The Uses of Pragmatic Literacy in the Medieval Principalities of Moldavia

CEU eTD Collection of the Central European University European Central of the Studies Medieval Department of (from the State Foundation to the End ofthe Sixteenth Century) in the Medieval Principalities of Moldavia andWallachia of Moldavia Principalities in the Medieval The UsesofPragmatic Literacy August 9,2009 Goina Mariana Goina PhD thesis Budapest, 1 CEU eTD Collection Chapter 6 Whois writing? Literacy ...... 142 and scribes ...... 104 documents issuers of documents. The involvement of the clerical milieu in the producing of (pragmatic) Chapter 5. Diversification of documents’ producers: urban, regional and local offices as Chapter 4. Trade and itsimpact on the development ...... 71 of written culture Wallachia: treaties and political letters...... 46 3.Chapter Foreign influence on disseminationthe of literary in skills Moldavia and Chapter 2. Social Changes and Dissemination of the Written Record...... 13 Chapter 1. Introduction...... 4 status, and family ...... 145 relations early Their the career, during period: in chanceries prince’s the employed Functionaries 6.2 6.1 Early Moldavian and Wallachian chanceries...... 142 5.6 The role of clerical milieu as producer of pragmatic documents...... 136 5.5 Documents at produced village level:Charters attesting tolanded rights property...... 132 ...... 127 state dignitaries. 5.4 Land commissioned charters by Wallachianthe and Moldavian regional institutions and and Wallachian noblemen in the commissioning and production of documents...... 117 5.3 Regional institutions and high-ranking state officials: Theinvolvementof Moldavian 5.2 Wallachian and Moldavian urban institutions as producers ...... 113 of land charters with foreign institutions...... 105 5.1 Urban writing offices: Communication of the Moldavian and Wallachian urban offices 4.4 From the office of the prince to the registers ...... 95 of the merchants 4.3 Use of written evidence to request goods for consumption...... 87 4.2 Trade conflicts...... 78 4.1 Commercial privileges and ...... 74 regulations a as function device of their support...... 61 and documents Written information. political of exchange oral The 3.3 3.2 Moldavian and Wallachian political ...... 56 documents: Letters 3.1 Moldavian and Wallachian political documents: treaties...... 47 Women’s right toland inheritance and its relation to writing...... 36 Newpractices2.5. ofland: regulating ownership the fraternal and perfection. adoption changing and reinforcing social ...... 27 boundaries 2.4. Dissemination of documentswritten into lowersocial Writingcategories: as a toolin 2.3 Changes in social structure and the multiplication of documents...... 21 2.2 The early period of state foundation: The scarcity of documents ...15 and their recipients Moldavia...... 13 2.1 The first known occurrences of writing produced in the territories of Wallachia and 1.2 The language diversity within the Moldavian and Wallachian documents...... 9 1.1 A note on sources...... 7 5.3.2 The Moldavian ...... 123 Principality. 5.3.1 The Wallachian evidence...... 118 5.1.2 The urban evidence from Wallachia...... 111 5.1.1 The Moldavian evidence...... 106 3.2. 2 Written documents as testimonies of political communication: Wallachia...... 58 3.2.1 Written documents as testimonies of political ...... 56 communication: Moldavia. 3.1.2 The Medieval Wallachian Principality...... 52 3.1.1 The Medieval Principality of Moldavia...... 48 Table of Contents 2 CEU eTD Collection Bibliography...... 209 Chapter 8. Conclusions...... 197 literacy. Orality...... 177 Chapter 7. From the oral customs to the written word. Literacy versus illiteracy and quasi- 8.5 Oral culture/Literate culture...... 206 8.4 Who was writing?...... 205 8.3 The process of dissemination of ...... 203 written practices 8.2 Foreign relations and trade: essential factors for the early written culture...... 200 8.1 Land charters as promoters of pragmatic ...... 197 literacy 7.3 Last wills...... 194 7.2 Administrative communication: Written versus oral?...... 188 7.1 Land disputes procedures: oral customs as opposed to written documents...... 177 6.6 The local sphere: The producers of the documents issued at the local level...... 170 ...... 167 chanceries 6.5 Scribes of the Latin documents who were active in the Moldavian and Wallachian state 6.4 Education of the literate personnel...... 162 century...... 152 6.3 The employees of the state chanceries and theirpractices after the turn of the sixteenth 3 CEU eTD Collection Europe (Poland, Hungary, and Bohemia),” In Bohemia),” and Hungary, (Poland, Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University AnnaPress, Adamska, 2002); “The IntroductionofCentral in Writing 3 Medieval Society HungarianNobility,” in (Turnhout: Brepols, 1999), 165-92; ErikFügedi,“Verba Volant…OralCulture and Literacy Medievalamong Medieval Russia,” (Turnhout: Brepols, 2004). For regional contexts see SimonFranklin, “Literacy Documentationand inEarly University Press, 1986); Arnved Nedkvitne, 2 ManuscriptTransmission in Byzantium and Beyond Europe Variorum Reprints, 1986),1-25; IstvánGyörgy Tóth, University idem,Press, 1987); The The BoydellPress, 1997);Jack Goody, (Turnhout: Brepols, 2008) eds., Renswoude, van Irene and Mostert, Mostert, ed., Mostert, Interpretation intheEleventhTwelfth and Century University Press, 1989), BrianStock, Blackwell, 1979); Rosamond McKitterick, 1 write. century. sixteenth until endof the state of the from appearance the focus on thewill I socialWallachia. and Moldavia of principalities medieval inthe literacy and of dissemination cultural factors that contributed to the adoption and use of writing mentality I delineate the propensity of people to consider the use of writing for with, and mastery of, cultural activities in which reading and writing are used.” familiarity of level some “implies which latter, the with as writing”) and/or inreading ability someof level (“concerning former the with mylessconcerned Iam literacy. In approach, social and cultural phenomena associated with the uses of writing.” literate mentality as the societal impact of the cultural literacy, broadly defined as “the sum of Michael tracing “the what Clanchy calls growth mentality.”of literate the this Iunderstand Ibidem, 4. Ibidem, Franklin, On the subject of medieval literacy see Michael T. Clanchy T. Michael see literacy of medieval subject the On Chapter 1. Introduction 1 (Budapest: CEU Press, 2000),Karl Heidecker, ed., Following Simon Franklin, I start from the distinction between technical and cultural technical and between from distinction I start the Franklin, Following Simon My work concentrates on the appearance and dissemination of written documents, The term literacy involves, butitis byno meanslimited to, abilitythe readand/or to The aim of my isrevealthesis and to behind understand processes the appearance and Writing, Society andCulture inEarly Rus, New toMedieval CommunicationApproaches (Turnhout: Brepols, 2000); Catherine Holmes and JudithWaring, eds., Speculum Kings, Bishops, Nobles and Burghers inMedieval Hungary ; Richard Britnell, ed., Britnell, Richard 60 (1985): 1-38; Idem, The Logicof Writing and the Organization of Society The Interface between the Written and the Oral The Implications of Literacy: Written Language and Models of Strategies ofStrategies Writing: Studies onTextand Trust inthe Middle Ages The Carolingians andtheWritten Word New Approaches toMedieval Communication The Social Consequences of Literacy in Medieval Scandinavia Pragmatic Literacy,EastandWest 1200-1300 (Leiden: Brill, 2002). 3. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983); Marco 1983); Press, University Princeton (Princeton: Writing, Society and Culture in Early Rus, c.950-1300 Literacy andWritten Culture in EarlyModern Central (Turnhout: Brepols, 1999);Petra Schulte, Marco Charters and Usethe the Written of Word in , From Memory , Writtento Record 3 Therefore, by literate , ed. J. M. Bak. (London: (Cambridge: Cambridge (Cambridge: Cambridge (Cambridge: Cambridge Literacy, Education and , ed. Marco Mostert Marco ed. , 2 (Woodbridge: (Oxford: 4 CEU eTD Collection 6 See Britnell, readers.” opposed to literary manuscripts that “had the capacity to instruct, edify orentertain anindefinite numberof administrativeor operation legal andwere produced some use to the for of administratora particular property-owner”or “contributed as that those documents pragmatic as defined who Britnell, Richard seealso documents 5 4 literature.” creative than rather business day-to-day social changes is tofocus on “the development of literacy for andfrom practical purposes of dominated by context oral practices. keeping? traditional andmeansother of communication record andhow did theirinhabitants begin getaccustomed to with usethe of insteadwriting of traces of written records within the territories of these two medieval principalities, why, when means. as to otheropposed oral, andrecord, customary communication organization of their states, societies and churches have strong similarities societies aswell.Thissaid,organization andchurches have strong states, theirof the and religion, Greek-Orthodox and language Romance same the share They Orthodox). or Catholic whether them, neighboring states the to compared (as Europe Southeastern for and appeared by development.Both political states century, mid-fourteenth the late unusually this type of hasdocuments yet not been inapproached historiography.Romanian issuedforon documents pragmatic This purposes. choice hasbeen by reinforced factthat the clearly. most literacy of consequences social the “reveals in his terms) literacy, administrative (or literacy practical that stating thesis this endorses pavedmodels that cultural way forthe theuseof in changes dominantwill the the skills but literary (toacertain trace degree) mastered adoptionthe and growth of a literate mentality in medievalWallachia and Moldavia? Nedkvitne, Clanchy Nedkvitne, As from the fourth century until the second half of the fourteenth century there are no In these terms, the study will not be limited to a survey of those who technically Following Clanchy again, I suggest that the best way of studying these cultural best suggestFollowing cultural and the way that studyingof these Clanchy again, I I have chosen to study Moldavia and Wallachia due to their relatively parallel cultural , From Record Memory toWritten The Social Consequences of Literacy in Medieval Scandinavia The Social Consequences of Literacy in Medieval Scandinavia Pragmatic Literacy, East andWest, East Literacy, Pragmatic , 3. On the conceptual distinction between pragmatic versus literary versus pragmatic between distinction conceptual the On 3. , w 3. ritten documents by many, in a social 5 In the same vein, Arnved Nedkvitne Arnved vein, same the In 6 ” My choice has been to concentrate to been has choice ” My , 11. , 242. 4 In short: What accounts for 5 CEU eTD Collection displaced, oral displaced, oral customary Iendwith8 delineating mainpractices. of chapter the conclusions oractuallyfunctionednext to, show written how and reinforced culture to correspondence written cultures in and oral between interdependence and inter-relations the I explore the 7, chapter In societies. two principalities. in thetwo of documents active producers the scribes, the survey of 6contains a Chapter I focus on court records,begin be among to produced lowerlevel groups, social other than prince’sthe chancery? wills and administrative written practices in time andamongvarious strata. When, social howand why documents did Chapter 4contains a survey of correspondencethe and involving trade marketexchanges. and states the with intelligence and information of in exchanges and ownership. 3contains Chapter analyses of literacy in rolethe of maintaining foreign relations and attesting from land charters major writs period: of the documents the source written my aroundthesework three domains incorporating use the of writing. with attestingcharters land foreign possession, Thus, and relations trade. Ichosetostructure level surviving exclusively producedatthe princes’the chancery of documents deals almost chancery. village exceptionally. survive regional,documents Urban, typeonly of or The the two principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia were issued at the level of the central state centuries. lasted ten foralmost hiatusgreat that a after use of documentswritten in territoriesthe Wallachianthe of andMoldavian principalities centuries.was defined Thestarting institutions by point of period the state creation of andthe principalities. two inthe culture written my thesis highlights the differences and similarities in the reception and dissemination of With chapter 5, I introduce a diachronic dimension, focusing on the dissemination of focusing dissemination on the adiachronic dimension, I introduce 5, With chapter isMy argument developedI begin through insix chapters. chapter2byfocusing on Almost until the end of the sixteenth century, the main bulk of surviving material from and sixteenth the between fourteenth the period is mainly the The time frame covered burgs in the region. the in 6 CEU eTD Collection during during the fifteenth and sixteenththe centuries) (Bucharest: Socecu Company, and 1905), XXV. ú reflect the actual actual numberreflect the onceproduced. issued of documents Even in charters princely the prince’s chanceries. Consequently,low number the local of attested today notdocuments does as having only a provisional value aswell and required subsequent confirmation through the Landsources. contemporary titles issuedatthe urban, local regional and level were perceived as important and not a single one of them survived, although they are mentioned in other maintained by the prince’s treasury or by monastic institutions, were, it appears, not perceived such asregisters written documents, some practices; of time preservation and effects filtering lost. are tothem addressed those Wallachianssidedby Moldavianshave correspondence: documents while andsent survived, preservedasone- are letters these period, the entire researched Moreover,throughout letters. commercial and political of mainly consist archives foreign from us to down come have that from letters territoriesthe of principalities two the survive. The remainder of documents the administrative and writs charters, land as such transactions official its and ownership land andvery were few preservedin hands.documents private attesting Thus,mainly documents times; medieval from documents laymen’s) some (and own their preserved that institutions 7 from century. archives date nineteenth earliestthe the extant 1.1 Anoteonsources thesis. this IoanBogdan, i XVI i , vol.1 (1413-1508) (Documents concerning Wallachian relations withHungary and townthe of Bra I am aware that in this survey, the use of written documents contain a bias through the Out of this situation, two main categories of sources were available to me: No urban or state archives have survived from archives medieval No urban from Romanian state havesurvived principalities; the or x x Documente Privitoare la Rela letters preserved in foreign archives, which I refer to as ‘external’ as ‘external’ documents. I refer which to archives, preservedinforeign letters now; from documents ‘internal’ termed be will convenience for that principalities the of territory the on preserved titles land Ġ iile ğă rii Române ú ti cu Bra 7 ú Monasteries were the only local only werethe Monasteries ovul ú i cu ğ ara Ungureasc ă însec. XV ú ov 7 CEU eTD Collection 10 447-56. centuries), seventeenth and sixteenth the from documents Slavo-Moldavian (Unedited (1964): 335-62; 3; Lucia Djamo, “Documente slavo- moldovene century), sixteenth the from chancellery Moldavian ofthe documents (Unpublished cancelariei moldovene Analele Stiintifice ale Universitatiicenturies), “Al. seventeenth I. the Cuza”to Istorie fifteenth the from documents (Moldavian lea” - XVII- al XV-lea al secolele din seventeenth centuries), seventeenth moldovene Stiintifice ale Universitatii “Al. I. Cuza.” I. “Al. Universitatii ale Stiintifice 9 (Bucharest: Editura Academiei, 1952), vols. 1-4(Henceforth DIR A). St (henceforth DRH A); for the sixteenth century see Ion Iona see Ion century sixteenth the for DRH A); (henceforth L. Academiei, 1953), vol.5, 6; (henceforth DIR B); forMoldova see Constantin Cihodaru, I. Capro eds., Hurmuzaki and Veresscollections. Documente deIstorieaRomaniei comecomplement edition the of various that in to periodicals published documents Historica (1457-1504). Consequently,for periods the uncovered bythe (henceforth DRH B). See also IonIona Documenta Romaniae Historica in reign reign of Michael Brave(1593-1601). the the to century fourteenth the from – charters of collection Wallachian entire the comprises 8 archives, preserved inRomanian charters is in Themost reliable edition material the of has beenedited the editions. several Wallachian from documents (includingextant theirformatand style). overcome the problems bias raised by evidence Icorrelate indirect with preservation data the as shown by production the documentsof subsequent re-confirming ownership. Inorder to chanceries, whose survival was of utmost importance for their owners, were frequently lost, The documents were mainly edited in such periodicals as periodicals such in edited mainly were documents The For Wallachia see Petre Panaitescu, Damaschin Mioc, Mioc, Damaschin Panaitescu, see Petre Wallachia For Densu ă ù nescu, D. Prodan, eds., Documenta Romaniae Historica Documenta Romaniae imanschi, eds., Documente privind Istoria României ú I have based my findings on the analysis of edited sources. The bulk of Moldavian and the haveused I archives, foreign the in preserved documents the As concerns ianu, Nicolae, Densu Nicolae, ianu, ú , I used ti inedite din secolele al XVI lea lea XVI al secolele din inedite ti Documenta RomaniaeHistorica A:Moldova Documente de Istorie aRomaniei Documente deIstorie ú ti dinti veacul alXVI -lea (Din Arhiva Metohului Sf.Mormânt din Constantinopol)” Studii Revista de istorie Documente privind Istoria României ú ianu,ed. B : ğ ara Româneasc ú Documente privitore la istoria românilor. Colec . cu, L. L 9 See, for instance, Nicolae Grigora Nicolae instance, for See, 10 (Documents concerning Romanian History) (Bucharest: Editura does not extend beyond the reign of Stephen the Great Special attention attention waspaid Special partoftheHurmuzaki the to ú i al XVII” (Unedited Moldavian documents from the sixteenth and sixteenth the from documents Moldavian (Unedited XVII” i al 21.2 (1968): 243-55; IoanCapro ă]ă 8 Unfortunately, the Moldavian collection assembled collection Moldavian the Unfortunately, rescu Ionescu, Barbu Câmpina, Eugen St ă Documenta RomaniaeHistorica (Bucharest: EdituraAcademiei, 1975), vols.1-8, 11 ù 37 (1991): 171-204; P. Mihail . “Documente inedite ale tefan tefan ú Studii Revista de istorie cu, L. L cu, ù . I have also surveyed small editions of (Bucharest: Editura Academiei, 1980), vols.1-3 tef (Documents concerning Romanian History) ú ti inediteti din secolulal XVI-lea - al XVII -lea” ă nescu, Ioana Constantinescu, et. al., eds., et. al., Constantinescu, Ioana nescu, ă]ă rescu Ionescu, Barbu Câmpina, Eugen Câmpina, Barbu Ionescu, rescu ú , Ion Capro Ion , ú u, “Documente moldovene , Studii Revist Romanoslavica, Analele Documenta Romaniae Romanoslavica ú Ġ u, “Documente u, ia Hurmuzaki ă , nescu, D.Prodan, which which roughly ă ú de istorie u and 10 (1964): 17.2 ú ti 8 CEU eTD Collection Tocilescu, the century, from short reigns such as those of those as such reigns short from century, the Socecu,1905), no.22 (1530), no.23 (1530), no.24 (c.1531-2), while all others the survive from second the half of documents from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in the town archive ofBra archive town the in centuries sixteenth and fifteenth the from documents Fond POB, Document no. 552 (Catalog number 665); Three documents are surviving from the reign of Petru reign the from Rare surviving are documents Three 665); number (Catalog 552 no. Document POB, Fond 14 200 (1436, June 9). Steven Great) the (Iasi: Via 13 documents) (Vienna: n.p., 1931) 12 Bra sixteenth centuries) (Bucharest: Atelierul Grafic I.V. Socecu, 1902). See also idem, Seealso 1902). Socecu, I.V. Grafic Atelierul (Bucharest: centuries) sixteenth 15 11 Wallachia) Ardealului, Moldovei of of seventy-oneletters only surviving ten were produced in Slavonic. followed the princely use of languages. Consequently, Latin was dominantin their letters. Out Ioan Bogdan,vol. 1 (Bucharest: Academia Român I. Alexandru and Tocilescu Odobescu, vols. 1-4. by and SupplementGrigore IIcontaining ed.. documentsand for yearsthe 1510 to 1703 collected collected and 1819 ed. by to 1518 years the for documents containing (Documents concerning the history of the Romanians. Hurmuzaki Collection), vol. 1-3. With in their German sometimes used well) as noblemen (and princes Moldavian Slavonic, exclusively in Latin, especially thefifteenthduring century. issuedin were Slavonic. documents, administrative or charters both needs, internal language in both Romanian Principalities. Accordingly, documents the concerned with Moldavian documents were produced in Latin. However, Slavonic settled in as the state Moldavian documentsmedieval during the TheWallachian earliestperiod. two andone documents andWallachian withintheMoldavian diversity 1.2 Thelanguage Bogdan Ioan Latin, German or Hungarian. For the Slavonic letters, Ihave mainly used the works edited by exchanged byWallachian and subjectsMoldavian with burgersTransylvanian issuedin and letters personal and commercial, juridical, political, includes which Iorga, by edited collection The first surviving letters date from the reign of Stephan the Young (1517-1527). See Cluj State Archives, State Cluj See (1517-1527). Young the of Stephan reign the from date letters surviving first The Mihai Cost Grigorie Tocilescu, Grigorie IoanBogdan, ú ú i 16 ú ovul , (see Ioan Bogdan, Ioan (see , (Documents and (Documents The foreign correspondence of the Moldavian princes was conducted almost wasconducted of princes Moldavian The foreign the correspondence More than half a dozenlanguages were used for writing withinWallachian and ú i cu 534 documente istorice slavo-române 1346-1603, (Bucharest: Cartea Româneasc ă ğ chescu, 11 ara Ungureasc Documente and Grigorie Tocilescu. ú 534 documente istorice slavo-romane 1346-1603 Documentele moldovene i ğă Documente moldovene Regesta rii-Române Ġ a româneasc ú i regeste privitoare la Rela ă , . concerning Wallachian relations with Bra with relations Wallachian concerning ú ti. ă (Documents concerning the History of Transylvania, Moldavia and Moldavia Transylvania, of History the concerning (Documents , 1932), vol.2, no. 179 (1433, March 15), 187no. (1434,Apr.21), no. ă , 1933), vols.1-6. 