School of Economics & Business Department of Organisation Management, Marketing and Tourism
Volume 6, Issue 3, 2020
Journal of Tourism, Heritage & Services Marketing
Editor-in-Chief: Evangelos Christou
Journal of Tourism, Heritage & Services Marketing (JTHSM) is an international, open-access, multi-disciplinary, refereed (double blind peer-reviewed) journal aiming to promote and enhance research in tourism, heritage and services marketing, both at macro-economic and at micro- economic level.
ISSN: 2529-1947
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Journal of Tourism, Heritage & Services Marketing Volume 6, Issue 3, 2020
© 2020 Authors Published by International Hellenic University ISSN: 2529-1947 UDC: 658.8+338.48+339.1+640(05) Published online: 30 October 2020 Free full-text access available at: www.jthsm.gr
Some rights reserved. Except otherwise noted, this work is licensed under https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Journal of Tourism, Heritage & Services Marketing is an open access, international, multi- disciplinary, refereed (double blind peer-reviewed) journal aiming to promote and enhance research at both macro-economic and micro-economic levels of tourism, heritage and services marketing.
Contact details: Panagiotis Papageorgiou, Journal Manager Address: International Hellenic University, JTHSM Editorial Office, Program of Postgraduate Studies in Tourism Management, School of Economics & Business, P.O. Box 141, GR-57400, Thessaloniki, Greece. Phone: +30-2310-013450 E-mail: [email protected]
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Editorial Board
Editorial Team
Editor-in-Chief: Evangelos Christou, International Hellenic University, Greece Associate Editor: Anestis Fotiadis, Zayed University, United Arab Emirates Associate Editor: Hugues Séraphin, University of Winchester, United Kingdom Book Reviews Editor: Kostas Alexandris, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Journal Manager & Secretariat: Panagiotis Papageorgiou, JTHSM Editorial Office
Senior Advisory Board
Irena Ateljevic, Institute for Tourism, Croatia Bill Bramwell, Sheffield Hallam University, United Kingdom Dimitrios Buhalis, Bournemouth University, United Kingdom Chryssoula Chatzigeorgiou, International Hellenic University, Greece Kaye Chon, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong Eli Cohen, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel Chris Cooper, Oxford Brookes University, United Kingdom Nimit Chowdhary, Indian Institute of Tourism and Travel Management, India Giacomo Del Chiappa, University of Sassari, Italy Mehmet Erdem, University of Nevada at Las Vegas, USA Isabelle Frochot, Université de Savoie – Mont Blanc, France Alan Fyall, University of Central Florida, USA Sandra Jankovic, University of Rijeka, Croatia Werner Gronau, University Stralsund, Germany Tzung-Cheng Huan, National Chung Hsing University, Taiwan Jay Kandampully, Ohio State University, USA Peter BeomCheol Kim, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand Maximiliano E. Korstanje, University of Palermo, Argentina Oswin Maurer, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Italy Andreas Papatheodorou, University of the Aegean, Greece Alexandros Paraskevas, University of West London, United Kingdom Harald Pechlaner, Katholische Universitat Eichstatt-Ingolstadt, Germany Agustín Santana Talavera, Universidad de La Laguna, Spain Alexis Saveriades, Cyprus University of Technology, Cyprus Noam Shoval, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel Anders Steene, Södertörn University, Sweden Dallen Timothy, Arizona State University, USA WooMi Jo, University of Guelph, Canada Cleopatra Veloutsou, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom Michael Volgger, Curtin University, Australia
Editorial Board
Akin Aksu, Akdeniz University, Turkey Volkan Altintas, Kâtip Çelebi University Turkey Thomas Baum, University of Strathclyde, United Kingdom Graham Busby, Plymouth University, United Kingdom Nevenka Cavlek, University of Zagreb, Croatia iii
Prakash Chathoth, American University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates Rachel Chen, University of Tennesse, USA Damir Demonja, Institute for Development and International Relations, Croatia Juan Ignacio Pulido Fernández, University of Jaén, Spain Babu George, Forth Hays State University, USA Hugo Goetch, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Italy Sotiris Hji-Avgoustis, Ball State University, USA Svetlana Hristova, University Neofit Rilski, Bulgaria Aviad Israeli, Kent State University, USA Stanislav Ivanov, Varna University of Management, Bulgaria Miyoung Jeong, University of South Carolina, USA Hanan Kattara, Alexandria University, Egypt Fotis Kilipiris, International Hellenic University, Greece Jithendran J. Kokkranikal, University of Greenwich, United Kingdom Blanca Kraljevic-Mujic, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Spain Emily (Jintao) Ma, University of Massachusetts, USA Alexandru-Mircea Nedelea, Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, Romania Ige Pirnar, Yasar University, Turkey Mukesh Ranga, CSJM University Kanpur, India Dora Smolcic, University of Rijeka, Croatia Marco Valeri, University Niccolo Cusano, Italy Jean-Pierre van der Rest, Leiden University, The Netherlands Christos Vassiliadis, University of Macedonia, Greece Margarida Vaz, University of Beira Interior, Portugal Maria Vodenska, University of Sofia, Bulgaria Vasiliki Vrana, International Hellenic University, Greece Arun Upneja, Boston University, USA Maja Uran, University of Primorska, Slovenia Kostas Zafiropoulos, University of Macedonia, Greece
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Journal of Tourism, Heritage & Services Marketing Volume 6, Issue 3, 2020
Table of Contents
Editorial 1 Evangelos Christou & Anestis Fotiadis
FULL PAPERS
Modeling and predicting foreign tourist arrivals to Sri Lanka: A comparison of three different methods 3 Hemantha Premakumara Diunugala & Claudel Mombeuil
Childhood experience and (de)diasporisation: Potential impacts on the tourism industry 14 Hugues Seraphin
Performance of restaurants: Recognizing competitive intensity and differentiation strategies 25 Collins Kankam-Kwarteng, Barbara Osman & Stephen Acheampong
Demystifying university rankings and their impact on reputation among consumers of higher education 35 Donghee Shin & Hyeun-Dae Shin
The cultural impact of navigation design in global e-commerce 46 Peter Broeder & Anna Gkogka
CASE STUDY
Hotels hurting horrifically but hopeful: A case study of the Indianapolis hotel industry 54 Craig Webster, Chih-Lun (Alan) Yen & Sotiris Hji-Avgoustis
RESEARCH NOTE
One October tragedy in Las Vegas: An overview of tourists’ perceptions 59 Mehmet Erdem, Saeed Vayghan & Billy Bai
INDUSTRY VIEWPOINT
Destination design: An integrative perspective on destinations from design studies 64 Greta Erschbamer
BOOK REVIEW
Magical Realist Sociologies of Belonging and Becoming: The Explorer 67 Maximiliano E. Korstanje
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JOURNAL INFORMATION
Aims and scope 69 About JTHSM 70 Journal sections 73 Notes for authors 75 Publication ethics & malpractice policy 79 Journal of Tourism, Heritage & Services Marketing, 2020, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 1-2 1 Editorial
Evangelos Christou, Editor-in-Chief International Hellenic University, Greece
Anestis Fotiadis, Associate Editor Zayed University, United Arab Emirates
JEL Classification: L83, M1, O1
Biographical note: Evangelos Christou is professor of tourism marketing and Dean of the School of Economics & Business at the International Hellenic University, in Greece ([email protected]). Anestis Fotiadis is professor of tourism, at the College, of Communication & Media Sciences, at Zayed University, in the United Arab Emirates ([email protected]).
1 INTRODUCTION for the UK, France, USA, Japan, and the Maldives fall between 10 to 15 percent. The overall results of this study We are pleased to present the twelfth publication of JTHSM provide valuable insights into tourism management and (volume 6, issue 3), the third and latest issue in its sixth year policy development for Sri Lanka, as well as a practical of publication. In previous issues, this journal presented planning tool to destination decision-makers. original refereed papers, both conceptual and research-based, Childhood experience and (de)diasporisation appears to have focused on various topics of tourism, heritage, and services an impact on the tourism industry. The aim of the second full with an emphasis on marketing and management. Volume 6, paper, written by Hugues Seraphin from University of issue 3 focus on furthering the journal’s scope and Winchester, United Kingdom, is to address the dearth of consolidating its position in both conceptual developments research regarding children in the tourism industry and and practical applications in tourism, heritage, and services cognate sectors, alongside contributing to existing literature through publication of eight quality manuscripts that on diaspora, and diaspora tourism. In order to get the most underwent rigorous double-blind reviewing: five full papers, reliable results, triangulation was used. Post-colonial, post- one case study, and two research notes. conflict, and post-disaster destinations are relying heavily on their diaspora not only for the survival of their tourism industry, but more generally for their economic and social 2 PRESENTATION OF THE THIRD ISSUE FOR 2020 sustainability. Hence, it is important for the country of origin to maintain a strong link with the members of the diaspora, The present issue of JTHSM contains eight manuscripts whether they belong to the first or second generation of the written by eighteen authors located in eight different diaspora. The main challenge is to keep the connection with countries and affiliated with twelve different universities. the younger generation. Results reveal that childhood The first full paper is written by Hemantha Premakumara experience of the country of origin is a transformative tool Diunugala and Claudel Mombeuil, both from Beijing which can lead to either dediasporisation (if negative), or Institute of Technology, China. This study compares three transnational attachment (if positive). different methods to predict foreign tourist arrivals to Sri In the third full paper, three authors from Ghana, namely Lanka from top-ten countries and also attempts to find the Collins Kankam-Kwarteng from Kumasi Technical best-fitted forecasting model for each country. The study University, Barbara Osman from Takoradi Technical employs two different univariate-time-series approaches and University and Stephen Acheampong from Ghana Baptist one Artificial Intelligence approach to develop models that University College, examine the relationships between best explain the tourist arrivals to Sri Lanka. The univariate- differentiation strategies, competitive intensity and restaurant time series approach contains two main types of statistical performance. Their aim was to estimate the effect of models, namely Deterministic Models and Stochastic interaction terms of differentiation strategies and competitive Models. Results show that Winter’s exponential smoothing intensity on restaurant performance. Data were obtained from and ARIMA are the best methods to forecast tourist arrivals 160 restaurant operators in the Ashanti region of Ghana to Sri Lanka. Furthermore, results show that the accuracy of through a structured questionnaire. The paths of the the best forecasting model based on MAPE criteria for the relationships were estimated and tested using regression models of India, China, Germany, Russia, and Australia fall analysis. Findings suggest that differentiation strategies have between 5 to 9 percent, whereas the accuracy levels of models a significant impact on restaurant performance and that C Copyrigh t © 200 © 2020 Authors. Published by International Hellenic University Some rights reserved. ISSN: 2529-1947. UDC: 658.8+338.48+339.1+640(05) Except otherwise noted, this work is licensed under http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4110081 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0 Published online: 30 October 2020 www.jthsm.grpyright © 200 2 Evangelos Christou & Anestis Fotiadis competitive intensity partially influence the performance of hotel industry in Indianapolis in comparison to its restaurants. Competitive intensity was, however, found not to competition. The impact of the virus on the hotel industry moderate the relationship between differentiation strategies was analyzed for Indianapolis and its major competitors and performance. Such findings may help managers at the (Chicago, Nashville, St. Louis, San Antonio and Kansas City) restaurant industry to appreciate the critical contribution of to learn about how severe the impact is and attain insight into competitive intensity and differentiation strategies in how these destinations can rebound. The study used data estimating business performance. from Smith Travel Research (STR), a service that produces The fourth full paper is written by two authors based in daily hotel metrics often cited in mainstream media and Korea, Donghee Shin and Hyeun-Dae Shin, both affiliated academic journals. This secondary source gathers with Sungkyunkwan University. Several universities in information from participating hotels to obtain a sample of different countries are using their college ranking as a data on occupancy, average daily rate (ADR), and revenue marketing and branding tool. Main scope of this paper is to per available room (RevPAR). The trends in the data are investigate the interrelation between college rankings in compared over time and between cities. Fndings illustrate Korea and how they affect university service marketing and that the hotel industry in Indianapolis was able to replace reputation. Forty-six universities are examined through a some transient visitors with contracts and group bookings, non-parametric technique, by comparing three different Data suggesting that proactive and assertive policies have assisted Envelopment Analysis (DEA) models regarding their in the management of the pandemic crisis. adeptness to their Research and Development Business The first research note was written by three authors based at Foundations; parametric methods used to measure the USA: Mehmet Erdem, Saeed Vayghan and Billy Bai, all efficiencies in the public or private sectors ware Ratio from University of Nevada Las Vegas. This study seeks to Analysis, Productivity Index Approach and Functional examine Las Vegas visitors’ perception about security and Approach. Findings delineate that the models have different the perceived risks associated with traveling to Las Vegas results since CCR and BCC models have better efficiency following the One October mass shooting. It also aims to scores compared to SBM. Furthermore, public universities explore potential visitors’ attitudes towards proactive with local character seem to have better decision-making security measures implemented by Las Vegas resorts after the units, leading to better branding. Decision makers can One October tragedy. Data were collected through a web- enhance policies by improving the effectiveness and based survey that comprised a national sample of 414 adults antagonism of Research and Development Business from the USA. Results indicate that despite the tragic mass Foundations, to improve university's reputation and attract shooting in Las Vegas and the associated media coverage, more and better students. In spite of some valid security is not a major concern for visitors. The findings of considerations regarding the ranking of educational this study also suggest that Las Vegas visitors approve of institutions in the world, ARWU (Academic Ranking of existing and emerging security procedures. World Universities) still appears to be a useful indicator for Greta Erschbamer from Eurac Research, in Italy, through a universities who wish to grow further. viewpoint introduces the concept of destination design and The fifth full paper comes from two authors based in the shows perspectives and approaches for the development of Netherlands; Peter Broeder and Anna Gkogka, both from destinations. Destination design allows an integral view Tilburg University. This paper investigates the effect of the through design studies perspectives, where elements such as navigation design (static or dynamic) in e-commerce. transdisciplinarity, participatory approaches, creative and Specifically, a comparison is made of consumers from two disruptive ways of thinking related to design studies are cultures: the Dutch and the Greek. A total of 221 subjects introduced. An agenda shows how to further develop this participated in an experimental survey, where they judged an concept and which elements need to be included for its online search page of a hotel booking website. The study had implementation. a 2x2 between-subjects design with the factors navigation Last, Maximiliano E. Korstanje from the University of design (dynamic or static) and cultural background (Dutch or Palermo in Argentina presents a critical review critical Greek). The primary dependent variable was the behavioural review of the book titled “Magical Realist Sociologies of intention to use (the website). The hedonic and utilitarian Belonging and Becoming: The Explorer” and authored by attitudes were the mediators. Analysis of results showed that Rodanthi Tzanelli. This book discuss in-depth a structural navigation design preferences are culturally affected and dualism that not only helps us to expand our understanding influence consumers’ attitudes and behavioural intentions. and dichotomies around the problem of ecology and climate Satic navigation design was perceived as less useful, change but gives a clear diagnosis on the Western magical compared to dynamic. For the Dutch group the dynamic imaginary in a digital and hyper-global world. navigation was more persuasive than the static one, whereas Based on the above, we trust that you will enjoy reading this for the Greek group no significant difference was found. As new issue of JTHSM! a recommendation, localising the websites’ content is important in global e-commerce, especially when it comes to Evangelos Christou the hospitality industry, in order to avoid unintended effects International Hellenic University that the navigation design may have on targeted audiences. Editor-in-Chief An interesting case study was written by three authors based at the USA: Craig Webster, Chih-Lun (Alan) Yen and Sotiris Anestis Fotiadis Hji-Avgoustis, all from Ball State University. The authors Zayed University delve into the impact of the coronavirus pandemic on the Associate Editor Journal of Tourism, Heritage & Services Marketing, Vol. 6, No. 3, 2020, pp. 3-13 3 Modeling and predicting foreign tourist arrivals to Sri Lanka: A comparison of three different methods
Hemantha Premakumara Diunugala Beijing Institute of Technology, China Claudel Mombeuil Beijing Institute of Technology, China
Abstract: Purpose: This study compares three different methods to predict foreign tourist arrivals (FTAs) tor S i Lanka from top-ten countries and also attempts to find the best-fitted forecasting model for each country using five model performance evaluation criteria. Methods: This study employs two different univariate-time-series approaches and one Artificial Intelligence (AI) approach to develop models that best explain the tourist arrivals tor S i Lanka from the top-ten tourist generating countries. The univariate-time series approach contains two main types of statistical models, namely Deterministic Models and Stochastic Models. Results: The results show that Winter’s exponential smoothing and ARIMA are the best methods to forecast tourist arrivals tor S i Lanka. Furthermore, the results show that the accuracy of the best forecasting model based on MAPE criteria for the models of India, China, Germany, Russia, and Australia fall between 5 to 9 percent, whereas the accuracy levels of models for the UK, France, USA, Japan, and the Maldives fall between 10 to 15 percent. Implications: The overall results of this study provide valuable insights into tourism management and policy development for Sri Lanka. Successful forecasting of FTAs for each market source provide a practical planning tool to destination decision-makers.
Keywords: foreign tourist arrivals, winter’s exponential smoothing, ARIMA, simple recurrent neural network, Sri Lanka
JEL Classification: C5, Z32, C45
Biographical note: Hemantha Premakumara Diunugala ([email protected]) is affiliated to School of Management and Economics of Beijing institute of technology. He is a senior lecturer attached to the department of social statistics at the University of Sri Jayewardenepura Sri Lanka where he has been working teaching for more than 18 years. His area of expertise includes tourism economics, regression analysis, time series analysis, and modeling tourist arrivals.Claudel Mombeuil ([email protected]) is affiliated to the School of Management and Economics of Beijing institute of technology. He is particularly interested in interdisciplinary study in the field of management and marketing. His publications appeared in the Journal of Cleaner Production, Social Responsibility Journal and Journal of Retailing & Consumer Services. Corresponding author: Claudel Mombeuil ([email protected]).
models are already available in the tourism literature (See, for 1 INTRODUCTION example, Chu, 2009; Claveria, Monte, & Torra, 2015; Coshall, 2009; Goh & Law, 2002; Li, Wong, Song, & Witt, Tourism is one of the world’s most complex industries that 2006; Salman, Shukur, & Bergmann-Winberg, 2007; Wong, has a productive relationship directly or indirectly with other Song, Witt, & Wu, 2007; Nanthakumar & Ibrahim, 2010; industries. Also, the tourism industry has a major growth Sun, Sun, Wang, Zhang, & Gao, 2016; Thushara, Su, & potential with significant multiplying effects, through Bandara, 2019; Van Truong et al., 2020). earning foreign exchange, encompassing tax revenues, and In selecting from the existing forecasting methods, tourism generating employment. It is, therefore, important to have managers need to consider, among other things, the accuracy accurate tourism demand forecasts for strategic, tactical, and of the forecasts generated, ease of use of the forecasting operational decision-making processes (Song & Li, 2008; model, cost associated with the production of the forecasts, Volgger et al., 2017; Law, Li, Fong, & Han, 2019). and speed with which the forecasts can be produced (Martin Forecasting models such as time series models, econometric & Witt, 1989). Since “accuracy remains the most important models, artificial intelligence-based models, and judgmental characteristic of a forecast” (Martin & Witt, 1989, p. 408), models are commonly used to predict tourism demand (Song, finding accurate forecasting models for international tourist Qiu, & Park, 2019). A broad combination of forecasting arrivals remains important for managers and decision- C Copyrigh t © 200 © 2020 Authors. Published by International Hellenic University Some rights reserved. ISSN: 2529-1947. UDC: 658.8+338.48+339.1+640(05) Except otherwise noted, this work is licensed under http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4055960 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0 Published online: 30 October 2020 www.jthsm.grpyright © 200 4 Hemantha Premakumara Diunugala & Claudel Mombeuil makers. The fact that the literature offers no evidence that one process and indicates whether a unit root exists or not. If the model can outperform all the other ones in all contexts and series does not have a unit root, the FTAs series of any situations (Song & Li, 2008; Song et al., 2019) suggests the country can be taken as stationary. The ADF test with the need to find the best forecasting models for international optimal lag length is determined by the Akaike information tourist arrivals that fits the context of tourism development in criteria (AIC). a country like Sri Lanka. While combining traditional and modern forecasting techniques to improve forecasting Estimation of models accuracy has become widespread in the tourism management We generally use time series models when there exists a large literature (Sotiriadis & Shen, 2017; Smyl, 2020), there is an amount of data on the variable that we want to forecast (Chu, absence of studies that combine traditional and modern 2004) as this often provides a more accurate forecast for forecasting techniques to predicts international tourism tourist arrivals (Akuno, Otieno, Mwangi, & Bichanga, 2015; demand for Sri Lanka. Chandra & Kumari, 2018; Gnanapragasam, 2018; Saayman The objective of this study is two-fold. First, three different & Saayman, 2010). Therefore, this study employs two methods to forecast inbound tourist arrivals to Sri Lanka from different univariate-time-series approach and one Artificial the top ten market sources, namely India, China, the UK, Intelligence (AI) approach to develop models that best Germany, France, Maldives, Australia, Russia, the USA, and explain the tourist arrivals to Sri Lanka from the top-ten Japan are compared using monthly individual datasets tourist generating countries. The univariate-time series spanning from 2000 to 2018. Second, the best-fitted approach contains two main types of statistical models, forecasting model for tourist arrivals for each of the top ten namely Deterministic Models and Stochastic Models. The (10) market sources is estimated. To the best of our Deterministic time series models consist of several simple knowledge, this is the first empirical attempt that compares extrapolation techniques, which include various types of Winter’s exponential smoothing, ARIMA, and model of trend models, moving average models, smoothing Elman and Jordan simple recurrent neural network (SRNN) techniques, and seasonal adjustment models. There are, in methods to model FTAs to Sri Lanka on top-ten countries. As principle, four types of Stochastic time series models, namely Sri Lanka had been recovering from the terrorist attacks after AR, MA, ARMA, and ARIMA (Box & Jenkins, 1970). This the war until the beginning of 2019, and becoming itself as study applies exponential smoothing, ARIMA and SRNN an important hub of sustainable tourism, finding the best techniques, which are the most commonly, used methods for tourist arrivals, therefore, has significant deterministic, stochastic and ANN models that come under theoretical and practical implications. In the remainder of the univariate-time series approach for forecasting tourist this paper, a brief literature review, the data and methods, arrivals (Cho, 2003b; Gnanapragasam, 2018; Nanthakumara results and discussion, and conclusions and policy & Ibrahim, 2010; Teixeira & Fernandes, 2012). implications are successively presented. Estimation of exponential smoothing models The exponential smoothing methods (ESM) are average data 2 RESEACH PROBLEM AND METHODS (observation) calculated using the exponential technique. However, not all observations entering into the averaging
process receive equal weight as the ESM suggests that we Data attribute higher weight to the most recent observations. That To meet the objectives of this study, we use data on monthly is to say, the weighting of the observations is exponentially FTAs to Sri Lanka from 2000 to 2018. We retrieved the data declined with the most recent observation having the highest from the monthly tourist arrivals reports of the Sri Lanka weight while those further back having progressively lesser Tourism Development Authority (See: weight. In principle, the various type of ESM is differentiated http://www.sltda.lk/node/765) for the top-ten source markets by the treatment attributed to the trend and seasonality. For in descending order: India, China, UK, Germany, France, example, the underlying assumption for the simple Maldives, Australia, Russia, USA, and Japan, counting exponential smoothing method (SESM) is that there is no altogether 67% of FTAs to Sri Lanka (See Table 2). These trend and the forecast from this method is almost horizontal ten source markets are of significance because they have been after adjusting the weighted-average of the observations. consistent in ranking order for the past five years running Holt’s exponential smoothing method is an extension of the from 2014 to 2018. SESM, which is calculated by adding a growth factor (a trend
factor) to the smoothing equation to adjust the trend. Winters’ Methodology multiplicative exponential smoothing model (WMESM) is We started the analysis studying the time series plots of the another extension of the SESM that can be used when the FTAs of top-ten source markets by considering both, the observations that exhibit both trend and seasonality. sample selection periods and model estimation periods. The Therefore, this study applied WMESM as an exponential time series plots are particularly important as they provide smoothing method of estimating the models because these insights on the trends of FTAs for the top-ten source markets series were contained both trend and seasonality which could and also help determine the model estimating periods of each be found studying the time series plots for all series of source market taking into consideration the period running selected estimation periods. To capture the multiplicative from 2000 to 2018. Then, we conducted the Augmented effects in the levels of the series, it is important to apply Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test (Dickey & Fuller, 1979) to confirm logarithmic transformations for each series (Lim & McAleer, the stationarity of the FTAs for each of the top ten source markets. In principle, the ADF test follows a unit-root MODELING AND PREDICTING FOREIGN TOURIST ARRIVALS : A COMPARISON OF THREE DIFFERENT METHODS 5 2001a). To find the optimal values and logarithms for α, γ, A. Estimation of ARIMA models and δ parameters of WMESM we used E-views (version 10). The ARIMA models, developed by Box and Jenkins (1970), ˆ Yttnt++11()=+[ atbtSnt () ()]* (+ 1- L )+e , (1) are widely used in time series data analysis. The ARIMA combines three types of processes: auto-regression (AR), moving averages (MA) differencing to strip off the ˆ is the forecast for the period denotes t+1; a(t) is the Ytt+1() integration (I) of the series are three types of processes smoothed estimate for the level at period t; b(t) the smoothed offered by the ARIMA models. Each of these three processes responds differently to a random disturbance. Pankratz estimate for the slope at period t; Snn+1(1 t+- L )is the (1983, p. 183) presented the general linear model resulting smoothed estimate for the (t+1)th season for the period from the ARIMA as follow: denotes t+1-L, and L represents the periodicity of the seasonality. To update the smoothing components of the series, we use, in general, the following expressions by Ldsd L fqepsp()BBFÑÑ ( ) Z tsqqt=Q ( BB ) (), (3) adding the main components of equation (1).
where Zt is the stationary data point at time point t; B the éùYt at()=+aaêú (1-- )[ at ( 1)+ bt (- 1),] backshift operator, with BZ()tt= Z-1 ; the seasonal ëûSnt () t- L periodicity; e is the present disturbance at time point t; bt()=gg[ at ()-- at ( 1)]+ (1-- ) bt ( 1)and (2) t fp ()B is (1---×××-ff12BB fp ) , non-seasonal æöYt Sn() t=+gd (1-- ) Sn ( t L ), L nt+1 ç÷ operator; F ()B is èøat() sp LL (1-F12LLBB -F -×××-F sp B ) , seasonal operator; where α represents the weighting factor for the level; γ the weighting factor for the trend; and δ the weighting factor for qq ()B is (1---×××-qq12BB qq B ) ; non-seasonal seasonal components. The Holt-Winters’ Multiplicative operator; L is model has two characteristics, namely a linear trend and a Qsq ()B multiplicative seasonal factor. The underlying assumption of (1-QBB -QLL -×××-Q B ) ; seasonal operator; the Holt-Winters’ Multiplicative model is that the seasonal 12LL sqL swings are proportional to the level, but the errors are not. In Ñ d is (1- B ) d ; non-seasonal differencing operator; and that case, the most recent observation must be adjusted using sd Lsd Ñ L is (1- B ) ; seasonal differencing operator. its seasonal factor denoted as SntL+1- when the value of α is large, we need to give more weight to the most recent The ARIMA model is represented by ARIMA (p, d, q). In observation to allow the level to update faster. Also, when the this notation, the parameters inside the parentheses represent value of γ is large, we need to give more weight to the most the order of (p) auto-regression, (d) for differences, and (q) recent estimate of the slope. Inversely, for a small value of γ for moving average in the model. Just as ARIMA notation one needs to give more weight to the previous slope estimate. has regular parameters, it may also have seasonal parameters. Similarly, we need to give more weight to the most recent In a multiplicative seasonal ARIMA (SARIMA) model, the estimate of the seasonal factors for a large value of δ. seasonal components of the ARIMA model are denoted by However, we need to give more weight to previous estimates ARIMA (P, D, Q)s; where capitalized letters respectively of the seasonal factor when the value of δ is small. In the represent the seasonal components of the model and ‘s’ exponential smoothing system equation given above, it is indicates the order of periodicity or seasonality. Equivalently, important to update each of the three smoothing parameters SARIMA is an extension of ARIMA, where seasonality in using its exponential smoothing equation. Hence, these the data is accommodated using seasonal difference. The full smoothing equations can be adjusted by combining the formulation of a multiplicative seasonal ARIMA model as components of the prediction equation from the values of the the general form ARIMA (p, d, q) (P, D, Q)s. The parentheses previous components. enclose the non-seasonal and seasonal factor parameters, To find the optimal values for α, γ, and δ, we used the ‘grid respectively. The parameters enclosed indicate the order of search method’ to retrieve the value that provides the smallest the model. sum of squared errors (SSE). Then, the grid search selects The logarithmic transformations are also used to enable the combination α, γ, and δ using the method of trial and error log-linear model to capture the multiplicative effects in the (Cho, 2003a). In this method, the grid values start with the levels of each series (Lim & McAleer, 2001b),. Therefore, value of 0 and end with 1 and increase by adding the value of we estimate the appropriate ARIMA model using levels data 0.01. The grid will thus generate 101*101*101=1,030,301 series and logarithmic data series. It is important to note that models, where the values of each parameter are ranging from the suitable model specification varies with the 0, 0.01, 0.02, and so on until reaching 1. Based on the Akaike characteristics of the time series under investigation. To Information Criterion (AIC), we registered the parameter that search for a suitable time series stochastic scheme, a stepwise produces the smallest SSE. Thereby, we used E-views to specification process is needed. In this analysis, at first, a formulate the model for the series. series is transformed into a condition of stationary and then 6 Hemantha Premakumara Diunugala & Claudel Mombeuil in four steps i.e. identification, estimation, diagnostic are differentiable or not. The main issue of the gradient checking, and forecasting were completed. This is a descent for standard recurrent architectures is the fact that the procedure suggested by Box and Jenkins (1970). Through error gradients decrease exponentially with the size of the these procedures, one can estimate an ARIMA model using time lag, which makes it difficult to develop simple recurrent econometrics packages like in E-views version 10. The best- neural networks for large numbers of neuron units as this may fitted model is selected based on the AIC. result into scaling issues (Claveria et al., 2015). Jordan network is a three-layer recurrent neural network similar to the Elman network (Jordan, 1997). In this network, the B. Estimation of neural network models context units (also denoted as the state layer) are fed from the An Elman network (EN) is a Neural Networks (NN) based output layer rather from the hidden layer and also have a architecture developed by Elman (1990), which is often recurrent connection to themselves. Both the Elman and employed to forecast tourist arrivals (Cho, 2003a). Similarly Jordan networks are often referred to as ‘Simple Recurrent to the other types of network, the Elman network is also Neural Networks’. constructed on a three-layer network but it possesses an additional set of context units that allow the output of the Figure 1: Elman network hidden layers is feedback to itself (Claveria et al., 2015) which can, therefore, use time-series analyses (Trippi & Turban, 1996). The hidden layer is connected to the context units with a fixed weight value of 1. At each time step, the input is transmitted in a normal feed-forward mode which then allows the application of a backpropagation type of learning rule. The output of the network, presented in equation 4, is a scalar function of the output vector of the hidden layer: q (4) yztjjt=+bb0,å j=1
� , = �( � � + � � , ) {xxxxipti----== (1, t12 , t ,..., t p ), 1,..., }
{fij ,ipjq== 1,..., , 1,... } Time Span for Estimation of Models {b , j= 1,...,q} Having studied different cyclical and trend patterns through j the descriptive analysis, this study selected the periods given {dij ,ipjq== 1,..., , 1,..., } in Table 1 for the estimation of models for tourist arrivals series from top-ten countries. where yt represents the output vector of the EN at time t and zj,t the output of the hidden layer neuron j at time t. In the Table 1: Model estimation and prediction periods for FTAs equation 4, g denotes the non-linear function of the neurons of top-ten countries in the hidden layer and xt-i the value of the input at time t-i, where i indicates the memory that is to say the number of lags Country Model estimation period that are used to introduce the context of the current India 2012(01) - 2018(09) observation. Then, ϕij symbolizes the weights of neuron j that China 2012(04) - 2018(09) link the input to the hidden layer q the number of neurons in UK 2011(10) - 2018(09) the hidden layer. The symbol denotes βj stand for the weights Germany 2011(04) - 2018(09) of neuron j that connect the hidden layer with the output, and France 2010(01) - 2018(09) the symbol denotes δij represent the weights that are Maldives 2009(01) - 2018(09) connected to the output layer and to the activation at time t. Australia 2008(01) - 2018(09) In the study at hand, the input vector to the neural network Russia 2011(04) - 2018(09) (NN) contains the dimensionality denoted as p+1, and the USA 2009(07) - 2018(09) value of the output denoted as yt, represents the estimate of the time series at time t+1. We performed the training of the Japan 2010(04) - 2018(09) network using backpropagation through time, which allows the generalization of backpropagation for feed-forward The FTAs series from top-ten countries to Sri Lanka during networks (Claveria et al., 2015). We estimated the parameters the period starting from 2000 was used as the base in of the Elman NN by minimizing an error cost function, which selecting the periods for estimation of models. allows us to consider the entire time series. To minimize total error, we employ a gradient descent to change each weight in Evaluation of competing models proportion to its derivative in line with the error by taking Various criteria of model selection, diagnostic checking, and into consideration whether the non-linear activation functions forecasting accuracy measurement have been applied in many past tourist arrival forecasting studies. However, our MODELING AND PREDICTING FOREIGN TOURIST ARRIVALS : A COMPARISON OF THREE DIFFERENT METHODS 7 study uses the AIC (Akaike, 1974) as the model selection between 20-50% reasonable, and greater than 50% is criterion for WMESM and ARIMA. RMSE as the model considered as inaccurate. selection criteria for SRNN. The main importance of forecasting remains accuracy (Lichtendahl & Winkler, 2020). The accuracy of the forecasting model needs to be evaluated 3 EMPIRICAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION to identify the procedure with the smallest error and the model that generally works as the best. We, therefore, used The results of the study are important especially for the following performance evaluation criteria to evaluate policymaking for the development and planning of the competing models: Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD), Mean- tourism sector. To have maximum economic benefits from Squared Error (MSE), Root-Mean-Squared Error (RMSE), the tourism sector, decision-makers such as managers and Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE), and Root-Mean- policymakers need accurate forecasting of foreign tourist Squared Percentage Error (RMSPE). The most accurate arrivals from the top market sources. Table 2 shows the tourist arrivals forecasting model was selected by ranking the number, percentage, and rank of foreign tourist arrivals in Sri above criteria according to the order from minimum to Lanka from 2014 to 2018. India and China occupy the first maximum errors and obtaining the overall average rank. two places in FTAs, counting 17.6 and 11.7 percent The FTAs series from top-ten countries to Sri Lanka during respectively. the period starting from 2000 was used as the base in selecting the periods for estimation of models. Table 2: The annual average of FTAs of top-ten countries from 2014 to 2018 AIC=-2ln( L )+ k (5)
Where: L is the value of the likelihood function, ln is the natural logarithm and k is the number of estimated parameters
YF- MAD = å tt (6) n 2 å()YFtt- MSE = (7) n Table 3 summarizes the results of the Augmented Dickey- ()YF- 2 Fuller (ADF) test with trend effects for model estimation RMSE = å tt (8) period of Level series and logarithmic series of foreign tourist n arrivals (FTAs) to Sri Lanka from the top-ten source markets. ()/YYF- MAPE = å tt t*100 (9) Table 3: Results of ADF unit root tests for level and n logarithmic data of FTAs ()/YF- 2 F RMSPE = å tt t (10) n
Where Yt is the actual value in period t, Ft is the forecast value in period t, and n is the number of periods used in the calculation.
