fringe and This forced the demolition and rebuilding illicit activities – bearbaiting and duels – in of three towers of one wing and the section the 18th century (Watson 2002). of outer wall (Griffiths 1875, 34). Robert During the late 18th century the ideology Smirke was brought in to investigate the of the prison as a concept, as well as a phys- problems with the construction. He found ical structure, was evolving, and a competit- a number of fundamental flaws, such as ion for the design of a penitentiary was held too narrow and shallow footings and the in the 1780s. In 1810, a select committee poor construction of the main sewer which of the House of Commons was established, allowed Thames water back into the building under the chairmanship of George Holford, (Griffiths 1875, 35). Smirke established new to examine the laws relating to penitentiary techniques for the concrete footings using houses. The committee proposed the estab- load-bearing foundations of lime concrete lishment of one purpose-built penitentiary mixed in measured quantities. He was also that would promote reformation through among the first to make consistent use of religious reflection and labour (Brodie et load-bearing cast-iron beams in domestic (as al 2002, 60).
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