12 ù ú tefan L tefan ti înainte de ú ti dinsec XV si XVI în arhivul Bra ă , 1900)); Andrei Veress, ă Ġ cust iile ă ù ğă , Bogdan Lapu , Bogdan no. 505, no. 506, no. 508, no. 509, no. 510. no. 509, no. 508, no. 506, no. 505, no. tefan cel Mare rii Române 13 (534 Slavonic-Romanian historical ú Moldavian noblemen generally ti cu Bra ú ú Documente privitoare la istoria (Moldavian documents before documents (Moldavian neanu, and Ioan the Terrible, See Terrible, the Ioan and neanu, ov and Hungary: The fifteenth and fifteenth The Hungary: ov and ú ov) (Bucharest: Editura Libr Editura ov)(Bucharest: 14 ú Rela In additionLatin to and ú ovulu ovul Ġ iile ú i (Moldavian i Ungaria: în secolul ğă Supplement rii Române I ú ti cu ă riei 9 CEU eTD Collection fifteenth century, most probably it was written by the end of the sixteenth century).1307(1592 ), no. 1456 (1600), no. 1454 (the letter is not dated,Iorga dated it by mistake tothe end of the correspondence concerning foreign affairs and trade, only 128 letters are in Latin, and the rest (360) in Slavonic. in (360) rest the and Latin, 18 in are letters 128 only trade, and affairs foreign concerning correspondence 17 16 Febr.2), no.738 (1540,June 23), no.742 (1540,Sept.12). a României. Colec (Documents and letters from the Transylvanian urban archives (Bistri the second half of the sixteenth century, eight were issued in Hungarian, in issued were eight century, sixteenth the of half second the addressed by Moldavianthe state and urban to officials Transylvanianthe burg of Bistri letters of twenty-one Out for Latin. substitution asagradual written intopractices brought have been seems area.Hungarian to inthe language conventionally used tothe attached Romanian. in werewritten notes whilehis personal in Slavonic, were he commissioned The charters 1582-1591) inhis employedsurviving thirty Latin, letters German, Hungarian. Greek,and II instance, theLame (1574-1577, For influence Petru of underthe Reformation.the abroad, was stimulated by Presumably, movement Wallachia. languages ofvernacular the use the be issued began Greekand Polish, vernacularRomanian Hungarian, to inMoldavia and 115 documents only four in written Latin survive. correspondence from Wallachian noblemen wasalmost exclusively in as of Slavonic, a out recorded in German. See Nicolae Iorga, SeeNicolae in German. recorded 15 Latin. in seldom and in Slavonic out carried mostly was relations foreign concerning correspondence Even needs. communication internal as well as external both in Wallachia century. sixteenth the endthe until German of in was Moldavian centers foreignissuedfrom urban redacted entities communication with letters. andprivate commercial, administrative, See Iorga princely surviving entire of the out (1577-1583), Turk the of Mihnea reign the to foundation state the From See for instance, Iorga instance, Seefor For instance, Petru Rare After the mid-sixteenth century, the Moldavian principality continued to remain Moldavian principality After the mid-sixteenth the century, continued to After the mid-sixteenth After mid-sixteenth in the as language configuration century, the expanded documents Conversely, dominates Slavonic largethe majority extantof the documents in , Acte ú i scrisori, Ġ ia Hurmuyaki, , Acte , Acte ú no. 1000 (1559, Apr.29), no. 1012 (1559, Nov.1), 1295 no. (1589, July 13), no. ’ inquiries about his family left in behind Transylvania during exile werehis ú i scrisori, i vol. 15. 1(1358-1600). (Bucharest:Academia Român Acte no. 617 (1529, Sept. 5). ú i scrisori din arhivele ora 16 15 In contrast, with few exceptions, the entire Ġ a, Bra ú elor ardelene (Bistri ú ov, Sibiu),in ă , 1911), no. 733(1540, 18 Documente deistorie six in German, Ġ a, Bra ú ov, Sibiu) 17 The Ġ a in 10 19 CEU eTD Collection 25 no. 1457) and Cotnari.See 24 23 used vernacular Hungarian from 1559,See Iorga and was a letterof thanks forthe gifts he had received. See Iorga 22 Literatus. 21 (Romanian documents from the sixteenth century) (Bucharest: EdituraAcademiei, 1979), no. 110 (1600). private citizen. See Gheorghe Chivu, Alexandru Mare Alexandru Chivu, SeeGheorghe citizen. private 20 year), 1106no. (1564,Febr.4), no. 1303 (1591, July 18-28), no. 1312 (1592, Sept.26). German documents in the last years of the sixteenth century. sixteenth the of years last in the documents German Moldavian documents in Empire. Ottoman the Romanian itsHungarian for the Danubian diplomatic correspondence well with with principalities as as began to be chancery used Transylvanian the princely is that useinthearea,asitits known broader issued at thePresumably, use the by of Moldavian Hungarian the andnoblemen stimulatedprinces by was urban level Hungarian from especially Lame reign the the II 1582-1591). of (1574-1577, Peter together with 19 Moldavia. in Conversely, first Wallachian the Hungariandocument isattested written only 1521, in Campulung, of town Wallachian the in issued was inRomanian letter extant first The use of an century.sixteenth useofbroad The early Romanian.switched towards and Slavonic with the Polish state, such as Prince Ieremia Movila (1595-1600) or Chancellor Stroici. isforprinces those especially true andnoblemenwith close cultural and relations political employed as inforeignwell the issueddocuments byMoldavian andnoblemen.princes This be to began Polish century, sixteenth the of end the By towns. Moldavian certain in least urbanlevel personnel the at at availableliterate easiest scribes were the vernacular century, Romanian in six Chivu, Three surviving letters were issued in Suceava and one each from the town of Neam town the from each one and Suceava in issued were letters surviving Three Andrei Veress, Andrei Thefirst Hungarian princely letter was issued during Lapusneanu’s reign, in 1558. It was addressed toBistri Iorga Three letters were issued by urban institutions, two by military administrators of Suceava town, and one by a Iorga 25 , Acte , Acte , Acte almost half a century earlier than the first Romanian documents issued from issued documents Romanian first the than earlier acentury half almost Consequently, has Romanian as been noted, was seldom employed in Moldavia. In Wallachia, language use continued to be In Wallachia, language more uptothe usecontinuedrestricted to end of the Documente Române ú ú i scrisori, i scrisori, i Documente privitoare la istoria Ardealului, Moldovei 20 and only one in Latin. in one only and no. 998(1559, April 22), no. 1002 (1559, May 6), no. 1015 (1560, only ofdate the no.1210 (1572, July 30). The Latin letterwas writtenby princelythe Stephanusscribe 23 ibidem ú ti dinsecolul alXVI-lea, , 1458. , Acte 21 The Moldavian began and noblemenprinces using ú , eds. ú no. 87. no. i scrisori i Documente Române , Acte , Acte , no. 1000 (1559). ú ú i scrisori i 24 ğă It seems that by the end of the rii-Române , ú ti din secolul al XVI-lea no. 99; Moldavian noblemen Moldavian 99; no. Ġ (Iorga ú t, vol. 3, VII. 3, vol. , Acte , Acte ú i scrisori i , Ġ 11 22 a CEU eTD Collection single document could employ three languages. See, forinstance, 33 32 49. 31 57. 54,no. no. 53b, no. 53, no. 52, no. 51, no. 46, no. 30 1270, no. 1296, 1300, no. 1333, no. no. 1342, 1389. no. 29 28 560,556, no. 575,no. 564, no. no. 596, no. 599, 634, no. 635. no. 12 (1594-1602),vol. (Bucharest: n. p., 1903), 506,no. 525,no. no. 526, 531,no. 533,no. no. 544, no. 548, no. wars and conquests of Michael the Brave) in Romanian). in written those (for in Slavonic and Hungarian) in written letters the (for Latin in remained only have begun to been languagerecently of used asthe protocol record: the and eschatocol had languages vernacular that suggest documents these of characteristics the Nevertheless, Michel Brave the was preservedin may Vienna explain this exceptional situation. only The fact reignthe of Michael during the (1593-1600). personal Brave the that archive of 27 dignitaries. Romanian was often used in informal notes and receipts made by the prince the by made receipts and notes in informal used often was Romanian Also, he frequently signed in Latin, Greek and Romanian. and Greek in Latin, signed frequently he Also, (8). Hungarian in German (2)and produced were Greek origin, man of a by BanMihalcea, instance,commissioned ten surviving languages the Slavonic For wereemployed. documents and Greek as well as Romanian Hungarian, German, noblemen, Wallachian by issued letters well in as note a signed Romanian. prince in 1598, ten documents were issued in four inHungarian, Latin, in one German, Wallachian the by commissioned letters sixteen surviving in the instance, For Wallachia. in in broadened various written use languages Michael Brave, the the a variety of documents of 26 from 1579. Even more, the address of the Hungarian documents was sometimes written in Latin and Slavonic, thus a protocol. Closing Chivu, Chivu, Iorga,Acte relative la R Chivu, Nicolae Iorga, ed., Iorga, Nicolae Veress, Thus, the diversity of languages inisThus, Wallachia employed diversity of inMoldaviathe the attested Documente Române Documente Române Documente Române Documente privitoare laistoria Ardealului,Moldovei 31 26 33 Only in the last decade of the sixteenth century, mainly under the reign of reign the under mainly century, sixteenth the of decade last in the Only Acte relative la R ă zboaiele ú ú ú ti din secolul al XVI-lea, ti dinsecolul alXVI-lea, ti dinsecolul alXVI-lea, ú i Cuceririle lui Mihai Viteazul, no. 800, no. 847, 1154,no. no. 1155, no. ă zboaiele 28 Correspondingly, receiptsin the notes, and twenty-five Documente privitoare la istoria Românilor. Colec ú i cuceririle lui Mihai Voda Viteazul no. 20, no. 23, no. 35, no. 37, no. 43b, no. 45, no. 47,no. 45,no. no. 43b, no. 37, no. 35, no. 23, 20, no. no. , no. 17 b, no. 21, no. 24, no. 26, no. 27, no. 40, no. 43, no. 40, no. 27, no. 26, no. 24, no. 21, 17 b,no. , no. no.17. ú i Iorga ğă rii-Române , Acte ú i scrisori i 29 ú Furthermore, vernacular Furthermore, ti, vol. 2, no.136 (1579). no.136 2, vol. (Documents related to the , No. 1280. Ġ ia Hurmuzaki,ia 30 and his 27 as 12 32 CEU eTD Collection (Leiden: Brill, 1985), 85. 37 1908): 311-61. ei” (The inscriptions from Cetatea Alb Române Iorga, “Contribu Iorga, Nicolae also See 1958). Academiei, Editura (Bucharest: Great) the ofStephan time the from objects art and Moldavian state chancellery), state Moldavian Leon see information more For ù Good. the of Alexandru reign the during century, fifteenth of the decades first 36 Berza, Scrisori domne Scrisori Iorga, See Nicolae of Câmpulung. church the in located was It prince. Wallachian second the Alexandru, 35 district of Arge României. Jude Wallachia in 1405. In Moldavia, the first extant manuscript is of a slightly later date: it was it date: later a slightly is of manuscript extant first the Moldavia, In in 1405. Wallachia Danube. of the bank left the on himself established Nicopolis, of battle the after presumably who, Nicodim, writing. any bear not did tombstones and churches early the apparently chancellery; princely in the produced titles land the antedates evidence was found in the Curtea deArge 34 graffiti dating from 1351 Wallachia acouple of territory of are inthe instanceswriting of produced first surviving The century. mid-fourteenth the to up endeavor written for evidence no is there Principalities, Moldavia Wallachia and of producedintheterritories ofwriting 2.1 Thefirstknownoccurrences the Walllachian Prince Nicolae Alexandru. Prince Nicolae Walllachian the imanschi and Georgeta Ignat, “Constituirea cancelariei statului feudal moldovenesc” (The foundation ofthe foundation (The moldovenesc” feudal statului cancelariei “Constituirea Ignat, Georgeta and imanschi See Emil Turdeanu, Emil See According to to According The first funerary inscription dating from November 16, 1364 (6873) was found on the tombstone of Nicolae of tombstone the on found was (6873) 1364 16, November from dating inscription funerary first The The first knownWallachian grafitti, relating to the death of Prince Basarab at Câmpulung in September1, 1351 Record Chapter 2. Social Changes and Dissemination of the Written Repertoriul monumentelor 2.34 (1911-1912): 453-87; Ioan Bogdan, “Inscrip Monastic scribal activity began in Wallachian monasteries only monk only Serbian the with monasteries in began Wallachian activity scribal Monastic After the withdrawal of the Romans from the territories of the medieval medieval Romanian of the from territories the Romans the of withdrawal After the ú ú ù Ġ ti ) (Bucharest: Editura Academiei, 1994), 53. ul istoric Arge Ġ imanschi and Ignat, the funerary inscriptions began to be employed in Moldavia only from the from only Moldavia in employed be to began inscriptions funerary the Ignat, and imanschi ii la istoria bisericii noastre” (Contributions to the history of our church), our of history the to (Contributions noastre” bisericii istoria la ii (Princely letters) (V letters) (Princely 37 His first knownmanuscript, a Slavonic was Gospelbook, copied in Études des littérature roumaine et d’écrits slaves et grecs des Princpautés Roumaines Anuarul Institutului deIstorie si Arheologie A.D. Xenopol 34 ú (sec. 14– 1848) and afunerary inscription from onthe 1364 recorded tombstone of ú church.See Constantin B ú i obiectelori deart ă ă lenii de Munte: Neamul Românesc, 1912). Românesc, Neamul deMunte: lenii and its Moldavian rulership), (Medieval and Modern Romanian Inscriptions. The historical The Inscriptions. Romanian Modern and (Medieval 35 ă din timpul lui Conversely,in Moldavia,no survivingwritten Ġ iile de la Cetatea Alb ă 36 lan, Inscrip ù Analele Academiei Române tefan cel Mare Ġ ii medievale ăú i st (Repertory of monuments ă ú pânirea Moldovei asupra i din Epoca modern 9(1972): 115; Mihai Analele Academiei 2.30 (1907- ă a 13 CEU eTD Collection 42 (Bucharest: Editura Academiei, 1994), 53. (Medieval and early modern Romanian inscriptions. The historical county Arge of county historical The inscriptions. Romanian modern early and (Medieval Constantin B See Basarab. Prince Wallachian first of the of death year the of the as 1351 give grafitti creation the Wallachian from first The world. Chronology, Byzantine old the to according dated usually were charters Moldavia, 41 charter see DRH B, vol.1, no.1. Cuman origins foundationat the of Wallachianthe state) (Bucharest: Humanitas, 2007). For thefirst surviving Vod Land and Service Medievalin Hungary (London: Palgrave, 2000), 92; Neagu Djuvara, istoriei românilor, 40 ways social various the strata. in writingreached which intendexplore to the set of factors that led to the proliferation of written records and to survey land in relation to purposes of the their ownership, requiredit. use,and thecontextsthat I inwas produced 1384. 39 fourteenth-centurythe Hungarian chronicle). to according years firstBasarabachievedindependence Wallachian the after (thirty-nine ruler Turdeanu, See influence. Bulgarian strong ofa tradition, calligraphic Moldavian the established he century fifteenth the 38 Alexandru. of prince, Nicolae Wallachian secondthe year werealreadyfrom first the of issued reign 1351-1352, the thatcharters indicates however awhole.” as for society reaching far- most of the aresome of title land bytheregistration of inthe tenure involved changes authority.As Jack Goody has noticed: “Of all legalthe writingthat procedures affects, the by princes’ the andvalidated chancellery by wereproduced the charters The ownership. land confirming and tothetransferrights charters exclusively of of property consist related documents for pragmatic in purposes both principalities The surviving are documents almost useof the introduced that chancellery prince’s was the formation. It state to connected closely copied in by 1424 Moldavianthe scribe Gravriil, son of Uric. See DRH A, vol.1, no.1. DRH B,vol.1, no.2: c.1351, Sept. 1-1352, Aug. 31(6860); Inthe medievalPrincipalities of Wallachia and Gheorghe Popa-Lisseanu, ed., Goody, Fifteen religious manuscripts, copied by Gavriil, son of Uric, are surviving from Moldavia. In the first half of half first the In Moldavia. from surviving are Uric, of son by Gavriil, copied manuscripts, religious Fifteen ă , un, voievod de origine Cuman In following,the Ishallidentify institutions governmental usedthe that written word The origins of The inorigins PrincipalitiesWallachia of written culture the andMoldaviaof are Logic of Writing Études des littérature roumaine etd’écrits slaves et grecs des Princpautés Roumaines, ă lan, Inscrip vol.11.(Bucharest: Biblioteca Român Ġ ii medievale 42 154. Cronica pictat ă la începuturile ú i din Epoca modern 39 The first extant charter wasissued Thein firstextant inWallachia charter 1369 ă de la Viena ğă rii Romîne 40 ă , 1937), 22, 76,89. See also Martin Rady,Nobility, Aninterpolation in from acharter 1618 ă (The painted chronicle from Viena) In Viena) from chronicle painted (The aRomâniei. Jude 41 ú T ti (Thocomerius Negru (Thocomerius he surviving first Moldavian charter 38 Ġ ul istoric Arge ú (14 th century to 1848). Thocomerius-Negru Vod ú ă (sec.14 –1848) , a prince of prince a 86. Izvoarele 14 CEU eTD Collection 43 vols. 1-3, and Table 1. in asindicated time constantly expands over documents two, three startsincea better off during to and thestableAlexander (1400-31) long reign of theGood or four incharters islow Moldavia,principalities. both In theprincely chancellery have seems to got charters have recipients been 2.2 Theearlyperiodof state foundation: ofdocuments Thescarcity andtheir preserved per year. The number of Moldavian Reigns Bogdan, theBlind Great the Stephen Petru Aron Bogdan Alex II Petru reign) (second Stephan Stephan reign andIlie Jointof reign) (first Stephan Ilie Good the Alexander Good the Alexander Before Stephan Stephan Younger the Documents that have beenquestioned as laterfalsifications have not beenintegrated into the table. ă ndrel During the first period of state formation, up to the 1430s, the number of formation,known number of 1430s,the the state of upto period During first the Moldavian charters as inthe compiled Moldavian charters Documente deIstorieaRomaniei II 1452-1454. I 1448-1449, Dates 1504-1517 1457-1504 1454-1456 1450-1452 1447-1448 1443-1447 1436-1442 1434-35 1432-1433 1400-1431 1517-1527 1384-1400 documents No. of A, XVI, vols. 1-4. Documenta RomaniaeHistoricaDocumenta AMoldova 493 32 68 21 17 47 79 23 16 95 96 8 9 Table 1 per year documents issued Average of . 43 16 13 12 13 12 11 10 10 8 3 1 5 4 15 , CEU eTD Collection vols. 1-8, vol.11, and 44 not counted. Table 2 in is evidence scarcer than still Moldavia. (1463-1474). Later, numberthe slowly of documents increased, butfifteenth the century sixteenth century sixteenth the of end the until by prince’s chancellery the issued Moldavian charters Brave the Michael Movil Ieremia Stephan R Tyrant the Aron Saxon Iancu the Lame the Peter Ioan the Terrible Bogdan L Iacob Heraclid Ioan L Alexandru Ilia L Stephan Rare Petru Documents that have been questioned as later falsifications have not been integrated into the table. the into integrated been not have falsifications later as questioned been have that Documents ú Rare In Wallachia, the low number of documents is constant until the reign of Radu the Fair . Wallachian charters as compiled in ascompiled charters . Wallachian ú ă ă ă ú pu cust zvan 44 ă ú pu ă neanu ă ú neanu Documentede istorieaRomaniei, 1539-1540 July 1595, May- II 1541-1546 I 1527-1538, 1595-1600 II 1564-1568 I 1552-1561, 1568-1572 1546-1550 1600 II 1592-1595 I 1591-1592, 1579-1582 III 1582-1591 II 1578-1579, I 1574-1577, 1572-1574 1562-1563 . Documenta Romaniae HistoricaDocumenta BWallachia, 2374 275 160 132 441 10 11 78 51 74 83 37 10 8 vols. 5, 6. Uncertain documents are 10 22 17 32 11 13 13 21 28 19 10 16 34 16 CEU eTD Collection Shepard the Mircea Radu Paisie Vlad Vintila the Drown Vlad Moise Vladislav III Afumati Radu from Neagoe Basarab the Young Vlad Mircea III Bad the Mihnea Great Radu the the Monk Vlad Young Basarab the Old Basarab the Fair Radu the Impaller the Vlad Vladislav II Vlad Dracul Aldea Alexandru Bald Radu the Dan II Mihail Old the Mircea Dan I Vladislav I Reigns Peter the Young the Peter Kind Petra ú cu the 1559 I 1545-1552, II1553-1554,III1558- 1535-1545 1532-1535 1530-1532 1529-1530 1525 III 1524, II 1523, I 1525-1529 III 1524-1525, II 1522-1523, I 1512-1521 1510-1512 1509-1510 1508-1509 1495-1507 1482-1495 1481-1482I 1477-1481,II 1477 I 1473-1474, II1475-1476,III1476- 1463-1474 I 1448,II 1456-1462 1449-1456 1443-1447I 1436-1442,II 1431-1433 1424-1426 III 1423, II 1421, I 1424 I 1420-1421, II1421-1423,III1423- 1418-1420 1387-1418 1383-1386 1364-1377 Dates 1559-1568 1554-1558 documents No. of 187 180 113 237 64 44 22 15 89 27 10 99 72 17 24 14 21 18 28 85 3 8 8 8 2 6 1 4 year issued per documents of Average 12.5 13.5 0.5 4.5 0.3 0.4 26 21 21 18 21 22 22 15 10 2 2 4 3 1 5 3 8 6 3 3 2 1 17 CEU eTD Collection beneficiaries of written land titles. land written of beneficiaries it laymennot was usuallymonasteriessuggests that however, whowere and the early period, the during pattern consistent The lost. subsequently were laymen by possessed documents the a large andof that storage for capacity document part monastic hadagreater institutions that isnumberdidbehalf issued laymen of increase. the begin documents on of possible also It to Vodi land/goods/money entirely to donations concerned firstthe Wallachianmonasteries: Tismana, (1443-1447) almost issued Dracul II endof until the reign the of (1436-1442), Vlad Prince Charters institutions. ecclesiastical were documents written of beneficiaries main the period, previous century, outnumbering number the of Moldavian the ones. endthe the of compared to times ten expanded almost documents Wallachian number of of by significance. Moreover, endof the Mikhail reign of the Brave(1593-1599),the the increaseis that number theYoung in (1559-1568) recorded reign the of documents the Peter the by only was it century, fifteenth the of end the at slowly multiply to began documents laterin Wallachia inAlthough written occurred records Moldavia.than number of the Editura Enciclopedic 45 society. Wallachian governed law that customary the dueto presumably Brave the Michael Evil the Alexander Death the Stephen Petru Ear-ring Turk the Mihnea Mircea Alexandru See also Cristina Codarcea, Cristina Seealso Ġ a, and Cozia, or to the monasteries on Mount Athos. Only by the mid-fifteenth century mid-fifteenth the by Only Athos. Mount on monasteries the to or Cozia, and a, A distinction between the two principalities is that in Wallachia, during the early the during in Wallachia, that is principalities two the between A distinction The low number of attestinglandcharters ownership isduring early the period ă , 2002),, 187. 1593-1600 1592-1593 1591-1592 1583-1585 1577-1583, II1585-1591 1568-1577 Société etpouvoir en Valachie (1601-1654). Entre la coutume etla loi 364 643 516 22 41 52 45 The growth of (Bucharest: 52 22 41 26 53 57 18 CEU eTD Collection institutions, yet even during his reign more documents were issued on behalf oflaymen. behalf on issued were documents more reign his during yeteven institutions, 49 Bra concerning 48 table. this in included not are which traders From Mikhal’s reignonwards, Wallachian rulers often issued administrative documents on behalf of foreign 47 community. 