Forecasting accuracy Forecasting, in principle, is conducted to provide insights on a subject matter on the short-term, medium-term, and long- term time horizon. The short-term forecasts often cover a period of fewer than three months; the medium-term Under the ADF test (Table 3), we need to test the null forecasts may have a time horizon ranging from three (3) hypothesis for the existence of a unit root in the FTAs series months to two (2) years, and the long-term forecasts may against the alternative hypothesis. We choose the lag-length cover a time horizon beyond two (2) years. The accuracy of based on the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) after testing the forecasted results is measured based on the value of the for first and higher-order serial correlation in the residuals. MAPE. Further, to evaluate the forecast on an objective basis, The (ADF) test indicates that the null hypothesis has a unit we used the scaled developed by Lewis (1982), which is a root that cannot be rejected on the level series and logarithmic tool that is commonly used forecasting studies. This scale of series of FTAs at levels I(0) on top- ten countries. However, the MAPE can have four possible levels measured in after applying the first difference, the ADF test rejects the percentage, where MAPE less than 10% is considered as null hypothesis for all level series and logarithmic series of highly accurate, between 10-20% is considered as good; FTAs at first difference except for the FTAs series of two countries: India and Maldives. Since the FTAs series of both 8 Hemantha Premakumara Diunugala & Claudel Mombeuil countries do not appear to be stationary by applying the ADF Figure 3: Time series plots of FTAs for the model test in the first differences, we perform, therefore, further estimation periods ADF test at second differences. Then, rejection of the null hypothesis at second differences confirms the stationarity of both FTAs series of these two countries. Figure 2 shows the time series plots of the FTAs of top-ten countries and the trends in FTAs for each of the top-ten countries. The time series plots were also served to model FTAs for each market source during the period running from 2000 to 2018.
Figure 2: Time series plots of FTAs for the sample period
Winter’s exponential smoothing models Under the E-views software package, we ran the Holt-Winter exponential smoothing to assess the time series behavior for FTAs to Sri Lanka. The parameters , , and are used to estimate the exponential smoothing for the level series and logarithmic series, the FTAs in our case (see Table 4). The parameter smooths the level equation with low value, suggesting that the corresponding series is quite steady over Figure 3 shows the time series plots of FTAs of top-ten the model estimation period. On the other hand, a high value countries to Sri Lanka for model estimation periods. The time indicates a large fluctuation in FTAs. As shown in Table 4, series plots were also served to explain the trends of FTAs of the parameters of trend exponential smoothing, denoted as , each top-ten countries during the period for model estimation for all series equal to 0 except for the case of FTAs-China ( = periods. Further, we can observe that FTAs series of each 0.60) and the FTAs-Maldives ( = 0.06) in the Level series and country gradually increase initially with lower rate and FTAs-China ( = 0.10), FTAs-German ( = 0.13), and the variations. However, at the end of these FTAs series, an FTAs-Maldives ( = 0.09) in the Logarithmic series. The 0 increase in the rate and variations were expanded for all top- values indicate that the slopes of the series are constant over ten countries except the FTAs series of Maldives. the model estimation period, or the trend can be represented by a straight line. Seasonal effects are captured by the seasonal parameter denoted in the seasonal equations and all the values are equal to 0, except for FTAs-Australia where equals 0.48 in the Level series. These parameters , and are MODELING AND PREDICTING FOREIGN TOURIST ARRIVALS : A COMPARISON OF THREE DIFFERENT METHODS 9 all interrelated. For example, a large value will tend to have models for FTAs series of each country, are at a higher low value and vice versa. significance level. As indicated in Table 4, the pattern of FTAs on levels series for the UK, France, Russia, and the USA are mostly similar. Table 5: Estimated the best ARIMA models in standard form The values are high (close or equal to 1) and the values are for both level and logarithmic series zero. FTAs from these countries are in sync with the most recent figure of arrivals, with the constant trend and steady seasonal effect. Further, this is supported only for the pattern of FTAs on logarithmic series for Russia. On the other hand, the exponential smoothing model with low ( close to 0) and higher (close to 1) values indicate that the tourist arrivals series from Australia are strongly affected by seasonal factors. In the case of FTAs for China, the model with low (0.09) and (0.60) values specify that the FTAs series cannot be represented by a straight line. Table 4 also shows that FTAs on both level and logarithmic series for countries India, Germany, Maldives, and Japan have low values and the values of and fall in the neighborhood of zero, indicating that the corresponding FTAs series are quite steady over the Simple recurrent neural network (SRNN) models model estimation period. As shown in Table 6, all the SRNN models for the top-ten series have the same structure as stated above in Table 4: Parameters of Winter’s exponential smoothing on methodology. These models were implemented with the help the level and Logarithmic series of FTAs of computer software python and its Simple Recurrent Neural Networks (SRNN) module. First, we arranged each series into the stationary series, then, normalized to the range (0,1) before feeding into the networks. Normalized series for each country was divided into two sets, namely training series, and test series. We considered 80% of the observation in each series as the training series and the remaining 20% as series as test series. The training series of the recurrent networks were processed using a maximum of 30 hidden inputs and the number of epochs (cycles) between 50 and 150. Finally, we selected the best model based on the RMSE criterion. The following table 6 provides the above information to select each model on both level and logarithmic series for top-ten countries. ARIMA models The estimation of the parameters as described in Table 6: The SRNN models and RMSE values for FTA of methodology is executed using the automatic ARIMA top-ten countries selection available in E-views. Using the model estimation period, the estimation of ARIMA models using the described software facility is shown in Table 5 in standard form. The level series and logarithmic series of top-ten countries are commonly supported by both the autoregressive and moving average processes. This supposes that the previous month or months affect the current figure of FTAs. And also, previous month or months random errors (white noises) affect the current figure of FTAs. Except for the FTAs series from Russia, Table 5 shows that all the level series and logarithmic series of FTAs need differencing to produce stationary series for analysis. Table 5 also shows that none of the FTAs series need seasonal differencing to produce seasonal stationary series for analysis. As shown in Table 5, the best multiplicative SARIMA model for the FTAs series for each country has a minimum value of AIC comparing with different SARIMA models. The best ARIMA model is produced in running the number of iterations by the automatic ARIMA model facility available. Further, we can observe that the adjusted R2 value of FTAs level series of all the countries, except for Germany, is greater than 0.72 with Comparisons among the three forecasting methods an adjusted R2 value of FTAs logarithmic series are greater The best-fitted models for FTAs on both level and than 0.77. These results thus suggest that the relevant selected logarithmic series in the model estimation periods on top-ten countries are done using the three different methods. 10 Hemantha Premakumara Diunugala & Claudel Mombeuil
Table 7 illustrates the results of five measures of accuracy as best-fitted model for FTAs series for France, Maldives, and model evaluation criteria: MAD, MSE, RMSE, MAPE, and USA. However, the best-fitted model for the FTAs series for RMSPE to evaluate the best-fitted model for each country the UK and Japan are WMESM-LOS and MSARIMAM-LS from three different methods on the level and logarithmic respectively. Except for the SRNN, all the other two methods series. Finally, we compare the following six models: 1. for any series were best fitted for at least an FTAs series of Winter’s Multiplicative Exponential Smoothing Method on one of these top-ten countries. Levels Series (WMESM-LS), 2. Winter’s Multiplicative Exponential Smoothing Method on Logarithmic Series Table 8: Ranking for Models with different methods on the (WMESM-LOS), 3. Multiplicative Seasonal ARIMA level and logarithmic series for FTAs of top-ten countries Method on Levels Series (MSARIMAM-LS), 4. Multiplicative Seasonal ARIMA Method on Logarithmic Series (MSARIMAM-LOS), 5. Simple Recurrent Neural Network Method on Level Series (SRNNM-LS), and 6. Simple Recurrent Neural Network Method on Logarithmic Series (SRNNM-LOS) using the aforementioned evaluation criteria to find the best for each series.
Table 7: Model evaluation criteria for all applied models for FTAs of top-ten countries
Moreover, the results show that the SRNN does not outperform in forecasting all series. These top-ten (10) FTAs series in Figure 3 shows obvious pattern within the model estimation periods of each country, where usual time series methods; exponential smoothing and ARIMA can do much on such kind of series for best performance in forecasting. However, SRNN outperforms in forecasting well especially Table 7 additionaly demonstrates ranking from minimum to for the FTAs series with less obvious patterns (Cho, 2003b). maximum values by each criterion for the Models with Further, the performance of SRNN increases in series with a different approaches on the level series and logarithmic series large number of observations or big data (Song et al., 2019; for FTAs of top-ten countries and the overall rank. The Sheresheva et al., 2020). overall rank for different methods on level series and logarithmic series directs us to find the best-fitted model for each country. 4 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS As shown in Table 8, the results of three different approaches, with more criteria values of minimal errors, provide the best This study aimed to compare three different methods to predict foreign tourist arrivals to Sri Lanka from top-ten performance or fitted model to the level of logarithmic series. The results show that the MSARIMAM-LOS is the best- countries and also attempts to find the best-fitted forecasting fitted model for the FTAs series for India, China, Germany, model for each country. After the end of the civil war in 2009, the FTAs of these countries gradually increased with lower Australia, and Russia while the WMESM-LS remains the MODELING AND PREDICTING FOREIGN TOURIST ARRIVALS : A COMPARISON OF THREE DIFFERENT METHODS 11 seasonal impacts. By the end of 2018, FTAs of these develop strategies that also boost local tourism especially countries have increased at a rate that has never experienced during off-seasons of foreign tourists. However, it is and with higher seasonal impacts. The highest annual average important that government authorities ensure the capacity percentage (17.6%) of FTAs is generating from India while building of tourism development officers through intensive Japan represents the lowest annual percentage (2.2%) FTAs training so that they can have adequate skills and knowledge to Sri Lanka among top-ten countries. We estimated the best of tourism development as suggested by Briedenhann (2007). fitted time series model for each country that best describes More importantly, they need to improve the security strategy, the FTAs in Sri Lanka based on overall rank calculated from provide more training to the security forces, and invest in ranks of five model selection criteria with minimum errors. modern technology to avoid random shocks to tourism. We achieved this objective by applying three selected However, it is encouraged that governments develop more models: WMESM, MSARIMA, and SRNN models on level cooperation with more technologically advanced countries to series and logarithmic series. The results of our study showed track the early sign of attacks to mitigate or eliminate that the best-fitted model for FTAs series in the case of India casualties (terrorist attacks, contagious diseases) that can hurt China, Germany, Australia and Russia are the MSARIMA the tourism sector. It is also encouraged that governments models which can be respectively denoted as ARIMA (4,1,4) have an open channel that can help whistleblowers to inform (1,0,1) 12, ARIMA (5,1,5) (1,0,1) 12, ARIMA (5,1,1) (1,0,1) security forces of suspected activities and behavior that 12, ARIMA (2,1,3) (1,0,1) 12 and ARIMA (5,0,3) (1,0,1) 12. threaten national security. Further, the evidence of the study The results show that the WMESM-LS most appropriate confirms that there is a dearth in FTAs during internal crisis model for tourist arrival from France, Maldives, and the periods. On this basis, we can conclude that a stable USA. However, the best-fitted models recorded for UK and economic and political environment has the capability of Japan were WMESM-LOS and MSARIMA-LS. Moreover, attracting a higher number of tourists, particularly if there are the results show that MSARIMA-LS for Japan is ARIMA policies that encourage sustainable tourism development. In (5,1,3) (1,0,1) 12. working towards meaningful tourism development, The results of this study revealed that the MAPE value of the governments or policymakers must integrate diverse cultural MSARIMA forecast model is generally less than the other views into their planning as suggested by Higgins-Desbiolles two models for seven out of ten countries while equal with (2018) and Pirnar et al. (2019). MAPE value of the WMESM for three countries; UK, USA, and Japan. MSARIMA model showed the best forecasting Limitations and suggestions for future studies ability for FTAs of top-ten countries. The MAPE of SRNN There are several limitations to this study. First, the fact that had the highest values indicating that its forecasting ability is it focuses on Sri Lanka makes the results unlikely to be the worst for all top-ten countries except China. However, the generalized as this is case of most tourist forecasting arrivals second minimum value for MAPE (9.02%) was observed that are country specific. Second, this study is also limited as from the SRNN model for only FTAs of China. The MAPE only a set of forecasting models have been selected, leaving of WMESM was between the other two models, indicating the possibility to derive tourism forecasting to Sri Lanka that its forecasting ability is normal comparatively. The using other models. Beyond these limits, some important selected best-fitted models based overall rank of five model suggestions for further studies can also be given through the performance evaluation criteria can be applied for forecasting study. First, the factors affecting the FTAs should be tourist arrivals from each of the top-ten countries. When one identified through a specially designed study for that purpose. of the above main criteria used to measure the forecasting A causal model that considers more than one independent accuracy, MAPE, values obtained for the best-fitted models variable affecting tourist arrivals is encouraged in future range from 5 percent to 15 percent between models of top- studies. Second, further studies may be directed towards ten countries. Among these, the highest accuracy of 5 percent identifying seasons where FTAs are relatively low and the is shown from the model estimated for India and China FTAs. strategies that can be adopted to boost local tourist arrivals The accuracy rates of the models of another country Germany during the off-seasons of the FTAs. Future study is also FTAs are 7 percent while this value for Russia and Australia encouraged to use Winter’s exponential smoothing method, FTAs are 8 percent and 9 percent respectively. 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SUBMITTED: DEC 2019 REVISION SUBMITTED: APR 2020 2nd REVISION SUBMITTED: MAY 2020 ACCEPTED: JUL 2020 REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY
PUBLISHED ONLINE: 30 OCT 2020 Journal of Tourism, Heritage & Services Marketing, Vol. 6, No. 3, 2020, pp. 14-24 14 Childhood experience and (de)diasporisation: Potential impacts on the tourism industry
Hugues Seraphin University of Winchester, United Kingdom
Abstract: Purpose: This study is addressing the dearth of research regarding children in the tourism industry and cognate sectors, alongside contributing to existing literature on diaspora, and diaspora tourism. Methods: In order to get the most reliable results, triangulation, which is a form of mixed methods, that enables to view a topic from more than one perspective, is used. Results: Post-colonial, post-conflict, and post-disaster destinations are relying heavily on their diaspora not only for the survival of their tourism industry, but more generally speaking for their economic and social sustainability. It is therefore very important for the country of origin to main a strong link with the members of the diaspora, whether they belong to the first or second generation onward of the diaspora. The main challenge is to keep the connection with the younger generation. The results of this study reveal that childhood experience of the country of origin is a transformative tool which can lead to either dediasporisation (if negative), or transnational attachment (if positive). Implications: Destination Marketing Organisations therefore need to put in place suitable events (and activities) which are based on an edutainment and advertainment model, while applying other key principles. If successful, it is expected that children will go through three different stages: young diaspora thinkers, actioners; and transformers.
Keywords: diaspora, children experience, DMOs, sustainability, post-colonial, post-conflict, post- disaster destinations
JEL Classification: J13, F6, Q01, F54
Biographical note: Hugues Séraphin ([email protected]) is a Senior Lecturer in Event and Tourism Management Studies at the University of Winchester Business School, United Kingdom. He holds a PhD from the Université de Perpignan Via Domitia (France). He was the Programme Leader of the Event Management programme at the University of Winchester between 2015 and 2018. Corresponding author: Hugues Séraphin ([email protected]).
Most of DMOs efforts have been toward the destination, and 1 INTRODUCTION less interest has been put on citizens (Page, 2019). This study is focusing on the relationship between DMOs and tourism The functions of Destination Management (or Marketing) stakeholders, and more specifically, with children from the Organisations (DMOs) are quite broad, and include: diaspora of post-colonial, post-conflict, and post-disaster Stimulating growth; creating value; supporting stakeholders; destinations (PCCDDs). This is very important because destination marketing; product development; visitor Meylon-Reinette (2010) has identified a phenomenon of management; human resources development; lobbying; dediasporisation of young people from PCCDDs. This is an managing particular problems; contributing to online issue as members from the diaspora (as customers and visibility; aligning with Sustainable Development Goals; entrepreneurs) are playing a significant role in the coping with emerging crisis; etc. (Gowreesunkar, Seraphin & development of the tourism industry of their Country of Morrison, 2017; Page, 2019). To fulfil their functions, DMOs Origin (Paul & Seraphin, 2014; Seraphin & Paul, 2015). By are using: both market and product enhancing policies; addressing the issue of the diaspora (citizens), DMOs are also segmentation strategies based on different criteria; branding fulling both their marketing and stakeholder support and tools; research and development tools; and internet and engagement functions (Gowreesunkar et al, 2017; Page, technology (Gowreesunkar et al, 2017; Page, 2019). As for 2019; Giannopoulos et al., 2020). the performance of DMOs, it is assessed against criteria such Children from the diaspora are going to be the focus of this as: customer satisfaction; marketing communication and study, as they are the most disengaged with the Country of branding; quality of relationship with tourism stakeholders; Origin (CoO), as opposed to their parents, who are still profitability of tourism businesses; benefits for local supporting their CoO (Seraphin, Korstanje & Gowreesunkar, community; how sustainability issues are tackled; etc. 2017). As there is a continuum between childhood and (Gowreesunkar et al, 2017). adulthood (Canosa, Graham & Wilson, 2020), as children are C Copyrigh t © 200 © 2020 Authors. Published by International Hellenic University Some rights reserved. ISSN: 2529-1947. UDC: 658.8+338.48+339.1+640(05) Except otherwise noted, this work is licensed under http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4056264 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0 Published online: 30 October 2020 www.jthsm.grpyright © 200 CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCE AND (DE)DIASPORISATION: POTENTIAL IMPACTS ON THE TOURISM INDUSTRY 15 the tourists of the future (Cullingford, 1995), and as they of the second generation onward (Meylon-Reinette, 2009, influence the parents’ choice of destinations for holidays 2010). (Nickerson & Jurowski, 2001; Poria & Timothy, 2014; Ram Worldwide, people being part of the diaspora is estimated to & Hall, 2015; Thornton, Shaw, & Williams, 1997), their role 175 million a decade ago (Minto-Coy, 2009). As of 2019, the is crucial for the survival of any destination, and particularly group reached 272 million (UN DESA, 2019). This for PCCDDs, because diaspora tourism is the backbone of dispersion of people in the world, away from their CoO is due their survival (Paul & Seraphin, 2014; Seraphin & Paul, to many reasons. Because of the variety of reasons for this 2015). exodus, the diaspora group is segmented into sub-groups. This study is addressing the dearth of research regarding Among these are: victim diasporas, trade diasporas, imperial children in the tourism industry and cognate sectors (Canosa, diasporas, labour diasporas and so forth (Minto-Coy, 2016; Graham & Wilson, 2018a, b; Canosa, Moyle & Wray, 2016), UN DESA, 2019). There is also a pattern regarding the alongside contributing to existing literature on diaspora, and direction CoO – CoR. For instance, for the Caribbean diaspora tourism. This study is also suggesting the diaspora, the US, the UK and Canada, are very popular management of childhood (from the diaspora) experience as destinations (Minto-Coy, 2016). an additional destination management tool for the long term sustainability of PCCDDs. Not all DMOs are considering the 2.2. Diaspora and the tourism industry (and cognate diaspora market as a good enough market, preferring general sectors) tourism promotion (Corsale & Vuytsyk, 2015). This study, Diaspora tourism is defined as the travel of the second- could be conserved as a ‘whistle blower’ for those generation immigrants to their ancestral homeland to feel destinations. connected to their personal heritage, searching for The research questions (RQs) of the study are as follow: authenticity, family history, and sense of home (Huang, RQ1: How important is it for DMOs to maintain the link Haller & Ramshaw, 2013; Huang, Ramshaw & Norman, between children of the diaspora and the country of origin? 2016). For the tourism industry of the CoO, diaspora tourism RQ2: What strategies could be put in place by DMOs to (still taking the example of Haiti) is presented as the best maintain the link with the children of the diaspora? possible form of tourism, as it presents more benefits than From a theoretical point of view, this study is in line with Li, inconvenient, as opposed to other types of tourism. The McKercher and Chan (2019) who are arguing that the benefits of diaspora tourists include the fact that they: Stay diaspora is not a homogeneous group, as a result should not and eat in hotels and restaurants owned and/or managed by be treated or discussed generally, but instead, should take into locals; buy products directly from local producers; contribute account the migration histories; acculturation level; sense of to the spread of the benefits of the industry to the entire place. territory, as they tend to go back to their local towns, instead of just visiting popular places; use the same facilities as the locals; provide friendly feedback regarding the quality of 2 DIASPORA products and services provided; and finally, tend to be more lenient and understanding (Hung, Xiao & Yang, 2013; 2.1. Overview Jadotte, 2012; Minto-Coy & Séraphin, 2016; Newland & The diaspora is the geographic dispersion of people Taylor, 2010; Séraphin 2014b; Wab, 2013). In Haiti, the belonging to the same community (Bordes-Benayoum, diaspora contributed to rebuild the hospitality sector after the 2002). The term originates from the Jewish experience of the 2010 earthquake, by investing massively in the construction exile and dispersal (Medam, 1993). This geographic and operation of world class hotels (Seraphin, 2014; Seraphin dispersion is considered to be a brain drain when both, skilled & Paul, 2015); but also by promoting the destination abroad individuals, and individuals looking to acquire knowledge through events such as Taste of Haiti in Miami (Seraphin, and experience leave their CoO, and do not go back home, Korstanje, & Gowreesunkar, 2019). The same could be said meaning that the Country of Residence (CoR) becomes the about the Gambian diaspora involvement in the hospitality beneficiary of this exodus. Brain gain happens when those sector of their CoO (Davidson & Sahli, 2014). individuals go back home at some stage of their life. In that Beyond the tourism industry, the members of diaspora are case, the CoO becomes the beneficiary (Groot & Gibbons, significant contributors of the territorial development of their 2017). CoO, through: the remittances; the investments they make, Taking the example of the Haitian diaspora, research reveals which are also referred as foreign direct investments (FDI); some key features of this group: strong link kept with the the innovation they bring back home; philanthropy; and CoO; wherever they settle in the world, they: gather and tourism and cultural exchange (Davidson & Sahli, 2014; De recreate a community in the CoR, through brotherhoods and Haan, 2000; Meyer & Brown, 1999; Minto-Coy, 2009, 2011; / or societies (Bruneau, 2004; Murdoch, 2017); are very Minto-Coy & Seraphin, 2016). As a result, the diaspora proud of their roots; get involved in the life of their CoO and whom are agent of change and drivers of innovation (USAID, CoR; are most of the time highly qualified individuals; 2015), are sometimes referred as: ‘engaging heroic contribute to the territorial and economic intelligence of the entrepreneurs’ (Minto-Coy & Elo, 2017: 30). CoO (Audebert, 2006; Dandin, 2012; Dufoix, 2003; Laethier, 2006, 2007; Orozco, 2006; Paul, 2008; Paul & Michel, 2013; 2.3. Children as the missing element Pizzorno, 1990; Wab, 2013). However, research on the same Minto-Coy and Elo (2015: 28) also include in the definition diaspora group reveals a dediasporisation (or loss of interest) of the diaspora ‘foreign born population and their off-springs maintaining relations to their country of origin’, so is Meylon-Reinette (2009, 2010). Individuals born in the CoR 16 Hugues Sheraphin of their parents fall therefore in the category of diaspora. For To avoid the disconnection of the younger generation of the Pocok and McIntosh (2013), the CoO of the parents remain a diaspora not born in the CoO of the parents, members of the meaningful place for both generations. Meylon-Reinette Vietnamese community have put in place a Heritage Camp (2009, 2010) is arguing the opposite, as she is talking about Program that delivers programmes of activities (that includes the dediasporisation of the younger generation. This view is Vietnamese language, dance, folktales; traditional songs; art also shared by Hung, Xiao and Yang (2013: 308) who argued and crafts, etc.) for children as young as three years old that ‘Although social ties with residents in their home places (Williams, 2001). Visits to the homeland with children is also still exist, they are gradually losing contact with them (...) an alternative, as traveling back to the homeland not only some immigrants had weak social networks in their home allows this second generation (onward) to understand their places because of their limited stay there’. This is not a parents and family history, but also reflect upon their life panacea, because some individuals not born in their parents through experiencing contemporary visit of the homeland CoO, or who left their CoO as children have then visited their (Huang et al, 2016). ‘There is an association between the birth country or expressed desire to visit, either to explore number of diaspora tourism trips and feeling at home in their their heritage; or search for surviving relatives (Williams, parents' country of origin.’ (Huang et al, 2013). Those trips 2001). Some return to the CoO temporarily, others on a are more and more being facilitated by tour operators permanent basis (Murdoch, 2017). Another way some specialised in roots tourism (Corsale & Vuytsyk, 2015). individual from the second generation onward found to If connecting or reconnecting children of the diaspora with connect with their heritage is by learning the language; the CoO of their parents is an issue, it becomes even more an attending cultural events; read or watch related books or issue when they are born from a long chain of generation movies (Williams, 2001). whom has been in exile, as the CoO is for them just a concept, Despite the fact that children and younger adult migrants (40 or an idea (Mason, 2008). In any case, learning about their million) represent a significant number of individuals (figure history and culture are significant parts for the building of a 1), academic research on diaspora is mainly considering facts connection with the CoO (Boutte, Johnson, Wynter-Hoyte & about adults, while children are totally overlooked. Uyoata, 2017). The other reason this reconnection with the CoO could be seen as important is because, even when born Figure 1: International migrant stock in the CoR, and with the nationality of the country, individuals are still considered to be part of a generation of diaspora, and not as fully fledged citizens, but foreign co- citizens (1995). When they return to their parents CoO, they are not considered neither as belonging to the group anymore (1995). Being a child from the diaspora is a ‘limbo’ position, with difficulties in terms of belonging. From a tourism perspective, Huang et al (2016) raised the question of whether the visit to the homeland is homecoming or tourism. The same way academics have neglected research on children in tourism (Canosa, Graham & Wilson, 2018a, b; Canosa, Moyle & Wray, 2016), they have done the same with children in diaspora. Source : UN DESA (2019) This study is connecting all three (children; tourism; diaspora), by raising the proposition (figure 2), that This is a mistake as diaspora is not a homogenous group (Li experience of the CoO is the gel or link between all three et al, 2019). As previously mentioned in this study, what elements. This proposition comes from the fact that differentiates members of the diaspora are their migration depending of the level of exposition of young people of the histories; acculturation level; sense of place (Li et al, 2019). diaspora to artefacts (language; food; music; etc.) from their Subsequently, children and their parents do not have the same parents CoO, their feeling of belonging would lean either history etc., therefore should be investigated separately. At toward CoO of parents or CoR (Meylon-Reinette, 2010). the moment, very little is known about their place and role in Indeed, Huang et al (2016) explain that depending of the level the tourism industry of the CoO of their parents. When of proficiency in their parental language, second generation research is carried on the topic, only adults are surveyed immigrants feel more or less attached to the CoO. (Huang, Hung & Chen, 2018; Huang et al, 2016). The Additionally, the place of birth also plays a significant role in situation of those children is also ambiguous as there is not a the feeling of belonging (Meylon-Reinette, 2010). This view specific term to refer to them, but many such as: second is further supported with the fact that ‘the transnational generation; involuntary migrants; descendants of migrants attachment of second-generation immigrants was not rooted (Mandel, (1995). However, it is known that in general in a specific locale, they could feel connected to the homeland children play a significant role in parents’ choice of without actually visiting their family's place of origin’ destinations for holidays (Nickerson & Jurowski, 2001; Poria (Huang et al, 2016: 59). Last but not least, if the experience & Timothy, 2014; Ram & Hall, 2015; Thornton, Shaw, & of the CoO is positive, Huang et al (2013) explain that Williams, 1997). Nothing is known about their level of individual development a transnational attachment, in other attachment with the CoO of their parents, apart from the fact words, an attachment for both countries. that the second generation onward tends to lose interest for their parents CoO (Meylon-Reinette, 2009, 2010). CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCE AND (DE)DIASPORISATION: POTENTIAL IMPACTS ON THE TOURISM INDUSTRY 17 Proposition 1: Children with a positive and rich experience Coy & Séraphin, 2016; Newland & Taylor, 2010; Séraphin (language, food, music, history, etc.) of the CoO of their 2014b; Wab, 2013). parents (children not totally acculturated) are likely to be involved with both the tourism industry of the CoO and COR, either as tourists or investors. 3 CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATIONS Proposition 2: Children with a limited or no experience (language, foo, music, history, etc.) of the CoO of their 3.1. Empowerment parents (children totally acculturated) are likely to be more Empowerment is the attempt of individuals or groups to take involved with the tourism industry of their CoR (and will control of their destiny using learning as a tool (Joo, relegate to a second place the tourism industry of their parents Woosman, Strzelecka & Boley, 2020). Practically, CoO. empowerment are the results of awareness campaign and/or training programmes (Mosedale & Voll, 2017). To be Figure 2: Proposition (P) of the study effective, those empowerment strategies must, either be: cathartic and facilitative, meaning that they must enable individuals to express their feelings; catalytic, by giving individuals opportunities to be involved in real-case situations; supportive, enabling that way the development of self-confidence; and finally, self-advocacy, when people feel confident enough to speak for themselves (Adam, 2008). Three types of empowerment have been identified: First, psychological empowerment, which is manifests itself with a display of pride by individuals or a community; second, social empowerment, becomes apparent with the development of social capital within a group or community; and finally, political empowerment, which evidenced with the active involvement of individuals in decision-making for the community (Boley & McGehee, 2014; Strzelecka et al., Source: The author 2017). The empowerment of children by their parents is part 2.4. Transformative Consumer Research (TCR) of their duty of care (Dunst, Trivette & Hamby, 2007). This study could be said to be related to Transformative Empowerment also to some extent plays a role in whom the Consumer Research (TCR) as this field of research is about children will be in the future (Dunst at el, 2017; Koren, De improving lives which have been impacted by a variety of Chillo & Friesen, 1992; Stapples, 1990; Schuhbert & Thees, factors (Mick, 2006). People part of the diaspora have been 2020). in one way or another impacted by factors such as political The transnational attachment of children is therefore the instability; lack of job opportunities; violence; etc. which result of a catalytic strategy when they are given by their motivated them to leave their CoO (Basu, 2004; Minto-Coy, parents the opportunity to speak the language; eat the food; 2016; Minto-Coy, 2010). To improve lives, research on TCR listen to music; etc. from the CoO, which subsequently lead is focusing on: alleviation of negative factors; engagement to psychological and social empowerment, that could be with supportive and helpful third parties; fulfilment of practically evidenced by the ability of the children to communicate with family members when going back home aspirations; leveraging trust and social capital; and finally, the facilitation of creativity and adaptation (Blocker et al, using the local language, what leads to the development of 2013). This study is in line with TCR as it is investigating some ties with them. Travels to the CoO and/or involvement how childhood experience of artefact related to the CoO, in heritage camp programs, are other examples of catalytic plays a role in the engagement of children (future adults) with and supportive empowerment strategies that can be put in the CoO, which goes through the development of some kind place for the empowerment of children (Huang et al, 2016; of social capital with the CoO. Social capital is to be Williams, 2001). When adults, psychological and social understood here as the connectedness among individuals empowerment might evolve into political empowerment. (Miller & McTravish, 2013), but also, as a sense of Bruwer and Kelley (2014: 18), taking the example of belonging, and social inclusion (Foley, McGillivray & attendance to wine festivals explained that ‘the higher the McPherson, 2012). This cultural experience is extremely proportion of repeat visitors, the higher the likelihood of important as it plays a role in the continuum between buying’. By analogy, it could be said that the more children childhood and adulthood (Canosa, Graham & Wilson, 2020), are involved (and immersed) in cultural empowerment and also influence products and services consumed (Blocker activities, the more likely they are to develop a strong interest et al, 2013; De Ridder & Vanneste, 2020). for the CoO. As opposed to transnational attachment, Childhood experience of the CoO of parents is a dediasporisation happens when none of the empowerment transformative tool which can lead to either dediasporisation strategies are implemented, which leads to no display of any (if negative) or transnational attachment (if positive). DMOs of the three types of empowerment. therefore needs to be put in place strategies that would Related to the tourism industry, it means that empowered contribute to transnational attachment of children. This is all children, when adults are more likely to be involved with the the more important for destinations with negative image, as tourism industry of CoO, than non-empowered children. they are reliant of diaspora tourism (Jadotte, 2012; Minto- Indeed, the term empowerment is often associated with the 18 Hugues Sheraphin term sustainable tourism, due to the fact that, when 3.3. Experience individuals in a community are educated, therefore fully There are two main opposite streams of thoughts regarding aware of the impacts of something, they tend to be more experience. First, the positive perception of experience lays involved in the life of their community, and motivate fellow on the fact that experience contributes to a better citizens to do the same (Boley & McGehee, 2014; Scheyvens, understanding of our surroundings, and as a result is 1999; Strzelecka, Boley & Woosman, 2017). Canosa et al connected with happiness. In Rasselas Prince of Abyssinia, (2016); the United Nation Decade of Education for experience is presented as a human need that needs to be Sustainable Development; and the Australian Learning and fulfilled. To be less unhappy mankind must constantly Teaching Council (ALTC [Online]), are advocate that acquire knowledge through experience (Smith, 1996). children empowerment has a major role to play in the Mobility (traveling) is presented as tool towards acquiring sustainability of the tourism industry. this experience. The ‘Grand Tour’ is another example of the connection 3.2. Childhood between experience and knowledge (Hirschman & Holbrook, Childhood has been neglected in many fields of research such 1982). Second, the view that experience is negative. Because as tourism and cognate disciplines. For Canosa et al. (2018: of his will to travel the world to gain experience and 520), ‘the paucity of tourism and hospitality research happiness, Rasselas is depicted in the travel writing ‘Rasselas involving children is rather disconcerting’. The reasons for Prince of Abyssinia’ as a fallen angel (Smith, 1996). This this paucity of research are as follow: the need to obtain duality is reflected in tourism. Indeed, literature on diaspora, ethical approval; the lack of skills required by some empowerment and childhood generally presents the convey researchers to work with children; logistics; the potential lack of experience of the CoO as positive due to the fact it of traction of the topic (Khoo-Lattimore, 2015; Poria & contributes to the empowerment of children, which would Timothy, 2014); and the absence of good practice lead to transnational attachment for the main benefits of the frameworks when conducting research with children and CoO, as members of the diaspora are agents of change young people (Canosa et al., 2018a, b). (Canosa et al., 2020; Huang et al, 2016; Huang et al, 2013; The lack of research on children in tourism is also Minto-Coy & Elo, 2017; Minto-Coy & Seraphin, 2016; exacerbated by the perception of children as passive and Williams, 2001). That said, this convey of experience of the powerless (Hutton, 2016); immature; vulnerable; CoO is not that good for the CoR, as transnational attachment incompetent (Canosa & Graham, 2016); unreliable; and is placing children and future adults in a limbo positions, and unable to express their own views and opinions (Canosa et might decide to leave the CoR for a long time, or permanently al., 2018a). Nowadays, it is more and more accepted that not to ‘go back home’ (Dilette, 2020; Jadote, 2012; Murdoch, involving children in important matters is a mistake (Burrai 2017). et al, 2019). This is all the more a mistake, when it is known This second generation (onward) of migrants (Mandel, that there is a continuity between childhood and adulthood 1995), is important for both the CoO and the CoR (Canosa et (Canosa, Graham & Wilson, 2020; UNICEF, 2018; Zosh et al., 2020; Huang et al, 2016; Huang et al, 2013; Jadote, 2012; al., 2017). The same way, a ‘sense of stewardship towards the Minto-Coy & Elo, 2017; Minto-Coy & Seraphin, 2016; environment is developed among children and young people Murdoch, 2017; Williams, 2001), as tourists; entrepreneurs when they actively contribute to protecting the environment or both. The quality of experience that children get about the in a variety of ways from regular beach clean ups, and CoO and CoR can be considered as a determining factor, as educating visiting tourists to participating in rallies and anti- experience contribute to perception and attachment (Martin, development protests’ (Canosa et al., 2020: 1), it could be 2008; Thomson, 2014). argued that children with no experience of the CoO of their From the information gathered so far (section 2 and 3), the parents are unlikely to develop transnational attachment with impacts of experience as a determining and/or transformative this country (Huang et al, 2016: 59; Meylon-Reinette, 2010). factor could be summarised as follow (figure 3): Experience during childhood is therefore a central element, considered in this study as transformative diaspora tool that Figure 3: Experience as a determining management tool for determine whether a child when adult will dediasporised or DMOs will develop transnational attachments. The empowerment strategies discussed so far in this study need to happen at a very early age, ideally between the age of 3-11. Indeed, children between 3 to 14 are concerned with play, with the climax occurring between 7-11, and then decline between 13-14 (Smith, 2010). Listening to music, eating food, participating to camps, learning local languages; etc. are activities that Seraphin and Yallop (2019) and Poris (2006) refer as empowering and family fun-orientated activities. It is also worth highlighting that ‘play is also associated in the literature with concepts and terms such as childhood memory; nostalgia; tradition; communities; and social capital (Frost, 2015). Source: The author
CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCE AND (DE)DIASPORISATION: POTENTIAL IMPACTS ON THE TOURISM INDUSTRY 19
4 MOTIVATION-OPPORTUNITY-ABILITY (MOA) In terms of motivation, literature in this study reveals that the MODEL TO ENGAGE CHILDREN FROM THE DIASPORA people from the diaspora are very proud of their CoO and COMMUNITY their culture, this is all the more the case for those born in the CoO. From the second generation onward, the motivation The MOA model is a framework developed to analyse remains, but depends of the level of experience of the CoO engagement of members of a community, more specifically, they had had from their parents (or external providers). As this model is all about highlighting factors which either for opportunity, the member of the diaspora when in the CoR, support or inhibit engagement and participation of tend to regroup into associations to form a community. For individuals with their community (Jepson, Clarke & children specific, regular travel to the CoO is also an option, Ragsdell, 2013). It is also worth highlighting the fact that as well as heritage camp programmes, which exist in some engagement is to be understood as how to involve people communities. Traveling to the CoO and/or involvement with with the planning and development of their community; and heritage camps have a cost (ability), meaning that this community is to be understood as a group of people sharing reconnection or connection with CoO might only be a particular way of life with emphasis on particular space and accessible for families who can afford it. As opposed to time (Jepson et al, 2013). Equally important, Jepson et al Jepson et al (2013), who is arguing that ability is the most (2013) highlighted the fact there is a ‘limited understanding, important aspect of the MOA model, this study is arguing that agreement and research within community engagement’ each element is equally important and interdependent. (Jepson et al, 2013: 186). As highlighted in previous sections In order to get the most reliable results, the above findings of this study, it is all the more the case when it comes to are compared against the results a content analysis of the 3X3 engagement of children from the diaspora with their parents’ Camp (3X3 [Online]), which is heritage camp for the homeland. diaspora. This technique is referred as triangulation, which is Festivals and cultural events (food, drink, music, sport, etc.) a form of mixed methods, that enables to view a topic from have clearly been identified by many research as having a more than one perspective, enabling researchers to reach strong potential to foster a sense of belonging within a reliable results (Brunt, Horner & Semley, 2017). community, as contributing to the development of social The case study used as part of this triangulation process is: capital. Among these research could be mentioned Jepson et ‘3x3 is a multigenerational Latvian ethnic heritage camp al (2013); Moscardo, Konovalov, Murphy and McGehee designed to provide an intergenerational support system for (2017); Sotiriadis and Shen (2017); Pirnar et al., 2017; and Latvian families, to educate all generations about Latvian Seraphin, Zaman and Fotiadis (2019). Equally important, history, culture, society and politics, to improve Latvian taking the example of tourismphobia (and antitourism language proficiency, to encourage Latvian ethnic identity movements), Seraphin, Gowreesunkar, Zaman and formation and maintenance, and to facilitate the development Bourliataux-Lajoinie (2019) highlighted the fact that festivals of closer ties among the members of the Latvian community and cultural events can bridge the gap between the members and the formation of a group identity. The program may of a community and those who are not from that community. include folklore, art, drama, music, literature, family issues, This is the case of the second generation (onward), whom ethics, singing, folk dancing, woodcarving, leather crafting, sometimes get rejected because of their limited shares of pottery, the making of folk costumes and jewellery, Latvian practices (such as language) with those at the CoO (Huang et cooking and other workshops, as well as activities for al, 2016; Mandel, 1995). children of all ages. Evening programs include panel discussions, campfires, talent shows, poetry readings, 4.1. MOA model: Definition, application and findings concerts, sporting events, folk dancing and singing’. Motivation is what pushes someone to do something, and this Based on the MOA framework, and the conclusion from the motivation is in general triggered by the benefits this person preceded paragraph, 3X3 Camp, could be said to be an or the community as a whole expect (Jepson et al, 2013). opportunity provider. As for the content analysis (table 1), it Opportunity is about what is put in place to facilitate the was carried out using the MOA framework. involvement or participation in something. This requires a supportive framework by leaders of the community (Jepson Table 1: Content analysis 3X3 Camps et al, 2013). Last but not least, ability, which includes awareness, experience, knowledge, skills and accessibility to either the information, or the finance (Jepson et al, 2013). This last point is considered as central as without the ability, the two other points are not feasible (Jepson et al, 2013). This study employs a systematic scoping review, using the literature covered so far in this study (section 1-4) to evaluate the engagement capacity of children from the diaspora. This approach which is more and more used in tourism, not only gives an overview of a topic, but also contributes to map an existing literature (Rasoolimanesh, Ramakrishna, Hall, Esfandiar & Seyfi, 2020). This approach also varies from full systematic reviews in the sense that scoping review is more limited in the scope covered, as more specific, and therefore less exploratory (Rasoolimanesh et al, 2020). Source: The author (data from 3X3 [Online])
20 Hugues Sheraphin
The results of the content analysis support the original and equitable in use; simple and intuitive; findings (based on academic literature), regarding the strong perceptible; have or have a suitable size; and attachment of the diaspora with the CoO, but for this flexible in terms of physical efforts required (Burke, attachment to remain, a positive experience, which goes 2013). through education about the culture is central (motivation). • Dale Robinson Anderson model, or DRA model - This experience can be acquired through heritage camps, but developed by Seraphin, Ambaye, Capatina and should be primarily acquired at home, within families. Dosquet (2018), using two existing models, is Speaking the language, is a crucial element, alongside, being arguing that: ‘positive experience at an event can accustomed to the food, music, etc. (opportunity). However, influence consumers’ behaviour and subsequently money and time are hurdles to the engagement with heritage their perceived image of a destination’ (Seraphin et camps, but are not detrimental to the experience because, this al, 2018: 92). As a results, effective events should: education could be, and should be happening at home, within convey credibility; trust; emotion; and informative families (ability). messages to attendees. As for the activities they Figure 4, offers a MOA model integrating the connection should be interdisciplinary in their approach and, between (children) diaspora and the experience of the CoO. while developing expertise of attendees in a specific The main limitation of this study lays on the fact that the area. literature is not essentially focused on children of the • Resort mini-club management framework – diaspora, but on the diaspora overall, this is due to the fact suggested by Seraphin and Yallop (2019) is that, this literature is limited at the moment. This is even more suggesting that resort mini-clubs should contribute the case when the focus in on diaspora tourism, where it is to the education of children through fun quasi non-existent. empowering activities. So doing, Seraphin and Yallop (2019) are suggesting that activities should Figure 4: MOA model integrating the connection between be developed around a specific fun empowering (children) diaspora and the experience themes that are representative of the destination; use local products; involve local stakeholders of the tourism industry; enable an interaction between local and visiting children. • Commercialisation of fun and learning framework – This framework is used by brands such as KidZania, and Eataly. The framework is based on two principles, which are edutainment, in other words, education and entertainment; and advertainment, Figure 4 (above) is suggesting the DMOs should capitalise which is a combine of advertisement and on the existing motivation of the diaspora, to provide suitable entertainment (Tagg & Wang, 2016; Di Pietro, opportunities, that would enable participation of all Edvardsson, Reynoso, Renzi, Toni and Mugion, generations. The following section is focusing on strategies 2018). Some heritage tourist attractions are also orientated toward children. developing their products and services around these principles (Hertzman, Anderson & Rowley, 2008). • Other strategies could be using visual online 5 DISCUSSION learning material as they have proven to be engaging users into an intellectual cooperation, which will ‘Leisure theorists have argued that childhood is not a natural then turn into the development of a cognitive, or universal phenomenon, but a socio-political concept, and rational and affection connection with the that understandings of how children’s leisure time should be destination (Seraphin, Butcher & Korstanje, 2016). spent reveal a society’s particular social construction’ (Kerr & Moore, 2015: 186). Based on this quote, this study is 5.2. Desired outcomes of the event based strategy suggesting fun activities at events that could be held during Kemper, Ballantine and Hall (2019) research on children leisure time, and at the CoR. This study has already sustainability education typology, reveals that learners are highlighted the potential of events (Moscardo et al, 2017; going through different stages, namely, the transformer stage, Seraphin et al, 2019 a, b). The format of these events is when they want to inform others about a particular issue; informed by existing relevant frameworks. followed by the thinker stage, which encourage critical thinking; and finally, the actioner stage, when action is 5.1. Framework for the design of events for children from considered as a way to trigger changes. The assumption of the diaspora this study is that with the suggested framework for the The events organised by DMOs, could be using those development of events by the DMOs, for children of the framework as guidelines and/or checklist when designing the diaspora; the latter will go through all stages of the typology, activities geared toward children of the diaspora: as follow: • Universal design (UD) - Recognises human (1) On the short-term, children will become young diversity and need to cater for this diversity (Burke, diaspora thinkers (individuals with critical thinking 2013). As a result, everything related to the event and questioning their experience of the CoO versus (venues, activities, etc.), must be: Inclusive; flexible CoR). This could be materialised by children asking CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCE AND (DE)DIASPORISATION: POTENTIAL IMPACTS ON THE TOURISM INDUSTRY 21 more and more questions related to the CoO. Joppe, 2014). This study is innovating. Presently, innovation (2) Then, in the long term, they may turn into young in tourism is often incremental (Brooker & Joppe, 2014), as diaspora actioners (individuals looking to encourage implemented in reaction to a situation with a short-term change in individuals and/or community and vision. On the contrary, radical innovation is proactive and particular within their age group). This could be subsequently disrupts current conventions (Brooker & Joppe, materialised by encouraging families to go on 2014). holiday to the CoO. (3) Finally, in the even longer term, they may turn into young diaspora transformers (individuals wanting to 6 CONCLUSION unlock changes within their own family in terms of who they are – through the existential question: Experience is the element that determines whether or not Who am I?). children from the diaspora are going to maintain a connection This involvement of children of the diaspora in DMOs or not with their CoO. This experience could be conveyed strategy through edutainment and advertainment could be either within the family circle, or outside the family circle, related to be to some extent to an application of the Principle via events such as heritage camps, or other type of cultural for Responsible Management Education (PRME) in a non- related events. If the experience is successful, children Higher Education context, what would help with the develop what is called a transnational attachment, while achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4), addressing SDG 4. It is also expected that children will go namely quality education. through three different stages: Young diaspora thinkers, The suggested strategy to be developed (and implemented) is actioners; and transformers. If the experience is negative, it all the more important for post-colonial, post-conflict, and leads to dediasporisation. post-disaster destinations (as discussed in section 2.3). Despite the strong will of diaspora members to maintain a Taking the case of Haiti, this strategy is almost vital because connection with the CoO, time and money represent hurdles the diaspora first generation is now between the age of 85 and that can impediment engagement with transnational 105 years old. The second generation is 55 – 35. As for the development events. For the tourism industry of the CoO, third generation, between 15-or younger (table 2). The latter transnational development events are extremely important should therefore be at the heart of the strategy developed in due to the fact that some destinations, in particularly post- this study. This is all the more interesting, as Hixson (2014) colonial, post-conflict, and post-disaster destinations are believes that 16-19 years old is an interesting group for reliant on the diaspora as tourists and investors. The role and marketers and researchers due to the fact they are particular impacts of the diaspora goes beyond tourism as they keen to interact with others; they are more intellectually contribute through FDI to the economic sustainability of their developed; they can think in multi-dimensional manner; and CoO. finally, because they have the freedom to choose the types of This study is contributing to existing literature in the area of: events they want to attend. That said, whatever their age, tourism management, by providing a new management tool children play an important role in the choice of destination to DMOs; diaspora research, as this field is not really and accommodation for family holidays (Lugosi, Robinson, focusing on children, same in tourism academic research. By Golubovskaya & Foley, 2016). Last but not least, this focusing on children, this study is giving more depth and strategy based on children is all the more important, as not specificity to diaspora research. As for children research in only children are the tourists of the future (Cullingford, tourism, this research does the same as children are often 1995), but there is also a continuum between childhood and discussed as a hegemonic group, same for diaspora, while adulthood (Canosa et al, 2020). It is therefore very important they should not. for destinations to understand, and meet the needs of this From a practical point of view, the study offers DMOs further group in order to turn them into future visitors. strategies to think about, but also a framework that they could implement and test at a smaller scale first. Future research Table 2: Experience and generation based segmentation of could for instance look at the impacts of the strategy the Haitian diaspora suggested, which implies collecting empirical data, and working in collaboration with a DMO.
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SUBMITTED: APR 2020 REVISION SUBMITTED: JUN 2020 2nd REVISION SUBMITTED: JUL 2020 ACCEPTED: AUG 2020 REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY
PUBLISHED ONLINE: 30 OCT 2020 Journal of Tourism, Heritage & Services Marketing, Vol. 6, No. 3, 2020, pp. 25-34 25 Performance of restaurants: Recognizing competitive intensity and differentiation strategies
Collins Kankam-Kwarteng Kumasi Technical University, Ghana Barbara Osman Takoradi Technical University, Ghana Stephen Acheampong Ghana Baptist University College, Ghana
Abstract: Purpose: The purpose of this paper was to examine the relationships between differentiation strategies, competitive intensity and restaurant performance. It was also to estimate the effect of interaction terms of differentiation strategies and competitive intensity on restaurant performance. Methods: Data were obtained from 160 restaurant operators in the Ashanti region of Ghana through a structured questionnaire. The paths of the relationships were estimated and tested using regression analysis. Results: The findings suggest that differentiation strategies have a significant impact on restaurant performance and that competitive intensity partially influence the performance of restaurants. Competitive intensity was, however, foundo n t to moderate the relationship between differentiation strategies and restaurant performance. Implications: The study findings will greatly help managers of the restaurant industry to appreciate the critical contribution of competitive intensity and differentiation strategies in estimating the performance of restaurants. The interactive terms of differentiation strategies and competitive intensity add to ht e divergent ways of measuring restaurant performance. This paper, therefore, contributes to the growing research in the restaurant industry.
Keywords: differentiation strategies, competitive intensity, restaurant performance
JEL Classification: L84, L8, L83
Biographical note: Collins Kankam-Kwarteng ([email protected]) lectures in Service marketing, marketing communication and customer communication at Kumasi Technical University, Ghana. He is a researcher specialized in SMEs performance, hospitality marketing and services marketing strategy. His research interests focuses on issues of marketing performance in the hospitality industry and marketing strategy implementation for SME performance. Barbara Osman ([email protected]) has been lecturing undergraduate courses in Hospitality management for a period of 11 years in the Department of Hospitality Management, Takoradi Technical University, Ghana. Barbara’s research interests focuses on accommodation operations, hospitality operations and food production. Stephen Acheampong ([email protected]) is an enterprising marketing and entrepreneurship consultant with over 15 years teaching experience at the University level; he currently lectures at the Ghana Baptist University College. He has research interest in SMEs marketing, strategic entrepreneurship and services management. He serves as a mentor and trainer for private and public organizations at both national and international levels. Corresponding author: Collins Kankam-Kwarteng ([email protected]).
2006; Johnson et al., 2005). According to Teeratansirikool et 1 INTRODUCTION al. (2013) differentiation strategy integrates a set of actions that gears towards producing services at an acceptable cost Previous studies in the hospitality industry have mentioned that patrons of restaurants perceive as being different in ways restaurants as a highly competitive environment (see; that are important to them. Empirical researches indicate that Berenguer et al., 2009; Teng and Barrows, 2009; Parsa et al., there is a relationship between differentiation strategies and 2005). Differentiation strategies utilised in the restaurants' restaurant performance (Teeratansirikool et al., 2013; Hull industry, therefore, demands that firms create a strategic and Rothenberg, 2008). When restaurants differentiate their market position that is exceptional industry-wide and that is services, it is usually able to charge a higher price for its sustainable over a longer period (Lee et al., 2016; Asenjo,
C Copyrigh t © 200 © 2020 Authors. Published by International Hellenic University Some rights reserved. ISSN: 2529-1947. UDC: 658.8+338.48+339.1+640(05) Except otherwise noted, this work is licensed under http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4059386 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0 Published online: 30 October 2020 www.jthsm.grpyright © 200 26 Collins Kankam-Kwarteng, Barbara Osman & Stephen Acheampong products or services in the market (Kim and Kim, 2005; on restaurant performance with particular reference to Gilmore and Pine, 2002). competition and service differentiation in the hospitality Extant studies corroborate that for restaurants to achieve industry in general and the restaurant industry in particular. competitive advantage in an unpredictable, dynamic and intensely competitive environment, there is the need to formulate and implement a well-positioned competitive 2 SERVICE-DOMINANT LOGIC AND SERVICE strategy (Hoskisson et al., 2000; Porter and Kramer, 2006). ECOSYSTEM The application of differentiation strategy is one of the mechanisms firms implement to occupy a well-positioned Referencing on the literature on differentiation, competition ground in the market (Sharp and Dawes, 2001). Craig et al. and firm performance, this study adopts the Strategic Balance (2008) found that firms monitor their competitors to position Theory (Deephouse, 1999) to examine the drivers of themselves in the industry. According to Kayaman and Arasli performance in restaurants. The theory proposes that (2007), strategies in the restaurant industry are developed transitional levels of distinction where firms balance the mostly around, customer service, branding and employee gains of lessened competition against the costs of lessened build up. Rhee and Bell (2002) mention that customer service legitimacy will enhance firms’ performances. The theory is critical amongst these activities as provision of services is recognizes a trade-off between conformity and expected to meet customer satisfaction, loyalty, high differentiation: strategic differentiation lessens competition profitability and increases organisational performance levels. which improves performance; but strategic conformity Restaurant performance is seen as good or bad, depending on advances legitimacy, which also improves performance how strategies are put in place to satisfy clients above (Deephouse, 1999). Being distinct lowers competition and competitors (Tavitiyaman et al., 2012; Chatzigeorgiou and enhances competitive advantage, however, appearing too Simeli, 2017). distinct generates legitimacy concerns, which have a negative The activities of the restaurants based on its product or outcome (Aragón-Correa and Sharma, 2003; Sirmon et al., service differentiation influences the outcome of firm 2011). The theory suggests that competitive intensity among performance (Pérez-Cabañero et al., 2012; Mensah and firms is directly linked to the distribution and availability of Mensah, 2018). Porter and Kramer (2006) suggest that the the resources. With determinate resources, the competition is attainment of higher performance by firms through product heightened particularly for the limited resources. and service differentiation largely depends on the nature of More considerable rivalry often results in lower performance competition. In most of the emerging economies in Africa, because firms must expend resources to compete more including Ghana, urbanization, rapid economic development, strongly (Porter, 2008; McWilliams and Siegel, 2011). The income improvements and increasing numbers of time- rise in cost for getting the scarce resources will ultimately constrained consumers have generated a shift towards out-of- result in rational variation to reduce competition of similar home and convenience foods among urban dwellers resources to the degree of their recognized strategy (Baum (Kennedy et al., 2004). Restaurants in Ghana are gradually and Mezias, 1992). Deephouse (1999) found that firm undergoing various transformation, including the performance is how an organization transforms unavoidable introduction of healthier food options, use of environmentally enterprise’ pressures and inevitable competitive atmospheres friendly packaging and the incorporation of local cultural that there is value for enterprises remain both what they are features (Mensah, 2006; Asiedu et al., 1998; Gadelrab and and to be distinct. Based on the dynamics of Strategic Ekiz, 2019). Restaurants are becoming increasingly prevalent Balanced Theory, the conceptual framework is built on the in urban centers, and they are undoubtedly creating a highly interrelationship between differentiation strategies, competitive industry (Omari et al., 2015). competition and performance of restaurants. Limited empirical data have been documented on the restaurant industry on the direct estimation of the effect of 2.1 Differentiation strategy and restaurant performance differentiation policies and competitive intensity on Differentiation strategy involves pursuing activities that indicators of performance. The dimensionalities of the distinguish the services of the firm from other market players restaurant industry in Ghana (Omari, and Frempong, 2016) (Porter, 2008). Acquaah et al. (2008) assert that when brand presents the foundation of this study which aims to estimate images, technology, customer service, atmosphere and other the relationship between differentiation strategy, competitive attractive features of an organization is exhibited to create intensity and performance of restaurants. uniqueness and value for customers, differentiation strategies The objective of the study is to examine the relationship are realised. Lee et al. (2016) and Ryu et al. (2012) suggested between differentiation strategy and restaurant performance that in restaurant differentiation, firms try to improve service and explore how competitive intensity leverages the quality, servicescape and product uniqueness. relationship. This study also makes a contribution to Barber et al. (2011) assert that restaurant differentiation is theoretical understanding of the competitive advantage of most often yielding in the service industry. The restaurant restaurant industry in Ghana. A model of performance using industry requires brand recognition, customised standard differentiation strategy and competitive intensity is services, and achieving high quality through consistency in developed and tested. The study integrates models of the provision of services and provision of a pleasing strategic balance theory and conceptualizes the relationship environment (White et al., 2013; Berman, 2005), and would between competitive intensity and differentiation with go a long way to keep clients as they are satisfied. Hospitality industry performance in the context of Ghana’s restaurant researchers, Chen et al. (2010) and Schubert et al. (2010) add sector. In addition, the study enhances the current literature that restaurants that implement a differentiation strategy create a perception in the minds of consumers that products PERFORMANCE OF RESTAURANTS: RECOGNIZING COMPETITIVE INTENSITY AND DIFFERENTIATION STRATEGIES 27 or services given them are superior to all others regarding Jogaratnam (2017) found that competitive advantage reputation and image, design features, reliability and quality. influences restaurant performance. This is to say that in the Based on the importance of differentiation strategy to the existence of intense competition, firms tend to develop service industry, Andaleeb and Conway (2006) assert that for strategies (Liu and Jang, 2009) to survive in the market. the restaurant to thrive above its competitors, it must have a Survival in this sense means that firms seek to acquire as keen eye on service quality. In this line of thinking, Berry et many sales as possible to increase profit. This is also stressed al. (2006) propose that restaurant operators must deliver by Acquaah and Yasai-Ardekani (2007) that in a fiercely reliable services with exceptional food quality and invest in competitive industry; enterprises that implement an effective state-of-the-art equipment to increase the brand image of the competitive strategy are expected to be successful. Kankam- restaurant. Kwarteng et al. (2019) also found that intense competition In implementing a differentiation strategy, restaurant inspires restaurants to aggressively utilise strategic management can set to provide better service levels to arrangements to become market leaders rather than being consumers, better service performance, distribution, design passive. or brand image in comparison with the existing competitors Hospitality researchers, Patiar and Wang (2016) and (Ruiz-Molina et al., 2014; Frambach et al., 2003). The Andrevski et al. (2014), suggest that this consequently leads effectiveness of differentiation strategies depends on how to more returns as the restaurant begins to adopt feasible well the company can manage service benefits and service actions aligned with the present market conditions: hence its cost for the consumer, relative to competitive offerings performance. Restaurants in Ghana have not been spared (Slater and Olson, 2001; Spyridou, 2017). Acquaah and with competition as firms in the industry position themselves Yasai-Ardekani (2007) argue that a firm that would excite customers (Omari and Frempong, 2016). Considering implement the differentiation strategy will outperform firms the nature of competition in the restaurant industry and the that do not. It is interesting to note that an organisation that limited research into the industry's' competitive strategies, would utilise the nitty-gritty of differentiation strategy would this paper proposes that the relationship between competition see customers having identified the uniqueness of the firm intensity and restaurant performance to be positive. The and its service while sales would increase (Berenguer et al., study, therefore, hypothesised that; 2009; Morschett et al., 2006). As this occurs, Velcu (2007) H2: competitive intensity has a significant positive impact on explains that the profits of the firm would grow and hence restaurants performance. have a toll on both non-financial and financial performance of the firm. With limited studies in the context of 2.3 Competitive intensity, differentiation strategy and differentiation strategy and restaurant performance in Ghana, restaurant performance this study, therefore, hypothesised that: The nature and intensity of rivalry within a sector provide H1: differentiation strategy has significant positive effect on motivation for enterprises to design strategic programmes. restaurant performance. Literature suggests that competition carries some element of uncertainty which unavoidably affects decisions of 2.2 Competitive intensity and restaurant performance enterprises (Koellinger, 2008; Khanna et al., 1998; Bettis and Various studies have indicated that one factor that contributes Hitt, 1995). It is argued that within the restaurant industry in to environmental hostility is competitive intensity (Child and Ghana a clamour for customers exist (Oppong et al., 2014) Tsai, 2005; Barth, 2003). Patiar and Mia (2008) have and due to globalisation, consumer preferences are very high mentioned that the behaviour of restaurants become (Alden et al., 2006). Consumers do not only consider quality unpredictable and uncertain as a result of competitive of the food but other aesthetic qualities such as the general intensity. Zuniga-Vicente and Vicente-Lorente (2006) found atmosphere, timeliness, fast food services, interior décor that as competition increases in a particular market, it (Mari and Poggesi, 2013). This level of competition, together indicates that many firms are sharing the few customers in with the expectations of customers, has justified the the market, which in the long run means a reduction in profit. relevance of implementing a differentiation strategy. This is mostly a threat to firms with the reason that an Murray et al. (2011) have also asserted that the impact of organisation’s fundamental goal is to maximise profit as business practices on performance is contingent on the level much as possible, but with fierce competition profit levels of of competitive intensity in the market such that the dynamic firms may be affected. A situation of increased competition nature of the market determines the strategic action to pursue. failing in core aim means firms must develop the means to The use of competition intensity as a moderating variable in acquire the most from this competitive environment as much management research has been found in existing literature as possible (Zahra, 1993). (see; Velu and Jacob, 2016; Mehta et al., 2009; Banker, & Research has indicated that firms that excel above all others Mashruwala, 2007). Scholars have long argued that in a competitive market do so because of the implementation competition affects the degree of firm performance of business strategies (Porter and Kramer, 2006; Lee and (Jogaratnam, 2017), but such research has been mostly silent Hing, 1995; Fotiadis and Williams, 2018). Competitive on how competition affects the relationship between intensity propels restaurants to sit up to find ways and means differentiation strategy and firm performance. Accordingly, to get the attention of the customers by satisfying them through measuring differentiation strategies, competitive hugely (Armbrecht and Carlbäck, 2011; English, 1996). intensity and performance indicators, this study hypothesizes Restaurants seek to attain a competitive advantage over their that: competitors and hence must adopt a strategy (Evans et al., H3: Competitive intensity moderates the relationship 1995). between differentiation strategy and restaurant performance.