46 Table 3 Neagoe Basarab is known as one of the princes with a special interest and generosity towards ecclesiastical towards generosity and interest special a with princes ofthe one as known is Basarab Neagoe issues administrative to regard in written were Monk the of Vlad chancellery the in issued documents Two One of the documents issued by Mikhal, son of Mircea the Old, was Catholic produced ofthe onbehalf behalfon of issued Brawere I of Vladislav reign the from preserved documents two other The Prince Peter Young the Peter Shepherd the Mircea Basarab Neagoe Great Radu the Vlad the Monk Young the Basarab Radu The Fair Vlad Impeller the Vladsilav II Basarab II Vlad Dracul Aldea Bald Radu the Dan II Mihail Old the Mircea Dan I Vladislav I . The early Wallachian documents based on the type of recipients (in selected reigns) ú ov merchants (DRH B, vol.1, no. 182, and 183). and 182, no. vol.1, B, (DRH ov merchants Reign 1559-1568 II 1558-1559 I 1545-1552, 1512-1521 1495-1507 1482-1495 1477-1482 1462-1473 II 1456-1462. I 1448, II 1448-1456 1447-1448, 1442-1443 II 1443-1447 I 1436-1442, 1431-1436 III 1424-1427. II 1423, I 1421, III 1426-1431 II 1423-1424 I 1420-1424 1418-1420 1386-1418 1383-1386 1364-1377 monasteries documentsfor No. of 70 51 55 48 28 10 21 8 4 6 1 8 6 2 6 3 1 1 noblemen documents for´ No. of none none none none 58 44 163 138 2 1 48 16 11 2 8 6 6 7 47 46 49 48 ú ov traders. 19 CEU eTD Collection Hungary documents relating to the Hungarian Middle Ages. See Martin Rady, 53 1986) version: Henri Stahl, Henri version: communal villages),vols 1-3(Bucharest: Editura Academiei, 1998),vol.3,179. See also shortenedhis English 52 his short reign out of which noblemen received only charterseight (See DRH A, vol.1, no.40-61. A, vol.1, no.14. The exception isthe reign of AronPetru (1454-1457). Twenty-one documents are extant from DRH A, vol. 1, no. 1 and on behalf of the Armenian community by Alexander the Good (1400-1431). See DRH 51 collections were takenfrom the and the monasteries, created were thearchives previous state the when locationcentury, of the the documentsnineteenth during was not Unfortunately, always from. specified. taken 50 morekingdom, accustomed use written to records as proof of land ownership. Hungarian in the by practice influenced been have may in writing endowments their secured have extra proof of their legal rights to their land possessions. In addition, the fact that they owners ofland properties in land,Moldaviana conquered noblemen were keen presumably to from have Maramure the comeseems to written as documents guarantors landof Why ownership. Moldavianso? nobility early The and Wallachian nobility allows me tostress higherthe value Moldavian nobility placed on institutions. chancellery Until 105documents of Alexander end the reignof the the Good, issued state bythe are extant ownership. land confirming documents of recipients main the were institutions ecclesiastical out of which only 25 charters institutions. for ecclesiastical those outnumber significantly were issued from mid-sixteenththe century the numberonwards, issued of documents laymen cameto to on behalflaymenclericalhis according institutions or to interest. political Onlygradually,especially of endowing monastic prince every similar, relatively was recipients clerical or laypeople of behalf on Martin Rady indicates that there are well over300.000 surviving individual legal and administrative Henri Stahl, Henri There alsoare two documents issued on behalf of Catholic the community of by Siret Petru I (1384-1391) were they monastery which specified not is it often but archives, state the in preserved are documents The s. While historians agreeabout foundationthe by of Moldavianthe state foreign settlers, Moldavian bythe commissioned number documents of the between The difference not and noblemen onwards, period early an from in contrast, Moldavia, In As can be seen, after the turn of the sixteenth century, the number of documents issued (London: Palgrave, c 2000), 9. Contribu 51 Traditional Romanian Village Communities Ġ ii la studiul satelor dev ă lma ú region Transylvania. of region ú e române ú ti (Contributions to the study of Romanian (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Nobility, Land and Service in Medieval 52 As newcomers, the recent the Asnewcomers, 53 20 50 CEU eTD Collection 56 64. 55 Enciclopedic Române within extended families kindred towards individual familieswithin kindredtowards extended estates. main element of change consists in the transition of land ownership from collectiveThe ownership centuries. sixteenth and fifteenth the during societies two the affected that changes social Moldavian documents. What accounts for these dynamics? Wallachian charters increasea pointto that by the end of the century,it outnumbers the extant of number the century, sixteenth with the law. Nevertheless, rely oral morecustomary on the fifteenth century, Moldavian charters outnumber ofdocuments andthemultiplication structure insocial 2.3 Changes those from Wallachia, which seems to instruments. written land noblemenWallachian withinlargekindred, properties not yetperceive did needfor the their Possessing records. in written rather than memory laworal and by customary confirmed and that the local lords continued tocontrol their traditional estates, ownershipbeing ownership land in changes major no were there that indicate might thus laymen Wallachian of behalf on written charters of lack The nobility. local the by founded was state Wallachian commissioned onbehalf andWallachianof Moldavian in laymen suggest, myview, the that records of number early written the between differences the and evidence documentary extant 54 local nobility similarlyor, Moldavia,to wasfounded by foreigners. by created itwas whether of isdebate: subject the still state Wallachian the creation of the Stahl, For a similar phenomenon in neighboring Hungary see Rady, For more information about this see Gheorghe I. Br Traditional Romanian Village Communities (Princely counsel and assembly of the estates in the Romanian Principalities) (Bucharest: Editura (Bucharest: Principalities) Romanian the in estates ofthe assembly and counsel (Princely My hypothesis links the different degree of growth in the number of documents to the During Wallachia. and in Moldavia is different charters of growth the of dynamic The ă , 1995), 25. See also Stahl, also 25. See 1995), , 55 Contribu Ġ ii la studiul satelor , 165. ă tianu, Sfatul domnesc Nobility, Land and Service in Medieval Hungary ,vol. 3 , 179. 56 ú i adunarea st The fragmentation of land 54 In this respect, the ă rilor în Principatele 21 , CEU eTD Collection 60 documents during the 1426-1502 period) (Bucharest: p.,n. 1947), 16. Tusculanum Press, 2008), 72; I am thankful to prof. Jozsef Laszlovszky for the useful discussions about this about discussions useful the issue. for Laszlovszky Jozsef prof. to thankful I am 72; 2008), Press, Tusculanum Art Forms and their Passage into Writing, they held within the state authority (see Damian Bogdan, ed., that the large numberof documents written on behalf of Moldavian nobility reflect the strong political position documents from the first half of the sixteenth century) sixteenth ofthe half first the from documents proliferation of documents. Social developmentin the medieval Romanian Principalities was show how they are reflected in the written evidence and how, in their turn, they stimulated the in society occurred Wallachian andMoldavian underreviewin to the period during order culture. of written for anddissemination presence the account may also within state authority. politicalthe in strongthe noblemen weakpolitical situation the period or to position or of Traian Ionescu-Ni Traian well, strong correlation is drawnbetween the political situationand the activities of the state chancellery (see Stephan theGreat Székely, to the political stability specific to the end of the fifteenth century (see Stefan Gorovei and Maria Magdalena 59 – see for both parallelthe and for inmy illustrated distinct the growth, dynamics survey data the of accounts charters for spreadof written factor the asmajor my focus on changes Thus, social is more evident and had a more salient effect on growth in the number ofWallachian charters. 58 Pragmatic Literacy, East and West, 1200-1330 57 Principality. Wallachian in the impact significant more a had and in Moldavia than Wallachia atto be produced ahigher rate out of a need for legal security and protection. written landappears that began It a growing for titles conflict. to potential property rise gave See also Anna Adamska, “Orality and Literacy in Medieval East Central Europe: Final Prolegomena,” in Prolegomena,” Final Europe: Central East Medieval in Literacy and “Orality Adamska, Anna See also In a recent book, the growth in the number of documents in the last part of Stephan’s realm is attributed solely attributed is realm of Stephan’s part last the in of documents number the in growth the book, a recent In Stahl, See also Thomas Behrmann, “The Development of Pragmatic Literacy in Lombard City Communes,” in Table 1 Contribu In order to defend my hypothesis, I will review the social transformations that social will transformations the I defendmy hypothesis, review In order to In Romanian historiography, expansion the of written the isrecord normally related to According to Stahl, the depth of these social transformations was attested earlier in earlier wasattested transformations social these of depth Stahl, the to According Princeps omni laude maior: O istorie a lui 58 for Wallachia and Consequently, the developments of written these of triggered Consequently,changes culture that written developments the Ġ ) (Putna: Sfânta M ú ii la studiul satelor, cov, “Dou cov, 59 Other factors, however, such as cultural tradition or social changes ă documente inedite din prima jum prima din inedite documente ăQă vol. 3, 178. vol. Table 2 stire Putna, 2005), 249, 250, 257). For the Wallachianchancellery as ed. Else Mundal and Jonas Wellendorf (Copenhagen: Museum , ed. Richard Britnell (Woodbridge: BoydellPress, 1997), 40. for Moldavia. ù tefan cel Mare Romanoslavica Acte Moldovenesti din anii 1426-1502 ă tate a secolului al XVI-lea” (Two unpublished XVI-lea” al asecolului tate (Princeps omni laude maior:A history of history maior:A laude omni (Princeps 5 (1962): 152. Damian Bogdan considers 60 57 (Moldavian Oral 22 CEU eTD Collection 69 68 See ibidem,65-79 and especially 79.70, of the Danubian States and income on main increasethe in produced taxation that as a result activities of ofcommercial the higher decline tributethe paidthrough mainly to the Ottoman changes social the Empire. explains 67 Communities 66 periferic Press,1976). For the Romanian version used in my work see Daniel Chirot, 65 64 63 Chirot. idem, shares. land individual to property communal of ownership joint absolute from acomplexfree andgradual villagers entered of reasons, traditional communities transition related to the transition from collective to individual land ownership. Land property began to began property Land ownership. land individual to collective from transition the to related Hungary. inneighboring century thirteenth and twelfth the during occurred phenomena property landto possessions by individual the nuclearor family can be observed. disintegration demographicas well as for of growth process social,the reasons, andpolitical economic, the of large family village community collectively land.which the owned estates in andland peasants theirbegan. estates dependent common. administered noblemen Wallachian and A Moldavian of families movement Extended collective. was land from joint ownership coveredby Stahl. moreclosely will developments focus the on I categories, social of of traditional dissolution of a process linked to are culture uses of written land changesinthe the my data, the in of reading as Consequently, of classes. social structure the 62 61 studied by others Filitti among Rady, Ibidem, 63-76. Stahl, Fora more detailed definition and description of a village community see Stahl, Daniel Chirot, Stahl, Br Constantin Giurescu, Ioan Filitti, Ioan ă tianu, Despre boieri Contribu 65 ă Traditional Romanian Village Communities Nobility, Land and Service in Medieval Hungary The data and the secondary literature indicate a surge in the mobility of land estates, inof mobility the indicate asurge literature secondary andthe The data last. This land didnot configuration century, fifteenth the By ownership dueto During the early of period medievalRomanianthe the ownershipof Principalities, (Bucharest: Corint, 2002). In his research, Stahl focused on the dynamics and changes that occurred within the within occurred that changes and dynamics the on focused Stahl research, his In Sfatul domnesc , 36-7. , Clasele sociale în trecutul românesc Ġ SocialChange inaPeripheralSociety: The Creation of Balkan Colony ii la studiul satelor dev (About noblemen) (Bucharest: Cartea Romaneasca, 1920). Studiide istorie social ú i adunarea st 61 ă Giur lma ă rilor in Principatele Române ú ă e române (Studies on social history) (Bucharest: Editura Academiei,1943); ă scu (Social classes inthe Romanian past) (Bucharest: n.p., 1925). , 165. See also Chirot, 62 , Br ú ti . , 67. ă tianu, 66 In the case of free peasants, itwas the free In the caseof peasants, 63 and more recently by Stahl by recently more and . Schimbarea Social Schimbarea Social Traditional Romanian Village . (New York: Academic York: . (New ă ă , într-o societate 74, who 67 68 For similar For The same 69 64 and 23 CEU eTD Collection 72 st social 71 illegal). These forms of accumulation of land estates into great latifundia triggered a social triggered latifundia great into estates land of accumulation of forms These illegal). land-acquisitionsholdings unleashed with the of (legal Moldavian (parallel or aprocess one) family nuclear into estates tosplittraditional trend seems Wallachian the that It writing. into put were issues extraordinary mainly initially, in Wallachia, data, the of reading my in appropriation of appropriation landedprivate of properties due lackto ofmale heirs ( avoidstate to the as anattempt or settlement, a of dispute aconsequence as commissioned families. nuclear to belonging estates smaller into families) by large patriarchal (previously owned land estates splitof record the began to charters century, sixteenth the of turn the From attested. are documents stolen or lost of replacement or donations), sell aresultor members non(as of family between especially land transactions, possessed landproperties previously (presumablyadministered in an oral way). Gradually orconfirm record landmainly to werecommissioned the endowments written documents earlier and Moldaviansdocuments usedwritten suggest that documents extant of property.The types more regularlylanded to rights their attest to charters individual) or (collective commissioning laymen than their Wallachian counterparts. It seems that in Moldavia continuous process impoverishmentof of some andmounting of others.” 70 effect. annihilating almost an had century sixteenth the of policies fiscal and instability economic the for them free peasants; of communities traditional lower the and nobility the mostly affected peasants, accumulate in of hands the certain expensenoblemen atthe noblemenother of free and Bratianu, ă IoanFilitti “Evolu Br rilor in Principatele Române ă tianu, ă (The archive for scienceand social reformation) 72 During the same period, my number anincreasing indicates of data During samethe the survey of period, In Wallachia, the main type of extant documents suggest that many In Wallachia,documents land mainsuggest the extant that titleswere of type 70 Sfatul domnesc Sfatul domnesc as depicted by Filitti: “In the same class of noblemen, one can note a painful and Ġ ia claselorsociale,” (Evolution of the social classes) ú ú i adunarea st i adunarea st , 51. ă ă rilor in Principatele Române rilor in Principatele Române , 232, apud Bratianu, , 51. , 51. Arhiva pentru Sfatul domnesc defectus seminis defectus ú tiin Ġăú 71 ú i adunarea i reform Theprocess ). Thus, ). ă 24 CEU eTD Collection vol. 11; in as edited mentioned, settlements 75 74 73 as apointreference. of rather dopresent I statistics but not small accurate the numberof surviving documents, them as Given documents. of sum overall the in land over disputes of salience the illustrate to order century. endsixteenth uptothe notappear in of Moldavian does records the charters Wallachian in the manifest is that land over conflict social and accumulation land of process the multiply in during onlylater, Wallachia second the half of century. sixteenth the Conversely, began to charters, destroyed lostor of the replacement or land property, of transactions the conflict that at its turn stimulated the increase in the number of land charters. Vlad the Young1510- Mihnea the Bad1508- The first surviving dispute between laymen dates from the reign of Radu the Great. the of Radu reign the from dates laymen between dispute surviving first The integrated been not have falsifications later as question under been have that Documents observation. this for Clanchy Michael prof. to thankful am I Radu from Radu from Afuma Moise 1529-1530 Radu the Great Radu the Neagoe Basarab Neagoe Mircea III1509 Vladislav III 1522-1530 1523-1525 1495-1507 1512-1521 Table 4 In Table 2.4, I present the types of extant charters issued in Wallachia’snoblemen I presentIn Table types ofcharters the to 2.4, extant issuesThe the namely commissioningprompted regular charters, Moldavian that of Documente deistorie aRomaniei, Reign 1511 1509 . The Wallachian charters granted to noblemen, according to the conflict 75 Ġ i Total number of charters issued charters to noblemen to 73 45 14 48 58 5 7 2 6 Documenta RomaniaeHistorica vols. 5, 6. Uncertain documents are not counted. landholders attesting disputes Charters among 20 14 14 4 3 3 2 4 Charters attesting Charters (percentages) disputes B Wallachia, vols. 1-8, 100% 44% 29% 60% 43% 67% 29% 24% 74 25 CEU eTD Collection 78 77 Europe: Changing Perspectives on Society and Culture 76 as written a proof documents derivedland wasnotfrom of ownership “a special giftof written record.” to memory “from increased vulnerability individual landof possessions resulted in a rapidWallachian transition instruments.” perceived needforwritten little therealso was but because illiteracy, of widespread only not on account prevailed, Wallachia’s number of documents increased. My argument is based on Rady: “Oral testimony theownership socialby intheland possession and triggered to changes the conflict Iowe the expression to the classical book of Michael Clanchy. Rady, I am thankful to prof. Laszlovszky forthis observation. See also WarrenC. Brown,ed., Mircea the Shepherd the Mircea 1545-1554, II1558- 1577-1583, II1585- Alexandru Mircea Mikhail the Brave Wrongdoer 1592- Wrongdoer Petru the Ear ring Ear the Petru Stephan Deaf the Stephan Mihnea the Turk Mihnea the Good1554-1558 Peter Young the Peter Vlad the Drown Alexander the Alexander Vlad Vintil Vlad Petra Radu Paisie 1591-1592 1593-1600 1535-1545 1530-1532 1568-1577 1559-1568 1532-1535 1583-1585 Nobility, Land and Service in Medieval Hungary I argue that only as a consequence of the transition from collective to individual to collective from transition the of consequence a as only that argue I 1559 1593 1591 ú cu the ă 138 245 123 404 163 468 10 25 64 20 29 24 78 To continue with Rady’s argument, the involvement of 77 As the result of As result of in the changes landownership, the ( , 64. Aldershot:Ashgate, 2003). 141 122 65 51 49 29 67 12 3 8 6 9 47% 21% 40% 30% 32% 45% 41% 30% 34% 38% 41% 26% Conflict Medieval in 26 76 CEU eTD Collection 83 82 (1577), no. 68 (1577), 96 no. (1577),DRH B,vol.11, no. 158 (1596). 81 Principatele Române Empire. SeeChirot, Empire. Ottoman the to paid tribute of higher a result as oftaxation increase the and States Danubian the of income 80 gradual impoverishment of landholders. the led to higher taxation in reflected conditions economic and harsh the political evidence), deepened in halfof second the sixteenthcentury the in Wallachia (basedonsurviving socialboundaries and reinforcing as atoolinchanging Writing categories: social lower into ofwrittendocuments Dissemination 2.4. strata. nobilitytop leda further but to dissemination within written the of record various social the of behalf on produced documents of multiplication the only not influenced transformation 79 evidence. of written itdemanded the support princely consent, adoption belonged realm the land to uncustomary throughof inheritance wasgranted and inheritland estates in the case that one of the parties failed produceto maleheirs. Asfraternal between non kin individuals.related Peopleby joined hadbrotherhood themutual to rights brothers) adoption fraternal of practice pre-emption, the been seen as a solution. As in the inheritance future seems inexchangeformovable tax exemption, ordifferent tohave goods Danubian principalities, kin free nobility and traditional of communities peasants. relatives enjoyed the right of from but fearof depredation.” very literacy territorial the real See also Fügedi, “Oral Culture and Literacy Among The Medieval Hungarian Nobility,” 27. Nobility,” Hungarian Medieval The Among Literacy and Culture “Oral Fügedi, See also SeeStahl, The documents oftenattest famine and general distress. See forinstance DRH B, vol. 8, no. 34 (1576), no. 65 Chirot explains social changes mainly through the decline in commercial activities that had produced the main the produced had that activities in commercial decline the through mainly changes social explains Chirot Rady, Nobility, Land and Service in Medieval Hungary During the great crisis of the accumulation of land estates intocrisis landgreat estates During great of the of accumulation the began to be employed in order to facilitate the acquisition of landed property Traditional Romanian Village Communities, Schimbarea Social , 51. ă , 70, 79. See also Br 80 The process affected comprehensively lower the comprehensively The affected process 82 , 67. and Gron (which transformed two strangers into blood ă tianu, 81 The pledge of a part of the estate as estate of the of a part Thepledge Sfatul domnesc Ġ , Institu 83 Ġ Consequently, from the reign the from Consequently, ii Medievale Române 79 ú i adunarea st Consequently, social latifundia ă ú rilor in ti, 31-70. , which 27 CEU eTD Collection documents. andof written landestates commissioners be aspurchasersof sporadically began recorded to theirland property and their status. and consequently freedom and consequently their land of plots their collectively or individually purchase/repurchase to able were landholders from wholeApart thebreaking-upof this, estates, the after villagesaswell individual as with from “brothers” right potential the to purchasepowerful legal theirland andfreedom. with brothers thusof noblemen protecting powerful a co-owner, salethe through themselves land. of plots individual witnesses but graduallylongermere noas beinvolved written began inthe practices increasingly to Villagers as commissioners use had same asthe landshares formerly and securedtheir methods noblemen inwritingof of documents attesting their possessions of their possessions. and acquisitions new to adoption fraternal of practice same the through noblemen entitled mere witnesses and notas commissioners of documents. nextto wealthy noblemen. However, their presencewasjust restricted tomentioning them as from lower social began appearincategories to the newly documents written commissioned 88 87 86 314, no. 189, no. 339. 186, no. no. 338, no. ibidem. see 337, no. land, of strip their with together themselves sold who peasants individual and communities peasant from of villages purchases numerous their charter a single in recorded himself 85 B, vol. 7, no. 52 (1571). 144 (1543),DRH B,vol. 5, no. 47 (1555), no. 315 (1565), 320no. (1565),DRH B,vol. 6, 233 no. (1570),DRH 84 in be data. the often attested began to categories, social various fraternal onwards,thepracticeof securedbetween of adoption, Bad(1508-9) the Mikhnea DRH B, vol. 7, no. 135, no. 161, no. 251. DRH B, vol. 4, no.76, no. 117, no. 142, DRH B, vol. 5, no. 111. DRH B, vol. 5, no. 223, no. 252, no. 262. See, forinstance, DRH B, vol. 11, no. 125, no. 129, no. 130. In some cases high state dignitaries and the prince See DRH B, vol.2, no. 63(1509), no. 137 (1515), and especially no. 196 (1520), See also DRH B, vol.4, no. Further on,the former acquisition land in of of a plot a village free family of peasants 88 85 Thus, village begancommunities written document as a defendusing tool to Consequently,individual togetherpeasants with village began communities to 87 In so doing, they avoided thepossibility becomingblood of . As a result, local gentry, free and even dependent peasants 84 Thus, the mention of people .86 28 CEU eTD Collection vol. 2, no. 262. no. 2, vol. A, See DRH chancellery. prince’s the in office supreme state the in property land bought newly his confirmed 93 92 no. 288). and low amount of land of money piece small paid for apparently the the and purchase of beneficiaries indicate number high rather The land. low purchased noblemen of their or free confirmation peasants (DRH B, vol.1, 91 Studiul satelor dev seeStahl, this about information For more peasants. offree status social the denominate to used neighborhood, in earlier periods, while in the later period (from the end of the sixteenth century) the term was “r 90 also considers them as free peasants; see Br see peasants; free as them considers also Similarly, George Br given their way of life and the practice of working their land personally. See Stahl, personally. land their ofworking practice the and way life of their given 1431). (1400- Alexander Good the andeven theGreat(1457-1504) of Stephan from times the existence concerningthe of landfree the documents andlower property of nobility peasants free classthe of peasants. they belongedlikewisecertainindicating to that applied groups, to harshertreatment disputes, peasants were not accustomedfree from of indicate procedures that various disputes the data Moreover, recorded the using written documents in Moldavia. century sixteenth of quarter the asthelast aslate Wallachia and even even in the middle of the sixteenth involved. of persons the status tothe information related provide certain information only such contextual of landas quantity the the prices purchasedand may paid In circumstances these service in were recorded. acted state noblemen who of ranks Only the see Giur historiography. Giur historiography. 89 mo social mentionedFreecategories of individuals.the peasantsareseldom by their status Romanian medieval documents also consists in the fact that sources usually do not attest the confirmbegan to theirland ownership inwriting. Onecrucial difficulty of dealing with In Moldavia, craftsmen and merchants earlierare attested in documents. As early as 1484a goldsmith DIR A, vol. 3, no. 494. received sons their with laymen several Great the byRadu 1498 in issued charter collective in a instance, For See, forinstance, DRH B, vol. 4, no. 172 . It should be mentioned that some of the terms like “megie There is an extensive dispute about the difference between local gentry and free peasants in the Romanian inthe peasants free and gentry local between difference the about dispute anextensive is There ă ze ú neni, r neni, ú ” are very confusing since they are used to indicate the proximity to a certain group, a type of type a group, certain a to proximity the indicate to used are they since confusing very ” are 92 In Moldavia, indirect evidence such as testimonies recorded during disputes, mention during indirect evidence recorded In Moldavia,as testimonies such disputes, However, it is a difficult task to establish when exactly local gentry and free peasants ă Yet none of these documents is preserved until the early sixteenth century in century sixteenth early the until is preserved documents these of none Yet scu, ă ze Studiide istorie social ú i, judeci, megies, judeci judeci, i, ă lma ă ă scu argued that all land owners, regardless of the size of their land estates, were noblemen, were estates, land oftheir size the of regardless owners, land all that scu argued tianu, basing his statements on the definition givenby Cantemir in the eighteenth century, ú e, v ol. 3, 214-6. ă , 254; while Stahl connects small land holders to the class of free peasants offree class tothe holders land small connects Stahl while , 254; ă tianu, (all of them attesting the status of free landowner). free of status the attesting them of (all Sfatul domnesc ú i adunarea st ă rilor Sate dev , 52. 91 ă Sometime in the Sometime lma Contribu ú e , Vol. 3,211). ú ” and Ġ ii la 29 90 93 89 CEU eTD Collection no. 282. no. no.121, no.125, no.129,130, no. no. 131, no.146, no.151, no.172, no. 173, no. 189, no.192, no. 238, no.256, no.127, no.132, no.174, no.175, no.182, no.203, no.215, no.230, no.237, no.252, no.282 (1579); DRH 11 vol.B, 97 96 entire community; case,this In they individually confirmed theirlandin writing, again thus certain cases, not all the members of the village community sold their estates together with the 95 (Princeton: PrincetonUniversity Press, 1994). property. of common as their vendors collective they are recorded cases yet, In most of the charters. written in active became quite commissioning peasants to individual great movement landedof property can be noticed, Wallachian the peasantcommunities next villageother communities. recorded as recipients of written confirmation of theirland estates or as settling disputes with counterparts. Moldavian 94 property. ofland individualization ofsegregation and more stage in advanced nobility was a there sixteenth century, inlandownershiphada changes deep impacton Wallachian the society as involvementof Wallachian andMoldavian indicate the data documents: during that the the anotable between difference created social realities Differing preserved evidence. in the earlier areattested peasants Wallachian documents. written of commissioners active as in becameprocedures written involved thatgradually peasants and communities peasant century. sixteenth early the level before village atthe documents written of existence the than importance be an indicationrather might charters lost older mentioned peasants the disputes during that fact ofThe century. the value attached to written records and an acknowledgement of their See, forinstance, DRH B, vol. 8, no. 20, no. 30, no.52, no.57, no. 64 (1577), no.66, no.88, DRH B no. 117,vol. 2,no.123, no. 183, DRH B vol. 4, no. 64, no. 117, no. 172, DRH B Vol. 4, no. 323. Stahl, See Patrick J. Geary, See Patrick Contribu From the early sixteenth century, Wallachian village communities began to be Only from the early sixteenth century does the direct evidence point to individual to evidence thedirect point does century Only from sixteenth early the 95 Accordingly, they appealed earlier to usage of written land titles than their than titles land written of usage to earlier appealed they Accordingly, Ġ ii la studiul satelor, 94 Phantoms of Remembrance: Memory and Oblivion at theEnd of the First Millenium 96 Especially, after the middle of the sixteenth century, when a vol. 3, 178. vol. 97 However, in 30 CEU eTD Collection half of the sixteenth century. sixteenth the of half in especially second the buthowever,seldom reversed, of were free villagers, the the status commissioners. among documents recorded were often communities peasantin land Aslitigation recorded further charter, a written over was attested. villagers with noblemen status. Consequently, after the first quarter of the sixteenth century, dispute settlements of free beganVillagers land backdisputing recorded transactions and claiming land their free and documents. written of commissioning in the peasants individual of involvement active was often practiced, holders smaller the belonging to landed property trustworthy than oral accounts. status, traditional keep their might they that land so of piece small retain a to struggled peasants written records. Some of the Wallachian villagers initiated several disputes at the regional and regional atthe disputes several initiated villagers Wallachian Some the of records. written defendingabout theirland and andrights hence ingetting involved with commissioningthe of an act of charity if they were obedient enough. wereobedient if they of charity an act villagers as bestowland some upon monasticinstitutions of pieces promisedwould they that 105 villagers, DRH B,vol.3, no. 127, no. 148 (1533). free by the won were villagers free and noblemen between recorded disputes twelve of out two only 1536, 104 103 186, 203.no. 102 169, no. 196. See also DRH B, vol. 11, no. 176, no. 367, no. 368. 101 100 99 98 status, a precise clause had to be made documents. written of acting as commissioners to put in that the land sales were See, DRH B, vol. 5, no. 11, no. 303, no. 331. See, forinstance, DRH B, vol. 11, no. 147, no. 186, no. 205, DIR B, vol.6, no. 131 (1591). DRH B, vol. 3, no. 176. In the first part of the century, there were still records when villagers wonthe Seeprocess. also DRH Between B, vol.1525 7, no.and 156, DRH B, vol. 8, no. 129; DRH B, vol. 11, no. 176, no. 367, no. 368. no. 182, no. 176, 171, no. 170, no. no. 165, no. 126, no. 125, no. 62, no. 59, no. 23, no. 16, 3, no. vol. B, DRH DRH B, vol. 3, no. 14, no. 15, no. 25, no. 33, no. 27, no. 128, no. 127, no. 132, no. 148, no. DRH 155, B, no. vol. 167, 11, no.no. 87, no. 230. 99 The fact, that landalwayspurchaseThe fact, that of werenot andforceful properties to easy seizures As in the medieval Romanian Principalities, only landowners could preserve their free written documents validated by the prince’s seal might have been perceived as more as perceived been have might seal prince’s the by validated documents written 101 or with monastic institutions monastic with or 104 In some cases, despite having lost the process, certain process, the lost having despite cases, Insome 98 105 Nonetheless, villagers were very obstinate very were villagers Nonetheless, 103 Decision about forfeited land and land forfeited about Decision 102 begin to be overwhelmingly begin to 100 further stimulated further only partial. As partial. 31 CEU eTD Collection 113 112 Vistulana, 2006), 704. possessionsbethings first by werethe requested to during princes the the disputes, possessed. land andannihilatingThey most theirstatus. were, probably,morefeared than or understood their expropriating of means as enemies social by their used instruments asadverse peasants which he hadsupposedly won process. the by charters the took forcefully and process the of winner the murdered wrath they that peasant such an forlead money hisland share.Incertain cases, such couldadegreeof to outcome had sold not hisshare of land. he claimingthat disputes court initiated he that indicate recurrently charters Four surviving forland struggled village twoyearshis afterwasrecorded. Radovanul community sale community survive. Radovanu village do by commissioned the documents atthe villagelevel,asthirteen documents of written Ecclesia, cultura, potestas: Studia z dziejów kultury I spo “Violent Death” of Medieval Charters: Some Observations on the Symbolic Uses of the Documents,” in 111 MichaelPrince the Brave:153 no.(1596). 110 109 108 107 106 hadalower status. if plaintiff especially the makeimprovement he that monasticcould achieve wasto ofCo the institution to provide a set of witnesses to certify under oath the righteousness of his claims. The only others, the with together land of shares their sold not had they claimed who members individual princely levels. The struggle of villagersthe from Radovanul as a group DIR B, vol. 5, no. 201 (1585-6), DIR B, vol. 5, no. 300 (1587). See, forinstance, DRH B, vol.5, no. 201 (1585-6), DRH B, vol.11, no.170 (1596). DRH B, vol.8, no. 21 (1576). For more information about this see Anna Adamska and Marco Mostert, “The Threetimes in front of Craiova ban: 152no. (1596), no. 202 (1596), 279no. (1596), and once in front of DRH B Vol.11 60 no. (1594). DRH B Vol.11, no. 331 and no. 338. DRH B Vol.11, 153no. (1596), no. 202 (1596), no. 279 (1598). DRH B Vol.11, 203no. (1596), no. 385 (1600), no. 405 (1600), 412no. (1600). 107 Howev:er, in the last quarter of the sixteenth century, written proofs of land Given the low number of charters commissioned earlier by free peasants, the peasants, free by earlier commissioned charters of number low the Given is perhaps most documented of the cases that encouraged proliferation of usage the of encouraged proliferation of is casesthat the documented perhapsmost 110 Nonetheless, he lost his land and free status as he was unable 108 113 For instance, the Priest Oprea, a member of the 111 Thus, written wereperceivedby documents Thus,written á ecze Ĕ stwa , ed. Pawe á Kras (Kraków: Societas 106 as well as the ú una paymore 112 even or even 109 32 CEU eTD Collection Fügedi,“Oral Culture and Literacy Among Medievalthe Hungarian Nobility,”13. Edited by János M. Bak, Péter Banyó, and Martin Rady (Idylwild, CA: Charles Schalacks, Jr., 2005). See also for admitted asevidenceoragainstanoble.”not “(…) the oath of an non-noble person or a peasant, being of inferior status, has noforce and is 118 91, No. 147. 117 116 115 160,23, 220,no. no. no. 239, no. 243, 247. no. also forfalse charters DRH B, vol.6, no. 250 and forcharters turned apart during“imbued the disputes with lies” DRH and declared are B,in vol. somecharters 8, cases their on, no. Later are 146). menaced no. vol.4, DRHB, with capital instance, for (see, punishment. easily more processes the See DRHthrough B, vol. 4, no. 209. See 114 as witnessesact during disputes, required to Serbian regulation,fifteenth-century The Serbia. Orthodox in than Transylvania Catholic in observed regulations recorded in Dushan’s law tothe similar was more customary itWallachian seems Onceagain, that in a dispute. code, indicates thatact aswitnesses be to entitled could only noblemen requestthat by it hindered claims,the was similar social categories were amonglocally forgeries wererecorded the numerous documents drawn the prince’s formulary, as acertain such marks characteristic its most lacked asthey prove authenticity, to seals, andrigorous standardsignatures with the help of parish priests. For these types of document, it was difficultgettryingproperty to confirmed in so at didwriting, the local level,a less conforming to in later periods. Moreover,with monastic institutions. it their estates when disputed they samefate the encountered charters noblemen’s Occasionally, is known thatdocuments provided during for social bythelower the dispute. procedure groups the the most of small noblemenassumption of the existence of written records at thelevel of free villagers oreven at the level cannot be justified. In many cases, the acting princes destroyed the See Stephen Werb See Stephen Dushan’s Code: The Code of Serbian Tsar Stphan Dushan.The Bistritza transcript. See Chivu,. 190. no. 106, no. 6, vol. B, See DRH destroyed. consequently are and false declared are Charters get might villagers disputes earlier the in although century; sixteenth ofthe middle the from attested are They All in all, as my data indicate, decisions were almost without exception in favor of Moreover, even if the peasants were allowed touse oral testimony substantiateto their when holders, land smaller that fact in the lie may this for explanations the of One Documente Române Ę czy, The Customary Law of the Renowned Kingdom of Hungary. AWork in Three Parts. 115 ú ti dinsecolulal XVI-lea 117 118 , 23. whileWerb Ę czy’s .116 Tripartitum (Beograd: Bajat, 1997), states that states 114 33 CEU eTD Collection 122 See zloti. Tatar alsoone-hundred-thirty DIR for A, vol. village 2, no.of the 74, no. 119, third of one no. 215.part sixth the purchased Odochia sister their 121 120 119 central inchancellery Moldaviaduringthesixteenth century exclusively a almost remained to dispute their local common property the with noblemen torecord or their purchases. individual land transactions in Yet, writing. seldom only they did use central the chancellery their recording begin peasants free and gentry local Moldavian did century sixteenth freepeasants. or local gentry of status the may attest ofmoney, which amounts small rather for purchases land collective register that documents Afterwards, are there chancellery from aremissingrecord. the century,peasants Moldavian from the central documents seldom secured written asabody century,peasants early Moldavian sixteenth chancellery during the same period. Up to the middle of the sixteenthreinforce (and expand) social boundaries. As Jack Goody has noted: by the privileged classesmight be that the scarcity and social imbalance in access writtento documents were employed to favor theirnobleman kinsmen. and a monastery, The literacya usuallynobleman, the divide testimonyfor instance, was of differentiated dependingtheused on the social status monastery of the defendants:the in the disputesas of a peasant and testimonya tool was whatto ofcounted. noblementhe latter counted, while It in a disputeseems between thata arbitrary rule dominated and the value of written proof was One of the few disputes is recorded in 1585. See DIR A, vol. 3, no. 355. See, forinstance, DIR A, vol. 2, no. 29 (1552), when the prince’s servants Nicoara and his cousin Toader and Goody, See, forinstance, DRH B, vol. 6, no. 190. While the presence of Wallachian peasants is preserved in the court records from records in is the court the Wallachian peasants preserved of While presence the means of communication. indirectly the whocommanded,directly or those provided a acts widely mechanismused forlegitimising the transfer of written land to the to given value the by and force by land the took society the membersof Thepowerful media (writing). newaccess tothe without those held for had afar-reaching orally effect particularly which devastating was The introduction of written title into a society where rights and duties were LogicofWriting , 81. 121 Only later, in the third quarter of the 120 122 119 The It 34 CEU eTD Collection Village Communities, See Stahl, 1817. in only case their won They free. were they that stating document written any have not did they since state to the belong to declared were Vrancea from villagers the 1801, from dispute 127 126 125 no. 81. 124 (1583),DIR A, vol.3, 271no. (1583),DIR A,vol.3, no. 386 (1586),DIR A, vol.3, no. 394 (1586-1589). the prince’s chancellery. See, forinstance, DIR A, vol. 3, no. 190 (1580), no. 387 (1586) DIR A, vol. 3, no. 266 123 relative mayindicate disputes fewer recorded beside inthe central office produced record the from absence their Nevertheless, procedures. importance of written of the acknowledgement peasants began theirrecording individual landmay in transactions theirwritingtestify to free and gentry Moldavian that fact the level, local the to central the from down moved production means of document as written century, sixteenth of the thirdAfter the quarter century. sixteenth the during noblemen yet by threatened the werenot villagers Moldavian that indicate may documents written any commission not did rights and liberties known that even peasants from the traditional and Wallachianfrom outset struggled counterparts. lessthan theirthe villages of the Campulung foundation,fewer rights enjoyed thestate of after having beencolonists princes the peasants, and Vrancea regions with enjoyed rightsWallachian the free villageof traditional communities. The Moldavian in Moldavia villagesfew factthat the to wasrelated free belonging peasants to records court landinin writingthe prince’sAccording chancellery. toStahl, absence the Moldavian of secure their need as tomakeat yet,least tosuch the villagers feel or not extent endangered seldom attested. The as inWallachia. property for their common land property of the whostruggled Moldavianbody of peasants, collective of a than arerecordedrather disputes the estates peasants doescosts. not seem to have been becauselower their local land atthe level, recorded of possibly andfree peasants transactions in of later and higher nobility record office courts, service of the the the Only later did Moldavian peasants dispute their land and status with Moldavian state and noblemen. In a Stahl, DIR A, vol.4, no. 188 (1596). See, forinstance, DIR A, vol. 3, no. 13, no. 201, no. 309; Chivu, From the reign of Iancu the Saxon (1579-1582) lowercourtservants began to record their land transactions in 124 Traditional Romanian Village Communities Moreover, in Moldavia, individual purchases, confirmation or reconfirmation of the of reconfirmation or confirmation purchases, individual in Moldavia, Moreover, 144. , 134. 125 The whole sale disposal of estates is also Documente Române 126 Nonetheless, the fact the Nonetheless, 123 ú ti din secolul al XVI-lea while local gentry Traditional Romanian 127 35 , CEU eTD Collection 129 Enciclopedic 128 that claim I Still, law. customary Wallachian in the inheritors land rightful as siblings female and male of inequalities the about opinion Stahl’s support I documents, sixteenth-century’s siblings. female and male of landWallachian inwhich practice was inheritance there between firstequality the generation a specific to led law Roman and Slavonic of mixture a that claimed Codarcea Cristina history, issue highly historiography. inRomanian debated Wallachian social In study a recent of a was in Wallachia offspring female of rights inheritance the of issue The property. land inherit legally could offspring female that consider not did law customary Wallachia in since towriting. anditsrelation tolandinheritance right Women’s perfection. and ofland: fraternal adoption regulating theownership New practices 2.5. writing and women’s right (or lack of it) to inherit land in the following section. law, customary between the relationship of dimension specific the will cover I inheritance. to right women’s of problem the by raised is Wallachia in families nuclear to families social struggle there. century, theWallachian compared to principality, may also beexplained by lesssharp the during the slower inMoldavian Presumably, sixteenth the paceofincrease documents level. a central at documents costly issue to incentive of absence the and stability social communities, girls take their dowry in acart.” their dowry take girls communities, village customs and in the unwillingnesswere of thenot peasants entitled to accept to inherit foreigners land into propertytheir close as according to “a practice that has its roots in the “Fetelor li sed li “Fetelor Cristina Codarcea, Société et pouvoirenVallachie (1601-1654) entre la coutume et la loi (Bucharest : Editura Changes in the structure of landChanges in of structure issuethe land ledto also the ownership of succession crucialin issueof Another from ownership of transformation extended structures the ă , 2002), 191. ă zestre cu carul.” See Stahl, See carul.” cu zestre 128 Conversely, Henry Stahl claimed that Wallachian women Contribu Ġ 129 ii lastudiul satelor Basing my analyses on fifteenth- and early and fifteenth- on my analyses Basing , vol. 2, 116. 