28 Collins Kankam-Kwarteng, Barbara Osman & Stephen Acheampong
Figure 1: Conceptual framework improved customer satisfaction and attracting new customers (O'sullivan and Abela, 2007). The study applied subjective performance measures because of its higher correlation with objective measures of performance (Dess and Robinson, 1984), which has been supported by Dawes (1999) and Wall et al. (2004). Thus, subjective performance measures have been widely applied in management research (Gruber et al., 2010; Galbreath and Galvin, 2008). Control variables: Three firm-specific variables were controlled for the study; nature of control, type of ownership and firm age (Coad et al., 2013; Wang 2008; Mavragani et al., 2019). The relationship between firm age and firm 3 METHODOLOGY performance has been investigated by a growing number of scholars (Lyons and Branston, 2006; López-Gamero et al., 3.1 Sampling and data collection 2009; Buallay et al., 2017). Firms’ ownership structures are The research was based on the development and considered an essential determinant of their operations and administration of a self-completed survey issuing a structured performance evaluations (Mangena et al., 2012; Tribo et al., questionnaire to owners, managers and operators of 2007) and were measured using the degree of ownership restaurants at the sampled restaurants, both small and large. concentration. The firm-specific variables were controlled in For this study, small-scale restaurants were conceptualized as the model because of their relevance in estimating the firms with a staff strength below twenty (20). The large operational dimensions of the restaurant industry and their restaurants were defined in this study as firms that recorded potential influences on their performance. more than 20 employees. With the focus of appreciating the dimensionalities in the results for small-scale restaurants and 3.3 Reliability of the study variables large-scale restaurants, eighty (80) questionnaires each for Cronbach’s Alpha was used to test the internal consistency small scale and large scale restaurants, totally 160 were and reliability of the study items used to measure the retained for analysis based on convenience sampling variables. According to Hayes and Krippendorff (2007) and techniques. Hair et al. (2009), Cronbach’s alpha should be 0.700 or above. But, extant literature suggests that 0.600 is considered 3.2 Measures acceptable (Gerrard et al., 2006). The value of Cronbach's The study estimates whether a differentiation strategy and alpha for this study is between 0.697 and 0.881, which is competitive intensity influence the performance of higher than the standard value, 0.6. The Cronbach’s alpha restaurants. Accordingly, the items used to test the path values had firm performance 8-items (0.804), differentiation relationship between dependent and independent variables strategy 15-items (0.881), competitive intensity 11-items and the role of the moderating variable were developed based (0.697) suggesting that the items used in this study are highly on theoretically tested scales. All measurement items were reliable. based on a Likert scale indicated by “1” strongly disagree to “7” strongly agree. Differentiation strategy: This was measured using 15 items 4 RESULTS on a scale based on Porter’s generic differentiation strategy and measures applied by Chandler and Hanks (1994) and 4.1 Descriptive and Correlation Analysis Appiah-Adu et al. (2001). The items were adapted based on Table 1 and Table 2 present the descriptive statistics and the following five thematic areas: operational efficiency, correlation analysis, respectively. Firm performance customer philosophy, adequate marketing information, recorded the small scale restaurants (mean = 5.2108) and strategic orientation and integrated marketing organization. large-sized restaurants (mean = 5.2100). Competitive intensity: The conceptualisation of competitive intensity as a moderating variable in the study is derived from Table 1: Descriptive statistics previous studies (see; Deng and Dart, 1994; Jaworski and Kohli, 1993; and subsequently refined by O'Cass and Ngo (2007). The competitive intensity items were, therefore, measured using a scale consisting of 11 items based on factors including promotional wars, competitive moves and matching of competitive offers. Performance: The items for firm performance included both financial and non-financial items. Financial performance items were adapted from the work of Hoque et al. (2001), which were originally adopted from Kaplan and Norton (1992). The items included increased market share, sales growth, productivity growth, sales revenue, growth in profitability. Items for non-financial performance included delivery customer value, handling customer complaints, There was no evidence of a significant difference in performance among the two groups; as the mean scores were PERFORMANCE OF RESTAURANTS: RECOGNIZING COMPETITIVE INTENSITY AND DIFFERENTIATION STRATEGIES 29 statistically equivalent. Meanwhile, there is a moderately Small scale restaurants high level of differentiation of services among the sampled Table 3 presents the model estimation results focusing on restaurants. The report also suggests that large size small scale restaurants. In Model 1, none of the control restaurants undertake a lot of differentiation (mean = 5.192) variables showed significant impact on the performance of in the market than their small-scale counterparts (mean = small scale restaurants; firm age (β = 0.010), type of 4.838). ownership (β = 0.079) and control (β = -0.137). The results Interestingly, competitive intensity is also felt among large- of model 2 also indicates that the firm specific variables: firm sized restaurants relative to small-sized restaurants. The age (β = 0.009, p > 0.10), ownership (β = -0.105) have no mean score of competitive intensity for small size restaurants significant relationship with performance of small scale is 4.8909, whereas that of large-sized restaurants is 4.9834. restaurants. However, firm control revealed a significant Thus the implication is that the large-sized restaurants are effect (β = 0.201). exposed to a lot of competition and relatively prone to unpredictable environmental conditions than the small-sized Table 3: Hierarchical linear regression results (small scale counterparts. The rest of the results are presented in Table 2. restaurants)
Table 2: Correlation statistics
Differentiation strategies positively and significantly influence the performance of small-scale restaurants (β = 0.512, p < 0.01) with R² of 0.359 demonstrating that the In Table 3, the correlation outcome indicates that there is a model determines about 35.9% of the differences in the strong positive correlation between differentiation strategy performance levels of small size restaurants. The change in and the performance of restaurants (p<1%). However, the R² results, shows differentiation strategies alone accounted relationship between differentiation strategy and for 93.59% (0.336/0.359 *100) of the overall prediction of performance was stronger among large-scale restaurants (r = the model and contributed 33.6% of the aggregate variances 0.739; p<1%) than for small-scale restaurants (r = 0.565; in performance of small size restaurants. Model 3 shows p<1%). The implication is that any intensification in firm-specific variables: firm age (β = 0.011), ownership (β = differentiation activities leads to enhancements in the -0.080) and control (β = 0.157). Differentiation strategy performance of the restaurants. positively and significantly influence the outcome of small- Correlation reports also indicate that competitive intensity is scale restaurants (β = 0.441, p < 0.01). Competitive intensity correlated positively with performance. Evidence also shows components have influence on the outcomes of small size that correlation between competitive intensity and restaurants (β = 0.121, p > 0.10). The ∆R² results indicated performance is stronger among large-scale restaurants (r = that competitive intensity alone accounted for only 2.97% 0.682; p<1%) than among small-scale restaurants (r = 0.421; (0.011/0.370 *100) of the overall prediction of the model and p<1%). The same result is found between competitive contributed 1.1% of the aggregate variation in performance intensity and differentiation strategy. of small size restaurants. Model 4, the result suggested that Again the evidence shows that strength of the relationship is the combination of competitive intensity and differentiation higher among large-scale restaurants (r = 0.738; p<1%) than strategy does not affect the outcomes of small scale for the small-scale counterparts (r = 0.547; p<1%). restaurants (β = -0.062, p > 0.10). The ∆R² of 0.009 also Meanwhile, ownership type, control and firm age were used indicates the prediction of the model is 0.9%. Meanwhile, no as controls in the analysis. Correlation analysis shows that all significant direct relationship was observed between the control variables have no significant relationship with competitive intensity and performance (β = 0.144, p > 0.10). performance. Differentiation strategy positively and significantly influences the performance of small-scale restaurants (β = 4.2 Model Estimation 0.418, p < 0.01). The effects of a differentiation strategy and competitive intensity on performance are compared between small-scale Large size restaurants restaurants and large-scale restaurants using regression Model 1 of the hierarchical linear regression results for large estimates of beta, standard error values. The model fitness is restaurants shows that none of the control variables have examined using Variance Inflator Factors (VIF) and R-square significant impact on the outcomes of large size restaurants; values. firm age (β = -0.009), type of ownership (β = -0.143) and control (β = 0.333).
30 Collins Kankam-Kwarteng, Barbara Osman & Stephen Acheampong
Table 4: Hierarchical linear regression results (large scale Omari et al. (2015) and Duran and Akci (2015). Indeed, it is restaurants) revealed in the further analysis that there is no significant difference in the impact of differentiation on the performance of both large-scale restaurants and small-scale restaurants. The result is interesting given the observation that differentiation activities were found to be higher among large-scale restaurants than among small-scale restaurants. Thus since the implementation of differentiation strategies have been found to be beneficial (Ruiz-Molina et al., 2014; Fotiadis, 2018), and as was expected the higher engagement in differentiation activities among large-scale restaurants leads to superior performance relative to small-scale restaurants. Furthermore, generally, it was shown that competitive In model 2, results showed that the only differentiation intensity results in a positive outcomes of restaurants; strategy has a positive impact on the performance of large- however, the weight of the effect is mixed. It has been argued scale restaurants (β = 0.755, p < 0.01). The model fit result by Amoako-Gyampah and Acquaah (2008) in other reports indicates R² = 0.581, and therefore explains 58.1% of the that the dynamic marketing settings of the business industry variations in the performance of the sampled large-scale in Ghana results in positive effect on the performances of restaurants. The change in R² result, however, shows that businesses in the country. This assertion is possible if the differentiation strategy accounted for 98.84% (0.551/0.581 difficulties in the environment stimulate a higher levels of *100) of the prediction of the model and contributed 55.1% studies and developments that results in the adoption of of the aggregate variation in performance of large-scale innovative practices in reaching customers through improved restaurants. In Model 3, competitive intensity have influence customer-focused strategies or technologies (Boehlje et al., on competitive intensity on the performance of large-scale 2011; Ma et al., 2017). Indeed, the comparative analysis restaurants (β = 0.288, p > 0.10). The change in R² results showed that the impact of competitive intensity on the indicated that competitive intensity accounted for only 5.99% performance of large-scale restaurants is more significant (0.037/0.618 *100) of the total predictive power of the model relative to small-scale restaurants. and contributed 3.7% of the aggregate variation in The results are also interesting, given the descriptive analysis performance of large-scale restaurants. Model 4, the effect of report, which indicated that the level of competitive intensity the interaction of competitive intensity and differentiation among large-scale restaurants was more significant than the strategy does not have positive influence on the performance small-scale restaurant's sector. The moderating of of large scale restaurants (β = -0.121, p > 0.10). competitive intensity was also found not to be significant in both large scale and small scale restaurant. Considering the 4.3 Hypothesis Testing plethora of studies on the significance of moderating role of The results of small scale and large scale are summarized to competition (Velu and Jacob, 2016; Tsai and Yang, 2013; present the study hypothesis. Controlling for firm age, type Banker and Mashruwala, 2007; Christou and Nella, 2016), of ownership and control, differentiation strategy had the study results, however, showed lack of support. The statistically significant effect on performance (large scale control variables were found not to have a significant restaurant, β = 0.477, p < 0.05) and (small scale restaurant, β influence on the performance of restaurants. Firm age, as was = 0.418, p < 0.01). The findings support hypothesis 1. found in the research showed a negative relationship with Hypothesis 2 states that there is significant positive performance, even though previous studies in the restaurant relationship between competitive intensity and restaurant industry have exhibited the importance of firm age. performance (large scale restaurant, β = 0.382, p < 0.10) and However, the findings of this studies corroborate literature (small scale restaurant, (β = 0.144, p > 0.10). The findings which showed that the performance of older firms could thus support hypothesis 2. Finally, the results showed that deteriorate with the age of the organization (Loderer and competitive intensity does not moderate the relationship Waelchli, 2009). The type of ownership has been found not between differentiation strategy and performance (large scale to positively and statistically influence the performance of restaurant, β = -0.121, p > 0.10) and small scale restaurant, β small scale and large scale restaurants. The lack of positive = -0.062, p > 0.10. The results do not support hypothesis 3. results in the relationship between ownership type and firm performance in the hospitality industry has been noted in existing studies (see; Agrawal et al., 2006; Welch, 2003; 5 FINDINGS Loderer & Martin, 1997; Han and Suk, 1998). The findings, The study looked into the operations of the restaurant therefore, add to continues debate in management research industry in Ghana with particular reference the nature of regarding the effect of firm-specific factors on performance. competitive intensity and the application of differentiation strategies. The study exhibited that implementation of 5.1 Implications for theory and practice coherent differentiation strategies affect the performance of The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of the restaurants in the study area. The result corroborates the differentiation activities of restaurants in Ghana on their findings of the empirical studies such as Campbell-Hunt performance. It also explored how competitive intensity (2000), Acquaah (2011), Acquaah and Agyapong (2015), leverages the influence of the differentiation strategies on PERFORMANCE OF RESTAURANTS: RECOGNIZING COMPETITIVE INTENSITY AND DIFFERENTIATION STRATEGIES 31 performance. The study employed a quantitative research Secondly, market characteristics are another factor that can design with the use of survey instruments administered to a affect the results of the research. Within this research, the convenient sample of 160 restaurants within the Kumasi data was collected within Ghana, primarily in Kumasi, which metropolis. The work was motivated by the fact that some may not be sufficient to generalise the findings to cover all researchers have investigated the strategic behaviour of restaurants in Ghana and other parts of the world. Future businesses in many industries and countries (Miller et al., studies can concentrate on building a model of the interaction 2011; Vijande et al., 2005), empirical research focusing on terms of differentiation strategies and competitive intensity Ghana is relatively limited. Even more limited is focused on to measure performance across the West Africa sub-region the strategic behaviour of restaurants in literature with for comparative research. particular reference to Strategic Balance Theory. The Thirdly, the study also faced methodological limitations. The interrelationship between the differentiation strategy and sample was based on the convenient technique in selecting competitive intensity has been well laid in this paper. the participants for the study. Considering the limitations of Theoretically, the study result assumes a position that willingness to participate in research which may lack restaurant researchers can reference on the balance between rigorous scientific processes (Feuer et al., 2002), it is differentiation strategy and competitive intensity in the suggested that future researchers apply stringent random continuous development of a body of knowledge in restaurant sampling techniques to select the restaurant operators to operations. achieve a high level of generalisation of the study results. It was realized that the size of the restaurant influences the extent to which it can be affected by competition in the industry. 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Donghee Shin Sungkyunkwan University, Korea Hyeun-Dae Shin Sungkyunkwan University, Korea
Abstract: Purpose: Several universities in different countries are using their college ranking as a marketing and branding tool. Main scope of this paper is to investigate the interrelation between college rankings in Korea and how they affect university service marketing and reputation. Methods: Forty-six universities are examined through a non-parametric technique, by comparing three different Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) models regarding their adeptness to their Research and Development Business Foundation; parametric methods used to measure efficiencies in the public or private sectors are Ratio Analysis, Productivity Index Approach and Functional Approach. Results: The results delineate that the three model have different results since CCR and BCC models have better efficiency scores compared to SBM. Furthermore, public universities with local character seems to have better decision-making units leading to better branding. Implications: Decision makers can enhance policies by improving the effectiveness and antagonism of Research and Development Business Foundations, to improve university's reputation and attract more and better students. In spite of some valid considerations regarding the ranking of educational institutions in the world, ARWU (Academic Ranking of World Universities) is still a useful indicator for universities who wish to grow further, and will remain as a good guideline.
Keywords: university branding, university ranking, World Universities Ranking System, Korea, DEA
JEL Classification: A2, MOO, M3
Biographical note: Professor Don Shin ([email protected]) has taught at various universities in the USA and Korea, including Penn State University and Sungkyunkwan University. He also was founding Chair of the Department of Interaction Science, an interdisciplinary research initiative sponsored by the Korean Ministry of Education and Samsung Foundation. As a Head and Director of Interaction Science Research Center, he also served as a Principal Investigator of BK21 Plus, a national research project hosted by the Ministry of Education in Korea. He received is master and PhD degrees from Syracuse University, USA. Hyeun-Dae Shin ([email protected]) is a Human Resource Manager at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Korea. Mr. Shin has received his Ph.D. degree in Public Administration from Sungkyunkwan University, Korea. Corresponding author: Don Shin ([email protected]).
cooperative relationship with foreign universities, and/or 1 INTRODUCTION intensifying global research efforts (Perchinunno & Cazzolle, 2020). Restructuring efforts of educational institutions in the One of the contemporary issues universities are seeking to stream of globalization are in some way represented by the deal with, is intensive marketing programs with dual ‘Rankings of World Universities’ provided by several interrelation, initially to improve university's reputation and institutions in the world. This system stimulates world attract more student and then affect progressively their universities to react upon these indicators somehow by ranking (Bunzel, 2007). As Valitof (2014) indicates that by establishing dedicated assessment teams or institutions. branding universities a competitive advance can be achieved, The types of universities ratings are broadly classified into and a better marketing share will be attainted as it is easier to ‘Accreditation’ and ‘Ranking.’ ‘Accreditation’ is an sustain a loyal audience with great benefits for the university. assessment of the quality of an educational institution, Changes in national policies due to the decrease in school achieved by examining educational or research conditions (or aged population has caused structural innovation in institutes competence), or the overall performances of institutions of higher educational, where universities are expanding their (Rybinski, 2020). Accreditation is normally employed to educational systems to participate in global higher education select institutions to provide financial support, or to identify by inviting foreign students, dispatching students or teaching inadequate universities (Fu & Kapiki, 2016; Andreani et al., staff to educational institutions abroad, establishing 2020). ‘Ranking’ typically reveals the relative ratings of C Copyrigh t © 200 © 2020 Authors. Published by International Hellenic University Some rights reserved. ISSN: 2529-1947. UDC: 658.8+338.48+339.1+640(05) Except otherwise noted, this work is licensed under http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4059978 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0 Published online: 30 October 2020 www.jthsm.grpyright © 200 36 Don Shin & Hyeun-Dae Shin subject universities, where weighted points are assigned to Drill et al., 2005; Altbach, 2006; Taylor, 2008; Kim Hoon- individual indicators, which contribute to the aggregated total Ho et al., 2010; Nam Soo-Kyeong et al., 2012; Tsagaris et al., scores (ratings) by which the relative orders of assessment are 2018; Gedviliene, 2020). created. The quantitative ratings obtained through objective Institutions reported that those who report world university statistical data, peer reviews, or questionnaires from the rankings seem to have tried to improve the methods in their people in charge of corporate human resources are typically rating systems, but a universal standard applicable for the employed to assess the relative ratings, as in the case of rating of diverse global universities would not be easy to current world university ranking systems. establish with the difficulties in securing normalized data or The origin of university ranking was the ‘Ranking of information. Therefore, this study was designed to Universities in America’ presented by the US News & World understand the problems in the original world university Report in 1983. Since then, several reports of domestic rating system, the ARWU, through empirical examination of university rankings have been reported. The ‘University the related issues and factors to determine appropriate League Tables’ of the ‘Guardian’ in England and the improvements. The DEA/AP model enabled assessment of ‘Maclean’s University Rankings’ in Canada, or the the relative efficiencies in each DMU to suggest its validity ‘Domestic Universities Ranking in Korea’ from JoongAng as an alternative to obtain global universities rankings. Daily in Korea are examples of such reports. The Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) from the Center for World-Class Universities of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND the World University Ranking from Quacquarelli Symonds (QS), the Times Higher Education (THES) of ‘the Times’ in 2.1. Academic Ranking of World Universities England, and the Webometrics from Spain also reported the Currently, the ranking of global universities is determined by ranking of world universities, together with HEEACT comparing ratings about the comprehensive capabilities of (Higher Education Evaluation & Accreditation Council of universities, obtained from indicators of individual rating Taiwan) and Leiden University in the Netherlands. However, methodology which are prepared and publicized by several such reports have simply provided relative rankings of institutions. There are about 20,000 universities in the world universities, and lack effective information for universities to today, and about 15,000 of them have been rated by gain an understanding of their relative deficiencies (Nair & Webometries in Spain. Most institutions reporting the George, 2016). On the other hand, ‘Accreditations’ focused rankings of world universities have used a scale from 100 to on multi-dimensional ratings enables the provision of bench- 1000 educational institutions. marking information or SWAT analysis of institutions. Categories for the ranking of educational institutions can be Several scholars have raised questions on such university classified into competitiveness, academic capability, and rankings, proposing that they lack sufficient information for others (Christou & Chatzigeorgiou, 2019). Depending upon individual institutions to achieve further improvement. They the range of subject universities, they can also be classified also stated the problems, along with the appropriateness of into domestic, regional, or global rankings (Lee, Yeong-Hak, such rankings, as they have been prepared with different 2007). objectives and/or methods in selecting indicators and The representative university rankings rating the global assigning the weighted scores. competitiveness of universities are the ‘ARWU’ adopted in The ‘Seoul National University Faculty Council’ once this study, the ‘World University Rankings’ from QS expressed an opinion on the world rankings from among two (England), and ‘The World University Ranking’ prepared by of the institutions above, stating that “…the rankings from the collaboration of THES and Thomson Reuters (England). Shanghai Jiao Tong University weighed too much upon past The ‘ARWU’, generated by the Center for World-Class reputation (= the awards of Nobel prizes) of educational Universities of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, is a raking institutions, and gave relatively higher ratings to science and based on representative quantitative research capability. In engineering departments with unreasonable approaches in contrast, the World University Rankings of QS and The considering the scale of institutions…”. Regarding the ratings World University Ranking of THES & Thomson Reuters are from ‘the Times’, the council also commented that “…they hybrid multi-dimensional ratings, which employ both replaced the results from relative ratings upon reputation of quantitative & qualitative analyses of indicators representing universities…; … and lacked the proven objectivity of rating education, R&D, and globalization. upon groups of specialists and scholars in various specialized The ARWU was originally prepared for the internal purpose disciplines over the world…” (The Professors Times; of comparing the research competence of Chinese 2005).Various other concerns have also been raised, universities with global universities. It is generated using 6 including the following: that ‘…the world university ranking indicators in the following 4 fields: quality of education, systems have been designed to be advantageous to quality of faculty, research performance, and scale of universities placed in certain countries such as America or (educational) institution. Japan, and to be disadvantageous to non-English spoken QS reported the rankings of universities from 2004 to 2009 countries…’; that ‘…the systems attached relatively high in collaboration with THES, and several reports have been weights to research oriented institutions and alienated small prepared since 2010. Originally, QS introduced the report as scaled or education oriented specialized institutions…’; or a means to provide information on higher education and that ‘…the system had problems securing the validity of their globalization of educational institutions to students of higher selected core indicators and the appropriateness of weights, education around the world. QS employed 4 competence along with wide fluctuation in rankings…’ (Christou, 2002; factors to generate the rankings: research (60%), alumni DEMYSTIFYING COLLEGE RANKINGS: A COMPETITIVE MARKET ORIENTED TO CONSUMERS OF HIGHER EDUCATION 37 (10%), globalization (10%), and education (20%). Funds from Industries’ in the THES system. The highest Information collected from the people in charge of corporate weight of 62.5% was assigned to the ‘Research’ field, which human resources has relatively higher weight in this rating consisted of indicators such as research reputation, number system. Research performance of a university is rated by the of papers published internationally, amount of research number of citations of the papers per professor and funds, and number of citations per published paper. Among assessments of academic specialists, while the level of indicators, the number of citations per published paper globalization is rated by the ratio of domestic & foreign occupied a significant weight at 32.5%. professors and students. The number of students per For the THES assessment of the field of ‘Education’, professor and/or other detailed indicators are employed to indicators such as the number of teaching staff with a rate the educational conditions. doctorate, the number of students enrolled in undergraduate The primary standard scores calculated from the natural school, and the research funds are included. The ratio of logarithm of the collected points are converted into foreign teaching staff and foreign students are indicators percentiles on normal distribution to get ratings for the included in the field of ‘Globalization’. The indicator ranking. THES has provided analysis and information on representing the research funds per teaching staff is included global higher education since 1971, and has provided the in the field of ‘Research Funds from Industries’. To obtain world universities rankings together with QS since 2004. points for the rating, the percentiles are calculated based on Since 2010, the separate university rankings have been normal distribution derived from Z-scores (Yeom Dong-Gi et provided in collaboration with Thomson & Reuters. For al., 2013). The ranking systems of QS, THES and other quantitative rating, THES added ‘Research Funds’ to the institutions including ARWU are summarized and compared existing indicator, the number of papers published in in Table 1. international journals. For qualitative assessment of research, indicators such as ‘Peer Reviews’ and ‘Citation of Papers’ 2.2. Academic Ranking of World Universities (Shanghai were combined together. THES provides consulting services Jiao Tong University List) regarding the various indicators to rate overall aspects of The ARWU (Academic Ranking of World Universities) has education and research in universities, and receives opinions been publicized every year since 2003.The report is prepared from universities to help create an unbiased and integrated independently by Shanghai Ranking Consultancy in the rating of world universities. Center for World-Class Universities of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, without external aid of financial backing. The Table 1: Major institutions issuing the Global Academic Center for World-Class Universities (CWCU) initially Ranking of World Universities started this work to determine the global standing of the top Chinese universities. Though they have made some minor adjustments in the composition and rating method of indicators included in the rating of Academic Rankings, the initial idea to assess the competitiveness in academic research has remained unchanged. Data from each university for the ARWU rating are not used directly, but instead, indirectly acquired data related to SCI(E) or SSCI from the Web of Science, along with those from external institutions such as for Nobel Prize or Fields Medal Prizes are used for the rating of rankings of each university. Data related with SCI(E) or SSCI are pre-analyzed to assign ratings in accordance with the results, and are validated thereafter for causes of error to be corrected for in next year's ratings by the post assessment system in CWCU (Center for World-Class Universities). The ARWU is mainly generated from 6-indicators in 4 fields, consisting of ‘Quality of Education (10%)’, ‘Quality of Faculty (40%)’, ‘Research Output (40%)’, and ‘Per Capita Performance (10%)’. The total number of the alumni of an institution who were awarded the Nobel Prizes or Fields Medal Prize are included as indicators to rate the ‘Quality of Education’. Alumni are defined as those who obtained Bachelor’s, Master's or Doctoral degrees from the institution. The amount of highly cited scholars is added to the quantity of alumni awarded Nobel Prizes or Fields Medal Prize for assessment of the ‘Quality of Faculty’, and research outputs are determined by how many research papers were published in journals such as ‘Nature’ and ‘Science’, along with those listed in SCI & SSCI. ‘Per Capita Performance’ indicates the sum of the scores of the 5 weighted indicators divided by the The fields used to rate universities were classified into number of teaching staff. In the case that the number of ‘Research’, ‘Education’, ‘Globalization’, and ‘Research teaching staff in an institution is unknown, it indicates only 38 Don Shin & Hyeun-Dae Shin the scores of the 5 indicators. To provide the ranking, the by the number of permanent academic employees to calculate institution earning the highest score will get 100 points, and the PCP. If the total of permanent personel in each institution the comparative percentage points are assigned to the rest of cannot be found, then the weighted totals of the five the institutions based on the summed points obtained from indicators are used. Indicators and corresponding weights the multiplication of each weight. used by ARWU are summarized in Table 2. In the Academic Rankings listed since 2007, the global top 100 institutions were selected by ratings in the following 2.3. Approaches to the rating of efficiency fields: Natural Science; Mathematics; Mechanical, The methods employing the parametric technique to measure Technical, and Computer Science; Life & Agricultural efficiencies in the public or private sectors are Ratio Science; Clinical Medicine & Pharmacology; and Social Analysis, Productivity Index Approach and Functional Science. Approach, while Data Envelopment Analysis employs the The number of ‘Alumni’ who obtained Bachelor’s, Master's non-parametric technique (Kim, Jae-Hong et al., 2001). or Doctoral degrees from each institution are included as indicators to rate the ARWU; a weight of 100% is assigned Ratio analysis to alumni obtaining such degrees from 2001-2010, a weight Ratio analysis is basically performed to observe the ratio of of 90% for those who obtained such degrees from 1991-2000, two variables contained in financial statements of companies 80% for the years 1981-1990, and so on, down to 10% for the which were collected in each (fiscal) year, without any years 1911-1920. The number of alumni who obtained intended modification for the purpose of measuring multiple degrees in each institution was counted only as 1. efficiency. The line items in financial statement are compared Number of winners of the Nobel Prizes in Physics, with each other to produce corresponding financial ratios, Chemistry, Medicine, and Economics, and those of Fields which are employed to assess financial status or operational Medal Prize in Mathematics are included as indicators for the performance of each company compared to the absolute or rating of ARWU. Similar to alumni mentioned above, a average industrial standard ratios. Ratio analysis is widely weight of 100% is assigned to staff awarded such prizes since used to evaluate various aspects of operating or financial 2011, 90% for those from 2001-2010, 80% for thosefrom performance of companies, such as profitability, liquidity, 1991-2000, and so on, down to 10% for those from 1921- stability and/or growth, etc. 1930. Productivity Index Approach Table 2: Indicators and Weights Configuring the ARWU The Productivity Index Approach uses the productivity
Indicators Descriptions Field Weight indices obtained from the value of output products divided by the input costs incurred by labor, capital, raw materials, Alumni and/or other expenses to measure efficiency. This method has Number of alumni awarded the Nobel or Awards of Nobel and Alumni 10% the advantage of easy calculation, which enables mutual Fields Medal Prizes comparison of productivities of each input. However, it is not Fields Medal Prize possible to calculate the economic effects of scale of Professors / Faculty economy or individual sectors with this method, as it would Number of members of faculty awarded Awards of Nobel and Award 20% be difficult to measure pure productivity of price effects the Nobel or Fields Medal Prizes among the aggregation of inputs and outputs converted into Fields Medal Prize monetary units. In addition, it would also be difficult to Researchers of Number of highly cited researchers in 21 identify exact inefficient sectors to suggest practical HiCi 20% Highly Cited Indices academic disciplines operational improvements using this method.