36 CEU eTD Collection RomanianPractices: Brotherhood over the land. Oath taking),(Bucharest: Editura Academiei, 1969), 34. possessions. See also Gheorghe Gron Gheorghe also See possessions. artificially recreate to a larger tended and family structures that would mental same the allow themretained the ownership, right land to disposefamily-based personally common of of practice their land traditional 136 135 134 prince bestowed land on the hisgovernor, who in his turn, donated it to his servants, see DRH B,vol.1, 181. no. 133 Traditional Romanian Village Communities, in 1482, twelve noblemen came before the prince and declared a property to be without heirs ( heirs without be to a property declared and prince the before came noblemen twelve 1482, in the framework of agnatic inheritance rights.” SeeStahl, rights.” inheritance of agnatic framework the clause as “concerning the state renunciation of its rights to take over belongings left without heirs pr heirs without left belongings over take to rights of its renunciation state the “concerning as clause practices were considered to be of be type.” of “native a to wereconsidered practices Again,in such land historiography,inheritors. and Romanian estate thusbecome potential the over brothers or sons of status the to heirs male legitimate without noblemen of daughters influenced from Hungary. Both the practice of were court) inthe oral testimony the regulating as those (such practices that these probable 132 Hungary Nobleman and His Kindred filium prince. of the theproperty became property nobleman of maleheirs a who died without befound Wallachian record. in inheritance can the several pattern of with land theHungarian organization social and a gapof centuries, 131 Transformations Family, and Identity in Later Medieval Europe,” In The Journalof the Royal Anthropological Institute 130 heirs. male without noblemen to belonging estates land the of Germany. or Normandy, suchasScandinavia, regions incertain European practice wascommon the as influence was aforeign landed property family of inheritance male partible of pattern the landed possessions. As a consequence, certain practices such as such practices certain consequence, As a possessions. landed their inherit to state the of right the disputing began they power, central the against grew See Stahl, In Romanian “fr In Romanian “punerea fetei în loc de fiu” or “îmb defiu” în loc fetei “punerea Romanian In Although rare, the practice is attested in the Wallachian documents during the fifteenth century. fifteenth the during documents Wallachian the in attested is practice the rare, Although Early documents contain the clause “pr clause the contain documents Early See Stephen Werb SeeStephen Robert Layton, “Functional and Historical Explanations for VillageSocial Organization inNorthern Europe,” ) 134 . or 130 Contribu Most probably, the practice reached the Wallachian Principality via Hungary via Wallachian Mostprobably,Hungary the Principality as, practice the reached fraternal adoption , ed. Anne J. Duggan (Woodbridge: BoydellPress, 2000), 248-9. ăĠ ie de mo Ę Ġ czy, ii la studiul satelor The Tripartitum (Budapest: CEU Press, 1998); Martin Rady, ú ii.” Ġ , Institu (fraternization the land) over 132 ă , vol. 3, 185. He affirms that noblemen, being influenced by the dalic , I, 89. See also Erik Fügedi, The documentary princes’ Thedocumentary appropriation evidence attests 151-4. Ġ ii Medievale Române ă s ă 1.4 (1995): 710; See also JenniferC. Ward, “Noblewomen, nu fie” (may (may the fie” nu Nobles and Nobility in Medieval Europe: Concepts,Origins, ă rb ă Contribu tarea femeii.” tarea praefectio infilium andfraternal adoption praefectio 136 131 I, however, claim itthatis much more Ġ In Wallachia, as in Hungary, the land ii la studiul satelor, ú (defectus seminis ti Infra pradalica The Elefánthy: TheHungarian Nobility,Land and Service in Medieval Ġ 135 irea de mo 133 not be applied). Stahl defines the were used to promote the As noblemen’s influence prefection vol.3, 182-204; idem, ú ie. Jur - default of issue) pr ă ( torii ă praefectio in praefectio dalic For instance, For ă (Medieval dalic ă ). The ă in are 37 CEU eTD Collection 142 counted. “adopted brother.” (See DRH B, vol. 5, no.119). For more information about the practice and about rituals about and Codarcea, itsee practice the accompanying about information more For no.119). 5, vol. B, DRH (See brother.” “adopted the renounced had parties of the one that fact ofthe regardless agreements the preserved prince the cases, some in least at that, attests record The agreements. made previously cancel to trial prince’s a through go to however, and further disputes are attested (see, forinstance, DRH B, vol. 8, no. 308).intended Thento serve the parties as future witnesses again had in potential disputes. This did not prove to be a sufficient obstacle, 141 140 See DRH B,vol.1, no.84. See also DRH B,vol.1, 111no. (1453), 133no. (1453), no.143 (1473). 139 138 issue. this about discussions for M.Bak interesting János the prof. vols.vol.11; 1-8, 137 law. in customary Hungarian also attested defectus seminis. defectus prefection (praefectio infilium) of of practices employment with the be correlated to seems century sixteenth in in ledthat the first lastdecadesof Wallachian growth numberof the landcharters to the the by produced by records chancellery. princely written the inheritance orblood-rightbutby forcethe of favor,”royal by “not As action cameinto thenewforms ofland landedproperty. heirs their inheritance of turn their for the lawpurpose daughters of into sons grantingthus oflegal them status the prince to the camebefore noblemen Wallachian ownedfamily estates, collectively partition of members. family various between land succession oflandinheritorgranta female on used not to status the was fraternal adoption from an early period, in Moreover, Wallachia. moreattested and often infilium praefectio Documents that have been under question as later falsifications have not been integrated. been not have falsifications later as question under been have that Documents This practice was supported by religious rituals and secular banquets where the large number of guests were ofguests number large the where banquets secular and rituals by religious supported was practice This I borrowed here the expression of Fügedi.Erik See Fügedi, Up to the reign of Radu the Great there are only four documents surviving. The first DRH B,vol.1, no. 122 (1463),one datesno.175 (1480), 195no. (1485), from no.206 (1487). 1437-8. See Fügedi, Table 5. In order to be valid the practices required the prince’s confirmation. Thus, after the 142 and The Elefánthy, The fraternal adoption The Wallachian charters granted thepractices of to noblemen, granted according to The Wallachian charters Documente deistorieaRomaniei is abundantly documented, fraternal adoption seems to have been earlier been have to seems adoption fraternal documented, abundantly is and 27; Rady, Société etpouvoir en Vallachie, fraternal adoption, Nobility, Land and Service in Medieval Hungary, , as edited in , asedited 137 Nonetheless, although in Hungary the practice of Documenta RomaniaeHistoricaDocumenta aiming to avoid the loss of estates due to 139 The Elefánthy, , vols. 5, 6. Uncertain documents are not are documents Uncertain 6. 5, vols. , 192-201, 340-50. 138 141 but also tosecure a non-customary 140 Consequently, one of the factors the of one Consequently, they requested to be confirmed to they requested 27. 107. Iam thankful to BWallachia, prefection 38 CEU eTD Collection Mircea the Shepherd the Mircea Radu from Radu from Afuma Basarab Young the Basarab Vlad II1449-1456 Petra Alexandru Mircea Moise 1529-1530 Peter Young the Peter Basarab Neagoe Vlad the Drown Vlad the Young Bad Mihnea the Vlad The Monk Radu the Great Radu the Radu the Fair II 1558-1559 Vladislav III Vlad Vintila Vlad I 1545-1554 Vlad Dracul Radu Paisie 1437-1441 1568-1577 1559-1568 1554-1558 1512-1521 1510-1511 1508-1509 1482-1495 1535-1545 1532-1535 1530-1532 1523-1525 1522-1530 1495-1507 1477-1482 1463-1474 Mircea III ú cu the Good Reign 1509 Ġ i charters issued to issued charters Total number of noblemen 404 163 123 138 11 64 24 58 14 42 20 45 48 16 5 8 7 2 6 7 fraternal adoption and adoption fraternal Charters attesting Charters perfection 50 30 23 19 10 14 24 1 8 5 9 1 4 1 3 1 1 0 1 1 Charters attesting Charters fraternal adoption fraternal and prefection and (percentages) 12% 18% 13% 19% 21% 15% 14% 20% 20% 24% 19% 13% 14% 31% 50% 16% 9% 7% 0% 14 39 CEU eTD Collection 146 a chancellor, Stroe. The chancellor, in his turn, was “promoted” as the brother of his niece and of the noblemen.See also DRH B, vol. 1, no. 244 (1493). inheritlanded his property practiceof the through oflaw,herto thepurpose entitlinga sonfor thus into of his daughter thestatus transformed a princely decision to avoid to decision a princely officials and their immediate relatives were able to use written documents and to commission half constitute survivingthe of documents. reignthe Vlad theMonkof (1482-1495), them so that they could become land inheritors. land become they could so that them practices are used to turn employed male between relatives. Onlyfrom reign the the Radu of Fair(1463-1474), the daughters into sons (for 1451. 1437-1438 and the purpose of law) or to fraternizefraternal adoption with (1495). See also Gron 145 111. no. 144 vol.1, B, DRH See 1453. from preserved is document 143 See, forinstance, DRH B, vol. 1, no. 296 (1500). The status of See DRH B,vol.1, 195 no. (1485), no. 204 (1487), no. 230 (1492), 244no. (1493), no. 245 (1494), no. 255 DRH B,vol. 1, no. 122 (1463), DRH B,vol. 1, no. 175 (1480). original first The undated). is and translation late ina preserved is document (the 84 no. 1, vol. B, DRH Mikhail the Brave Petru the Ear ring Ear the Petru Stephan Deaf the Stephan Mihnea the Turk Mihnea the Alexander the Alexander II 1585-1591 I 1577-1583 Wrongdoer 1593-1600 1591-1592 1592-1593 1583-1585 fifteenthindicatesstate highest evidencethe only Initially, the that century, during As can be seen, in the first half of the sixteenth century the practices of practices the century sixteenth the of half first in the seen, be can As Ġ , casesarefrom attested Theearliest data. in the recorded wereseldom Institu 143 Ġ However, the first attested practices of fraternal adoption are adoption fraternal of practices attested first the However, ii Medievale Române defectus seminis defectus 245 468 10 25 29 145 ú ti, while throughout Radu’s the Great reign they reign Great the Radu’s throughout while 34. 144 . 146 They began beto more often attested from praefectio infilium praefectio Among the first known official, who official, known first the Among jupan 11 66 indicates the high social standing of one standing social high the indicates 0 3 3 , was a brother-in-law of , wasabrother-in-law prefection 12% 10% 14% 4% 0% and 40 CEU eTD Collection five villages, Gypsyslaves, and movable goods. that before the law, they became blood brothers over their fortune, which consisted of twenty- 153 afterwards. services 152 religious and life his during assistance his for exchange in Manea nephew his to 151 150 149 no. 144 (1516), No. 175(1518), No. 196 (1520). 148 147 of endowmentrecord princely wereissuedto thedata), documents Great (acording to taxes to mentions paidlegalizing princehad asthecharter Stroe his thatthe for forgiven daughter, the be paid ina potential the inheritor form of the fortune of in casea ofhorse. her death. It might be that this was the price the written testimony entitled the wife of ban Dr relatives sisters, and Brothers people. various kin-related reveal afrequentuseof filial practicethe of adoption, not byheirlessonly butalsoparents, by noblemen. by commissioned Shepherdthe practices 49survivingdocuments attest thetwo outof 305 documents of legal inheritors multiplied. status proper the grant their daughters to wouldentitle them that a written document request charters. land ofland of hadbeenpractices inheritance aspreviously commissioners they regular first the extraordinary the in registering pioneers remained they as documents, commissioning commissioned by high Wallachiana ban Dr official, land charter extant in first the Forinstance, estates. family oftheir inheritance desired Ibidem. DRH B, vol.7, no. 180 (1574). DRH B,vol. 5, no. 245 (1562). See also DRH B,vol.11, no. 295 (1598), whenLupul gave his land property DRH B, vol. 5, no. 27 (1554), DRH B, vol. 7, no. 180 (1574). See, forinstance, DRH B, vol. 5, no. 220 (1561). See forinstance,DRH B,2,vol. no. 24 (1504), no. 27 (1504), no. 37 (1505), 124no. (1514), no. 137(1515), DRH B,vol.1, no. 175 (1480). Next to the practices of perfection and fraternal adoption, from the reign of Raduthe of from reign the adoption, fraternal and perfection of practices the Next to During sixteenth the century, number the of parents willing and apparently able to 151 turned each other into reciprocal brothers through princely favor to secure the secure to favor princely through brothers reciprocal into other each turned 148 Moreover, the increasing number of written charters began began to charters written number of increasing the Moreover, Between the reign Raduof the Great (1495-1507) and Mircea 147 ă Presumably, chancellors had facilities in facilities had chancellors Presumably, ghici keepto her husband’ estates. 152 149 Thus, the princely authority Thus, princely authority the by endorsed husbands wives, and ă ghici and hiswife Vl 150 ă daia, stated it was next to different 153 41 CEU eTD Collection wife of Chamberlain Deatco, who came before Prince Radu the Great to become a “blood become a to Great the Radu Prince whocamebefore Deatco, wifeChamberlain of end of end century of The first fifteenth the is (1499). case of that a noblewoman, the to prior document any commission not did women Wallachian land. own and inherit to the right women guarantee would that practices of attestation earliest the with contemporary are landestates of their confirmation written for female requests cases of The first practices. written to subsequently and transaction land of process the to women Wallachian of access to the middle of the seventeenth century, see Codarcea, century, seventeenth ofthe middle the to 156 155 154 strata. social lower from employed aswellbynon individuals related kin facilitate the to landacquisition of property be beganto fraternal adoption of practice the century, of sixteenth the after the turn Moreover, members thantoturnthe daughters without maleintopotential siblings landinheritors. more was recorded often landto securean various between family uncustomary transaction practice the surviving. Yet, are30documents Young(1559-1568),there the reign Peter of by authenticated prince’s chancellery. the be haditin to and beit had put writing, law; to partof customary the an accepted constituted have to not seems dowry into estates land of inclusion the Nevertheless, more customary. becamefemaleland of validation the asinheritor property mentionedof offspring practices, potential land inheritors. My hypothesis is that after more than a century of usage of the above become sothey could sons orbrothers, oflaw into for purpose the thedaughters turned adoption that fraternal and ofperfection practices recording the documents expense of the with landdaughters asdowry. properties dowry multiply only from the second half of the sixteenth century, sixteenth the of half second the from only multiply dowry See the previous paragraph, mainly pages 19-20. For the frequency of the practice of adoption of brothers up of brothers of adoption practice ofthe frequency the For 19-20. pages mainly paragraph, previous the See See for instante DRH B, vol. 7 no. 195 (1574). DRH B, vol.2, no. 25 (1504). The application of the practices of practices the of The application However, the practice of fraternal adoption continued to be employed: only from the 156 154 The written records of landed Thewritten as of donated records property prefection Societe etpouvoir en Vallachie and fraternal adoption , 193, 194. 155 apparently at the at apparently jupanita facilitated the Stana, 42 CEU eTD Collection Land titles attest equality between male male equality femaleand heirs. between attest Land titles male line, indicating separate possessions for all individual family members. family individual all for possessions separate indicating line, male decade of the sixteenth century. sixteenth the decade of familybetween began bemembers to attested. decades From century, lasttwo the fifteenth of the holdings partitionsjointpreviously of land structure the of ownership, of genres a lesserdocumentary evidence to changed extent. at the turn of the sixteenth century, 163 162 161 rights. 160 inheritance Moldavian influnced inheritors female and male between equality Moldavie (XIV-XIX siècles)” en femme la de statut etle famille “La Cazacu See Matei land. ininheriting rights equal had females and Traditional Romanian Village Communities, to confiscate land properties which had fallen into intestacy was part of the Moldavianstate as well (see Stahl, 159 ill land owner left no child, male or female. in Wallachia. practices writing new of implementation from oral to written testaments.a transition be considered might fraternal adoption of thepractice context, this In inheritance. Later, it might be seen as startingoral a practice thatwill lead to the seems heir. be the son Stana’s to have death would her lands. sister’s Only with her purchased of inheritance the her sister grant been insufficient and land property her freely of dispose to allowed Stana that atestament was rather It record. legal proof to grant a non-traditional land 158 157 of issued aconsequence as was not heir land. ofherof her the andthus,to status brother” sister grant See notes 124 and 125. See DIR A, vol.1, no. 146, no. 209, no. 210, no. 230, no. 233, no. 238, no. 242, no. 243. See DRH A, vol. 3, no. 114, no. 123, no. 128, no. 273; DIR A, vol. 1, no. 123. See DRH A, vol. 3, no. 105, no. 109, no. 111. right the that consider to Stahl Henri led which century sixteenth the during ofexceptions acouple are There The practice of practice The DRH B, vol 1,no. 294 (1499). Further on, from an early period, women are attested as commissioners of written The practices of The practices common more the However, employed. seldom were wills written time, this During defectum seminis prefection Revista de istorie Sociala is also attested in the Moldavian documents; however, only in cases when an when cases in only however, documents; Moldavian in the attested isalso 162 Single charters were drawn for the entire family in the 161 and 154). On the contrary, other historians argue that Moldavian males Moldavian that argue historians other contrary, the On 154). recording a significant growth in growth recordinga significant third secondand the defectum seminis defectum fraternal adoption , 2-3 (1997-1998): 9,10. Possibly, Polishthe practice of 160 Their number began to multiply, especially , as sonStana’s ismentioned in the 159 are not attested in Moldavia.. are notattested Consequently, after changes in changes after Consequently, 157 Inote that the document 163 158 43 CEU eTD Collection and the production of a written record was a was record awritten of production and the consent princely required the landnew Thefact practices that storage. form record of written a of a dissemination to led land inheritance of new practices of only implementation the dissemination existingalready of of customs records, inWallachiausing written seems itthat a proliferation and to ledrather social changes in Moldavia, While, newcategories. social into dissemination gradual a parallel but in numbers, increase asignificant display only not not onlythenobility. documents all Consequently, strata, eventually social process affected spread and in dissemination Principalities.written cultureof theRomanian medieval This in and influencedduring theland second,changes more consistently greatly the ownership half, first its during slowly century, sixteenth the Throughout limited. very was culture written their family land property. ownershipland the of individual women to estates, thewritten similarly word todivideused her old charters hadher old been charters destroyed Ottoman the during raids. ask forsince Vinderei,confirmed anewpossessions inhervillage, princeher to that charter 169 168 167 166 165 164 existing land property. selling, in chancellery, central the charters of written commissioners active as more often arerecorded noblewomen century, fifteenth of theirprince.could inthechancellery the secure donations only to the highest social confirmingrecords donating or theirland property. were Initially, their documents confined level. It was mainly mothers or wives of the ruling princes, who DRH A, vol. 3, no. 168, no. 175. See DRH A, vol. 2, no. 209. DRH A, vol. 2, no. 219, no. 228, DRH A, vol. 3, no. 94, no. 211, no. 230, no. 231 et passim. DRH A, vol. 3, no. 184, no. 195, no. 206, no. 217. DRH A, vol. 3, no. 65, no. 66, no. 71. DRH B, vol. 1, no. 181; DRH B, vol. 3, no. 49. As can be seen, up to the beginning of the sixteenth century, especially in Wallachia, 167 For instance, in 1477, Mu 169 165 sinequanon buying, * ú a, wife of Vindereu, came before the 166 confirming or reconfirming confirming or their condition stimulated the transition the stimulated condition 168 With the transition from joint from transition the With 164 In the last quarter of the 44 CEU eTD Collection recording. of ways written of implementation faster a to led that movements catalytic as served injustice, social as well as practices new social transformation, social that itseems Accordingly, be issued andeven comparable thedocuments intheneighboringexceed principality. to begin documents Wallachian of number the did ownership land in the changes of result a as only Consequently, practices. new memories the written with oral andtraditional replaced old record storage and thelower nobilityfacing themenace hadof highnobility the use to similar methodsof as their rivalsfree Thus,by were documents peasants disputes. required princes the written instead, during did. In their need to hold on to their landed positions, they 170 increasingthe number of charters. charters as probatory duringevidence was potential one disputes of essentialthe for reasons from oral to written procedures. Additionally, the strengthening of the defensive role of the 1200-1300 Thomas Behrmann, “Pragmatic Literacy in Lombard City Communes,” in (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 1997), l28. See also Britnell, 170 Oral Oral became lesstestimonies gradually accepted; Pragmatic Literacy, East and West Pragmatic Literacy, East and West , 12. 45 CEU eTD Collection 173 istoria Ardealului, Moldovei 172 Bistri Alexandru Mare Alexandru D Constantin Cihodaret all (Bucharest: Editura Academiei, 1977)(henceforth: Doc Rela Doc see volume, first the beyond go not does and incomplete remains Wallachia and Moldavia, Transylvania, among circulated that documents ofthe edition critical a complete for project princely reigns. See for instance Mihail Cost Mihail instance See for reigns. princely published by Mihail Cost Bra ğă and Moldavian Slavonic letters were edited by IoanBogdan, see his previous existence. Wallachia were very rarely preserved,Moldavia addressed and interpretingto documents them.enhances The of difficulties the although often an indirect which factor a arepreservedasunilateral correspondence, letters researched period these record brings to light their see his most important editors of the Transylvanian the corpusAmong of material producedorlanguages. Latin in andareas, German is periods, Nicolae Iorga, certain on focused are rather versions edited The letters. Moldavian 171 of the issued documentsof the Moldavian or Wallachian towns mightdo account for this situation.not seem to have been recorded in the archives of the foreign preserved. 1600) 832Moldavian letters foreign and 726 Wallachian addressed institutions are to Principalities. in Danubian culture two these Subsequently, I shall try emerged, which issues were coveredin and whowriting, participated in their emission. to scrutinize how foreignrelations relations influenced the usage withof written neighboring powers. I shall consider when documents sent abroad first ). For the edition of the documents issued during the sixteenth century in Romanian see also Gheorghe Chivu, Bogdan, See, for instance, Iorga, instance, for See, The archival record has not been edited systematically. There are no reliable critical editions of Wallachian or ofWallachian editions critical reliable no are There systematically. edited been not has record archival The rii Române ú skills in Moldavia and Wallachia: treaties and political letters Chapter 3. Foreign influence onthe dissemination of literary Ġ ovul ii între Ġ a town archives are preserved in the Cluj State Archives, Fond POB. Acte From From up creation endthe of to the state the reign of the Michael of Brave(1593- the foreign thatattest Wallachian documents Iaddress Moldavian and In thischapter ú i cu Rela 171 ú Ġ arile române i scrisori din arhivele ora ú ğ ti cu Bra They consist mainly of political and trade-related letters. Throughout the entire the Throughout letters. trade-related and political of mainly consist They ara Ungureasc ú Ġ iile , eds. ğă 172 Documente Române ú rii Române ovul ă Thelack of stateurban archivesor upto nineteenththe century in any chescu in several collections of material organized according to the most important (Relations among Romanianthe countries) D, Vol.1 (1222-1456),ed. Acte ú ú i i Ungaria,i ă ğă însec. XV ú i scrisori, n i scrisori, rii-Române ú ti cu Bra ú elor elor ardelene (Bistri and idem, and ú ú i XVI ti din secolul al XVI-lea ú o. 920, no. 967, no. 974. See also Veress, ă ú ovul chescu, t , vol., 1, 27no. (1542, Sept 10). , ú v i cu ol.1 (1413-1508). Moldavian foreign letters were also Documente privitoare la Rela Documentele moldovene ğ ara Ungureasc Ġ a, Bra ú ; fewThe unedited documents from the ov, Sibiu). Documente ă , vol.1, XXV. ú The main corpuses of Wallachian corpuses main The ti înainte de ú umenta Romaniae Historica D umenta Romaniae Historica i regeste privitoare la Rela Ġ iile Documente privitoare la ğă 173 rii Române Moreover, copies ù tefan cel Mare. ù tefanPascu, ú ti cu Ġ A iile 46 CEU eTD Collection polone privitoare la istoria Ardealului, Moldovei 180 ğă CristophorPrince Bathori inpublished 1579, by Veress, Transylvanian the to Turk the Mihnea Prince Wallachian by the written letter apolitical also See (1543). 210 no. Emperor Ferdinand I from Jan 7, 1543,. See Densu 179 II.1 (1451-1575), vol.2.2 (1451-1510), vol.3.1 (1576-1599). Vols 1-6.and by Nicolae Densu 178 of the Romanians.Hurmuzaki Collection) Supplement. 2,Vol. 1(1510-1600) (Bucharest: n.p., 1893). Libraries), in Libraries), 177 176 (1926-27): 37-59. and sixteenthand centuries), secolii XV (1400-1431), external (1400-1431), external indicatedocuments same the paucity as internal the as ones, nineonly Good the Alexander of reign up tothe Moldavia, In sporadic. is foreign relations attests treaties politicaldocuments: andWallachian 3.1 Moldavian Brave (1593-1600)is preserved in PolishGerman, Austrian, or archives. State archives of Western European states. ofWestern European archives Austrian archives. and German lost. Sibiu, archives of preserved inthetown 32 Bra of archive the in mainly letters Wallachian archives. Moldavian letters survived in mostly the urban archives of Bistri slavo-române din Sibiu (1470-1653)” (Slavo-RomanianDocuments from Sibiu (1470-1653), 175 174 relations. economic political DanubianPrincipalitiesor conducted with countrieswhich the towns and It was edited by Iorga, Among fewthe is adeclaration of submissionfrom the Wallachian Prince Radu Paisie (1535-1545) to It was edited by Andrei Veress, Ioan Bogdan,ed., Bogdan, For the edition of Slavonic letters from the urban archives of Sibiu see Petre Panaitescu, ed., “Documente ed., Panaitescu, see Petre Sibiu of archives urban the from letters ofSlavonic edition the For Ibidem.. rii-Române (1938): 1-44; Silviu Dragomir, ed. ,“Documente nou 176 , Suppl.2.1. Other corpuses of Moldavian political letters are attested in Polish, attested are letters political Moldavian of corpuses Other During written Wallachian period the ofthe early Moldavian states, evidenceand that The lack of domestic archives makes the extant record greatly dependent on foreign on greatly record dependent makes extant the archives The lackof domestic 174 ú Documente Documente i XVI” (New documents concerning Wallachian relations with the townof Sibiu during the fifteenth Documente privitore la istoria românilor. Colec ú ti, vol. 2, no. 136. no. 2, vol. Documente culese dinarhive sibiblioteci polone ú Anuarul Institutului de istorie Na i regeste Acte relative la R ú ianu,ed., , V. Documente privitoare la istoria Ardealului,Moldovei 178 Wallachian letters are only sporadically preserved in the preserved sporadically only are letters Wallachian ú Documente privitoarela istoria Românilor i ă ğă zboaiele 179 rii-Române 175 The only political correspondence by Michael the Michael by correspondence political only The ú where most of the Wallachian collection has been collection most of where Wallachian the ianu, ú i Cuceririle lui Mihai Viteazul ă Documenteprivitoare laistoria Ardealului,Moldovei privitoare la rela Documente privitoare la istoria românilor, ú Ġ ú ional ti, vol. 5,6; Bogdan, ov. Few instances of Wallachian letters are letters Wallachian of instances Few ov. Ġ ia Hurmuzaki ă alUniversit (Documents from the Polish Archives and Archives Polish the from (Documents Ġ iile (Documents concerning the history ăĠ ğă ii Regele Ferdinand I din Cluj Documente arhive biblioteci rii Române ; Veress, Documente , vols. I.2(1396-1450), vol. ú Ġ i a and Bra ğă ú ti cu Sibiul în Studii 180 rii-Române 177 Hungarian, ú i Cercet vol. 2.1, vol. ú ov, and ú ti. ă , 4 ri 47 ú i CEU eTD Collection istoria Românilor, Densu see record, indirect Polish the from known are treaties three Only 235. 182 (1393), no. 166 (1395), 167no. (1395), 170no. (1400). 1431), each prince or future prince was eager to acquire or secure his political power through power his political acquire secure or to future waseager prince each or 1431), prince Moldavian state. treaties and agreements might be explained through the political instability of the early with especiallyneighboring powers, Poland. tothe throne candidates or between princes Moldavian andagreements which 36aretreaties of out documents Moldavian external thereare78attested (1457-1504), Great Stephen the increaseUp during gradually theGood(1400-31).toreign of Alexander of reign the 3.1.1 The Medieval Principality ofMoldavia appeared in andform principalities that evidence they what Danubian took. the written of instances first the trace to helps however, documents, Wallachian and Moldavian involved seldom producing their or reception haveattested, previously might been more documents a large if social Even negligible. haverather been to seems culture of written dissemination on the treaties segment.Wallachian principality, and especially to their restricted circulation, the impact of foreign Theand states.Thus, duetothe smallnumber other of political from treaties, particularly the fact thatthe entire fifteenth century, it encompasses onlytreaties five extant treaties signed between Wallachia were among the first surviving 181 VladislavPoland. of treatiesfidelity of and politicalagreementsmade by Moldavian andnoblemen Kingprinces to A firstdocuments consistnumber haveof surviving documents preponderant of survived. the The entire collection is published in Cost in published is collection entire The SeeCost During the unsettled period that surrounded the reign of Alexander the Good (1400- Alexander of Good the thesurrounded reign that During period the unsettled Based on the extant evidence, the number of Moldavian foreign documents began to documents foreign Moldavian of number the evidence, extant Based on the ă chescu, vol.1.2 (1346-1450), no. 578 (1442), no. 593(714), no. 609 (1447). Documente înainte de 181 The surviving Wallachian as Thesurvivingis less Wallachian significant, duringevidence even ă ù chescu, tefan cel Mare, Documente înainte de 182 The profusion of the early Moldavian political Moldavian early the of profusion The vol. 2, n o.162 (1387), no. 163 (1387), no. 165 ù tefan cel Mare, ú ianu, Documente privitoare la vol. 2, no. 162-no. no. 2, vol. 48 CEU eTD Collection 191 no. 177 (1411). 190 Aug 26, 1548. 189 PolishKing Sigismund III Aug.on 27, 1595. (Oct 2, 1569,), no. 578 (Jan 31, 1570,). The last Moldavian treaty was signed betweenIeremia Movil 1569 and sonBogdanhis in 1570see Densu Sigismund). For the alliances signed with Polish the King Sigismund Augustus by Alexandru L Lacust 188 Documente privitoare la istoria Românilor D political and cultural influences weredominantin Moldavia during the early Thefirstperiod. andtradition Polish the that written suggests ofvassalage treaties preserved Moldavian 187 Poland, kings later,month onAugust 15,1475 186 185 184 (1462, March 2), no. 135 (1468, July 28), 167no. (1485,Sept.16), 178no. (1499,July 12) (Documents of Stephan Great)the (Bucharest: Socec &Co, 1913),vol.2, 129no. (1462,March 2), no.131 183 Rare Petru of reigns the Between decreased. powers Western with signed agreements of number political andWallachia,the inMoldavia grew stronger Ottoman the Empire of influence political the treaties Hungarian and with Polish kings. differentdates. The Moldavian issued copy was atIa copies ontwo in two issued been have to seems which by a treaty, arerevealed Mathias, kings Polish with signed were that treaties seven are there instance, for Great, the Stephen of reign PetruRare or Stephan Great the like policy, political dynamic a with princes only Later, states. neighboring with agreements ocumente arhive biblioteci polone Ibidem, 220no. (1450), no. 224 (1453). See, for instance, Cost instance, for See, Densu Bogdan, D Densu Densu Ibidem, vol.2, 146no. (1475,July12). Ibidem Five of them were signed with the Polish king Cazimir, see Ioan Bogdan, 188 183 ă Polishand King Sigismund Augustus in 1569, and no. 66 (1539,signed by As mentioned, most of the early Moldavian political with weresigned political mosttreaties Moldavian of As mentioned, early the Rare 190 and one with the Transylvanian prince, Ioannes Zapolya. Ioannes prince, Transylvanian the with one and and Lithuanian princes. ú ú ú , ianu, ianu, vol.2, no. 178 (1499, July 12), no. 179 (1499, Sept.14). ianu, and sporadically only Hungary.with Lithuania or ú ocumente arhive biblioteci polone and Ieremia Movila five treaties were signed by Moldavian princes with Polish with princes Moldavian by signed were treaties five Movila Ieremia and ú , duringhis assertive politics in Poland andTransylvania, also signed several Documenteprivitoare laistoria Românilor Documente privitoare laistoria românilor, Documente privitoare la istoria românilor ă chescu, Documente înainte de , n o. 63 (Febr.23, 1539,). For Hungarian the treaty see Densu 185 ú , concluded treaties of alliances in this frequency. From frequency.From inthe this of , concludedalliances treaties 184 in the Hungarian capital, Buda. , vol.2.1 ,no. 66 (April 4,1535). ú Thealliances concluded with Hungarianthe king, ianu, , n 187 Documenteprivitoare la istoria Românilor o. 63 (Febr. 23,1539,), signed by Petru Rare After the first part of Rare ù tefan cel Mare, , vol. , , v Vol.3.1 (1510-1530), no. 410 (1527); Bogdan, ol.2.1 (1451-1575), 11 no. (1475). 2.1, no. 221. It was signed by Ilie (Rare ú i on July 12andtheHungarian a copy vol.2, no. 165(1393), 171no. (1402), Documentele lui 191 189 186 The pattern of the first the of pattern The ù tefan Rare tefan ú reign, however, as . , vol. 2.1, no. 573 ù ú tefan cel Mare, ă ú and pu ú and ianu, ú neanu in ă ù and the tefan ú ) on 49 CEU eTD Collection 196 ù 195 194 no.163. date, same onthe noblemen 193 mention it. Out of seven extant treaties of alliance and letters of fidelity between Poland and even or seldom record documents Great, the Stephan of reign the beginning with Afterwards, Moldavian verbatim. oath the recorded text the apparently and ritual, the about Polish recorded were details treaties, some documents certain In Treaties. Moldavian-Polish all almost in witnesses and the ritual of taking an oath on the Holy Cross was common. often recorded in early Polish-Moldavian intreaties, Polish-Moldavian early often recorded osculantes. Kyoviensis oreproprio consuetudinem orientalis ecclesie lignumviteinmanibus dominiCypriani metropolitani (…) tradition: Church’s Eastern the to according wastaken oath the that annodominimillessimo tricentesimopontificis, septimo. octogento? on day saint’s Catholic the to according the expression of tradition, engaging in a treaty of alliance meant kissing the Holy Cross, as in some documents influenced by Polish and Lithuanian in asitpractices seems that Polish-Lithuanianthe was ritual this Probably internal. nor external neither documents, Moldavian contemporary Moldavian Mu Prince Petru instance, first the atreaty survivingforeign document, vassalage signedof between the rituals and oath taking likewise seem haveto been borrowed from the kingdom of Poland. For Catholic toother princes. similar suzerains 192 perform pledgedto Moldavian andprinces The dating. language usage, structure, documents’ of tradition Polish the embrace documents Moldavian tefan celMare Cost See Bogdan, Cost 1411, 25, on May signed treaties the instance, for See, SeeCost Cost ă ă chescu, chescu, Elements of oral tradition, such as oaths and maledictions, were recorded next to seals ă chescu, , vol. 2, no. 177. Documentele luiStefan celMare Documentele moldovene Documentele moldovene Documente înainte de kissing theCross ú at and Vladislav, king of and at Poland, Vladislav, kingof May 6,1387,wasdated on ú ú The ritual of Theritual of Savior,touching andCross the of kissing the was used as a substitute for a treaty of alliance. ti înainte de ti înainte de ù tefan cel Mare , vol., 2,no. 176 (1498). vigilia translationis beati Stanislai martirisvigilia translationis beati Stanislai atque 192 Moreover, the elements of oral tradition such as ù ù tefan cel Mare tefan cel Mare , vol. 2, no. 162 and forthe treaty signed by the ă chescu, 194 auxilium etconsilium was not recorded in any other in any recorded not was , vol., 2,201no. (September 19, 1436). , vol., 2, no.181 (June 3, 1433,). Documentele moldovene 193 Further, it Further,specified to their Polish their to ú ti înainte de 195 196 ritum et In early 50 CEU eTD Collection (June (June 3, 1433,) and by PeterAron, onJune 29,1456, to Cazimir, Polishthe king. 203 cel Mare 202 1510,). from the reignof BogdanVoievod (1504-1517) (Bucharest: Funda 201 176). and and Ieremia Movil PolishKing Sigismund August onOct. 2, 1569; see also the last Moldavian treaty signed betweenSigismund III period all the Moldavian copies of the political agreements were recorded in political allthe were agreements period of Moldavian the Slavonic, recorded copies the in Latin. written were treaties other two only century fifteenth the During present. still was influence Western language, Slavonic the to switch the Despite as 1393, Church bein began Slavonic to employed foreign the andtreaties agreements. asThe language early of was Latin. first influence Yet, ofWestern treaties culture. the early 200 between the Polish King Sigismund Augustus and Petru Rares. 199 198 itself. document written the on oath an took noblemen Moldavian the king, Polish the Sigismund, and Moldavian signed inadignitaries between intosporadically alliance oral of rituals; treaty reinforcement of written agreements. culture and religious elements such as God’s help continued to be invokedfor the disappeared from foreignMoldavian documents altogether, Bible. the on in 1496, the ritual of swearing the oath on the Holy Crossdocuments. Ina documentaddressed by theStephen Greattothe Lithuanianis Knez Alexander mentioned along with one in external takenappears also documents, internal Moldavian for common Gospel, Holy the on 197 ritual of kissing the Cross only once. Lithuania the principality and Stephan’smentionMoldaviaof reign,thedocuments during the Cost It was signed between Roman and Vladislav on Jan. 5, 1393, see Cost Mihai Cost See, for instance, Bogdan, instance, for See, Bogdan, Ibidem, no. 174 (1496). Bogdan, 201 ă chescu, , vol. 2, no. 177. no. 2, vol. , The languages of choice, besides the format of the documents, indicate similarly indicate similarly the documents, of format the the besides choice, The languagesof Written culture and its outcomes, written documents, began to find their way Documente arhive biblioteci polone Documentele lui ă chescu, Documente înainte de 198 ă , Moldavian prince, onAug 27, 1595 (Bogdan, After the reign of Stephan the Great, the ritual of kissing the Cross Documente moldovene ù Documente arhive biblioteci polone tefan el Mare, ù tefan Marecel 197 200 vol. 2, no. 129 (March 2, 1462,). ú Moreover, through time, the custom of taking the oath tide la Bogdan Voievod (1504-1517) , Supplement 2.1, no. 63 (1539, Feb.20). The treaty was signed , no. 181 and no. 230, written by Prince Ilie to Vladislav , no. 137:oath of BogdanL Ġ ia Regele Carol I,1940), no. 75 (Jan.22, Documente arhive biblioteci polone, ă chescu, 199 203 even if supportof the oral It seems that after early the seems that It Documente înainte de (Moldavian documents ă pu ú neanu to neanu the ù no. tefan 202 51 CEU eTD Collection 206 205 king. Hungarian asamessenger the to Radu Paisie of isfor attested instance, Tatul, Chancellor orally.Wallachian of atthecourt envoys Hungarianthe areoften mentionedincourt data. the have been with dealt orGermanmight and officials Hungarian state Wallachian the between relations political in the issues certain information the of confidentiality perceived the to influence Possibly,aconsequence, Mircea due wasstronger. (1386-1418)Ottoman theOld as reign the of period asafter independence, of political short arelatively Wallachia enjoyed administrations lowerforeign Moldavian mostly principality, documents with than level at a urban the the of based Transylvanianon Wallachia survivingthe written evidence, mainly acted a exchanging as province, Wallachia, most of them were signed before the first quarter of the fifteenth century.towns. Thus, treaties. Among the few surviving treaties ofalliances and political from agreements This situation might3.1.2 The Medieval Wallachian Principality be related to the fact that tradition. Eastern the onlyaccording to princes weredated Moldavian 1433, June 5. Ghedeon wrote in 1433, June wrote 5. Ghedeon year6941.” the Cost 204 instance, when the treatythe world.of Voivod Initially, Ilia of creation from the one,calculated Eastern the to Savior the of birth the from dating Western scribes used the from language. adeviation treatiessimilarly of early dating established state records the The Western and Eastern calendars simultaneously as, for Tocilescu, See, for instance, Bogdan, instance, for See, “Ou Suchava, po(d) leaty rojdeastva H(s)va a leat I u l g, I u (u) e. Gedewnpisa lea(t) s tz m a.” See ă chescu, 206 According to the extant evidence, the Wallachian state concludedfew political state Wallachian the evidence, extant the According to Documentele moldovene 534 documente , 337.no. Rela Ġ iile ú ğă ti înainte de rii Române ú was signed: “In Suceava from the birth of Christ ù ú tefan cel Mare ti cu Bra 204 ú ovul Afterwards the copies secured for the secured copies the Afterwards , no. 183. , no. ú i cu ğ ara Ungureasc 205 ă , no. 305-6. 52 CEU eTD Collection in 1421 with the urban administration of the town of Bra 216 town of the administration urban the with 1421 in 215 214 213 Neagoe Basarab (1512-1521) 1517.in See Bogdan . 212 1. note SeeDensu Sigismund. King Hungarian signed in 1396 between aWallachian pretender, Vladislav, considered as son of Mircea the Old with the 211 D of alliance signed by Dan II with the Hungarian King Sigismund in1426. See Ferdinand I. 210 features as a group. The treaties that indicate a Wallachian town as the place of drafting differ drafting of place as the town Wallachian indicate a that The treaties a group. as features tradition. Slavonic South the in written was which treaty Slavonic Wallachian extant the from differ and documents Hungarian contemporary of characteristics the follow treaties Latin The Wallachian in wassignedby Slavonic Basarab withNeagoe (1512-1521) Hungarianthe in king 1517. King concluded Vladislav, Hungarian the with two treaties, Wallachian other three only reveals century sixteenth the from evidence 209 208 Romaniae Historica D Bra of town with the treaties peace princes concluded Hungarian in 1426. king, instance the treaty of alliance signed between the Wallachian king, Dan II, and Sigismund, the 207 Hungarianthe King Sigismund. with agreements Poland kingof against the basically they three subsequentthe are reciprocal with kingthe Hungary, of Sigismund. (1386-1418), whenfour treaties the king with were signed of Poland, Vladislav, , n See, for instance, for See, Bogdan . Densu It was signed by Radu the Great (1493-1508). See Iorga, See Densu Densu Doc Densu Documenta Romaniae Historica D o. 147. umenta Romaniae Historica D Documenta Romaniae Historica D Almost all survivingthe Wallachian documents were issued inLatin. The only treaty The largest number of official treaties are preserved from the reign of Mircea the Old Mircea the of from reign the arepreserved treaties of number official The largest ú ú ú ú ianu, ianu, ianu, ianu, Documente 214 Documenteprivitoare laistoria Românilor Documenteprivitoare laistoria Românilor, Documente privitoare laistoria românilor Documente privitoare laistoria românilor Documenta Romaniae Historica , no.75. It was confirmed on Jul. 6, 1391, and May 17, 1411, see ú i regeste 216 211 , no.153 (1517, March17). There was also a Slavonic peace agreement signed The Wallachian Latin treaties also have several distinctive several have also treaties Latin Wallachian The Sporadically, as subjects of Sporadically, Hungarianking,Wallachian the as subjects , , no. 87 (1395,March 7) 210 n ú ianu, o. 79 (1391), no.115 (1411). Next to them, there is a reference to a treaty Several lostforevidence, are byindirect treaties suggested , n o.133 (1421), no.338 (1456). 