Publications in How many academic contributions were Functional approach N&S 20% Nature and Science published in Nature and Science The functional approach assumes the function of the parameters of cost and/or output to exploit statistical methods How many academic contributions were SCIE, SSCI PUB 20% such as regression analysis. In regression analysis, the listed in SCI(E) & SSCI functional relation regularly observed between two
Per Capita parameters is examined. The regression model assumes a Institute per capita scientific performance PCP 10% linear relationship between the independent and dependent Performance variables to describe or predict aspects of the dependent
variable. ‘HiCi’ is an indicator to rate the number of researchers whose papers in 21 academic disciplines were highly cited. ‘N&S’ Data Envelopment Analysis implies the number of papers published in the journals Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) is a non-parametric ‘Science’ and ‘Nature’ in 2008-2012. If an authors is the first statistical method employing the modified shortcomings of author of the paper he is weighted 50%, then 25% is assigned efficiency evaluation for profit-making institutions. This is for the following author, and 10% for the last author. Another the linear programming method which was introduced by index is ‘PUB’ which included the total amount of Charnes, Cooper, and Rhodes (1978:429-444) in the late manuscripts are included in Science Citation Index- 1970s. They interpreted the concept of efficiency of Ferrel Expanded and Social Science Citation Index. The weighted (1957:253-281), who divided subject groups into efficient scores of Alumni, Awards, HiCi, N&S and PUB are divided and inefficient ones in new ways, and expanded the DEMYSTIFYING COLLEGE RANKINGS: A COMPETITIVE MARKET ORIENTED TO CONSUMERS OF HIGHER EDUCATION 39 methodology to the ratio model of multi-inputs and multi- dropouts, etc., as the educational output variables, while outputs. The concept of efficiency presented by Ferrell was applying the rankings in research fields in other institutions the value obtained from the sum of weighted output values as the variables of research output. Finally, Marginson divided by the sum of weighted input values, which enabled (2007), Kim et al. (2010), and Lee (2011) conducted studies the measurement of respective efficiency to be represented applying comparative analyses on the issues and efficiency by the distance from the efficient set. of the academic ranking of world universities. The ratio concept of such single input versus single output The procedures, indicators, and subjects for the rating and was modified and expanded to handle multiple inputs and ranking were mostly analyzed comparatively, and were outputs by Charnes, Cooper, and Rhodes. This new model discussed to extract improvement to the methods for rating was named CCR, following their initials, and the method was and ranking. Marginson (2007) compared the ARWU and the named Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA). Later, the new THES method to examine the issues and political BCC model was developed by Banker, Charnes, and Cooper implications in the ranking of world universities. They found (1984) to compensate for the shortcomings of the CCR the two ranking systems did not consider given conditions, model, which could not distinguish the efficiency of scale and characteristics, and the scales of institutions. They also pure technologies under the assumption of invariant scale pointed two essential deficiencies: neglect of the revenue in each DMU. DEA reveals the relative efficiencies, characterized institutions in the small scale, and that the where 100% efficiency is achieved when there are no systems were configured to be advantageous to universities grounds of inefficiency in the input and output of the placed in English spoken regions. Studies conducted by Kim respective DMU. The value of the efficiency rating (E) et al. (2010) and Lee (2011) obtained similar results, where employed to assess organizations would be 1 if the Kim (2010) conducted a comparative analysis between corresponding DMU was as efficient as the model DMU, THES and QS, while Lee (2011) carried out the comparative while values less than 1represent the inefficiencies of other analyses between ARWU and the other systems of academic DUMs. ranking of universities from QS, THES, and the Chosun Basically, the classical CCR and BCC models in DEA both Daily and Joongang Daily in Korea. However, studies have a critical problem in that they are unable to discriminate performing comparative analyses of the rankings between between the differences in efficiencies among efficient continents and/or countries, between the scales of each DMUs having efficiency rating values of 1. To compensate institution, and upon changes in rankings are rare. Cases for this problem, the AP model (also called the Super-CCR applying the newly suggested ranking methods were also not model) was introduced by Andersen and Petersen (1989) found. Thus, approaches to assess the effectiveness of the (Eom, Jun-Yong, 2011:36). When too many observations current ARWU methods and to provide solutions to the have the same efficiency rating value of 1, the relative potential problems of the current methods by applying other dominance among such observation points should be analytical methods are required. clarified. The super-efficiency model was introduced to solve such problems. This model derives the super-efficiency measurements by excluding subject DMUs as being efficient, 3 DESIGN OF THE STUDY and calculating the distances between the subject DMUs and the production frontiers newly created by using the rest of the 3.1. Subjects and Variables in the Study DMUs. Therefore, the efficiency measurements calculated by The purpose of this study was to find the potential problems the AP model would be the same as the inefficiency in ARWU, and to present corresponding corrective schemes measurements calculated by the CCR model, causing the by comparing, analyzing, and applying the relative efficiency measurements of DMUs having efficiency rating efficiency, as summarized in Table 3. Therefore, correlations values of 1 to be different from each other (Lee, Jeong-Dong, between the ratings resulting from ARWU were examined in 2010). three ways. The correlation between the 6 applied indicators and the total ranking of universities up to the top 500 by 2.4. Review of prior studies region and country over the past 3 years were examined, then Ahn et al. (1990), Ahn & Seiford (1993), Cyrii & Green the relationship between the results from ARWU and the (1988), and Johneset al. (1996) studied the application of DEA/AP model, along with PCP, were reviewed through DEA on the ratings from institutions which rated academic cross-sectional analysis. Finally, relative efficiency institutions. Ahn et al. (1990) employed the number of under- assessment was applied to the ‘Per Capita Performance’ of graduate students and credits as educational outputs; each global university to make comparative analysis of the employed the number of graduate school students as the rankings from ARWU, which quantified the ratings of PCP common output of education and research; and put the of the universities and rankings measured from the AP model. supportive funds of research as the research output. Ahn and The relative efficiency assessment method was applied to Seiford (1993) employed the method applying the numbers ‘Per Capita Performance’ of each university to compensate of under-graduate and graduate school students as input and for the limitations of ARWU, which could not support a output variables using 2-stage analysis. Cyrii and Green correct decision making policy or provide concrete (1988) applied the number of professors, number of staff information due to the result-oriented approach. The top 100 members, and the labor cost as input variables, and the universities from ARWU 2013 were selected to compare the number of undergraduate and graduate school students, relative efficiencies with results of ratings by calculating the research funds, number of papers, and the number of books ‘PCP’. Among them, a total of 48 universities, excluding authored as output variables. Johnes (1996) adopted the rate those which had missing data or outliers, were finally of employment, the rate of earned degrees, and the rate of 40 Don Shin & Hyeun-Dae Shin selected for the analysis of relative efficiency. To conduct the posted on the websites of each university. The output Data Envelopment Analysis, the i) number of teaching staff, variables were adopted from ARWU 2013, issued by the ii) number of graduate school students, and iii) operational Center for World-Class Universities of Shanghai Jiao Tong expenditures were selected as input variables. University.
Table 3: Subjects for comparative analysis of ARWU 3.2. Methods of analyses Pearson’s correlation analysis was employed to conduct comparative analysis of the results of ratings of ARWU over the past 3 years. The Minitab and SPSS 13.0 packages were used for processing of the statistical data. The differences in data of the 43 countries which had enrolled their universities in the top 500 of ARWU for the past 3 years were examined through content analysis. To rate relative efficiency, the DEA/AP model, which applied the sums of input and output variables, was employed to calculate the rankings of efficiency units through the derived values of the relative efficiency and super-efficiency of subject universities. The ‘Banxia Software Frontier Analyst 4.0’ and ‘EnPAS’ (= the applications to calculate efficiency and productivity) programs were employed to carry out the DEA analysis.
4 EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS
4.1. Empirical analysis of the rating system for ARWU
Comparative analysis by region The top 500 universities in ARWU are summarized in Table
5, by global region. According to ARWU 2013, the top 20 The indicators in ARWU were selected as the output universities included 17 universities in the USA, and 3 in variables [ i) Alumni, ii) Awards, iii) HiCi, iv) N&S, v) PUB, Europe. Considering the top 100, 56 were in the U.S., and 33 and vi) PCP ].. Since the DEA could only be enabled by the universities were in Europe (Table 5). This includes both application of the sum of values of identical variables in input North and South America. If you want to focus on the USA, and output, the values of the variables from ARWU were I suggest editing the numbers instead – I would say most borrowed. Along with the rating of relative efficiency of people in South America are not native English speakers. ‘PCP’ in each university through the DEA, the values of super-efficiency were calculated with the AP model to Table 5: Number of universities in the Top 500 by region compare the values with ratings of ‘PCP’ in ARWU. (unit: year, count) The input and output variables selected to rate relative efficiencies are described in Table 4 for calculation of the value of super-efficiency, and the calculated values were compared with the rankings of total points in ARWU.
Table 4: Indicators used for ranking of super-efficiency generated by AP model for rating of ARWU
Input variables were obtained from annual reports or Looking wider into the top 200, 95 universities were in the financial reports for the year 2012, along with information Americas, and 75 were in Europe. This trend continued with DEMYSTIFYING COLLEGE RANKINGS: A COMPETITIVE MARKET ORIENTED TO CONSUMERS OF HIGHER EDUCATION 41 127& 116 for the top 300; 156 & 164 for the top 400; and 182 National University in Korea, while universities from 36 & 200 for the top 500. The occupancy of universities from countries were included in the top 400. the Americas and Europe was 76 ~ 100%. For the region of Asia & Oceania, only Tokyo University was included in the Table 7: Correlation between ARWU and indicators top 20 of ARWU over the past three years. In the top 100, only 11% were in Asia & Oceania,with 15% for the top 200 & top 300, 20% for the top 400, and 23% for the top 500.This was only a half or one third of the universities in the USA and Europe. For Africa, Witwatersrand University was the only one included in the top 300, with 2 universities included in the top 400, and 5 in the top 500, demonstrating a comparatively inferior educational environment.
Table 6: Number of Top 500 universities in each country (unit: year, count)
Results of the analysis of correlation between the indicators and ARWU from 2011 to 2013 are illustrated in Table 7. N&S appeared to be the most influential indicator in ARWU. The high relevance of the number of published papers in the journals ‘Science’ and ‘Nature’ suggested that active efforts for the publication of papers to such journals would improve the ranking. The order of the correlation between rankings and indicators for the past 3 years appeared as follows: N&S>HiCi>Awards >Alumni>PCP>PUB. ‘PUB’, allotted 20% of the weight, implies the number of published papers listed in SCI(E) and SSCI; however, it revealed the lowest correlation with the ranking, despite its relatively high weight, which suggests that the difference between the number of published papers listed in SCI(E) and SSCI for each university is likely ignorable. The ‘Awards’ category represented the number of alumni awarded the Nobel or Fields Medal prizes. This was expected to have a relatively high influence upon the ranking, but appeared to have a relatively low correlation with the ranking. However, analysis of the top 100 universities revealed that only two of those ranked in the top 100,namely California Davis (top 40) and Texas A&M (top 90),did not have alumni awarded the prizes, which probably suggests that this condition was essential for universities to be included in the top 100 in the ARWU ranking.
4.2. Analysis of relative efficiency
Descriptive statistics Descriptive statistics of the 48 universities analyzed for efficiency were obtained from measurements using indicators such as the number of teaching staff, the number of graduate school students, and the operational expenditures of universities. These statistics, connected to the output measurements of the top 100 universities in ARWU 2013, were summarized in Table 8. For the 48 universities, the number of teaching staff The 43 countries with universities listed in the top 500 of ranged from a minimum of 300 to a maximum of 5,048, while ARWU are summarized in Table 6. For the top 20,excluding the number of graduate students ranged from a minimum of the universities in USA and the UK, 1 university in Japan and 1,179 to a maximum of 16,516. The operational expenditures 1 in Switzerland were listed. The universities from 16 ranged from a minimum of 535 million USD in the countries appeared in the top 100,including the US, the UK, University of California in Santa Barbara, to a maximum of Switzerland, Belgium, Norway, Finland, Russia etc. The top 7,842 million USD in the University of Copenhagen. Among 200 contains universities of 25 countries, including Seoul the output variables, the indicators of Alumni and Awards recorded the lowest averages and medians, which revealed 42 Don Shin & Hyeun-Dae Shin the relative phenomena of ‘the rich get richer and the poor get Table 9: Comparison of ARWU and super-efficiency poorer’. Standard deviation of the ‘PUB’ (=number of papers rankings generated by AP model published and listed in SCI or SSCI) marked the smallest value of 10.93, but the average had the largest value at 59.21, which demonstrated that the number of published papers from the top 100 universities was generally high.
Table 8: Descriptive statistics of input & output variables (unit: people, 1000 USD, published papers)
4.2. Results of comparison between AP efficiencies and ratings for Academic Ranking of World Universities
Relative efficiencies obtained from the super-efficiency AP model, which ranked the efficiency of DMUs in the DEA, are summarized in Table 9. Five universities among the 48 subject universities received 100% efficiency, while the remaining 43 appeared to be relatively inefficient DMUs. Among the inefficient DMUs, 18 demonstrated efficiency ranging from 20% to 50%, while 19 demonstrated efficiency ranging from 50% to 80%.Only 6 DMUs demonstrated efficiency ranging from 80% to 100%. The most efficient university was Caltech, for which the super-efficiency was 446.87%. Next was the Karolinska Institute with a value of 177%,followed by UC Santa 4.3. Potential values of elements in inefficient universities Barbara, Princeton, and Berkeley in that order. However, the Karolinska Institute and UC Santa Barbara were only The purpose of measuring the relative efficiencies was to assigned ranks of 44 and 35 by ARWU, which is contrary to provide effective input to universities for decision making, the result indicated by application of the AP model which by identifying the level of resource inputs and corresponding yielded the higher ranks of 2 and 3.Correlation between the outputs, thus the slack values (Target-Actual/Actual×100) in ranks in ARWU and DEA/AP appeared to be very low the DEA model were identified and summarized extensively (Pearson’s correlation coefficient = 0.258). However, the in Table 10. correlation coefficient between the ranks generated from the By reviewing the slack variables in representatively DEA/AP model and PCP (Per Capita Performance) was inefficient universities, it appeared that the University of 0.571, where the correlation of over 50% suggested that the Copenhagen, number 42 on the list, should reduce the DEA/AP model could be applied to the rating of relative number of teaching staff and operational expenditures by efficiency of each DMU (University). 79.4%. In this case, the output made from the input of the faculty, consisting of over 2,441 teaching staff, and the operational expenditures of over 7,800 million USD was too small. In the case of Johns Hopkins University, presented as number 17, the model also suggested that the university should reduce the number of graduate students by 80.9%, DEMYSTIFYING COLLEGE RANKINGS: A COMPETITIVE MARKET ORIENTED TO CONSUMERS OF HIGHER EDUCATION 43 because the research productivity resulting from their 16,516 4 CONCLUSIONS graduate students was too insignificant. As another example, the output of ‘Alumni’ for the University of California San Changes in the national policy of education in each country Francisco, number 18 on the list, resulted from the fact that have also resulted in changes in the paradigm of the market no alumni were awarded the Nobel or the Fields Medal of higher education, creating a competitive market oriented prizes. This was similar in the case of number 61, in which to consumers of higher education. With the trend of the output of ‘Awards’ for the University of Pittsburgh also globalization, the academic ranking of the world universities resulted from the fact that none of the teaching staff were also has a great influence on the policies of higher education awarded the Nobel or the Fields Medal prizes. in each country. In this study, the ARWU, originating from Shanghai Jiao Tong University, was empirically examined to Table 10: Potential indicator values (slack values) of find potential problems in the rating system for the rankings inefficient universities of educational institutions, and to provide corresponding approaches to compensate for the identified problems. The ARWU results for the past 3 years (2011~2013) and related ratings were examined by region and by country to identify correlations between the rankings and the corresponding indicators. Further, the DEA/AP model, which analyzes super-efficiency, was applied to measure the relative efficiency of each DMU, and to compile a list of rankings for comparative analyses between universities. The results of the study were summarized as follows: • In the Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU), the top 20 universities in the past 3 years all belonged to Europe (mostly the UK) and the United States of America, except for the inclusion of Tokyo University in Japan in the year 2012.In addition, over 80% of the top 100 ~ top 500 universities were occupied those in America and Europe. Universities in the rest of the world (Asia/Oceania/Africa) occupied only around 20%. • Forty-three countries were among the top 500 in ARWU,while only 16 had universities belonging to the top 100. Twenty-five countries had universities included in the top 200, while it was 30 and 36 countries had universities in the top 300 and top 400, respectively. • Correlation between ARWU and the corresponding indicators was examined, and ‘N&S’ appeared to be the most influential for determining the rankings of universities. That is, the relative dominance in the number of papers published in the journals ‘Science’ and ‘Nature’ showed a high relevance with the higher rankings of the universities, where the interrelationship between rankings over the past 3 years and the indicators appeared in the following order: N&S>HiCi>Awards>Alumni>PCP>PUB. The indicator ‘PUB’ (number of papers published and listed in SCI and SSCI) showed the smallest standard deviation of 10.93 with the highest average value of In the case of number 54, the University of Melbourne, the 59.21, which suggested that the range of variation in output of ‘HiCi’, which implies the number of highly cited rankings between universities due to this indicator was researchers, should be raised by 183.9% from the current insignificant. The ‘Awards’ category, which was the point of 46.5.Similarly, number 49, Vanderbilt University, indicator representing the number of alumni should raise the output of ‘N&S’, which implies the number (professors) awarded the Nobel or the Fields Medal of papers published in the journals Science and Nature, prizes, seemed to be relatively influential upon the should be raised by more than 167.2% from the current point ranking of universities, but appeared to have a lower of 26. Finally, regarding the output of ‘PUB’, which implies correlation with the ranking. the number of papers published and listed in SCI (E) or SSCI, • Results of the analysis of the top 100 universities the model indicated that number 2, Stanford University, showed that only two universities ranked in the top 100 should increase the production of published papers by 16.1% were without alumni (or professors) awarded the Nobel above the current level. or the Fields Medal prizes. These included California Davis (top 40) and Texas A&M (top 90).Thus, it was 44 Don Shin & Hyeun-Dae Shin
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SUBMITTED: DEC 2019 REVISION SUBMITTED: MAR 2020 2nd REVISION SUBMITTED: MAY 2020 ACCEPTED: JUN 2020 REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY
PUBLISHED ONLINE: 30 OCT 2020 Journal of Tourism, Heritage & Services Marketing, Vol. 6, No. 3, 2020, pp. 46-53 46 The cultural impact of navigation design in global e-commerce
Peter Broeder Tilburg University, The Netherlands Anna Gkogka Tilburg University, The Netherlands
Abstract: Purpose: The present paper investigates the effect of the navigation design (static or dynamic) in e-commerce. Specifically, a comparison is made of consumers from two cultures: the Dutch and the Greek. Methods: A total of 221 Dutch and Greek subjects participated in an experimental survey, where they judged an online search page of a hotel booking website. The study had a 2x2 between-subjects design with the factors navigation design (dynamic or static) and cultural background (Dutch or Greek). The primary dependent variable was the behavioural intention to use (the website). The hedonic and utilitarian attitudes were the mediators. Results: The analysis of the results showed that the navigation design preferences are culturally affected and influence the consumers’ attitudes and behavioural intentions. The static navigation design was perceived as less useful, compared to the dynamic navigation design. For the Dutch group the dynamic navigation was more persuasive than the static one, whereas for the Greek group no significant difference was found. Implications: As a future recommendation, localising the websites’ content should be considered in global e- commerce, especially when it comes to the hospitality and hotel industry, in order to avoid unintended effects that a specific navigation design may have on the targeted audiences.
Keywords: e-commerce, navigation design, cultural differences, consumer behaviour
JEL Classification: M31, M37
Biographical note: Peter Broeder ([email protected]) is assistant professor at Tilburg School of Humanities and Digital Sciences, Department Communication and Cognition, Tilburg University, the Netherlands. He specialises at investigating intercultural aspects of online marketing communications and consumer behaviour with particular focus in in Europe and Asia. Anna Gkogka ([email protected]) is a postgraduate researcher at Department Communication and Cognition, Tilburg University, the Netherlands. She is working in the field of marketing and communication in both digital and traditional media, specialising in the B2C environment. Corresponding author: Peter Broeder ([email protected]).
last years. Due to an abundance of online resources in the 1 INTRODUCTION hospitality industry, many consumers prefer to book hotel rooms online, rather than using traditional means such as The globalisation of e-commerce has brought along travel agencies. Even so, not all consumers are comfortable implications for online marketers and website designers. using the internet to book hotel rooms, since the online They need to consider whether the standardisation of environment may sometimes cause uncertainty due to (international) marketing communications is appropriate. cultural differentiation. This study is an expansion on earlier After all, cultural adaptation to the “local” preferences of the studies on visual e-commerce in which other cultural consumer can enhance the persuasive effectiveness of the differentiations of website design persuasivity are examined: message. The optimisation of the web design contributes to a exclusivity (Broeder & Derksen, 2018), colour (Broeder & positive user experience on the website. Specifically, the ease Snijder, 2019; Broeder & Wildeman, 2020), and privacy of navigation and searching for (product) information will notice (Broeder, 2020). enhance the website’s usability, and subsequently, users’ The next section goes into the specifics of website navigation experience and satisfaction. Finally, the consumer will take design. Structural and functional navigation distinctions are the desired action in a web store. described through and related to behavioural intentions. The aim of this study is to explore website navigation design Next, the role of hedonic and utilitarian attitudes is specified. with a focus on cultural preferences of European online Finally, an updated inventory is presented, to show how consumers. To this end, a comparison is made between culturally specific navigation markers are related to the consumers from Greece and the Netherlands. The focus of cultural dimension theory of Hofstede (2020). This provides this paper will be on e-commerce, specifically on online hotel the basis for four working hypotheses. Then, the Method and bookings, which are tremendously increasing throughout the the specific hotel booking site used for the experimental C Copyrigh t © 200 © 2020 Authors. Published by International Hellenic University Some rights reserved. ISSN: 2529-1947. UDC: 658.8+338.48+339.1+640(05) Except otherwise noted, this work is licensed under http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4064008 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0 Published online: 30 October 2020 www.jthsm.grpyright © 200 THE CULTURAL IMPACT OF NAVIGATION DESIGN IN GLOBAL E-COMMERCE 47 survey are described. The results are presented in a way that on consumer behaviour, two different components of will put the working hypotheses to the test. Having tackled shopping attitude can be distinguished (Hirschman & the above, the outcomes of the experiment will be used to Holbrook, 1982; Halkiopoulos et al., 2020). The first is the conclude this paper and show how these findings can be used utilitarian component which relates to the instrumental in practice for managerial purposes and applications. benefits derived from shopping, while the second is the hedonic component referring to the emotions and feelings immediately experienced while shopping. 2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESES The utilitarian attitude is more task-oriented and focuses on the tangible outcome of the online shopping experience, such 2.1. Navigation design as, convenience, a wider range of products to choose from, An efficient and effective website design caters for the lower prices, and the easy of comparing prices and products consumer’s individual needs and expectations. The (Park et al., 2012). The utilitarian consumer consciously information is well organised and presented, and made needs the intended outcome, and therefore uses or purchases accessible through a (search) navigation that makes the use the service/product. A functional evaluation takes place when of the website a functional and engaging experience (see the consumer has a clear goal and is pursuing a specific Allison et al. 2019 for a comprehensive framework for consequence (Bridges & Florsheim, 2008; Amanatidis et al., website evaluation). A literature review by Garett et al. 2020). A hedonic attitude, on the other hand, is more process- (2016) showed that navigation is one of the most examined related. This means, that the disposition arises from the social elements of web design. There are three main types of and emotional experience, and the positive feelings that one navigation design that can be distinguished. First, navigation gains from the online shopping process; some examples are designs can differ in linearity. Linear (static) navigation viewing shopping as an adventure, stress relief, and value provides sequential availability of web pages. Non-linear shopping (searching for deals and buying products at a good (dynamic) navigation is characterised by predefined price). A consumer motivated by hedonism seeks for fun and categories which are meant to be scrolled down upon. The positive emotional arousal during the purchase, and in this consumer moves forwards and backwards with multiple case online shopping is enjoyed regardless of the final choices on the same web page. outcome (Park et al., 2012; Shiau & Wu, 2013). Kralisch (2005) found that the linear or non-linear navigation For a shopping experience to be complete, both hedonic and behaviour of consumers is influenced by their cultural utilitarian motivations play an important role. Several studies background. Second, websites differ in the number of have provided empirical evidence for this. Anderson et al. navigation levels (depth) and the number of options per (2014) unravelled consumers’ motivations for shopping on navigation level (breadth). In general, studies suggest that retail Facebook pages in the US. Purchase intentions were breadth navigation (the number of options varied per study) found to be utilitarian motivated by time-savings and access is preferred over depth navigation, (e.g., Reinecke & to information. Experiential shopping (hedonic) was related Bernstein, 2013; Cui, Wang, & Teo, 2015). Finally, the to loyalty (not purchase). dynamism of the navigation might differ. In static (vertical) The study of Sarkar (2011) found that high hedonic Indian menus the user has to deal with some visible navigation consumers perceive more risks and less benefits in online options, including filters that can be selected or deselected in shopping and tended to avoid it. In contrast, consumers with order to narrow down or broaden the search results. In high utilitarian shopping values perceive greater benefits. contrast, dynamic menus require more extensive navigation; Consumers mainly purchased online because of the greater the user has to process the visible options, select and open convenience (saving time and decreasing the costs). The one, and subsequently process the specific information findings suggested that successful website designs should (Alexander, Murray, & Thomson, 2017). There is evidence also increase the entertainment (hedonic) value. This fun that a vertical navigation design is usually preferred element is necessary to acquire new customers and retain compared to a dynamic one (Leuthold et al., 2011). existing consumers online. Scarpi (2012) also reported that Several studies support a positive correlation between the website layout seems to be an important aspect for both website navigation design and diverse outcomes including types of consumers. For the utilitarian type it was important user’s attitudes towards a website (e.g., Lim & Dubinsky, to provide a website that is easy to navigate, without many 2004; Ashraf et al., 2019). A user’s attitude includes the level unneeded images or videos that lead to the final destination of satisfaction, trust, and loyalty (e.g., Cheung & Lee, 2008; (i.e., the purchase) as fast as possible. However, for the Cyr, 2008; Chang & Chen, 2008; Faisal et al., 2017), as well hedonic buyers, the experience of online shopping should be as the behavioural intentions to use a website, recommend it, enjoyable and include images, videos and personalised or purchase from it (e.g., Hausman & Siepke, 2009; Ganguly features. In summation, it is important to understand the et al., 2010; Lee & Kozar, 2012; Wang et al., 2015; Ali, orientation of the consumer (both utilitarian and hedonic) in 2016). The following hypothesis is formulated: order to create websites that are more profitable. Hence, the Hypothesis 1: Navigation designs influence the consumers’ following hypotheses: attitude and behavioural intentions. Hypothesis 2: Utilitarian attitudes influence the relationship between navigation design and behavioural 2.2. Hedonic and utilitarian attitudes intention. A consumer’s online behaviour is influenced by their Hypothesis 3: Hedonic attitudes influence the attitudinal dispositions towards the product and the shopping relationship between navigation design and behavioural process in general. In line with previous marketing research intention.
48 Peter Broeder & Anna Gkogka
2.3. Cultural differentiations relationships among navigation design type and behavioural Nordhoff et al. (2018) analysed the design diversity of the purchase intention: 2,000 most popular websites from 44 countries (in total Hypothesis 4: Culture influences the relationship among 80,901 websites) using computational image metrics. They navigation design, attitude, and behavioural intention. found that local (country-specific) website designs differed in visual complexity and colourfulness. In contrast, global (internationally focused websites) did not localise web 3 METHODOLOGY designs. Unfortunately, although very informative, Nordhoff et al. (2018) analyses did not include navigation designs. The present study had a 2 x 2 between-subjects design with Several studies on cultural markers in web design and, the the factors navigation design (dynamic or static) and cultural effects of cultural website localisation provided supporting background (Dutch or Greek). The primary dependent evidence that the cultural values of countries were naturally variable was the behavioural intention to use (the website). reflected on websites and that countries had specific web The hedonic and utilitarian attitudes were the mediators. design elements (Moura et al., 2016). These studies mostly Culture influences the relationship between the navigation used Hofstede’s (2020) theory of cultural dimensions. Table design and the behavioural intention. The other dependent 1 aggregates findings of these studies. variable was the recommendation intent. The conceptual model is given in Figure 1. Participants were randomly Table 1: Inventory of cultural markers in navigation design assigned to one of two conditions (websites), each with a different website navigation design.
Figure 1: Conceptual model of the present study
3.1. Sample Originally, a total of 227 participants completed an online survey. Their cultural background was identified through self-identification (“To what ethnic group do you belong to?”), which had to match with the birth-country and the country-of-living (the Netherlands or Greece), as well as, their home language use (Dutch or Greek). Mismatches (N = Several sources were used in order to compile this schematic 6) in this cultural identification were omitted. The final overview of navigation elements for each of Hofstede’s sample consisted of 221 participants. There were 115 Dutch cultural dimensions. Marcus and Gould (2000) performed and 106 Greek participants. The average was 25,63 years manual a cross-country comparison of 10 websites from (range: 17-53), the gender distribution was 50:50. Table 2, America (USA, Costa Rica), Asia (China, Japan, Malaysia), profiles the Dutch national culture and the Greek national and Europe (Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, UK, culture according to Hofstede (2020). Greece has a high Sweden). Calahan (2008) evaluated visual similarities and uncertainty avoidance national culture (scores on a 0-100 differences of 900 university websites for 44 countries. scale). Calabrese et al. (2012) compared Scandinavian and Malaysian commercial websites. Other sources that have Table 2: Hofstede’s (2020) cultural dimension indices for been used researched web design strategies (Hermeking, Dutch and Greek national culture respectively (Index score 2006; Würtz, 2006; Reinecke & Bernstein, 2011 and 2013; on a 0-100 scale) Yakunin, Bodrunova, & Gourieva, 2018), and cross-cultural Dutch national culture Hofstede’s dimension index Greek national culture usability interfaces (Khanum, Fatima, & Chaurasia, 2012; Individualistic 80 35 Collectivistic Lo, & Gong 2005; Alexander, 2019; Heimgärtner, 2019). Low Power Distance 38 60 High Power Distance Finally, reviews of studies on user website perceptions (El Femininity 14 57 Masculinity Short-Term Orientation 67 45 Long-Term Orientation Mimouni & MacDonald 2015; Moura et al., 2016; Nizamani Uncertainty Tolerance 53 100 Uncertainty Avoidance et al., 2018), and the meta-analysis of literature on cultural Indulgence 68 50 Restrained localisation of websites by Cermak and Smutny (2018) were integrated in the inventory presented in Table 1. Based upon this inventory of prior investigations, it is expected that cultural background influences the THE CULTURAL IMPACT OF NAVIGATION DESIGN IN GLOBAL E-COMMERCE 49 3.2. Material evaluation scale (e.g., “(no)fun”) and the utilitarian Two different versions of a hotel room booking website were evaluation scales (e.g., “(not)informative”) consisted of designed. The aim was to create two different navigation adjective pairs on a 5-point-scale. There were four designs that conveyed the same information. The website manipulation questions that cross-checked prior knowledge with the dynamic navigation design is given in Figure 2. The and experience with the respective navigation designs. dynamic navigation reflects that the presented information changes every time based on the user’s choices. 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Figure 2: Website with the dynamic navigation 4.1. Manipulation check Table 3 compares the average knowledge and experience with the two navigation designs within each condition.