208 Documente privitoare la istoria Românilor, The first treaty from dates 1389 Documente D, 115no. and133. ú ov. 1.2, 258no. (1389). , vol. 1.2, no. 258 (1389); see also Doc , vol. 2.1, no.210 (1543, Jan.7). Acte si scrisori, Acte vol. 1.2, no. 445. There is also a treaty of vassalage 213 . and one with the German Emperor ú i regeste ú ov and the County of Bistri County of the ov and , no.153 (1517,March 17). no.327 (1507, Dec. 3)and by Documenta Romaniae Historica ibidem 209 vol.1. 2, no. 316, also and together with , no. 78, no. 115. no. 78, no. , umenta 207 Ġ a. and one and 212 The 215 53 CEU eTD Collection nostri maiorismunimine roboratas perpetuam, literas presentes nostras dedimusprivilegiales pendenti etautenticisigilli seals: princely the and themselves documents are the of nor neither Hungariankingdom.guarantors the The agreements these with Polish the only mentionedused, such rituals nottaking. of are intheWallachian as oath rituals Oral treaties, while abroad, used Hungarian and Polish subjects as scribes of theirvariants of the treaties. use and full invocation a omit contrary, the on issued abroad, were that likewise usually endorse especially early the Theduring period. extanttreaties from Moldavianthe principality the agreements taking, oath of rituals the mention least at through or record states non-Christian and Christian elements of oral tradition.in Poland concluded with the areaduringThetreaties Hungary this period. or and with other For instance, in regularly wererecorded besince oaths tothetradition cultural attributed peculiar cannot and agreements. these reinforce to wereemployed documents internal to the specific maledictions Wallachian traditional and endorsement, an oath witnesses, Wallachia, employed kings. Polish Hungarian and bythe titulation, which more closely resembles the structure of the contemporary documents use 220 Documente privitoare la istoria Românilor alliance concluded by Hungarianthe King Sigismund with Vladislav, the Polish king, in 1412. See Densu afull invocation: scribethe employed 222 221 79, ibidem. 219 218 document. See Bogdan, 217 Wallachian from treaty 1496 from Wallachian treaties issuedthe instance, Wallachia. were that outsidein of For the Confer, for instance, no. 391 from Densu from 391 no. instance, for Confer, They are recorded in 1421, see 1421, in recorded are They instance, for See, Ibidem, 391.no. Densu Documenta Romaniae Historica Dei gratia The early Wallachian treaties are puzzling in regard to the elements of oral tradition of oral elements the to in regard puzzling are treaties Wallachian The early ú ianu, Documenteprivitoare laistoria Românilor, , which is closer to the internal Wallachian state documents. The documents The documents. state Wallachian internal the to closer is which , Documenta Romaniae Historica Documente si regeste Documente Documenta Romaniae Historica 217 D, no. 75 (1390). See also no. 115 issued in1411. issued at Arges and in issuedArges at and issued one the at Giurgiu in1411, , vol. 1. 2, no. 401. . 221 ú ianu, , no.153 , no.153 (1517, March17). Conversely, in the few Slavonic treaties produced in In nomine Domini Amen In nomine Documente privitoare la istoriaRomânilor , D, 75no. (1390), (1391); no.79 219 vol. 1.2, no. 316. no. 1.2, vol. This might attest that Wallachian princes, Wallachian that attest might This In cuiusreitestimonium firmitatemque D, no. 115, as well as in a sixteenth-century ina as well as 115, D,no. , and a titulation that does not cf with the treaty of 222 This omission is omission This Dei gratiaDei vol.1.2 with no. with vol.1.2 in the in ú ianu, 220 218 54 CEU eTD Collection 228 privitoare la istoria Românilor, and Polish King Vladislav where oaths were omitted or just briefly mentioned, seeDensu mentioned, just briefly or omitted were oaths where Vladislav King Polish and 227 226 225 224 tradition. religious Eastern the invoked explicitly documents the that fact of the regardless blessings.” and oath as such means non-political or non-legal by up be backed to had they treaties, ininternational stated the thetakenagreement support force to alegitimate nosanction of the extra support of more customary without non-functional as states wereperceived different between agreements political written elementsmost century, or sixteenth oral the of end the until Almost tradition. circumstances. specific to due be might As Goody states, and exceptional is kingdom Hungarian or “there Polish the either with treaties wasWallachian early 223 rituals. oral by reinforced were agreements political oaths. by extensive reinforced arealso agreements the alike, andLatin Slavonic by and aresupported onGod agreements vows the Trinity. Holy treaty the from 1453 between Corvinus andIoannes the Moldavian AlexandruPrince the virginem Mariamacperquatuor Evanghelistas … agreements: Vladislav concluding II, atreaty with Sultan Turkish the Baiazidin 1503,reinforced their instance, For missing. not are vows Christian extensive the Empire, Ottoman the with Poland et omnessanctosDei sacrasanctamquecrucem,Evanghelia, perquegloriossimam reinforced his through … pledges Rare Goody, Besides the exceptions discussed above, two treaties were concluded between the Hungarian King Sigismund King Hungarian the between concluded were treaties two above, discussed exceptions the Besides Densu 24. no. Ibidem, Ibidem, Densu Ibidem, Densu ú , likewise, while endorsing a treaty of vassalage to the German Emperor Ferdinand I, Ferdinand Emperor German the to vassalage of treaty a endorsing likewise, while , Thus, during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, with rare exceptions, written exceptions, rare with centuries, sixteenth and fifteenth the during Thus, ú ú ianu, ianu, Logic of Writing 228 Documenteprivitoare laistoria Românilor, Documenteprivitoare laistoria Românilor, initially Itseems that wereinfluenced byCatholic rituals the practices, ú per deum vivum Qui celum et terram creavit et per gloriosam eius Genitricem, gloriosameius creavitetper etterram Qui celum deumvivum per ianu, Documente privitoare laistoria Românilor, …. , 102. 224 vol. 1.2, no. 401 (1412). See also i Even in the diplomatic treaties concluded between Hungary and Hungary between concluded treaties diplomatic in the Even Deum vivum,quicoelum et terram creavit,sancta eijus et …. Vol. 2.1, 210no. (1543,Jan 7). Vol. 2.1, 1 no. (1453). 225 Moreover, in other Wallachian treaties, Wallachian in other Moreover, 227 bidem, n The omission of such rituals in the Vol. 2.1, no. 66. no. 2.1, Vol. eijusmatrem virginem Mariam, o. 221. 223 The Moldavian Prince ú ianu, 226 Documente 55 CEU eTD Collection political letters constitute most of the surviving material. From the entire reign of Stephan the 3.2.1 Written documentsas testimonies of political communication: Moldavia. below. examined is information political of exchange in the and interplay oral communication written The of andconfirm justoral to endorse speech. used are attested simultaneously with a certain type of documentin which written instruments were written documents and oral exchange information.of The first exchanges of diplomaticletters of a fusion of consisted foreign communication evidence, the to According letters. political Letters politicaldocuments: andWallachian 3.2 Moldavian dominant. was tradition written Hungarian the period early the during that indicates it however sporadically endorsing the is hypothesis, sparsesame forrather conclusions; drawing accurate coupled a with SlavonicSouth onein Moldavia.TheWallachian evidence, although wasgradually influence Western the Byzantine the Church, by affiliation to settled a strong were Christian tradition and Eastern Western between as fluctuations the Later, treaties. influence and practices seem to have been dominantin the early Moldavian and Wallachian employed in Polishthe Hungarian and especiallychanceries, the earlyduring Western period. principalitiesformation influenced wassignificantly the practiceswritten of tradition bythe on Holy the moreGospel, appeared regularly in external Moldavian documents. Later, the regular rituals employed from an early period in the internal documents, oaths taken Up to the end of the fifteenth century, when written culture was very restricted, very was culture written when century, fifteenth the of end the to Up by arewitnessed principalities Danubian of the contacts political the treaties, Besides In foreignin addition, indicatethe that andWallachian treaties Moldavian 56 CEU eTD Collection Hungarian pleadedking forRare withpolitical contacts Polishkingsthe Hungarian and Sigismund IandFerdinand I.The 234 Române town archives of Bistri towns. For instance, exchangedletters infrequent with with Hungarian the and kings,or Polish Transylvanian thirty-nine letters commissioned by Princebegan to be instruments of the politics of expansionRare of the Ottoman Empire. princes whose Wallachia, neighboring situation of political the about for war,or preparation their and forces Ottoman the of whereabouts the about intelligence of exchange the around 233 5), no.151 (1476,June 11), no.152 (1477,Jan. 5), no. 153 (1477, Jan 27). especially, first with Bra with first especially, locally towns, administration of the was with Transylvanian correspondence conducted 232 (1474, Nov.24). powers. 231 230 help military for asking IV Sixt 229 Empire. Ottoman the military help inhis fight the against Turkish menace andhis boasting about victories against instance,inwrote chancery. Stephan Western Great For the to the 1475, askingfor kings Great documentsunified response to theare expansionfocusedwere on regionalof the exchanged Ottomanpolitics(1457-1504) 75 Great addressedout politicalletters of 122 issues. Moldavian letters political Empire.as well as Duringon broader the European reignwith oftopics Stephen such various theas a concerted, Christian powers from the Moldavian Iorga, SeeIorga, See, for instance, Iorga, instance, for See, Densu Ibidem, 142no. (1474, 29Nov.). See Bogdan, ú The first reign reign Rare The firstof Petru ti, 231 ú Acte si scrisori, Acte ianu, vol.1, no.30 (1542, Dec. 2) Next to the documents exchanged with Western states, quite an states, Next political active Western exchangedwith tothe documents Acte siscrisori Acte Documenteprivitoare laistoria Românilor, Documente Stefan cel Mare, n 229 no. 627no. (1529,Oct. 25), no. 632 (1529,Nov. 3). Acte si scrisori, Acte Ġ Two surviving documents indicate an exchange of with Pope anexchange Twosurvivingdocumentsindicate letters of ; See also Veress, See also ; a 233 ú ov and later with Bistri with later and ov and three in Bra three and ú ’ supportinhisfight against Ottoman andexpansion, tried 230 no.147 (1475,Nov. 1), no.149 (1476, Febr. 18), no.150 (1476,June ú (1527-1538) and his political activities resulted andhispoliticalaswell activities (1527-1538) or informing him about his alliances with Eastern with alliances his about him informing or Documente privitoare la istoria Ardealului, Moldovei o.143 (1475, Jan.25). ú ov. 234 vol.8 (1376-1650) (Bucharest: n.p., 1894),No.12 Ġ Another body of fifteen letters attest his a. The local documents revolved mostly revolved local documents a. The ú are preserved in the 232 ú i ğă rii- 57 CEU eTD Collection 240 privitoare la istoria Ardealului, Moldovei 239 238 of Prince Alexander and confirming his recent letters. Iorga, letters. recent his confirming and Alexander Prince of 237 (1556, Sept 29), no.206 (1557,May 7). 3.2. 2Written documentsas testimonies of political communication: Wallachia wholethelocally sixteenth almost andregionally throughout century. correspondence political adynamic undertake to continued Moldavian princes the that indicate la istoria Ardealului, Moldovei Borgus (Barg Borgus when Lapu wereissuedletters instance, 1566, June For during are focused politics. eight on regional 236 biblioteci polone (1542, Dec.8); The letter addressed the to Transylvanian Seculis is published inBogdan, Lapu II. Maximilian Emperor, German the with and prince Transylvanian the with communication written confirm an active data The inthearea. activity political dynamic quite previously. extant were letters preserved. letters hundred twenty-one and of letters out a concerns,are thirty-six political andprivate asthere exceeded bycommercial Documente privitoare la istoria Ardealului, Moldovei July 24), no.112 (1537, July 24), no.122 (1537), no.199 (1542,Sept. 17), no.208 (1542, Dec.6). See also Veress, 6), no. 68 (1537, Febr.24), 96no. (1537,May 27), no.101 (1537, June 14), no.104 (1537, July 7), no.111 (1537, number,especially reign the Alexandruduring Lapu of region. Pocutia the over 235 Rare between Prince serve as mediator a to He was Stephan Mazga; see Iorga, Mazga; He Stephan was Iorga, Iorga, See, forinstance, the letters writtenby Princess Isabella to the townof Bistri The The majority documentsof he publishedare in Iorga, Documents publishedare in Densu ú neanu’s letters, however, political wereexchangedwith and towns Transylvanian the Later on, after mid-sixteenth century, the number of Moldavian letters increased in letters of Moldavian number mid-sixteenth the after on, century, Later Acte Acte ú neanu opposed apretenderneanu totheMoldavian opposed whowas preparingthrone army an at ú ú i scrisori i i scrisori. i ă , Suppl. 2.1, no. 82. u), a place situated under the jurisdiction of the town a place underof jurisdiction of u), Bistri the town the situated , n o. 645, no. 646, no. 647, 648,no. 649,no. no. 650, no. 651);Veress, 235 ú i ğă rii-Române 237 ú Acte Acte ianu, Lapu ú i ú i scrisori, i ğă Documente privitoare la istoria Românilor rii-Române ú ú ti, neanu, protected by neanu, sultan, protected undertook Turkish the vol.1, no.189 (1554, Apr.23), no.190 (1554, Apr.28), no.203 236 no. 645 (1566, June 10) and note 1. ú ú Indirect references suggest that more political that suggest references Indirect i and the Polish king in their territorial dispute intheir territorial Polish king the and ğă Acte siActe scrisori ú rii-Române ti, Acte Acte vol.1, no. 320(1566,June 14). ú i scrisori, i ú neanu. issuesare political However, ú ti, . See also Veress, See also . vol.1, 26 (1542,no. Aug. 27), no.31 no. 973 (1557, Dec.15). Ġ a assuring them of the friendship , 2.1, no. 66 (1535,April Documente arhive Documente privitoare Ġ Documente a. 240 238 The data Most of Most 239 58 CEU eTD Collection extant letters record mainly administrative issues. letters record mainly administrative extant 242 the reign of Stephen the Great (1457-1504). 241 Polish Hungarian and Wallachiakings. Transylvanian or andthe princes isdiplomatic evidence between thattestify about there Paisie some relations (1535-1545), manifest astrong local character. Only exceptionally as,for instance, during the reign of Radu Wallachian political letters throughout sixteenththe century beinfrequentcontinued to and as a rule, However, general andinterests. preoccupations on their presumably depending turn of the sixteenth Great (1496-1508) are102politicalthere letters out of afterletters. Later, the 274 surviving century,Wallachian princes addressed politicalthe issues less often. Up to the end of the reign of Radu thenumberMoldavia, in than Wallachia in earlier attested are letters political ofalthough Moreover, political lettersseldom testifies varies about from an exchange prince of diplomatic to prince, Turks. and political documents military the against for aid request or intelligence of exchange the revolved around letters the at the state level. subjectof recurrent of Another letters period. mostthe Wallachian political subject of the of regainitmake to upthe keeptheirposition or Ottoman of struggles princesto the The rulers. Their authority was often challenged by local noblemen, foreign states, and particularly by the and unstable. short wereusually Wallachian princes of the reigns Consequently, the price. Wallachianthe by princedom whoeverwas sold officials Turkish the to offered the highest in Wallachia, stronger grew Empire Ottoman the of dominance the As towns. Transylvanian the of administrations urban the with exchanged correspondence regional a mainly ú i ğă Iorga, The first political letters are extant inWallachia from the reign of Aldea (1431-3) and inMoldavia only from rii-Române Thus, Wallachian the evidence,uptothe reign of Michael Brave(1593-1601), the reveal data My ones. Moldavian the from somewhat varied letters political Wallachian Acte ú i scrisori., ú ti, vol. 1, no.15 (1535, June 8). June (1535, no.15 1, vol. no. 779 (1542, Oct. 2); Veress, Documenteprivitoare la istoria Ardealului, Moldovei 242 Afterwards, the 241 59 CEU eTD Collection (1598, May 24). of Vac, is published in Veress, Cuceririle lui Mihai Viteazul (1596, Apr. 2), no. 1391 (1597, July 29), no.1411 (1599, June 23); Iorga, been rathersporadic, asonly five extant letters addressed political issues. 244 December). no. 56(1594,Aug. 15), no. 57(1594, Aug.16), no. 64(1594,Sept.15), no. 79(1594,Oct. 31), no. 97(1594, 243 of relations multiple Western the However, abroad. theBravewerepreserved Michael Prince Wallachian the of archives personal the that fact the by be explained might century sixteenth numberthe of Moldavian documents. exceed equal to even and to able was andprinces kings Western with correspondence political kings. Thismeans only that during Michael Brave’s theWallachian the (1593-1600), reign thirty-eight letters attest his relations with the German emperor and the Hungarian and PolishMichael the Brave at the end of the attest his sixteenthcontacts with the Transylvanian town of Bistri letters twenty-six Another Zamoyski. century chancellor Polish the to or III Sigismund King Polish was remarkable.commissioned by MovilaPrince have survived andmost of them addressed(67) are tothe Two hundred andcorrespondence for aMoldavian 160084Moldavian From prince. 1595 to letters Movila supported (1596-1607), by kingthe isPoland, of particularly well documented. Moldavian and Ieremia Moldavianthe betweenMichael acting the Prince throne Brave the over dispute The significant. more is in Moldavia Movila’ Ieremia and Wallachia, in Brave Muslim ledexpansion tofrequentpolitical letters. (1591-1595)Voda at Christianthe initiatedConfiguration by ClementVIII againstPope Aron Moldavian of yearsPrince participation century.the during of sixteenth thelastThe the The political contacts of Prince Movil Veress, The abundance of items in the Wallachian political record from the end of the of end the from record political Wallachian in the items of abundance The of correspondence political Wallachian the earlier records, of scarcity the Despite noteworthy a in unfold that Poland with relations close had Movila Ieremia only is recorded documents political of a revival Principalities, Romanian two the In Documente privitoare laistoria Ardealului,Moldovei Vol.12, no. 747 (1599, Oct. 26). The letter addressed to Stephanus Szuhay, bishop Documente privitoare laistoria Ardealului,Moldovei ă with the townof Bistri 243 Ġ ú a and Transylvanian officials seem to have i Ġ The correspondence of Michael the a. ğă 244 rii-Române See Iorga, See Acte relative la R la relative Acte ú ti, Acte siscrisori Acte vol.4, no. 28 (1594,Jan. 1), ú i ğă rii-Române ă zboaiele zboaiele , no. 867 ú ú i ti, vol. 5 60 CEU eTD Collection (Febr.18, 1561), no.1121 (1564, June 18). 248 L’Empire à la fin du moyenâge, “ Francia 31 (2004): 121-40. (1960): 196-213, 199. See also Pierre Monnet, “Pouvoircomunal et communication politique dans les villes de 247 246 the on based was information of exchange the Wallachia, and Moldavia of principalities the in of Michael This indicates thatfrom reign fifteenth Braveof (1593-1601). the century early the be throughoutunlike recorded sixteenth the Moldavia, continued to theend they century, until 245 special duringimportance the reign Rareof Petru Lapu given the historical context Iam assuming that they were related to political issues. sensitiveinformationbe writing. confidential astoo trusted was perceived to to or However, type of what isIt unclear to. related they were matter subject the about indications direct no are there although letters political the along them addressing I am slowly. diversify presumably adhiberevelitis creditivamtamquamabore fidere nostro prolatis endorse information by the written to was of envoys: correspondence delivered oral used, ofsupport function asadevice andtheir documents Written information. exchangeofpolitical 3.3 Theoral century. sixteenth the decade of lastthe Wallachia thanin andinhowever, both languagequantitatively Moldavia,thequality of upto at in remained more restricted letters political Theexchange of atadministrative princely level. the least as well as political affairs, various for documents written of employment the and writing of practices foreign of assimilation the stimulated doubtlessly Brave the Michael Ibidem, “ See Donald E. Queller, “Thirteenth-Century Diplomatic Envoys: Diplomatic “Thirteenth-Century Queller, E. Donald “ See Ibidem, Bogdan, ú neanu (1552-1561, secondneanu reign (1552-1561, 1564-1568) In Moldavia, letters of credence were extensively attested up to the reign of reign uptothe attested extensively were ofcredence letters In Moldavia, type a special principalities Wallachian and Moldavian in the letters, political to Next , Acte no.153 Documente Stefan cel Mare, letters of credence of letters ú i scrisori i (1477, Jan. 27). See also ibidem , no. 922 (1553, Sept. 3), no. 1040 (1560, Oct. 31), no. 1042 (1560,Nov.1), 1049 no. , 247 unfold in the record when written communication began to communication whenwritten record in unfold the no . 147 (Nov.1,1475). , no.168 (1487, Dec.17). 248 ú andhis son RareIlias andhis son Bogdan (1568-1571),with a Nuncii et Procuratores . 246 These letters, schematic ” ú Speculum . InWallachia, 35 245 61 CEU eTD Collection 869 (1548, July 2), 892no. (1550,Dec. 13). 