Table 3: Manipulation check: means on a 5-point-scale, where 1=min. (completely disagree) and 5=max. (completely agree)
Dynamic Static navigation navigation (n=105) (n=116) I have more knowledge about this type of website than friends 3.36 (0.95) 3.41 (0.98) I am familiar with all the features of this type of website 3.64 (0.91) 3.56 (0.91) The information beneath each category displays continents, I have a lot of experience using this type of website 3.51 (0.99) 3.51 (0.98) countries, cities, and hotel stars. Next to each selection there I used this type of website in all kinds of different situations 3.34 (0.92) 3.23 (1.03) is a box that can be selected. The website user filters the options and is automatically presented with the hotels that Two-way ANOVAs revealed no main effects for the match the desired preferences. In our experimental condition, navigation design condition (F(1,217) = 0.139, p = .710) and the user of the website is interested in visiting a country in the cultural group (F(1,217) = 0.015, p = .497) on the prior Europe and selects the offers in Spain. The country filter knowledge and experience of the participants with the shows that there are offers available in six Spanish cities. navigation design. These findings provide statistical evidence Finally, the hotel filter shows the star rating of each for the successful random assignment of the two sample to respective hotel. each of the navigation design conditions.
Figure 3: Website with static navigation 4.2. Effect of website navigation on behavioral intention The relationships between the navigation design and the usage intention for the Dutch and Greek participants are plotted in Figure 4.
Figure 4: Relationships between navigation design and behavioural intention per cultural group
Figure 3 shows the website with the static navigation design. The four information categories (continents, countries, cities, and hotel stars) are the same as in the dynamic navigation design. However, the static navigation design constitutes a hierarchical structured three-click process. In this concept the website user has to click every information unit and browse through the list manually until the best option is found.
3.3. Questionnaire Remarkably, the mean usage and recommendation intentions The participants saw the hotel booking website and were of the Dutch group were lower with the static navigation, presented with the following scenario: “Imagine that you compared to the dynamic navigation. The ANOVA for usage want to book a hotel room. Your choice of criteria is given as intention indeed revealed the significant interaction between seen above”. They then answered a number of questions. The cultural background and the navigation design, F(1, 217) = Appendix gives all items that were used in the scales of the 8.061, p = .014. This indicates that the Dutch and Greek questionnaire. Usage intention (“I would like to use this participants were affected differently by the navigation website”) and recommendation intention (“I would like to design. Simple effects analysis confirmed that the usage recommend this website to friends”) were measured on a 5- intentions with a static navigation design were significantly point Likert-type scale (“strongly (dis)agree”). The hedonic lower than those with a dynamic design in the Dutch group, 50 Peter Broeder & Anna Gkogka
F(1, 217) = 6.285, p = .013, but not in the Greek group, F(1, evaluation (d2) of the navigation design. The mean evaluation 217) = 0.926, p = .337. The same pattern was noticed for the of the two navigation designs by the Dutch and Greek recommendation intentions. This partly supported participants is visualised in Figure 6. Hypothesis 1. Figure 5: A statistical diagram of the multiple mediator 4.3. Hedonic and utilitarian evaluation model for the presumed influence of the navigation design The further analyses will now focus on usage intentions. The recommendation intentions will be disregarded as no differences are expected in comparison to usage intention. To examine whether the usage intentions can be explained by the navigation design, a regression analysis was performed using PROCESS procedures developed by Hayes (2018). In the static multiple mediator model, the navigation design was the predictor. The two mediators were the hedonic and the utilitarian evaluation of the navigation design. The outcomes of this regression are presented in Table 4.
Table 4: Regression coefficients, standard errors (SE) and model summary information (5,000 bootstrap samples) for The dynamic navigation design had a similar mean the influence of the navigation design static multiple evaluation among the two cultural groups. In contrast, their mediator model depicted in Figure 5 evaluation of the static navigation design was different. The Dependent Dutch evaluations of the static navigation design were lower
M1 (Hedonic) M2 (Utilitarian) Y (Usage intention) (hedonic: M = 2.20, SD = 0.82; utilitarian: M = 2.60, SD = 0.96) , whereas the Greeks’ evaluations were higher Independent Coeff. SE p Coeff. SE p Coeff. SE p
(hedonic: M = 3.02, SD = 0.88; utilitarian: M = 3.40, SD = X (Navigation) a1 0.037 0.128 .769 a2 -0.403 0.130 .002 c’ 0.041 0.104 .693 0.96), compared to the evaluations of the dynamic design. M1 (Hedonic) ------b1 0.523 0.074 < .001 M2 (Utilitarian) ------b2 0.498 0.075 < .001 Figure 6: Relationship between navigation design and W (Culture) d1 -0.321 0.127 .012 d2 -0.206 0.123 .114 d3 -0.164 0.955 .087
X x W f1 -0.062 0.256 <.001 f2 -1.271 0.260 <.000 f3 0.367 0.210 .805 hedonic/utilitarian evaluation per cultural group
M1 x W ------0.230 0.149 .123
M2 x W ------0.128 0.146 .381 i i Constant M1 -0.008 0.064 .902 M2 -0.009 0.65 .884 iy 3.051 0.047 < .001
R2 = 0.098 R2 = 0.141 R2 = 0.660 F(3,217) = 7.888, F(2,217) = 11.940, F(7,213) = 59.112, p < .001 p < .001 p < .001
In the regression analysis bias corrected and accelerated (BCa) confidence intervals (CI) were based on 5,000 bootstrap samples. The confidence intervals of the bootstrap testing should be entirely above or below zero. There was no statistically significant effect of the navigation design on the hedonic evaluation (a1 = 0.037, 95% BCa CI [-0.22, 0.28]). In contrast, there was a negative effect on the utilitarian The hedonic and utilitarian evaluation differences between evaluation. This means that the respondents deemed the static the two cultural groups implied a condition indirect effect on navigation design as less useful, compared to the dynamic usage intentions. More specifically, for the Greek group there navigation design, (a2 = -0.403, 95% BCa CI [-0.66, -0.14]). was a negative indirect effect of the navigation design on the In addition, both the hedonic evaluation (b1 = 0.523, 95% usage intentions through the hedonic evaluation (b = -0.331, BCa CI [0.36, 0.67]) and the utilitarian evaluation (b2 = 0.498, 95% BCa CI [-0.59, -0.09]) and through the utilitarian 95% BCa CI [0.36, 0.64]) were found to positively contribute navigation (b = -0.460, 95% BCa CI [-0.75, -0.22]). In to usage intention. There was no statistical evidence that contrast for the Dutch group, there was a positive indirect navigation design directly influenced the usage intention effect of the navigation design on the usage intentions regardless of the hedonic and utilitarian evaluation (c’ = through the hedonic evaluation (b = 0.226, 95% BCa CI 0.041). These findings support the mediating (indirect) effect [0.05, 0.44]), not through the utilitarian navigation (b = of attitudes (Hypothesis 2 and 3). 0.115, 95% BCa CI [-0.07, 0.35]). These findings support the moderating effect of culture (Hypothesis 4). 4.4. Culture specific preferences The assumption was made that cultural background would influence the hedonic and the utilitarian evaluation of the 5 CONCLUSIONS navigation design (Hypothesis 2 and 3). As can be seen in Table 4, the cultural background moderated with statistically The study analyses whether different navigation designs significance the hedonic evaluation (d1) and the utilitarian influence website attitudes and whether this leads to different THE CULTURAL IMPACT OF NAVIGATION DESIGN IN GLOBAL E-COMMERCE 51 behavioural intentions, as well as, the extent to which highly valid for defining cultural groups in Europe, China, consumers’ cultural background can influence their attitude. and South-Africa (Broeder & Stokmans, 2013). In the experimental survey of this study, there was a direct Finally, cross-cultural (or cross-country) comparisons lack a effect of the navigation design on behavioural intention for clear and consistent synthesis of the navigation design the Dutch sample group (Hypothesis 1). For this group, the elements. Including an inventory of cultural markers present website with the dynamic navigation design resulted in in this study might be an updated contribution to this. In terms higher booking and recommendation intentions, compared to of further research, the findings of this study call for the website with the static navigation. researches that focus on other types of navigation designs, In contrast, the Greek sample group did not display other e-commerce contexts (than the hotel booking realm) significant differentiation between the two designs. There and other cultural groups. This is still needed for progressing was also a difference in the utilitarian attitudes towards the insights in the culturability, culture and usability (Barber & different navigation designs. The static navigation design was Badre 1998), of website navigability. perceived as less useful, compared to the dynamic navigation (Hypothesis 2). Hedonic attitudes towards the navigation Acknowledgement design did not differ (Hypothesis 3). The authors would like to acknowledge the work of Prof. In this study, there was an indirect effect of a navigation Geert Hofstede. We will continue to be inspired by his theory design on behavioural intention. The findings showed that of cultural dimensions, more or less specifically applied. We both utilitarian and hedonic attitudes played a mediation role would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their in the influence of the navigation design on the booking constructive comments throughout the review process. Their intention (Hypothesis 3). Finally, there was clear evidence suggestions significantly improved the quality of this paper. that cultural background had a moderating effect (Hypothesis 4). 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Appendix
Operationalisation of the constructs
Culture: In which country were you born? In which country do you live now? Which is the language mostly spoken at your home? To what ethnic group do you belong to? Usage intention: I would like to use this website. Recommend intention: I would recommend this website to friends. Hedonic evaluation: I think the website is… Irritating - enjoyable unappealing - nice frustrating - relaxing no fun - fun not amusing - amusing Utilitarian evaluation: I think the website is… not informative - informative unnecessary - necessary useless - worthwhile pointless - useful inexperienced - experienced stupid - sensible unsafe - safe untrust worthy - trustworthy Manipulation check: I have more knowledge about this type of website than friends I am familiar with all the features of this type of website I have a lot of experience using this type of website I used this type of website in all kinds of different situations
SUBMITTED: MAY 2020 REVISION SUBMITTED: JUL 2020 2nd REVISION SUBMITTED: AUG 2020 ACCEPTED: SEP 2020 REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY
PUBLISHED ONLINE: 30 OCT 2020 Journal of Tourism, Heritage & Services Marketing, Vol. 6, No. 3, 2020, pp. 54-58 54
CASE STUDY Hotels hurting horrifically but hopeful: A case study of the Indianapolis hotel industry
Craig Webster Ball State University, USA Chih-Lun (Alan) Yen Ball State University, USA Sotiris Hji-Avgoustis Ball State University, USA
Abstract: Purpose: The authors delve into the impact of the coronavirus pandemic on the hotel industry in Indianapolis in comparison to its competition. The impact of the virus on the hotel industry was analyzed for Indianapolis and its major competitors (Chicago, Nashville, St. Louis, San Antonio and Kansas City) to learn about how severe the impact is and attain insight into how these destinations can rebound. Methods: This paper uses data from Smith Travel Research (STR), a service that produces daily hotel metrics often cited in mainstream media and academic journals. This secondary data source gathers data from participating hotels to obtain a sample of data on occupancy, average daily rate (ADR), and revenue per available room (RevPAR). The trends in the data are compared over time and between cities in the analysis. Results: The findings illustrate that the hotel industry in Indianapolis was able to replace some transient visitors with contracts and group bookings, suggesting that proactive and assertive policies have assisted in the management of the crisis. Implications: The findings from the analysis illustrate that leveraging innovative policies and looking at new markets may assist in the rebounding of convention tourism in Indianapolis and its competitors.
Keywords: Covid-19, ADR, RevPAR, hotel occupancy, Indianapolis
JEL Classification: H12, L83, N2
Biographical note: Craig Webster ([email protected]) is an associate professor of hospitality and food management at the Department of Applied Business Studies, Ball State University, USA. His research interests include the political economy of tourism, event management, robots and artificial intelligence in tourism and hospitality. Chih-Lun (Alan) Yen ([email protected]) is an associate professor of hospitality and food management at the Department of Applied Business Studies, Ball State University, USA. His research interests include human resources management and hotel operations and marketing. Sotiris Hji-Avgoustis ([email protected]) is a professor of hospitality and food management at the Department of Applied Business Studies, Ball State University, USA. His research interests include tourism promotion, cultural and sports tourism and social entrepreneurship. Corresponding author: Sotiris Hji-Avgoustis ([email protected]).
15.8 million jobs in 2019, with one in ten jobs dependent 1 INTRODUCTION upon the industry, and estimates show that without the tax revenue from travel and tourism, the average American Tourism is an important industry globally, in the USA, and household would pay about $1,398 more in taxes (US Travel in Indiana. In 2018, travel and tourism accounted for over ten Association, 2020). For Indiana, 2018 data illustrate that 1 in percent of global economic activity, was responsible for one 23 Indiana workers was employed because of tourism and in ten jobs globally, and was the second fastest growing that the Indiana tourism industry directly supported more sector in the global economy (World Travel & Tourism than 152,000 jobs in Indiana in 2018 (Visit Indiana Tourism, Council, 2020a). In the USA, travel and tourism supported 2019). C Copyrigh t © 200 © 2020 Authors. Published by International Hellenic University Some rights reserved. ISSN: 2529-1947. UDC: 658.8+338.48+339.1+640(05) Except otherwise noted, this work is licensed under http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4064023 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0 Published online: 30 October 2020 www.jthsm.grpyright © 200 HOTELS HURTING HORRIFICALLY BUT HOPEFUL: A CASE STUDY OF THE INDIANAPOLIS HOTEL INDUSTRY 55 Travel, tourism, and hospitality is vulnerable to pandemic et al., 2016). Repositioning and the communication by the (Vox, 2020). Over 100 million jobs were lost globally in the destination marketing organization is shown to be an industry due to the pandemic (World Travel & Tourism important element in recovery, as shown by others (Chacko Council, 2020b). This study investigates the impact of the & Marcell, 2008), who discuss rebranding New Orleans pandemic on the hospitality convention industry of following hurricane Katrina. Indianapolis and its major competitors (Chicago, Nashville, Something less common in the literature is the way that St. Louis, San Antonio and Kansas City). MICE (Meetings, organizations and senior management recover from crises or Incentive Groups, Conferences and Events) related tourism survive a disaster (Alegre & Sard; 2015, Jallat & Shultz, generated over $752 billion in 2016 but can be impacted 2010). One of best studied crises was the Crimean Crisis of adversely when disaster strike. Indianapolis convention 2013 (Ivanov, Idzhylova & Webster, 2016; Ivanov, tourism generates $5.5 billion in revenue and $725 million in Sypchenko & Webster, 2017; Webster, Ivanov, Gavrilina, state and local taxes, according to Visit Indy's latest annual Idzhylova & Sypchenko, 2017). Studies of the Crimean crisis estimates (Visit Indy, 2020). The authors look into the show that managers in enterprises adopt different policies in pandemic and its impact upon these cities and try to look into their situations based upon their needs and abilities to shape how Indianapolis can create pragmatic policies to react to the policies. Managers implement policies to survive crises, economic challenges, illustrating that leveraging innovative including demanding payment in cash, demanding payment policies and looking at new markets may assist in the in foreign currencies than usual, postponing expenditures for rebounding of convention tourism in Indianapolis and its supplies, laying off staff, or other pragmatic policies on the competitors. ground. But these lessons are more about the survival of firms In the next section, the authors review the literature on crisis in hostile conditions rather than a resurgence following a in travel and tourism. Following that, there is a discussion of shock. the methods and data that show how the shock of the COVID- Academic literature was developed to respond to the 2002- 19 virus has impacted upon tourism nationally, on 2003 SARS outbreak’s impact upon tourism and hospitality Indianapolis, and the major competitors of Indianapolis. The (Cooper, 2005; Hung, Mark, Yeung, Chan, & Graham, 2018; data highlight that there are some differences in the McKercher & Chon, 2004; Zeng, Carter, & De Lacy, 2005). fluctuation of occupancy rates and average daily rate (ADR) However, there are other outbreaks/events (Ebola, H1N1 (the two major performance measures of the vitality of the swine flu, MERS) that made an impression upon the travel, hotel industry) nationally, for Indianapolis, and its major tourism, and hospitality literature with regards to how competitors. Finally, the authors illustrate what the data tell recovery from biological threats (Hall, 2005; Hung et al., show about the impact of the COVID-19 virus and the 2018; Joo, Maskery, Berro, Rotz, Lee, & Brown, 2019; economic reaction to it and make policy suggestions to assist Maphanga & Henama, 2019; Novelli, Burgess, Jones, & in the revival of the hospitality and tourism industries, Ritchie, 2018). In addition, recent literature (Jamal & Budke, specifically for Indianapolis. 2020; Hanrahan & Melly, 2019; Sönmez, Wiitala, & Apostolopoulos, 2019) investigates disease and the role that tourism plays as a threat to public health. The literature deals 2 LITERATURE REVIEW: TRAVEL, TOURISM AND with how tourism spreads disease and how the spread of CRISIS disease can be mitigated against. Regardless the type of crisis that the region faces, the critical Many have researched how tourism and hospitality have dealt challenge is the continuous plan and policies initiated by with crises and recovery. Research using large databases hospitality businesses, such as hotels, to sustain the business shows that tourists avoid destinations with low human rights and enter the recovery phase once the crisis has been reduced records, crime, terrorist problems, and civil conflict (Llorca‐ or rescinded. Thus, the authors pose the research question: Vivero, 2008; Neumayer, 2004) and have been confirmed in How does the hotel industry respond to the biosecurity different regions globally (Araña & León, 2008; Björk & caused by COVID-19 and what is the consequence of its Kauppinen-Räisänen, 2011; Causevic & Lynch, 2013; business strategies during the pandemic in the US? In Larsen, Brun, Øgaard, & Selstad, 2011; Saha & Yap, 2014; specific, the study focuses on Indianapolis as a case study and Wolff & Larsen, 2014; Vlasic et al., 2019; Van Truong et al., assess its performance with its major competitors. 2020). The findings show the perceived safety of a tourist experience is a key factor ensuring stable/growing tourism flows. Some of the literature on the recovery of tourism and 3 DATA, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION hospitality following shocks deals with destinations and how they counteract the damage a crisis plays on the negative For this analysis, the study used hotel performance data from image of a destination (Avraham, 2015, Allan & Alkushman, Smith Travel Research (STR) focusing on the metropolitan 2019; de Sausmarez 2007; de Sausmarez 2013; Webster, statistical areas (MSA) of six cities. STR is an American firm Yen, & Hji-Avgoustis, 2016). that records hotel supply and demand data and delivers The consensus of the academic literature on negative shocks detailed market share analyses for all major hospitality firms to tourism flows to destinations seems to be that a swift and and brands operating at the USA, Mexico, Canada and the affirmative reaction to a shock to tourism flows to Caribbean area. STR specializes in acquiring valid destinations can assist in recovery. An example of this is the Metropolitan Statistical Area level hotel data on a daily basis way that a destination can recover from a shock is the way for occupancy rates, average room rates, revenue per room, that Visit Indy unveiled its “Indy Welcomes All” campaign and total local hotel revenue. Academic and professional in response to the RFRA crisis in Indiana in 2015 (Webster journals often quote STR data while examining fluctuations 56 Craig Webster, Chih-Lun (Alan) Yen & Sotiris Hji-Avgoustis of hotel performance as a proxy for overal economic of restrictions, states started to relax on their stay at home environment (Bailey, 2012; Dermody, Taylor, and Lomanno, orders and began allowing businesses to reopen with specific 2002; Fink, 2011). guidelines in week 18. They include Chicago, Kansas City, Saint Louis, Nashville, Figure 1 shows that the national, competitive set, and San Antonio, and Indianapolis. These cities were selected Indianapolis had a similar pattern for occupancy. The because Visit Indy, a non-profit organization that markets the disruption started around week 8 and reached its peak around City of Indianapolis and the Indiana Convention Center, week 12. As expected, hotel businesses in the US, the considers them as its main competitors in the area of competitive set, and Indianapolis performed worse in 2020 convention tourism. than in 2019. STR gathers data from hotels that participate in its data subscription service. The data include rooms available for Figure 1: Occupancy comparison between 2019 and 2020 sale, rooms sold, and net room revenue on a daily, weekly, and monthly basis (Smith Travel Research, 2020). In addition, the data are broken down by business segments (transient, group, and contract) to reflect performance. The transient segment includes rooms sold to individuals or groups occupying less than 10 rooms per night, while the group segment includes rooms sold to groups occupying 10 or more rooms per night based on a signed agreement. The Note: Occupancy is shown in percentage on the left, the week is contract segment includes rooms sold in a consistent block at shown on the bottom. specified contract rates for an extended period of time in exchange for a guaranteed payment regardless of the actual When assessing the main difference among the six cities usage. (Figure 2), the main drivers behind the performance come From the collected data, three performance matrices are from group and contract customers. When COVID-19 started calculated: average daily rate (ADR) and occupancy, and to spread in the US, the number of transient customers, who revenue per available room (RevPAR). ADR is a measure of mainly travel for leisure purposes dropped massively. On the the average rate paid for rooms sold by dividing rooms other hand, many customers who continue to stay in hotels revenue by rooms sold. Occupancy is a measure of the during this time were employed in in the warehousing and percentage of available rooms sold by dividing the number of logistics business. Indianapolis had an upper hand in this rooms sold by rooms available for sale. RevPAR is a measure business segment than the other cities in the competitive set of the average revenue for each available room in the hotel because logistics and supply chain management are major and is calculated by dividing total room revenue by total industries in Indianapolis. For example, just south west of the number of rooms available for sale. In this study, we only city, FedEx, a parcel delivery business, operates the second focus on occupancy and ADR because these two can directly largest air hub worldwide. Within city limits, there is an reflect the demand and supply and the pricing decision ecommerce Amazon fulfilment center and a United Parcel implemented by hotels in selected MSA. Service parcel delivery center. (Indy Chamber, 2018). This research project uses weekly performance data acquired through the data sharing agreement program with STR. It Figure 2: Occupancy comparison of the competitive set and spans the first nineteen weeks of 2019 and the same period in Indianapolis based on segments 2020. A competitive set was created to calculate the average performance matrices from the six cities listed above. The authors compared the overall hotel business performance between national, competitive set, and Indianapolis to develop a general view of the influence of COVID-19 on the hotel business. The authors then compared the business segments in 2020 to identify the trend in transient, group, and Note: Occupancy is shown in percentage on the left, the week is contract business between the competitive set and shown on the bottom. Indianapolis to investigate specific patterns. Several major events are noted for 2020. On January 30 While the demand showed a dramatic drop in 2020, hotels (week 5), the World Health Organization (WHO) declared did not engage in any pricing adjustment to recover lost the Covid-19 outbreak a global health emergency and the revenue. Instead, they chose to lower their price to at least U.S. imposed its first travel restrictions. During the last two meet the break-even point (Figure 3). Some hotels, especially weeks in February (week 8 and week 9), COVID-19 started those classified as luxury and upscale brands, elected to to spread in the U.S. On March 11 (week 11), WHO furlough their employees, and temporarily shut down designated COVID-19 a pandemic and the U.S. Department operations to avoid a continuous financial loss caused by the of State issued a Global Level 3 health advisory. On March labor cost. Others, such as economy or budget hotels, 15 (week 12), the U.S. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) remained open after furloughing all but a few essential issued guidance calling for cancellation or postponement of employees, mainly upper level managers, who were required in-person events of 50 or more people and state governments to stay in the hotel six days a week and provide all needed began adopting varying levels of partial to full lockdown services to keep the hotel operational. protocols the following week (week 14). After several weeks HOTELS HURTING HORRIFICALLY BUT HOPEFUL: A CASE STUDY OF THE INDIANAPOLIS HOTEL INDUSTRY 57 transient tourism, there is still a long way to go. The hotel Figure 3: ADR comparison between 2019 and 2020 industry will have to look into different segments such as groups and contracts to try to rebound or at least survive in the short term. However, large group bookings and the geography of cities will likely maintain a significant function in preventing the industry from rebounding in many cities. In relation to future research, attention would be paid to investigating whether the findings are considerably influenced by adopting either county-level statistics rather Note: Average Daily Rate (ADR) is shown in US dollars on the left, than MSA ones, or a specific geographic area within a the week is shown on the bottom. specific range (i.e. 10 or 15 miles) from the competition location. A second consideration for future research is to Even though Indianapolis had a better performance in group expand the list of city competitors beyond the list of six cities and contract segments than other cities, its hotels elected to identified by Visit Indy. A larger sample size would improve still drop their prices. 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RESEARCH NOTE One October tragedy in Las Vegas: An overview of tourists' perceptions
Mehmet Erdem University of Nevada Las Vegas, USA Saeed Vayghan University of Nevada Las Vegas, USA Billy Bai University of Nevada Las Vegas, USA
Abstract: Purpose: This study seeks to examine Las Vegas visitors’ perception about security in Las Vegas and the perceived risks associated with traveling to Las Vegas following the One October mass shooting. It also aims to explore potential Las Vegas visitors ‘attitudes towards the proactive security measures implemented by Las Vegas resorts after the One October tragedy. Methods: The study is descriptive in nature. The data was collected through a web-based survey that comprised a national sample of 414 adults from the United States. Results: The results indicate that despite the tragic One October mass shooting in Las Vegas and the associated media coverage, security is not a major concern for visitors to Las Vegas. The findings of this study also suggest that Las Vegas visitors approve of existing and emerging security procedures. Implications: Findings point out to an opportunity to capitalize on the perceived enhanced security measures in Las Vegas and to put emphasis on addressing financial risk concerns via marketing and public relations campaigns.
Keywords: Las Vegas, security, tourism, tourist behavior, resorts
JEL Classification: L83, M31, Z33
Biographical note: Mehmet Erdem ([email protected]) is an Associate Professor in the William F. Harrah College of Hospitality at the University of Nevada Las Vegas. His research interests include hotel operations and technology. Saeed Vayghan ([email protected]) is a Doctoral Candidate in the William F. Harrah College of Hospitality at the University of Nevada Las Vegas. His research interests include tourism, consumer behavior and technology. Billy Bai ([email protected]) is Professor and Associate Dean of Research in the William F. Harrah College of Hospitality at the University of Nevada Las Vegas. His research interests include hospitality and tourism marketing. Corresponding author: Mehmet Erdem ([email protected]).
people were killed and hundreds of people were injured in a 1 INTRODUCTION mass-shooting, and, at that time, some experts have stated that the city will never be the same (Lawrence, 2017). Tourism is an essential part of the Las Vegas economy with The October 1 tragedy in Las Vegas, often referred to as One an estimated total economic impact of 57.6 billion dollars in October, leaves unanswered questions and speculation on 2018 (Las Vegas Convention and Visitor Authority how this horrible event may influence the hotel guests’ “LVCVA”, n.d.) and supporting 407,000 jobs which experience due to the proposed new security measures and constitutes nearly 44 percent of the total workforce. (Moore, visitors’ perceived risk of traveling to Las Vegas. (Feldberg, 2017). About 42.5 million tourists visited Las Vegas in 2019, 2018; Martin & Montero, 2018; Moore, 2017). Convention indicating a 1% increase compared to 2018 (LVCVA, 2020). cancellations as well as decline in occupancy rate of hotels The city has a reputation for being a tourist mecca, adult play- continued for months after the tragedy (Prince, 2018, King, ground, birthplace of integrated-resorts, and much more. 2017). About a 4.2% decline in visitors was reported the Unfortunately, it is also the tragic site of the worst mass month of the mass shooting (Bloomberg, 2017). Despite the shooting in the modern U.S. history. On October 1 2017, 58 widespread coverage of the tragedy in the media for several C Copyrigh t © 200 © 2020 Authors. Published by International Hellenic University Some rights reserved. ISSN: 2529-1947. UDC: 658.8+338.48+339.1+640(05) Except otherwise noted, this work is licensed under http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4108431 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0 Published online: 30 October 2020 www.jthsm.grpyright © 200 60 Mehmet Erdem, Saeed Vayghan & Billy Bai months, there is no empirical information on how this very recently raised to 60 (Lacanlale, 2020). The One October popular destination is perceived by visitors post-One October mass shooting in Las Vegas is considered to be the deadliest or whether the proactive security measures implemented or mass shooting in the recent history of United States still being considered due to this incident are being welcomed (Rosenblatt, 2018). by visitors or not. Investigating tourists’ perceptions of safety and risks Most Las Vegas resorts are designed to purposefully offer a associated with traveling to a destination has gained more welcoming atmosphere with plenty of publicly accessible importance in the aftermath of tragic incidents in tourist spaces and venues. However, the management and ownership destinations, especially since 1990s (Tasci, & Sönmez, of these properties, just like any other lodging establishment, 2019). Previous studies have indicated the importance of are obligated with the duty to maintain a safe and secure tourists’ risk perceptions in their decisions to visit or avoid a environment for the guests and visiting patrons despite the destination (Fuchs & Reichel, 2004). Sönmez, large volumes of foot traffic on a daily basis. Given the Apostopopolos, and Tarlow (1999) reported that higher deployed as well as the proposed security measures post One perceived risk is associated with decrease in visitation. October tragedy, resort operators feel the pressure to Therefore, risk perception is considered as an important maintain a welcoming atmosphere while balancing the predictor of tourists’ behavior (Tasci, & Sönmez, 2019). In security needs and expectations from the public (Schulz, fact, Floyd and Pennigton-Gray (2004) have demonstrated 2018). that tourists could be clustered based on their perception of There are several studies focusing on tourists’ risk risk. Williams and Baláž (2015) emphasize the need to study perceptions and their safety concerns (Karl, 2018; Isaac & different aspects and concepts of risks in tourism. In their Velden, 2018; Seabra, Abrantes, & Kastenholz, 2014; Floyd, review of risk related studies in tourism, Yang et al. (2017) Gibson, Pennington-Gray, & Thapa, 2004; George, 2003). point to the lack of risk related research in the context of Risk perception is one of the most important issues in tourists' gender and contend for further in-depth studies on the topic. decision-making process because it can influence tourists’ In an exploratory study to examine the risk perceptions of destination choice (Chew & Jahari, 2014). Despite the fact tourists and their behavioral profiles, Fuchs and Reichel that the One October tragedy in Las Vegas is the worst mass (2011) concluded that destination related risks factors could shooting in recent US history, to the best knowledge of this be used for visitor segmentation and marketing. However, a study’s authors, there are no empirical studies that examined study by Sohn et al (2016) found no effect between perceived the potential impact of this tragic event on visitors’ intention risk and behavioral intention among festival visitors. to visit Las Vegas. There were several reports in the media Overall, previous research on tourist destinations and risk about the drop in the number of visitors and gambling perceptions has revealed several factors such as past travel revenue post One October (Velotta, 2017; Montero, 2017) experience, degree of safety felt during travel, types of and some experts attributed the decline in visitor numbers to associated risks with traveling to a specific destination, the tragic event. According to a report by Martin and Montero cultural differences, tourist knowledge, etc. as the factors that (2018), the number of Las Vegas visitors dropped by 3.3% in influence a tourist’s perceptions of risks and choice of January 2018, 4 months after the tragedy, making a 8.89% destination (Fuchs & Reichel, 2004; Sönmez, & Graefe, slump in the gaming revenues of Las Vegas Strip’s resorts; 1998; Wong & Yeh, 2009). The beforementioned studies that was the sharpest percentage decrease among all Nevada provide measurement items for several types of risks gambling markets for the month (before the COVID-19 associated with traveling to a destination such as crime, time, pandemic occurred). health, terrorism, financial, privacy, psychological, social, This study seeks to examine Las Vegas visitors’ perception and physical. of risk and safety in the aftermath of One October mass shooting. It also aims to explore attitudes towards the proactive security measures implemented by Las Vegas 3 METHODOLOGY properties. Particularly, this study attempts to answer the following questions: The study is descriptive in nature. The data was collected 1) What are visitors’ perceptions of risks associated with through a nation-wide web-based survey obtained through a traveling to Las Vegas in the aftermath of One Qualtrics U.S. consumer panel. Two screening questions October mass shooting? were used to qualify participants. They had to be 18 years of 2) What are Las Vegas visitors’ opinions about the age or older and had to have stayed at a hotel at least one effectiveness of the proposed and ongoing security night in the past 12 months prior to data collection. The measures? respondent panel was designed to include an equal number of males and females. Nine different risk groups associated with visiting tourist destinations (Figure 1) were considered for 2 LITERATURE REVIEW inclusion based on the studies by Sönmez and Graefe (1998), and Fuchs and Reichel (2006). Questions were adopted from On the evening of Sunday, October 1, 2017, a shooter fired Fuchs and Reichel’s study (2006) to assess visitors’ over 1,000 rounds into the crowd attending the Route 91 perceptions of risks associated with traveling to Las Vegas Harvest Music Festival from his room window on the 32nd (Table 2). In order to make the list of perceived risks as floor at Mandalay Bay Hotel in Las Vegas, Nevada. A total comprehensive and as applicable to the study topic as of 58 people were killed, and more than 500 people were possible, additional questions relating to risk of being a injured according to officials (Blankstein, Williams, Elbaum, victim of mass shooting in Las Vegas, concerns about & Chuck, 2017). Unfortunately, the number of dead has payment information security in resorts, and attitudes ONE OCTOBER TRAGEDY IN LAS VEGAS: AN OVERVIEW OF TOURISTS' PERCEPTIONS 61 towards hotel security were formulated and added. Also, Despite the recency of the mass shooting with the time period based on the review of related literature and media reports, a when this study was conducted and the frequent media list of on-going and proposed hotel security measures was coverage of the tragedy over the subsequent 12 months, most provided to the respondents to assess their perceived respondents did not seem to perceive a security or safety risk effectiveness. with traveling to Las Vegas. A mere 17.15% of the respondents expressed concern about being the victim of a Figure 1: Perceived risk types mass shooting when visiting Las Vegas.
Table 1: Profile of respondents
Financial Variables Categories Frequency Percentage
Gender Male 207 50 Crime Time Female 207 50 Age (years) 18-22 26 6.28 23-30 51 12.32 31-38 55 13.29 Types of Privacy Health 39-54 96 23.19 Perceived Risk Associated 55-63 73 16.73 with Traveling 64-73 81 19.57 to Las Vegas 74 or older 32 7.73 Income 25K or less 74 17.9 Psycholo- Physical gical $25k-$50k 107 25.8 $50k-$75k 100 24.2 $75k-$100k 61 14.7 Terrorism Social $100K-$150K 46 11.1 $150K-$200K 15 3.6
$200K-$250K 8 1.9 More than $250k 3 .7
Education Below high school 8 1.9 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION High School 74 17.9 The survey yielded a total of 414 completed responses. The Some College 99 23.9 demographic characteristics of respondents are presented in 2-year college 55 13.3 Table 1. Respondents in the 55-73 years age range (Boomers) 4-year college 104 25.1 constituted the largest age group among the respondents with Professional degree 18 4.3 a share of 36.3% of the total sample. The highest frequency Master’s degree 49 11.8 of annual income segment was between US$25,000 to Doctorate degree 6 1.4 US$50,000 per year (25.8%). The majority of the Marital Status Single, never married 97 23.4 respondents (79.8%) reported having attained some college education or higher. In terms of marital status, a slight Married 216 52.2 majority of respondents were married (52.17%). Out of 414 Living with partner/significant other 38 9.2 respondents, 157 (37.92%) indicated having traveled to Las Divorced/separate 43 10.4 Vegas in the past. When asked about their intention to travel Widowed 20 4.8 to Las Vegas in the next 12 months, 144 (34.78%) replied Total 414 100 affirmatively. A total of 90.34% of survey respondents indicated that they had traveled mostly for leisure purposes in the past 12 months. In addition to the nine risk types and associated concerns, respondents were also asked about their attitudes towards 4.1. Perceived risks associated with traveling to Las Vegas hotel security and the mass shooting tragedy. When asked if Respondents were asked to assume that they were planning a the level of security in Las Vegas resorts is higher than other trip to Las Vegas and indicate their level of agreement with a tourist destinations in the U.S., 38.89% indicated agreement list of statements that reflected nine perceived risk types while 10.63% disagreed with the statement. About 50% (Table 2). The mean score for each item shows that the study neither agreed nor disagreed with the beforementioned item. participants generally did not agree with the stated perceived Interestingly, 83% of the respondents agreed that hotels risks pertaining to a visit to Las Vegas and were mostly not should be required to take more responsibility for security worried about the nine different risk types. Compared to other and safety for guests. Fifty two percent of respondents agreed types of risk, there were more participants who indicated that hotel guests would be willing to pay higher rates for concerns about perceived financial risks with a trip to Las having enhanced levels of security. Overall, the majority of Vegas. The top four ranked items listed in Table 2 are all survey respondents disagreed with the statement that the One affiliated with financial risks when travelling to a destination. October shooting in Las Vegas impacts their decision to travel to Las Vegas. Only 16% of the respondents indicated 62 Mehmet Erdem, Saeed Vayghan & Billy Bai that the One October shooting at Las Vegas adversely 5 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS impacts their decision to visit Las Vegas in the future. The findings of this study indicate that despite the One Table 2: Ranking Las Vegas visitors' perceived risks October tragedy, security risks are not a major concern for Std. potential and past visitors. In fact, almost 40% of the Items Mean* Deviation respondents agreed that Las Vegas offered a higher level of I am worried that the trip to Las Vegas would be more expensive than other 4.37 1.765 destinations. security than other tourist destinations in the U.S. None of the I am worried that the trip to Las Vegas would involve unexpected extra 3.98 1.745 presented nine risk types stood out as a concern for the expenses (e.g. changes in exchange rates, extra costs in hotels). I am worried about gambling over my budget 3.58 1.962 respondents with the exception of financial risk concerns I am worried that I will not receive good value for my money if I travel to Las 3.57 1.627 when traveling to Las Vegas. Contrary to some reports in the Vegas. Visiting sites of Las Vegas could be time-consuming (e.g., because of a long 3.44 1.506 news media, the findings also suggest that Las Vegas visitors queue or poor service operation). welcome the on-going and proposed security measures. I am worried about being a victim of a crime such as robbery, theft. 3.37 1.743 The findings point out to an opportunity for Las Vegas’ I am worried that I will not receive good value for my money if I travel to Las 3.37 1.765 Vegas. hoteliers and promoters to build up on the already positive I am more worried about my credit card information being stolen when I am in 3.35 1.809 attitudes about Las Vegas’ perceived higher levels of security Las Vegas. I am worried about physical assault or injury due to violence. 3.13 1.711 in comparison to other similar destinations. The reported I am worried that the Las Vegas trip experience will not meet my expectations. 3.10 1.644 positive perception about the effectiveness of ongoing and I think visiting Las Vegas will be a waste of time. 3.06 1.687 emerging security measures means that Las Vegas hoteliers Planning for travel to Las Vegas might take too much time. 3.02 1.515 may consider keeping their guests informed about the I am worried that I will not receive personal satisfaction from the trip to Las 2.96 1.668 Vegas. enhanced security tools and procedures. Given the notable I am worried that Las Vegas is susceptible to terrorist attacks. 2.95 1.623 concerns about financial risk of traveling to Las Vegas, I am worried that Las Vegas city officials don’t have effective plans to prevent 2.86 1.588 marketing campaigns could put more emphasis on terrorist attacks. I am worried that Las Vegas is an easy target for terrorist attacks. 2.80 1.653 affordability and value for money spent. I am worried that hotels in Las Vegas will share my personal information with 2.76 1.620 It should be noted that this study was conducted before the law enforcement agencies such as local police force, FBI, homeland security, etc. (e.g. Police) COVID-19 pandemic and tourists’ concerns about the risks I am worried about being victim of a mass shooting. 2.75 1.710 associated with traveling to any destination may have I am worried that the image of Las Vegas trip experience doesn’t reflect the 2.68 1.694 changed since the pandemic. Future related studies could kind of person I am. I am worried about sexual assault and violence. 2.66 1.617 further examine the potential changes in attitudes and I am worried that new security and safety policies in Las Vegas resorts will 2.60 1.439 perception of risk. violate my privacy. I am worried about getting sick without access to local medical facilities in Las 2.60 1.463 Vegas. 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INDUSTRY VIEWPOINT Destination design: An integrative perspective on destinations from design studies
Greta Erschbamer Eurac Research, Italy
Abstract: This viewpoint introduces the concept of destination design and shows perspectives and approaches for the development of destinations. Destination design allows an integral view through design studies perspectives, where elements such as transdisciplinarity, participatory approaches, creative and disruptive ways of thinking related to design studies are introduced. Moreover, design approaches are characterized by a focus on problem-solving, a mixture of creativity and analysis and its capability to break through conventional knowledge systems in order to learn and develop existing structures such as destinations. Lastly, an agenda shows how to further develop this concept and which elements need to be included for its implementation.
Keywords: destination design, transdisciplinarity, destination development, design studies
JEL Classification: L83, Z33
Biographical note: Greta Erschbamer ([email protected]) is a researcher at the Center for Advanced Studies at Eurac Research, at Bolzano-Bozen in Italy, and a doctoral student at the Catholic University Eichstätt-Ingolstadt in Germany. Corresponding author: Greta Erschbamer ([email protected]).
various actors who create products and offers and thus 1 INTRODUCTION influence the guest's perception. All these factors raise the question of how a destination can The current discussions on the topics of overtourism, be viewed in an integral way and how various aspects and environmental protection, climate change and the worldwide dimensions can be taken into account. Could the perspectives shift towards a sustainability agenda have shown that tourism and fields of application of design studies provide a solution? and destination research face many complex challenges. What are the perspectives and fields of application on Tourism research must deal with tensions between the destinations and which agenda derives at this interface? challenges of planning, political processes and social integration processes in destinations. The fact that tourism development in destinations should not be limited to tourism 2 CURRENT RESEARCH PATTERNS AT managers or entrepreneurs is evident; it also requires a certain DESTINATIONS degree of participation by society and other stakeholders. In particular, the local population plays an important role in the Theories and concepts from destination management, development of sustainable tourism (Innerhofer, Erschbamer destination leadership and destination governance have & Pechlaner, 2019) and should therefore be increasingly positively shaped the development of research in tourism involved in decision-making processes. (Beritelli & Bieger, 2014; Pechlaner et al., 2014; Raich, Additionally, today's traveller is a critical and sensitive guest 2006). Important insights have been gained into how who has developed an expanded awareness through vast destinations can be better understood in terms of travel experience, and therefore critically questions development, management and governance. However, destinations and accordingly fosters interest in the changing political, social and technological developments destination’s socio-economic and ecological developments put the methods and instruments of traditional destination (Pechlaner & Volgger, 2017). The modern guest is looking management and governance under the microscope. The for experiences that are characterised by the uniqueness and methods of tourism planning have evolved, particularly in authenticity of a destination. This requires an interplay of relation to the various governance structures, changing sustainability rules and regulations, and marketing strategies C Copyrigh t © 200 © 2020 Authors. Published by International Hellenic University Some rights reserved. ISSN: 2529-1947. UDC: 658.8+338.48+339.1+640(05) Except otherwise noted, this work is licensed under http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4109020 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0 Published online: 30 October 2020 www.jthsm.grpyright © 200 DESTINATION DESIGN: AN INTEGRATIVE PERSPECTIVE ON DESTINATIONS FROM DESIGN STUDIES 65 (Hall, 2008). But perspectives on destination research are still with the ability to deal with uncertainty, complexity and somewhat restricted, with only a few disciplines generally failure (Tomitsch et al., 2019). Nelson and Stolterman (2014) taken into account, mainly geography and economics. describe the process of design as “the most effective and Moreover, decision-making processes at a destination level efficient means of getting organizations and individuals to are mainly developed with traditional stakeholders, with new places. Therefore, design is also about leadership.” participatory approaches rarely considered. Moreover, design and its methods are a natural and ancient One transdisciplinary approach that could address these human ability and everyone is consciously (or not) designing limitations and enrich the perspectives on the development of most of the time (Nelson, Stolterman, 2014). a destination is the combination of destination concepts with approaches from design studies. Therefore, the development of a concept that combines findings from destination research 4 WHAT’S NEXT? TOWARDS AN AGENDA ON with approaches from design should be prioritised. DESTINATION DESIGN The development of the concept of destination design should 3 WHY APPROACHES FROM DESIGN STUDIES? acknowledge the importance of aesthetics for spatial planning and product development. Planning procedures Approaches from design studies present a promising way to should also be developed through approaches from design gain an integrative view on destinations because they (i.e. design thinking), since individual aspects are combined overcome problems and challenges in different industries due in a creative and disruptive way of thinking and can lead to to their original approach (Brown, 2009). Furthermore, an openness to different ideas and unusual practices (Cross, design enables the combination of different disciplines and 2011). The resulting disruption can be crucial in managing leads to a new understanding of problems through innovative the transition from goals to more sustainable practices in solutions (Brandes et al., 2009). Therefore, the approach destinations (Fry, 2009). developed through the concept of destination design could In particular, design looks for new ways to change behaviour open up new perspectives and possibilities in the perception in society through new forms of innovation. The existing and design of destinations and contribute to a more integral user-oriented design approach should therefore be extended view. to a society-oriented approach (Jonas et al., 2015). Tourism research and design have already been linked All the stated elements such as transdisciplinarity, through scientific contributions and publications that focus participatory approaches, creative and disruptive ways of on the planning and design of destinations (Fesenmaier & thinking related to design methods can be applied to Xiang, 2017; Tussyadiah, 2014; Rodríguez et al, 2012; destinations in order to develop an integral view. Therefore, Dredge, 1999). Additionally, design-oriented perspectives objects, relationships and actors in a destination need to be can help to further combine theoretical approaches and involved when addressing complex problems. practical implications in goal-oriented research, Recent developments in the concept of destination design simultaneously combining different disciplines and actors. require a transdisciplinary approach to allow an integrative Indeed, the consideration of a destination by means of design view of a destination in order to analyse previously separated approaches includes multi-faceted perspectives, providing: elements and processes as a whole. In order to expand this • a focus on problem-solving, view on destinations, the concept of destination design must • a mixture of creativity and analysis, be further advanced to include design as an instrument for the • a way to break through conventional knowledge visualization of processes, as a disruptive element for structures in order to learn and develop, and finally creating new perspectives, as a vehicle towards trans- and • the ability to integrate disruptive approaches into a interdisciplinarity and as an tool that enables participation, coherent whole (Lawson, Dorst, 2009). co-creation and involvement, where creativity is fostered. In relation to tourist destinations, design approaches provide Future research needs to see destination design through its a holistic way to consider the complexity of measures and blurred boundaries (Scuttari, Pechlaner, Erschbamer, 2020), policies, as well as the physical development paths. As a since problems are tackled from a non-disciplinary framework, destination design can incorporate different perspective and solutions are sketched and prototyped at the dimensions such as spatial planning (Dredge, 1999), interface of existing disciplines. Therefore, destination destination and product development, management, design supports the transition from multidisciplinarity governance and leadership. It also allows the participation of towards transdisciplinarity in tourism research (Scuttari, guests and residents in the design of tourist destinations to be Pechlaner, Erschbamer, 2020) including design taken into account: their individual habits and social practices methodologies and methods (Kumar, 2013). can be integrated using participatory approaches. Therefore, participatory approaches add an injection of creativity as a novel approach to establish transdisciplinary networks and REFERENCES concertedly handle them in both a linear and non-linear way Beritelli, P. & Bieger, T. (2014). From destination governance to (Disalvo, Disalvo, 2014). destination leadership – defining and exploring the significance Design is developed as a pathway for solving nonlinear and with the help of a systemic perspective. Tourism Review, 69/1, complex problems that can’t be solved with single 25-46, https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-07-2013-0043. approaches from technology and science alone. Thus, design Brandes, U., Erlhoff, M., & Schemmann, N. (2009). Designtheorie can be seen as a capability-enhancing skill, equipping people und Designforschung [Design Theory and Design Research]. Stuttgart: UTB Verlag. 66 Greta Erschbamer
Brown, T. (2009). Change by design. How design thinking transforms organizations and inspires innovation. New York: Harper Collins Publishers. Cross, N. (2011). Design thinking: Understanding how designers think and work. Oxford, New York: Berg. Disalvo, B., & Disalvo, C. (2014). Designing for democracy in education: Participatory design and the learning sciences. Proceedings of International Conference of the Learning Sciences, ICLS. 2, 793-799. Dredge, D. (1999). Destination place planning and design. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(4), 7. Fesenmaier, D. R., & Xiang, Z. (2017). Design science in tourism. Foundations of destination management. Springer International Publishing. Fry, T. (2009). Design futuring. Sustainability, ethics and new practice. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press. Hall, M.C. (2008). Tourism Planning. Policies, processes and relationships. London: Pearson Education. Innerhofer, E.; Erschbamer, G.; Pechlaner, H. (2019, forthcoming). Overtourism – The Challenge of Managing the Limits. In: Pechlaner, H.; Innerhofer, E.; Erschbamer, G. (editors). Overtourism. Tourism Management and Solutions. Routledge. Jonas, W., Zerwas, S., von Anshelm, K. (2016). Transformation design : perspectives on a new design attitude. Basel : Birkhäuser. Kumar, V. (2013). 101 Design Methods. A structured approach for driving innovation in your organization. New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons. Lawson, B., Dorst, K. (2009). Design expertise. Oxford: Elsevier. Nelson, H. G., Stolterman, E. (2014). The design way. Intentional change in an unpredictable world, p. 5. London: MIT Press. Raich, F. (2006). Governance räumlicher Wettbewerbseinheiten – Ein Ansatz für die Tourismus-Destination. Wiesbaden: Deutscher Universitäts-Verlag. Rodríguez, B., Molina, J., Pérez, F., & Caballero, R. (2012). Interactive design of personalized tourism routes. Tourism Management, 33(4), 926-940. Scuttari, A., Pechlaner, H., Erschbamer, G. (2020, forthcoming). Destination Design: a heuristic case study approach to sustainability-oriented innovation. Annals of Tourism Research. Tomitsch, M., Wrigley, C., Borthwick, M., Ahmadpour, N., Frawley, J., Kocaballi, A. B., Nunez-Pacheco, C., Straker, Loke, L. (2019). Design. Think. Make. Break. Repeat. A Handbook of methods. Amsterdam: BIS Publishers. Tussyadiah, I. P. (2014). Toward a theoretical foundation for experience design in tourism. Journal of Travel Research, 53(5), 543-564.
SUBMITTED: AUG 2020 ACCEPTED: SEP 2020
PUBLISHED ONLINE: 30 OCT 2020 Journal of Tourism, Heritage & Services Marketing, 2020, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 67-68 67
BOOK REVIEW Magical Realist Sociologies of Belonging and Becoming: The Explorer Tzanelli, R., 2020. London: Routledge ISBN: 978-0367432393
Reviewed by: Maximiliano E. Korstanje University of Palermo, Argentina
JEL Classification: L83, Q57
Biographical note: Maximiliano E. Korstanje is Reader at the Department of Economics of the University of Palermo, Argentina and a Visiting Research Fellow at the School of Sociology and Social Policy of the University of Leeds, United Kingdom. Corresponding author: Maximiliano E. Korstanje ([email protected])
philosophical discussion revolving around the notion of 1 BOOK REVIEW perception. With basis on Stefanos Kontos (a well-known free-diver) and the Underwater Gallery, she questions to what In her new book, which entitles Magical realist sociologies an extent we gaze the landscape before our eyes without of belonging and becoming, R. Tzanelli explores the destroying its magical aura. In this respect, she coins the term traditional tenets of Western imaginaries through the “globular economy of perception” to denote how the tensional intersection between genres and the poetics of emotional aesthetics of consuming is being systematically mobilities. The concept of “edgework” occupies a central replicated through tourism and mobilities. The power of position in explaining high-risk leisure practices (like sports) imagination fabricates not only specific geographical spaces and risk-aversion. To put simply, risk-takers (edge workers) and belongings where global travelers move but also creates develop a sense of self-realization which allows them to stories which legitimate the perception of the environment (a- survive in the confrontation of risks. The question of whether la Ingold). The explorer –like the freediver- coexists the figure of risk seems immanent to the social structure (in relationally with the visited landscape, and in so doing his Beck), edgework (in Lyng´s thinking) signals to a re- perceptions are simultaneously direct results of his signification in the horizons of chaos and order. At a closer experience. The separation of knowledge and technology, look, the concept of social order (in the Hobbesian which started with the enlightenment, evinces a clear split analogism) comes from a much deeper imperial discourse between arts and craft, as Tzanelli explains. Here a which is certainly based on a powerful metaphor –if not a paradoxical situation takes place. Any person (like free- dichotomy-; the genealogy of western rationality punctuates divers) keeps his internalized “aesthetic frames” which are as the sweeping renunciation to the egoist (primitive) drives, originated and conditioned by the culture where he grew, but which are naturally inherited in the human mind, to confer at the same time, his actions shake the reign of dogmatism the Leviathan the monopoly of force, ensuring in this way a which are proper of social belonging. durable peace. By thinking the dialectics between rationality In the second reading, Tzanelli centers her analysis and irrationality equates to believe that only the civilized in vimeos´ world, which is a free video platform where users European law brings light to the dark tribal mind. Not upload, download and exchanges videos of high-quality surprisingly, the same applies to the rejection of traditional resolution (or heavier than 500MB). As she puts it, “the sociologists to explore leisure practices which are often vimeo has such a dynamic power to bond humans as more- considered naïve or superficial. Her position associates to a than bodies, social beings claiming a sort of aesthetic critical discussion that revolves from aesthetics and natality (p. 67). Returning to Stefanos´ work, but above all technology to postmodern tourism consumption. Readers to his conception of the darkness, Tzanelli argues that the will see how this argument resonates repeatedly in the vimeo exhibits the great contradiction revolving around chapters that form the present editorial project. reality and perception. Sociologists, on one hand, may very As the previous introduction, she organizes the book in four- well exert a radical critique on the World Wide Web as a clear cut readings which are subdivided into two parts each mechanism towards depersonalization and alienation, but on one. In the reading one, Tzanelli gives some hints in a C Copyrigh t © 200 © 2020 Authors. Published by International Hellenic University Some rights reserved. ISSN: 2529-1947. UDC: 658.8+338.48+339.1+640(05) Except otherwise noted, this work is licensed under http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4109076 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0 Published online: 30 October 2020 www.jthsm.grpyright © 200 68 Maximiliano E. Korstanje another, it still remains operating as a true way of problem of ecology and climate change but gives a clear communication finely ingrained in the societal order diagnosis on the Western magical imaginary in a digital and (structure). At this point, she steps back into a previous hyper-global world. At least for this review, Magical realist inquiry on the notion of edge-work to denote how the sociologies of belonging and becoming brings a clear and reification process makes but at the same time molds fresh position to the foreground, scrutinizing on the other side cyclically our cosmologies. While the structure disposes of of imperialism as well as the impacts of digital technologies creating numerous global communities, the tourist system in the daily lifestyle. The darkness says much of the orchestrates on different tourist groups. At any dark mainstream cultural values of society than we certainly spectacle, the finitude (death) of the self is staged as a unique imagine. For those readers concerned by politics and possibility –probably in repeated ways-, but once risk is mobilities, this book offers a high-quality and elegantly- neutralized, the principle of pleasure finally surfaces. Citing written text which articulates magisterially different Merleau-Ponty, the section clearly reminds we are in this academic position, viewpoints and theories into an all- world moving towards but encapsulated within. The encompassing diagnosis. intersection of digital technology with museumification is a point well-treated in reading three. Both figures, following Tzanelli´s argument, museum and tourismification show SUBMITTED: JUL 2020 some commonalities. The fabricated memory (or national ACCEPTED: AUG 2020 heritage) is never dissociated from a genealogy of race, where PUBLISHED ONLINE: 30 OCT 2020 ethnicities are created, ordered and distributed according to interests of the status quo. Having said this, the Greek civilization seems to be torn between the ideals of Enlightenment and the civilized lifestyle and the so-called barbarity of the Ottoman Empire. Beyond the ideals of the nationhood, there lie new hybridized forms aimed at unpacking the pastime but scrutinizing it through the modern eyes. This is the key factor that legitimates Western colonization. The fourth and last reading, rather, focuses on the western representations of indigeneity. What is more important, the idea of the native -or the aborigine- seems far from being fixed or static, it preferably makes emphasis on a staged nature. To some extent, museums represent different –and geographically-located- cultures but covering their biographical backgrounds. Any representation succumbs in the philosophical chasm between the being-in-this world and the act-of-experience the world. Probably, this is the chapter where Ingold is more present, but she does not mention him. Her main thesis held here speaks readers of a western philosophy obsessed to replicate the archetype of Man, likely suppressing his biological nature subordinating his desires to the power of the mind. At this point, the patriarchal order potentiated the urgency of precision while emotions were relegated to a peripheral position as a quintessential feature of the feminine side. The reading condenses an epistemological discussion, which even if ignited by modern anthropology, has not been correctly resolved to date: the anthropological encounter of self and “the alterity”. In a nutshell, tourism –like science- operates in the same dilemmas of the rational observer and the irrational observed, leading the Western epistemology into an irreversible gridlock: the neglect of the “Otherness”. At the time we travel more, the world is more unfamiliar to us. As she eloquently says, “the second consequence of capitalist and postcolonial violence is uncannier and more resurgent. It uses the double reality of native alienation from the Western worlds of reason and native system of thought as a performative narrative vehicle so as to help the visitor/stranger/tourist participate in a Brechtian defamiliarization with the world of native nature/culture” (p. 140). This structural dualism –above noted- not only helps us to expand our understanding and dichotomies around the Aims & Scope 69
Aims & Scope
full professor at the University of Leuven (KU Leuven), Division of Geography and Tourism. She is the director of a Research and Development Unit ‘Association for Tourism Research’, and program director for Erasmus Mundus Master in Sustainable Territorial Development and KU Leuven representative with UNITWIN-UNESCO ([email protected]). Coresponding author: Kaat De Ridder ([email protected]).
Manuscripts published in Journal of Tourism, Heritage & AIMS Services Marketing should not have been published previously in any copyright form (print or electronic/online), The Journal of Tourism, Heritage & Services Marketing is an unless the author(s) explicitly hold the copywrite under a CC- open-access, international, multi-disciplinary, refereed BY Licence. The general criteria for the acceptance of (double blind peer-reviewed) journal aiming to promote and articles are: enhance research in all fields of marketing in tourism, • Contribution to the promotion of scientific heritage and services management. The journal is intended knowledge in the greater multi-disciplinary field of for readers in the scholarly community who deal with marketing. different marketing sectors, both at macro and at micro level, • Adequate and relevant literature review. as well as professionals in the industry. The Journal of • Scientifically valid and reliable methodology. Tourism, Heritage & Services Marketing provides a platform • Clarity of writing. for debate and dissemination of research findings, new research areas and techniques, conceptual developments, and • Acceptable quality of English language. articles with practical application to any tourism, heritage, Journal of Tourism, Heritage & Services Marketing is and services marketing segment. Besides research papers, the published twice per year (in Spring and in Autumn). Each journal welcomes book reviews, conference reports, case issue includes the following sections: editorial, full papers, studies, research notes and commentaries. The Journal of research notes, case studies, book reviews, conference Tourism, Heritage & Services Marketing aims at: reports, industry viewpoints, and forthcoming events. • Disseminating and promoting research, good practice and innovation in all aspects of marketing in tourism, heritage OPEN ACCESS POLICY and services to its prime audience including educators, researchers, post-graduate students, policy makers, and Journal of Tourism, Heritage & Services Marketing is an industry practitioners. Open Access journal, conforming fully to the Budapest Open • Encouraging international scientific cooperation and Access Initiative (BOAI). Journal of Tourism, Heritage & understanding, and enhancing multi-disciplinary research Services Marketing has adopted the BOAI policy of “free across various marketing sectors. availability on the public internet, permitting its users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of its articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data SCOPE AND PEER-REVIEW POLICY to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those The scope of the journal is international and all papers inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The submitted are subject to an initial screening by a member of only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only the journal’s Senior Advisory Board, and subsequently by role for copyright in this domain, is to give authors control strict blind peer review by 3 anonymous international over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly reviewers. The journal features conceptual and empirical acknowledged and cited”. papers, and editorial policy is to invite the submission of manuscripts from academics, researchers, post-graduate students, policy-makers and industry practitioners. The Editorial Board will be looking particularly for articles about new trends and developments within different sectors of marketing and the application of new ideas and developments that are likely to affect tourism, heritage and services in the future. Journal of Tourism, Heritage & Services Marketingalso welcomes submission of manuscripts in areas that may not be directly tourism or heritage-related but cover a topic that is of interest to researchers, educators, policy- makers and practitioners in various fields of services marketing. About JTHSM 70
About JTHSM
full professor at the University of Leuven (KU Leuven), Division of Geography and Tourism. She is the director of a Research and Development Unit ‘Association for Tourism Research’, and program director for Erasmus Mundus Master in Sustainable Territorial Development and KU Leuven representative with UNITWIN-UNESCO ([email protected]). Coresponding author: Kaat De Ridder ([email protected]).
Second Street, Suite 300, San Francisco, California, 94105, ABOUT JTHSM USA. Journal of Tourism, Heritage & Services Marketing is an open access, international, multi-disciplinary, refereed OPEN ACCESS POLICY (double blind peer-reviewed) journal aiming to promote and enhance research at both macro-economic and micro- JTHSM is an Open Access journal, conforming fully to the economic levels of tourism, heritage and services marketing. Budapest Open Access Initiative (BOAI) and all of its The journal’s ISSN is: 2529-1947. content is available immediately after publication. JTHSM The journal is published twice per year (in Winter and in has adopted the BOAI policy of “free availability on the Summer) and is owned and co-managed by two academic public internet, permitting its users to read, download, copy, units of the School of Economics & Business of the distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of its articles, International Hellenic University: the Program of crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use Postgraduate Studies in Tourism Management & them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, Organisation and the Research Laboratory in Tourism or technical barriers other than those inseparable from “Tourlab“. The International Hellenic University is the third gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on largest public (state-owned) university in Greece. reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright For more information and for any editorial enquiries, please in this domain, is to give authors control over the integrity of contact with the Journal manager at: Mr. Panagiotis their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and Papageorgiou, International Hellenic University, JTHSM cited”. Editorial Office, Program of Postgraduate Studies in Tourism JTHSM is indexed in the Directory of Open Access Journals Management, School of Economics & Business, P.O. Box (DOAJ), accessed at: http://www.doaj.org 141, GR-57400, Thessaloniki, Greece. Phone: +30-2310- 013450, E-mail: [email protected]. For any other questions or for inquiries regarding submission of SAN FRANCISCO DECLARATION ON RESEARCH manuscripts, please contact with the Editor-in-Chief at: Prof. ASSESSMENT Evangelos Christou, International Hellenic University, School of Economics & Business, P.O. Box 141, GR-57400, JTHSM has signed the Declaration on Research Assessment Thessaloniki, Greece. Phone: +30-2310-013193, E-mail: (DORA). DORA recognizes the need to improve the ways in [email protected] which the outputs of scholarly research are evaluated. It is a worldwide initiative covering all scholarly disciplines and all key stakeholders including funders, publishers, professional LEGAL CODE & CONTENT LICENSING societies, institutions, and researchers. JTHSM encourage all individuals and organizations who are interested in Authors of papers published in JTHSM hold the copyright of developing and promoting best practice in the assessment of their paper without restrictions. All work in JTHSM is scholarly research to sign DORA. licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial- NoDerivatives 4.0 International Licence. According to this, you are free to copy, distribute, display and perform the work PUBLICATION ETHICS POLICY & MALPRACTICE in any media or form, as long as you give the original STATEMENT author(s) credit, do not use this work for commercial purposes, and do not alter, transform, or build upon this work. JTHSM is committed to maintaining the highest standards of For any reuse or distribution, you must make clear to others publication ethics and to supporting ethical research practices the license terms of this work. Any of these conditions can be and adheres to the COPE Code of Conduct for Journal waived if you get permission from the copyright holders. Publishers. The journal editors follow the COPE Code of Nothing in this license impairs or restricts the authors’ rights. Conduct for Journal Editors. You can download the Legal Code for this Licence at: This journal has adopted a comprehensive publication ethics https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc- and publication malpractice statement, composed using the nd/4.0/legalcode or send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 publishing ethics resource kit and in compliance with Elsevier recommendations and COPE guidelines. About JTHSM 71
PLAGIARISM original article PDF will remain the same as the printed page and readers downloading the PDF will receive the original JTHSM evaluates submissions on the understanding that they article plus amendment. are the original work of the author(s). We expect that Amendments are published in the article category “Addenda references made in a manuscript or article to another person’s and Errata” and will be further classified as an “Erratum”, work or idea will be credited appropriately. Equally we “Corrigendum”, “Addendum” or “Retraction”. All such expect authors to gain all appropriate permissions prior to amendments should be as concise as possible, containing publication. JTHSM systematically run all submitted papers only material strictly relevant to the contribution being through plagiarism-detection software (using iThenticate by corrected. In very rare circumstances, JTHSM also reserves Turnitin plagiarism checker) to identify possible cases; the right to remove articles JTHSM accepts and publishes manuscripts that score as Errata concern the amendment of mistakes introduced by the “Green” in Similarity Report by Turnitin. journal in editing or production, including errors of omission Re-use of text, data, figures, or images without appropriate such as failure to make factual proof corrections requested by acknowledgment or permission is considered plagiarism, as authors within the deadline provided by the journal and is the paraphrasing of text, concepts, and ideas. All within journal policy. Errata are generally not published for allegations of plagiarism are investigated thoroughly and in simple, obvious typing errors, but are published when an accordance with COPE guidelines. apparently simple error is significant (for example, a greek mu for an ‘m’ in a unit, or a typing error in the corresponding author’s email address). ORCID If there is an error in a figure or table, the usual procedure is to publish a sentence of rectification. A significant error in All submissions should include author’s (and all co-authors’) the figure or table is corrected by publication of a new ORCID (compulsory for all submissions since volume 5, corrected figure or table as an erratum. The figure or table is issue 1, 2019). republished only if the editor considers it necessary. If the colours of histogram bars were wrongly designated in the figure legend, for example, a sentence of correction would be PUBLICATION EXPENSES, FEES & REVENUE published as an erratum; the entire figure would not be SOURCES reproduced. Corrigenda submitted by the original authors are published JTHSM does not charge authors fees for submitting, if the scientific accuracy or reproducibility of the original processing, or publishing papers. The journal’s expenses are paper is compromised. JTHSM will publish corrigenda if fully covered by the publisher (International Hellenic there is an error in the published author list, but not usually University), the third largest state-owned (public) university for overlooked acknowledgements. in Greece. Readers wishing to draw the journal’s attention to a JTHSM do not publish any advertising material. significant published error should submit their comments as a “Letter to the Editor”. Such “Letters to the Editor” will be carefully reviewed by unrelated and neutral referees. On COMPLAINTS editorial acceptance, the paper will be sent to the authors of the original paper to provide an opportunity for their early The authors who may have a complaint against any of the response. aspects of their interaction with JTHSM should, in the first Addenda are judged on the significance of the addition to the instance, write/e-mail to the Associate Editor. In case it does interpretation of the original publication. Addenda do not not resolve the issue, the complaint should be forwarded to contradict the original publication, but if the authors the Editor-in-Chief. The Associate Editor and the Editor-in- inadvertently omitted significant information available to Chief aim to acknowledge the complaint within 7 days after them at the time, this material will be published as an receiving it. In addition, they should explain to the author the addendum after peer review. procedure which they will be undertaking to resolve the Retractions are judged according to whether the main matter. conclusion of the paper is seriously undermined as a result, for example, of subsequent information coming to light of which the authors were not aware at the time of publication. ARTICLE RETRACTION AND CORRECTION POLICY In the case of experimental papers, this can include e.g. Corrections are published if the publication record is further experiments by the authors or by others which do not seriously affected, for example with regard to the scientific confirm the main experimental conclusion of the original accuracy of published information, or the reputation of the publication. authors, or the reputation of the journal. Corrections that do Readers wishing to draw the editors’ attention to published not affect the contribution in a material way or significantly work requiring retraction should first contact the authors of impair the reader’s understanding of the contribution (e.g. a the original paper and then write to the journal, including spelling mistake or grammatical error) will not be published. copies of the correspondence with the authors (whether or not When an amendment is published, it is linked bi-directionally the correspondence has been answered). The editors will seek to and from the article being corrected. A PDF version of the advice from reviewers if they judge that the information is correction is added to the original article PDF so that the likely to draw into question the main conclusions of the published paper. 72 About JTHSM
Infringements of professional ethical codes, such as multiple submission, bogus claims of authorship, plagiarism, fraudulent use of data, or the like, will also result in an article being retracted. All co-authors will be asked to agree to a retraction. In cases where some co-authors decline to sign a retraction, the editors reserve the right to publish the retraction with the dissenting author(s) identified. Article removal: in very rare circumstances it may be necessary to remove an article from JTHSM. This will only occur where the article is clearly defamatory, or infringes others’ legal rights, or where the article is, or there is good reason to expect it will be, the subject of a court order, or where the article, if acted upon, might pose a serious health risk. In these circumstances, while the bibliographic information (title and authors) will be retained online, the text will be replaced with a page indicating that the article has been removed for legal reasons.
Journal Sections 73
Journal Sections
full professor at the University of Leuven (KU Leuven), Division of Geography and Tourism. She is the director of a Research and Development Unit ‘Association for Tourism Research’, and program director for Erasmus Mundus Master in Sustainable Territorial Development and KU Leuven representative with UNITWIN-UNESCO ([email protected]). Coresponding author: Kaat De Ridder ([email protected]).
the readers of the Journal of Tourism, Heritage & Services EDITORIAL Marketing. Each article should have the following structure: a) abstract, b) introduction (including an overall presentation The Editorial addresses issues of contemporary interest and of the case to be examined and the aims and objectives of the provides a detailed introduction and commentary to the article), c) main body (including, where appropriate, the articles in the current issue. The editorial may be written by review of literature, the presentation of the case study, the the Editor-in-Chief, the Associate Editor, or by any other critical review of the case and relevant discussion), d) member(s) of the Editorial Board. When appropriate, a conclusions (including also, where appropriate, “Guest Editorial” may be presented. However, the Journal of recommendations, practical implications, and suggestions for Tourism, Heritage & Services Marketing does not accept further study), e) bibliography, f) acknowledgements, and g) unsolicited editorials. appendices. All Case Studies are subject to blind peer review (by at least two anonymous referees). The decision for the final acceptance of the article will be taken unanimously by FULL (RESEARCH) PAPERS the Editor and by the Associate Editor. For the Research Papers section, the Journal of Tourism, Heritage & Services Marketing invites full-length RESEARCH NOTES manuscripts (not longer than 8,000 words and not shorter than 4,500 words) excluding references, from a variety of Research Notes should be no longer than 3,000 words and not marketing disciplines; these papers may be either empirical shorter than 1,000; these papers may be either empirical or or conceptual, and will be subject to strict double blind peer conceptual, and will be subject to blind peer review (by at review (by at least two anonymous referees). The decision for least two anonymous referees). The decision for the final the final acceptance of the paper will be taken unanimously acceptance of the paper will be taken unanimously by the by the Editor and by the Associate Editor. The manuscripts Editor and by the Associate Editor. The manuscripts submitted should provide original and/or innovative ideas or submitted may present research-in-progress or my focus on approaches or findings that eventually push the frontiers of the conceptual development of models and approaches that knowledge. Purely descriptive accounts are not considered have not been proven yet through primary research. In all suitable for this section. Each paper should have the cases, the papers should provide original ideas, approaches or following structure: a) abstract, b) introduction (including an preliminary findings that are open to discussion. Purely overall presentation of the issue to be examined and the aims descriptive accounts may be considered suitable for this and objectives of the paper), c) main body (including, where section, provided that are well-justified and of interest to the appropriate, the review of literature, the development of readers of JTHSM. Each paper should have the following hypotheses and/or models, research methodology, structure: a) abstract, b) introduction (including an overall presentation of findings, and analysis and discussion), d) presentation of the issue to be examined and the aims and conclusions (including also, where appropriate, objectives of the paper), c) main body (including, where recommendations, practical implications, limitations, and appropriate, the review of literature, the development of suggestions for further research), e) bibliography, f) hypotheses and/or models, research methodology, acknowledgements, and g) appendices. presentation of findings, and analysis and discussion), d) conclusions (including also, where appropriate, recommendations, practical implications, limitations, and CASE STUDIES suggestions for further research), e) bibliography, f) acknowledgements, and g) appendices. Case Studies should be no longer than 3,500 words and not shorter than 2,000; these articles should be focusing on the detailed and critical presentation/review of real-life cases BOOK REVIEWS from the greater marketing sector, and must include – where appropriate – relevant references and bibliography. Case Book Reviews should be no longer than 1,500 words and not Studies should aim at disseminating information and/or good shorter than 1,000; these articles aim at presenting and practices, combined with critical analysis of real examples. critically reviewing books from the greater field of tourism, Purely descriptive accounts may be considered suitable for heritage, services and marketing. Most reviews should focus this section, provided that are well-justified and of interest to 74 Journal Sections on new publications, but older books are also welcome for presentation. Book Reviews are not subject to blind peer review; the decision for the final acceptance of the article will be taken unanimously by the Editor-in-Chief and by the Book & Conference Reviews Editor. Where appropriate, these articles may include references and bibliography. Books to be reviewed may be assigned to potential authors by the Book & Conference Reviews Editor, though JTHSM is also open to unsolicited suggestions for book reviews from interested parties.
CONFERENCE REPORTS
Conference Reports should be no longer than 2,000 words and not shorter than 1,000; these articles aim at presenting and critically reviewing conferences from the greater field of tourism, heritage, services and marketing. Most reports should focus on recent conferences (i.e., conferences that took place not before than three months from the date of manuscript submission), but older conferences are also welcome for presentation if appropriate. Conference Reports are not subject to blind peer review; the decision for the final acceptance of the article will be taken unanimously by the Editor-in-Chief and by the Book & Conference Reports Editor. Where appropriate, these articles may include references and bibliography. Conference reports may be assigned to potential authors by the Book & Conference Reports Editor, though JTHSM is also open to unsolicited suggestions for reports from interested parties.
INDUSTRY VIEWPOINTS
Industry Viewpoints should be no longer than 1,500 words and not shorter than 500; these articles may have a “commentary” form, and aim at presenting and discussing ideas, views and suggestions by practitioners (marketing industry professionals, marketing planners, policy makers, other marketing stakeholders, etc.). Through these articles, JTHSM provides a platform for the exchange of ideas and for developing closer links between academics and practitioners. Most viewpoints should focus on contemporary issues, but other issues are also welcome for presentation if appropriate. Industry Viewpoints are not subject to blind peer review; the decision for the final acceptance of the article will be taken unanimously by the Editor-in-Chief and by the Associate Editor. These articles may be assigned to potential authors by the editor, though JTHSM is also open to unsolicited contributions from interested parties.
Notes for Authors 75
Notes for Authors
full professor at the University of Leuven (KU Leuven), Division of Geography and Tourism. She is the director of a Research and Development Unit ‘Association for Tourism Research’, and program director for Erasmus Mundus Master in Sustainable Territorial Development and KU Leuven representative with UNITWIN-UNESCO ([email protected]). Coresponding author: Kaat De Ridder ([email protected]).
viewpoints, and forthcoming events) must have a title of no MANUSCRIPT SUBMISSION more than 10 words. Manuscripts should be double-line spaced, and have at least Manuscripts should be written as understandably and 2,5 cm (one-inch) margin on all four sides. Pages should be concisely as possible with clarity and meaningfulness. numbered consecutively. Submission of a manuscript to the Journal of Tourism, The use of footnotes within the text is discouraged – use Heritage & Services Marketing represents a certification on endnotes instead. Endnotes should be kept to a minimum, be the part of the author(s) that it is an original work and has not used to provide additional comments and discussion, and been copyrighted elsewhere; manuscripts that are eventually should be numbered consecutively in the text and typed on a published may not be reproduced in any other publication separate page at the end of the article. (print or electronic). Submissions are accepted only in Quotations must be taken accurately from the original source. electronic form; authors are requested to submit manuscripts Alterations to the quotations must be noted. Quotation marks (full research papers, case studies, research notes and all (“ ”) are to be used to denote direct quotes. Inverted commas other types of manuscripts) through Easy Chair online (‘ ‘) should denote a quote within a quotation. If the quotation submission system used by JTHSM, accessible at: is less than 3 lines, then it should be included in the main text https://easychair.org/conferences/?conf=jthsm1 enclosed in quotation marks. If the quotation is more than 3 All submissions should include author’s and co-authors’ – if lines, then it should be separated from the main text and any – ORCID (compulsory for all submissions since volume indented. 5, issue 1, 2019). The name(s) of any sponsor(s) of the research contained in Feedback regarding the submission of a manuscript the manuscript, or any other acknowledgements, should (including the 3 anonymous reviewers’ comments) will be appear at the very end of the manuscript. provided to the author(s) within six weeks of the receipt of Tables, figures and illustrations are to be included in the text the manuscript. Submission of a manuscript will be held to and to be numbered consecutively (in Arabic numbers). Each imply that it contains original unpublished work not being table, figure or illustration must have a title. considered for publication elsewhere at the same time. If The text should be organized under appropriate section appropriate, author(s) can correct first proofs. Manuscripts headings, which, ideally, should not be more than 500-700 submitted to JTHSM, accepted for publication or not, cannot words apart. be returned to the author(s). The main body of the text should be written in Times New Roman letters, font size 12. Section headings should be written in Arial letters, font size MANUSCRIPT LENGTH 12, and should be marked as follows: primary headings should be centered and typed in bold capitals and underlined; Full research Papers should be not longer than 8,000 words secondary headings should be typed with italic bold capital and not shorter than 4,500 words (excluding references). letters; other headings should be typed in capital letters. Research Notes should be no longer than 3,000 words and not Authors are urged to write as concisely as possible, but not at shorter than 1,000. Case Studies should be no longer than the expense of clarity. 3,500 words and not shorter than 2,000. Book Reviews The preferred software for submission is Microsoft Word. should be no longer than 1,500 words and not shorter than Authors submitting papers for publication should specify 1,000. Conference Reports should be no longer than 2,000 which section of the journal they wish their paper to be words and not shorter than 1,000. Industry Viewpoints should considered for: research papers, research notes, case studies, be no longer than 1,500 words and not shorter than 500. book reviews, conference reports, industry viewpoints, and Manuscripts that do not fully conform to the above word forthcoming events. limits (according to the type of the article) will be Author(s) are responsible for preparing manuscripts which automatically rejected and should not be entered into the are clearly written in acceptable, scholarly English, and reviewing process. which contain no errors of spelling, grammar, or punctuation. Neither the Editorial Board nor the Publisher is responsible for correcting errors of spelling or grammar. MANUSCRIPT STYLE & PREPARATION Where acronyms are used, their full expression should be All submissions (research papers, research notes, case given initially. studies, book reviews, conference reports, industry 76 Notes for Authors
Authors are asked to ensure that there are no libelous design, details of sampling techniques, and data gathering implications in their work. procedures. • Results: describes the key findings of the study, including experimental, correlational, or theoretical results. It may MANUSCRIPT PRESENTATION also provide a brief explanation of the results. • Implications: show how the results connect to policy and For submission, manuscripts of research papers, research practice, and provide suggestions for follow-up, future notes and case studies should be arranged in the following studies, or further analysis. order of presentation: First page: title, subtitle (if required), author’s name and surname, author’s ORCID (compulsory for all submissions REFERENCING STYLE since volume 5, issue 1, 2019), affiliation, full postal address, telephone number and e-mail address. Respective names, In the text, references should be cited with parentheses using affiliations, emails and addresses of co-author(s) should be the “author, date” style – for example for single citations clearly indicated. Also, include an abstract of not less than (Ford, 2004), or for multiple citations (Isaac, 1998; Jackson, 100 and not more than 150 words and up to 5 keywords that 2003). Page numbers for specific points or direct quotations identify article content. Also include a short biography of the must be given (i.e., Ford, 2004: 312-313). The Reference list, author (about 25 words); in the case of co-author(s), the same placed at the end of the manuscript, must be typed in details should also be included. All correspondence will be alphabetical order of authors. The specific format is: sent to the first named author, unless otherwise indicated. • For journal papers: Tribe, J. (2002). The philosophic Second page: title, an abstract of not more than 100 words practitioner. Annals of Tourism Research, 29(2), pp. 338- and up to 5 keywords that identify article content. Do not 357. include the author(s) details, affiliation(s), and biographies in • For books and monographs: Teare, R. & Ingram, H. this page. (1993). Strategic Management: A Resource-Based Subsequent pages: the paper should begin on the third page Approach for the Hospitality and Tourism Industries. and should not subsequently reveal the title or authors. In London: Cassell. these pages should be included the main body of text • For chapters in edited books: Sigala, M. and Christou, E. (including tables, figures and illustrations); list of references; (2002). Use of Internet for enhancing tourism and appendixes; and endnotes (numbered consecutively). hospitality education: lessons from Europe (pp. 112-123). The author(s) should ensure that their names cannot be In K.W. Wober, A.J. Frew and M. Hitz identified anywhere in the text. (Eds.) Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism, Wien: Springer-Verlag. • For papers presented in conferences: Ford, B. (2004). GUIDANCE ON WRITING ABSTRACTS Adoption of innovations on hospitality. Paper presented JTHSM provides the following guidance to help authors write at the 22nd EuroCHRIE Conference. Bilkent University, an abstract of maximum value to readers. Authors are Ankara, Turkey: 3-7 November 2004. encouraged to follow this guidance. An abstract is a concise • For papers published in conference summary of a larger work, typically written in one paragraph proceedings: Jackman, F. (2008). Adoption of of 100 to 200 words. Its purpose is to help readers quickly innovations on hospitality. Proceedings the 26th discern the purpose and content of the work. Manuscripts EuroCHRIE Conference. Dubai, United Arab Emirates. submitted to JTHSM must include an abstract written in • For unpublished works: Gregoriades, M. (2004). The English, of not less than 150 and not more than 200 words. impact of trust in brand loyalty, Unpublished PhD Accuracy, brevity, and clarity are the ABCs of writing a good Thesis. Chios, Greece: University of the Aegean. abstract. Writing style: a) Use a who, what, when, where, • For Internet sources (if you know the author): Johns, D. why, how, and “so what” approach to addressing the main (2003) The power of branding in tourism. elements in your abstract; b) Use specific words, phrases, Ηttp://www.tourismabstracts.org/marketing/papers- concepts, and keywords from your paper; c) Use precise, authors/id3456. Accessed the 12 th of January 2005, at clear, descriptive language, and write from an objective 14:55. (Note: always state clearly the full URL of your rather than evaluative point of view; d) Write concisely, but source) in complete sentences; e) Use plain language, do not use • For Internet sources (if you do not know the author): jargon, and do not use acronyms except for commonly used Tourism supply and demand. terms (then define the acronym the first time used); f) Write Ηttp://www.tourismabstracts.org/marketing/papers- in the third person; do not use “I” or “we”; g) Use verbs in authors/id3456. Accessed the 30 th of January 2004, at the active voice. A well-written abstract generally addresses 12:35. (Note: always state clearly the full URL of your four key elements: source) • Purpose: describes the objectives and hypotheses of the • For reports: Edelstein, L. G. & Benini, C. research. (1994). Meetings and Conventions. Meetings market • Methods: describes important features of your research report (August), 60-82. design, data, and analysis. This may include the sample size, geographic location, demographics, variables, controls, conditions, tests, descriptions of research Notes for Authors 77
PLAGIARISM The individuals who conduct the work are responsible for identifying who meets these criteria and ideally should do so JTHSM evaluates submissions on the understanding that they when planning the work, making modifications as are the original work of the author(s). We expect that appropriate as the work progresses. It is the collective references made in a manuscript or article to another person’s responsibility of the authors, not the journal to which the work or idea will be credited appropriately. Equally we work is submitted, to determine that all people named as expect authors to gain all appropriate permissions prior to authors meet all four criteria; it is not the role of journal publication. JTHSM systematically run submitted papers editors to determine who qualifies or does not qualify for through plagiarism-detection software (using iThenticate by authorship or to arbitrate authorship conflicts. If agreement Turnitin plagiarism checker) to identify possible cannot be reached about who qualifies for authorship, the cases; JTHSM accepts and publishes manuscripts that score institution(s) where the work was performed, not the journal as “Green” in Similarity Report by Turnitin. editor, should be asked to investigate. If authors request Re-use of text, data, figures, or images without appropriate removal or addition of an author after manuscript submission acknowledgment or permission is considered plagiarism, as or publication, journal editors should seek an explanation and is the paraphrasing of text, concepts, and ideas. All signed statement of agreement for the requested change from allegations of plagiarism are investigated thoroughly and in all listed authors and from the author to be removed or added. accordance with COPE guidelines. The corresponding author is the one individual who takes primary responsibility for communication with the journal during the manuscript submission, peer review, and AUTHORSHIP CRITERIA publication process, and typically ensures that all the journal’s administrative requirements, such as providing Authorship confers credit and has important academic, details of authorship, ethics committee approval, clinical trial social, and financial implications. Authorship also implies registration documentation, and gathering conflict of interest responsibility and accountability for published work. The forms and statements, are properly completed, although these following recommendations are intended to ensure that duties may be delegated to one or more coauthors. The contributors who have made substantive intellectual corresponding author should be available throughout the contributions to a paper are given credit as authors, but also submission and peer review process to respond to editorial that contributors credited as authors understand their role in queries in a timely way, and should be available after taking responsibility and being accountable for what is publication to respond to critiques of the work and cooperate published. with any requests from the journal for data or additional The JHTSM recommends that authorship be based on the information should questions about the paper arise after following 4 criteria: publication. • Substantial contributions to the conception or design of When a large multi-author group has conducted the work, the the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of group ideally should decide who will be an author before the data for the work; AND work is started and confirm who is an author before • Drafting the work or revising it critically for important submitting the manuscript for publication. All members of intellectual content; AND the group named as authors should meet all four criteria for • Final approval of the version to be published; AND authorship, including approval of the final manuscript, and • Agreement to be accountable for all aspects of the work they should be able to take public responsibility for the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or and should have full confidence in the accuracy and integrity integrity of any part of the work are appropriately of the work of other group authors. They will also be investigated and resolved. expected as individuals to complete conflict-of-interest In addition to being accountable for the parts of the work he disclosure forms. or she has done, an author should be able to identify which co-authors are responsible for specific other parts of the work. In addition, authors should have confidence in the NON-AUTHOR CONTRIBUTORS integrity of the contributions of their co-authors. Contributors who meet fewer than all 4 of the above criteria All those designated as authors should meet all four criteria for authorship should not be listed as authors, but they should for authorship, and all who meet the four criteria should be be acknowledged. Examples of activities that alone (without identified as authors. Those who do not meet all four criteria other contributions) do not qualify a contributor for should be acknowledged as contributors (see below). These authorship are acquisition of funding; general supervision of authorship criteria are intended to reserve the status of a research group or general administrative support; and authorship for those who deserve credit and can take writing assistance, technical editing, language editing, and responsibility for the work. The criteria are not intended for proofreading. Those whose contributions do not justify use as a means to disqualify colleagues from authorship who authorship may be acknowledged individually or together as otherwise meet authorship criteria by denying them the a group under a single heading and their contributions should opportunity to meet criterion 2 or 3 (see above). Therefore, be specified (e.g., “served as scientific advisors,” “critically all individuals who meet the first criterion should have the reviewed the study proposal,” “collected data,” “participated opportunity to participate in the review, drafting, and final in writing or technical editing of the manuscript”). approval of the manuscript. Because acknowledgment may imply endorsement by acknowledged individuals of a study’s data and conclusions, 78 Notes for Authors authors are advised to obtain written permission to be acknowledged from all acknowledged individuals.
Publication Ethics & Malpractice Policy 79
Publication Ethics & Malpractice Policy
full professor at the University of Leuven (KU Leuven), Division of Geography and Tourism. She is the director of a Research and Development Unit ‘Association for Tourism Research’, and program director for Erasmus Mundus Master in Sustainable Territorial Development and KU Leuven representative with UNITWIN-UNESCO ([email protected]). Coresponding author: Kaat De Ridder ([email protected]).
author, may also assist the author in improving the PUBLICATION ETHICS manuscript. Promptness JTHSM is committed to maintaining the highest standards of Any invited referee who feels unqualified to review the publication ethics and to supporting ethical research practices research reported in a manuscript submitted to JTHSM or and adheres to the COPE Code of Conduct for Journal knows that its timely review will be impossible should Publishers. The journal editors follow the COPE Code of immediately notify the Editor-in-Chief so that alternative Conduct for Journal Editors and to refer reviewers to reviewers can be contacted. the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers as Confidentiality appropriate. Allegations of misconduct are investigated in Any manuscripts received by JTHSM for review are treated accordance with the COPE Best Practice Guidelines as far as as confidential documents. They are not shown or discussed is practicable. with others except if authorised by the Editor-in-Chief. This journal has adopted a comprehensive publication ethics Standards of objectivity and publication malpractice statement, composed using the Reviews should be conducted objectively. Personal criticism publishing ethics resource kit and in compliance with of the author is unacceptable. Referees should express their Elsevier recommendations and COPE guidelines, as views clearly with appropriate supporting arguments. described in-details bellow. Acknowledgement of sources Reviewers should identify relevant published work that has not been cited by the authors. Any statement that an DUTIES OF THE JTHSM EDITORS observation, derivation, or argument had been previously reported should be accompanied by the relevant citation. A Fair play reviewer should also call to the JTHSM Editor’s attention any Submitted manuscripts are evaluated for their intellectual substantial similarity or overlap between the manuscript content without regard to race, gender, sexual orientation, under consideration and any other published data of which religious belief, ethnic origin, citizenship, or political they have personal knowledge. philosophy of the authors. Disclosure and conflict of interest Confidentiality Privileged information or ideas obtained through peer review The Editor-in-Chief and any editorial staff do not disclose must be kept confidential and not used for personal any information about a submitted manuscript to anyone advantage. Reviewers should not consider evaluating other than the corresponding author, reviewers, potential manuscripts in which they have conflicts of interest resulting reviewers, other editorial advisers, and the publisher, as from competitive, collaborative, or other relationships or appropriate. connections with any of the authors, companies, or Disclosure and conflicts of interest institutions connected to the submission. Unpublished materials disclosed in a submitted manuscript are not used in Editor’s or Reviewers’ own research without the explicit written consent of the author(s). DUTIES OF AUTHORS Publication decisions The Editor-in-Chief of JTHSM is responsible for deciding Reporting standards which of the submitted articles should be published. The Authors reporting results of original research should present Editor-in-Chief may be guided by the policies of the journal’s an accurate account of the work performed as well as an Editorial Board and constrained by such legal requirements objective discussion of its significance. Underlying data as shall then be in force regarding libel, copyright should be represented accurately in the manuscript. A paper infringement and plagiarism. The Editor-in-Chief may confer should contain sufficient detail and references to permit with other editors or reviewers in making this decision. others to replicate the work. Fraudulent or knowingly inaccurate statements constitute unethical behaviour and are unacceptable. DUTIES OF PEER REVIEWERS Originality and Plagiarism The authors should ensure that they have written entirely Contribution to editorial decisions original works, and if the authors have used the work and/or Peer review assists the Editor-in-Chief in making editorial words of others they are responsible to ensure that this has decisions and, through the editorial communication with the 80 Publication Ethics & Malpractice Policy been appropriately cited or quoted. JTHSM systematically SCIENTIFIC MISCONDUCT AND BREACHES OF run submitted papers through plagiarism-detection software PUBLICATION ETHICS (using iThenticate by Turnitin plagiarism checker) to identify possible cases; JTHSM accepts and publishes manuscripts Scientific misconduct includes fabrication, falsification, and that score as “Green” in Similarity Report by Turnitin. plagiarism by the authors. Multiple, redundant or concurrent publication Breaches of publication ethics include failure to reveal An author should not in general publish manuscripts financial conflicts of interest; omitting a deserving author or describing essentially the same research in more than one adding a non-contributing author; misrepresenting journal or primary publication. Parallel submission of the publication status in the reference list (erroneously claiming same manuscript to more than one journal constitutes that a paper is “in-press”); self-plagiarism without unethical publishing behaviour and is unacceptable. attribution; and duplicate or redundant publication. Acknowledgement of sources • Editorial action should be expected in breaches of Proper acknowledgment of the work of others must always publication ethics and cases of scientific misconduct. be given. Authors should also cite publications that have been JTHSM has adopted the principles of, the Committee on influential in determining the nature of the reported work. Publication Ethics (COPE). Any and all authors Authorship of a manuscript submitting a manuscript to JTHSM agree to adhere to the Authorship should be limited to those who have made a ethical guidelines contained in the Notes for Authors, and significant contribution to the conception, design, execution, acknowledges that they are aware of the consequences or interpretation of the reported study. All those who have that may result following breaches of publication ethics. made significant contributions should be listed as coauthors. Consequences include notification of the breach in the Where there are others who have participated in certain journal, retraction of published articles, notification of substantive aspects of the research project, they should be institutional authorities, subsequent institutional named in an Acknowledgement section. The corresponding investigation, and loss of privileges of publishing in the author should ensure that all appropriate co-authors journal. (according to the above definition) and no inappropriate co- • Redundant or duplicate publication is publication of data, authors are included in the author list of the manuscript, and tables, figures, or any other content that substantially that all co-authors have seen and approved the final version overlaps with other material published previously or to be of the paper and have agreed to its submission for published in the future. This includes work published by publication. All submissions should include author’s and all others or any author of the manuscript submitted to co-authors’ – if any – ORCID (compulsory for all JTHSM. When submitting a paper, the corresponding submissions since volume 5, issue 1, 2019). author must make a full statement to the Editor-in-Chief Disclosure and conflicts of interest in the cover letter about all submissions and previous All authors should disclose in their manuscript any financial reports (in any language) that could be regarded as or other substantive conflict of interest that might be redundant or duplicate publication of the same or very construed to influence the results or their interpretation in the similar work. The corresponding author is also manuscript. All sources of financial support for the project responsible for alerting the Editor-in-Chief if the work should be disclosed. includes subjects about which a previous report has been Fundamental errors in published works published or about a manuscript that is under review by, When an author discovers a significant error or inaccuracy in submitted to, in press at, or to be submitted to or published his/her own published work, it is the author’s obligation to in another journal in the future. Any such work must be promptly notify the journal’s Editor-in-Chief and cooperate referred to and referenced in the new paper and a copy of with them to either retract the paper or to publish an the material should be included with the submission as a appropriate erratum. supplemental file. Abstracts presented at scientific meetings (with no press releases and not discussed in detail at a symposium) are not considered pre-published PUBLISHER’S CONFIRMATION material.
In cases of alleged or proven scientific misconduct, • Plagiarism is the use of others’ ideas or words without fraudulent publication or plagiarism the Publisher (School of properly crediting the source. If authors include one or Business & Economics, International Hellenic University), in more sentences verbatim from another source, the close collaboration with the JTHSM Editor-in-Chief, will original source must be cited and the sentence(s) put in take all appropriate measures to clarify the situation and to quotation marks to avoid plagiarism. Authors must not amend the article in question. This includes the prompt use materials of others (text, figures, images, tables) publication of an erratum or, in the most severe cases, the without permission and attribution, including their own complete retraction of the affected work. published work. The Publisher and the Journal do not discriminate on the basis • Overlap detection technology has been implemented by of age, colour, religion, creed, disability, marital status, JTHSM and a number of other journals in the form of veteran status, national origin, race, gender, genetic iThenticate, a software tool created by CrossRef to check predisposition or carrier status, or sexual orientation in its for overlap in submitted manuscripts. iThenticate detects publishing programs, services and activities. possible plagiarism in text using an extensive database of published materials. Manuscripts with excessive duplication will be rejected. Publication Ethics & Malpractice Policy 81
• Editorial action should be expected in cases of scientific misconduct and breaches of publication ethics. Editorial actions that may be taken include notification of the breach in the journal, retraction of published articles, notification of institutional authorities, and loss of privileges of publishing in JTHSM.
COMPLAINTS
The authors who may have a complaint against any of the aspects of their interaction with JTHSMshould, in the first instance, write/e-mail to the Associate Editor. In case it does not resolve the issue, the complaint should be forwarded to the Editor-in-Chief. The Associate Editor and the Editor-in- Chief aim to acknowledge the complaint within 7 days after receiving it. In addition, they should explain to the author the procedure which they will be undertaking to resolve the matter.