251 sympathies. Islamic same the fearing possibly noblemen, Moldavian replaced by youngesthis brother, Stephen (1551-1552), who, after several months of reign, was killed by 250 no. 745, no. 746 (1542, Nov.24); 749no. (1542,Nov. 25). delivered by various messengers. message arewritten and confidential, ofanoral,political letters confirmations presumably Ilia of reign reigns of the sons and successors of Petru Rare of Petru successors and sons the of reigns communication. oral through carried been have might information intelligence only that suggests difference The information. oral any of addressedTransylvanian asletters towns, to kingthe of Hungary Polandnot mention or do the oral exchange of information seems haveto been used only locally with the administration Rare regular. was information of exchange oral that indicate to seem formulas and number large messengers requiretobecredited, and their words the endorse to just werewritten letters fifty-seven political of out twenty-one instance, 249 employed were only documents written while speech, oral to via information confirm of exchange the attest documents the authority of the sender. During the period. researched reign of Petru Rare continuing useof writing and oral communication simultaneously endthe up to the of attestthe documents inWallachia the inMoldavia,replaced while bywritten exchange interplay of andoral written communication. oral information The exchange of was gradually See Iorga, His successorwas his oldest son Ilia Iorga, ú , the information delivered orally might have been related to political issues. However, issues. political to related been have might orally delivered information the , The written confirmation of oral messages continued during the short and insignificant and short the during continued messages oral of confirmation written The Petru Moldavian Prince for the known preoccupations and activities the According to Thus, up to the second half of the sixteenth century a significant number of Moldavian Acte Acte ú ú i scrisori, i , out of which there is only a single specific political letter, while five other five while letter, political specific asingle is only there which of out , ú i scrisori, no.745 (1542, Nov. 24). See also no.854 (1547, Febr.13), no. 861 (1547, June 22), no. 864(1548,March 18), no. ú 251 , who reigned from 1546 to 1551. After his conversion to Islam, he was Later, even if an exchange of information via oral speech ibidem ú . 250 fidem creditivamfidem adhibere velitis Twenty-four letters are extant from the no. 742 (1542, Nov.23); no.743, no. 744, . 249 Their ú , for 62 CEU eTD Collection 257 256 254 255 however, but by Moldavian noblemen. by princes, the not commissioned in thedocuments endured speech viainformation direct from dates ofBogdanLapu reign the practices. mighthave been by required lackthe of time orlack of andnotby scribes previous times several credence 253 exchange of information exchange of were seldom recorded. 252 From Lapu letters. written carriers of mostly as be attested to began Messengers one. a written to information of exchange oral the from a form. stereotypic of letters credence adopted Wallachian political andprivatecorrespondence ofBasarab the Young,when,Moldavia, to similar in the especially They were utilized multiplied. letters of credence Young, the Basarab letter. administrative or a political to anaddition as mentioned message was oral the Usually credence. orally. be delivered to was that information additional of confirmation was there letters, political his of style colloquial Bra the with correspondence political letter. commercial or administrative a regular information item to as of itan recorded extra was employed, sporadically was still Tocilescu , Tocilescu Ibidem, no. 1173 (1568,May 23) Ibidem Iorga, Bogdan, Ibidem, As mentioned, after the mid-sixteenth century, Moldavian data indicate atransition indicate data Moldavian century, mid-sixteenth the after As mentioned, and Old the Basarab of reign the during century, fifteenth the of quarter last the By In Wallachia, princewas Aldea among first the (1431-33) conductan to active Acte , 255 no. 27, no.32. 27, no. Acte Acte Rela Thelast surviving letter Moldavian referring toan exchange informationof orally 534 documente, ú i scrisori, i Ġ ú iile i scrisori, ğă rii Române 254 no. 1042 (1560, Nov.1). 962no. (1557,July 12), no. 978 (1558, Jan.23), no.1124 (1564, July 22). , which may indicate that in certain situations oral communication oral situations in certain that indicate may which no.523. The document is not dated. 253 ú ti cu Bra Prince Aldea, however, seldom employed separate letters of letters separate employed seldom however, PrinceAldea, 252 ú ovul 257 ú ú ov administration. Along with the direct and often and direct the Along with administration. ov neanu (1568-1571). ú i cu ğ ara Ungureasc ú Cito neanu’s reign on, references to an oral to on,references reign neanu’s and ă , 256 no. 31. no. raptim Allusions to an exchange of are added to letters of letters to added are 63 CEU eTD Collection 262 261 260 259 seems to have been reciprocal. been have seems to maintained by foreign practices, asthe exchange information of orally in or writing usually German Emperor Ferdinand I asked the senate of the town of Bra insenta letter from 1552 Târgovi Wallachian the capital Transylvanian delivery the ofinformationofficials instance,also via requested in For speech. guard the roads and to capture all letters.” all capture andto roads guard the confidential information. For instance, Princess Isabella asked the citizens of Bistri of citizens the asked Isabella instance, Princess For information. confidential of exchange tothe attached by danger objective an been haveaccentuated might documents hand, from towritten inthan the other transition oral communication Moldavia. slow the On inWallachia limited amore writing of culture suggests numberdocuments, lowerearly of a with coupled This, tradition. Wallachian oral a stronger to due endured speech mayhave 258 written. mostly to oral mostly from transition a period information of or whether political the letters was goingthrough exchange of the for requirement wasan objective letter in the covered of substance the sensitivity whether the properly. utterances and letters received the that they understood letters in their mentioned always princes Wallachian the when century, sixteenth the of middle in the only formulaic became information of exchanges written and oral to reference Twofold areextant. by messengers carried written documents to references other two Great Radu the from occur reign the of Radu theHandsome (1462-1474); indications be Thefirst referred to. beganto letters via information exchangeof however, an regular.Sporadically, information viamessengersthe exchangethe speechof was direct of Ibidem Iorga, See for, instance, Bogdan, instance, Seefor, Ibidem Bogdan, The switch from oral to written ways of me written ways of back makes question communication from The switch and oral to that inWallachia letters indicates of credence attested of Conversely, frequency the Acte , , 1173no. (1568, May 23) no.115 (1478-9), no.159 (1491-2). Rela ú i scrisori, i Ġ iile ğă rii Române no. 966. no. Documente Stefan cel Mare ú ti cu Bra 262 Certain documents indicate that contemporary or German contemporary that indicate documents Certain ú ovul ú 261 i cu Furthermore, the oral tradition might have been have might tradition oral the Furthermore, 260 ğ ara Ungureasc , no. 156 (1479, Apr. 20), no. 157 (1480, Jan.22). On the one hand, communication viadirect hand,communication one Onthe ú te, John amessenger te, of the Tartler, ă 258 , no. 88 (1474).no. up to the end of the reign of reign the of end the to up ú ov sendto him amessenger Ġ a, “to a, 259 64 CEU eTD Collection 267 266 122. 265 utterances.” The Wallachian Prince Vlad Dracul uttered the same desire, even when he when the sameeven desire, uttered Dracul Vlad Prince Wallachian The utterances.” required the words that of his messengersbecredited, since theywere his“truthful 264 24). Oglind his messenger recommended by letters of (1457-1504) issued credence Stephen a Moldavian specifies: Great the prince adhibere velitis creditivam, tamquamaborenostro prolatis, mere channels of transmission: of channels mere seen as weremessengers andWallachia, inMoldavia suggest that of principalities the text andmasters. of letter voices their thea being place of takingname, the during the Middle Ages. 263 the to similarly functioned information oral govorili ustomk’ustu). mouth” ( he would say toWallachia. Occasionally,your Wallachian formulas resemble the Moldavian ones:highness, “(…) and what prince)in from and lessMoldavia andprince as to short stereotypic (differing a general rule youin extensive usually were shall These formulas. certain through conveyed was information believe as if The moreby messenger.of oral confirmation than the the speech delivered a primary written we would have spoken mouthcredence. to of byaletter endorsed servant via aWallachian information heconveyed similarly Besides, Wallachian histhe aboutcourt. imperial mission at he couldlatter the inform so that Ibidem, 200. 199. Envoys”, Diplomatic “Thirteenth-Century SeeQueller, Also called Bogdan, Veress, According to the formulas used, it seems that Wallachian and Moldavian deliverers of itdeliverers Wallachian and Moldavian formulasseems the used,that According to ta vare elika izrechet k’’ vasheiu vashoi milosti, a vidagaveruete,milosti, kakodabikhmo k’’vasheiuvashoi ta vareelikaizrechet Documente privitoare laistoria Ardealului,Moldovei 263 Rela ambassadores, legati, cursores Ġ iile The format of letters of credence, although varying in time and space, was little ğă rii Române 264 They were granted full power to convey information in the prince’s in the information convey to power full granted were They ú ti cu Bra … ă ú quitquit Vestris dixerit Amicitiisex parte nostri, fidem to the citizens of Bra citizens of the to ovul . See Monnet “Pouvoircommunal et communicationpolitique, ú i cu nuntii ğ ara Ungureasc (messengers) ú i ğă rii-Române ă 267 ú , ov. He, similar to other princes, other to similar He, ov. no. 96 (1474-6).no. as for instance, one of the first 265 ú used inWestern Europe ti, vol. 1, no. 124 (1552, Aug. (1552, 124 1, no. vol. 266 The formulas of the 65 CEU eTD Collection 272 271 270 cu 269 Române the Moldavian chancellor, Theodorus Bolo Theodorus chancellor, Moldavian the confidential information writing. commissionedto one of In letters the byIlia whether a Moldavia. It mentions are oath procedure recordedin a a Polish from of treaty copy 1537, tobe concluded with that a an about Wallachia. Theonly details to intermediary,similar via an taken could been have vows whether is unclear it and however, out, spelled never is procedure The taken. oaths via of decisions certain endorsement the alsorecord letters The Moldavian of theirname rulers. in the an oath taking capable of messengers, authorized delegation of and truthful request or 268 “speaking letters,” as ofcommunication, instruments used as were They information. oral of carriers envoys, as attested chancery are state of membersthe and dignitaries, court high noblemen, important officials. andcustom traders, as noblemen, such activities, various of persons Polish culture and at least for special situations a personal oath was required. messengersmay indicate the that Moldavian might influencedprincipality havebeen by via weretaken oaths indicates that never evidence Moldavian fact the The that situations. plain information but of oaths and vows. moi istinie rech’ ….” addressed the Bra have been of different age and status, citizens of Bistri See Queller, “Thirteenth-Century Diplomatic Envoys, 200. Envoys, Diplomatic “Thirteenth-Century See Queller, Iorga, See Queller, “Thirteenth-Century Diplomatic Envoys, Diplomatic “Thirteenth-Century SeeQueller, “(…) and what he would tell you, trust him as these are my true utterances.” See Bogdan, See utterances.” mytrue are these as him trust you, tell would he what and “(…) ğ Densu ara Ungureasc ú disclosemessengersThe data andWallachian varied. oftheMoldavian The status Moreover,messengers seem haveto been used aschannels of transmission not only of ti cu Bra ú Acte ianu, Documente privitoare la istoria Românilor, iuramentum corporale ú i scrisori i ú ovul ă , ú no. 121. no. ov citizens in language: ov citizens a different 272 ú i cu , no. 854 (1547, Feb.13). 268 possibly due to an traditiontrust possibly towasreluctant established which due ğ ara Ungureasc iuramentum corporale iuramentum was always required or only in the most important ă , no. 62 no. (1432-1446). 269 ú , fulfilled the function of a messenger. As the As messenger. a of function the fulfilled , Wallachian letters often mention a princely 2 00. Bogdan, vol. “A shto vi “A izrecet, dagoverueteotisont 2.1, no.106 (1537,July 15) is a must. a is Ġ a or Bra Rela Ġ iile ú ov, or native subjects. Often, 270 ğă It is unclear, however, is unclear, It rii Române Rela 271 ú ú ti cu Bra (1546-1551), They could Ġ iile ğă ú rii ovul ú 66 i CEU eTD Collection 276 275 274 house. his youletter gounharmed“lethad brought man who this summoned to to the custom post the instructionsfurtherin who of prince, the are wasfalse. Relevant this context Turkish attack post with the request to inform the town administration of Bra information. For instance, Vlad Tepes (1456-1462), sent a messengersenta Ruc tothe instance, Vlad Tepes(1456-1462), information. For least Wallachian sporadically at deliver employedprinces messengers such to occasional their that indicates fifteenth-century evidence A wereusedasmessengers. occasional persons specialsuggest that envoys atthe didnotexist MoldavianWallachian butratheror courts, during their missions. diplomatic envoys of Moldavian Wallachian often asproducersof or princesdocuments were recorded chancery amongscribes court the positionesteem. Later, besides his a high princely elevated 273 tobe credited: requested for hisexcept youth: … instance, nothing is known aboutduties. their of one were missions foreign a that messengerindicate may messengers sent by Petru Rare of Istvan inBathory 1474. [nobleman] Transylvanianthe andDumitru”sent byBasarab chamberlain Oldto the Prince were senttoBra and must havebeen age.Similarly,in dignitariesvenerable status of Wallachia high state position of chancellor in Moldavia was the highest among court dignities, Theodorus Bolo DRH B,vol.1, no. 114. (c.1457-1461) Iorga, 6 (scribes). chapter see facts the about information more For Bogdan, jupan 276 The many names of envoys mentioned in the letters from a relatively short time span time short a relatively from letters in the mentioned envoys of names many The Unfortunately, no or only very incomplete data are recorded about messengers. For messengers. about arerecorded data very incomplete or only no Unfortunately, Acte ” was only given to the highest nobility. The courteous reference to him suggests reference highestthe The courteous nobility.to given only to was Rela ú i scrisori, n Ġ iile ú ov conveyjupanov for “true boyar, instance, to the information as, prince’s the ğă rii Române o. 815 (1543, Oct.21). 273 cuius verbis fidemdarevelitis It is known that during the fifteenth century in Wallachia the title the Wallachia in century fifteenth the during that is known It missimus ú ti cu Bra 274 ú The frequency of the attestation of the scribes as scribes the of attestation the of frequency The ovul adolescens noster nomine Stan adolescens nosternomine ú i cu ğ ara Ungureasc . 275 ă , no. 88. no. , ú ov that the account about a ú to the town of Bistri , whose words were words , whose ă r custom Ġ 67 a, ú CEU eTD Collection 279 278 1507). of [meaningof forLaiota Laiota’sfor sake]but the benefit Christendom.”of in one of his letters addressed to Bra to addressed letters his in of one theYoung Basarab instance, For dictation. underdirect written were they suggest that might okrotivat…). them.” areprotecting your words … whose disclose highnessshall enemies,for“And again, those haveseems been to used frequently with broad meaning of a action, andprotection: speech, them since they keep his enemies among them.” 277 Bra to the writing of in Young, 1479,Basarab instance,the around a letter toas“spoken.” For was referred wascalled andits to “speech” transmission referred information of exchange the information, letterswere used ifsuggest aframe for ofmindshaped by Even the culture. oral written the They colloquial. and primary areoften letters Slavonic Wallachian early Especially Latin. in employed as written letters inMoldavia, letters from well Latin fewthe as Wallachian hazardous. Additionally, usage of the only messengers’ Christian the names makes anyconclusion dating of the Slavonic letters, Great. the Radu letters of in the messenger twice as to Badea isreferred it is difficult to follow how long a messenger was employed. Ibidem, 134no. (c.1481). Ibidem, no.121 (c.1479). Bogdan, Especially during the fifteenth century, colloquial the language of documentsthe The language of the Slavonic Wallachian letters notes a significant difference from the from difference a significant notes letters Wallachian Slavonic the of language The servant instance, the For repeatedly. attested sameenvoys arethe Only uncommonly (I Pakikako da … Ichierechi zateivrajmashe,miiznaidesh ikh tvoemilosti Rela Ġ iile ğă ú ov administration, stated that “he that stated administration, ov rii Române ú ti cu Bra ú ú ov states twice that “he did not make peace for the nose makefor the peace not “he did twice that states ov ovul ú i cu ğ ara Ungureasc * 278 talks The word to them and asks how he can trust he can how asks and them to ă , no.80 (c. 1498) and no.191 (c. 1496- rechi (“utterance”, words) 277 Given the lack of 279 Moreover, 68 CEU eTD Collection the early Moldavian written tradition. written early the Moldavian political with Western suggest the formation that countriesof influenced documents relations widespread in Moldavia thanin Wallachia early during the The period. of texts early political of the Moldavian documents as well as Thecharacteristics their andWallachia. Moldavia of Principalities in medieval practices the written numbers indicate that written culture was more debatable subject. a remains also language, foreign a Slavonic, knew noblemen Wallachian and Moldavian whether However, suggest. might letters theSlavonic of some as dictation, under direct Moldavian foreign letters were written in Latin, so it is hard to assume that they were written probably Moldavianto the unknown Wallachianand most and noblemen.princes Most which languages the Moldavian andWallachian most spoke.Latinwas actually princes support trained.that better this letters explanation Moldavian scribesthe Slavonic were foreign fewMoldavian The trained scribes. better and chancery of setting the institutional byabetter may rather be explained role.a moredifference The took prominent culture written in which mind frame of a different of outcome wasthe difference this that however, assume, language Itisoral speech wereseldom anddirectin letters. employed to wrong princely a suggests an formula throat,” that language. oral colloquial stuck in dispatchhis citizens acknowledged his“theirstubbornness got that enemies, to 280 Bra the urging Young, the Basarab recipient. the to verbalization asadirect letters up his prince set the language that and and written spoken between differentiation no was there that employedwords in firstthe commissioned political letters by Aldea the endorse assumption Bogdan, Diplomatic relations, besides other external factors, influenced of the establishment factors, external besides Diplomaticother relations, The issue possibly dictationof under written the documents direct question opens of Colloquial, literary. more was letters political of language the in Moldavia contrast, In Rela Ġ iile ğă rii Române ú ti cu Bra ú ovul ú i cu * ğ ara Ungureasc 280 ă , no. 91. no. ú ov 69 CEU eTD Collection coexisted with it. coexisted rather but foreigners with information of exchange oral the replace not did documents written However,inWallachialeastsocial for thehighest routine,strata. at becameand gradually initiallythat exchangethe of wasdocuments stimulated mostly by extraordinary situations gradual of inestablishment documentswritten practices Wallachia. indicate Politics-related ideaa and the of issuedsupport by Brave letters the the (1593-1600) opposition Michael to irrespectivein of reign in structure written the of standlanguage, documents, the a colloquial from Aldea’s letters political first The practices. certain written established and information exchanges of written usage of the stimulated foreign that relations indicate century The increased number of Wallachian letters during the second half of the sixteenth the of half second the during letters Wallachian of number increased The 70 CEU eTD Collection Moldovei,” 163. 283 2004), 66. XVI-lea 1997), 80;forWallachia see R Laurentiu Enciclopedic Editura (Bucharest: century) sixteenth ofthe middle the to up castles Moldavian and cities or 282 (Bucharest: Corint, 1999), 220. commercial politics (14th to16thcenturies) Road state) and In ğă Romanianstate) (Bucharest: Ministeriul deCulte,1924); 281 foraccounts the rapid economic development that trading context favorable is this particularly and trade alarge tobecome began It segment of population the inmarketexchanges. involved Occidental products. over the Black Sea and transformed itinto one of the main exchange-nexus for Oriental and and by individual merchants. institutions inlocal practices foreign (written) aswell assimilation of the records, as gradual records. of written institutionsconstituted butalso animportant factor bring to about use the and dissemination and structures of state thefoundation influenced not trade only of data, my the reading as Baia in Moldavia orCâmpulungin Wallachia arerecordedas active centers of In trade.282 urban such structures, thedevelopment Before of of state settlements state.281 the foundation territories of the Wallachian and Moldavian Principalities as one of the causes of the crossing the routes trade existencethe international saw the among of many (1999), others, hasDanubian a States inlong history (1924), Papacostea historiography.Romanian Iorga 5ă ConstantinC. Giur Nicolae Iorga, Nicolae rii Române culture Chapter 4. Trade and its impact on the development ofwritten dvan, (Wallachian towns up to the end of the sixteenth century) (Iassy: Universitatea Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Ioan Alexandru Universitatea (Iassy: century) sixteenth ofthe end tothe up towns (Wallachian The importance of commercial activities in the inception and development of of the development and inception in the activities commercial of importance The The Fourth Crusade and the capture ofConstantinople The Fourth Crusade andthecapture curtailed Byzantine dominance for their written focuses traders, offoreign requests activities This chapter the on Ora ú ti ú ele din Drumurile de comer ú i Moldovei (secolele XIV- XVI) Drum ă scu, ğ 283 ara Româneasc Târguri sauora Poland andHungary became in links significant chain the European of Ġ creatoare ale statului românesc ă , ă 66, Papacostea, “Inceputurile politicii comerciale a ú dvan, e ú i cet Ora ă ti moldoveneti mijlocul pânala secoluluiXVI- lea al ú ele din VictorPapacostea, “Începuturile politicii comerciale a ú i stat” (The beginning of Wallachian and Moldavian ğ ara Româneasc Geneza statului în Evul Mediu românesc (Commercial routes as founders of the founders as routes (Commercial ă pân ă la sfâr ğă ú itul secoluluial rii Române (Towns ú ti 71 ă ú i , CEU eTD Collection 288 York: The Free Press,1972), 115. German-speaking Saxon settlers brought to II by Hungary King Géza (1141-1162). 287 social Schimbarea social burgs (Bra and themedieval Principalities ofWallachia andMoldavia were the Transylvanian commercial trade. were exploited assegmentsof the commercial routes connecting WestandEast through Black Sea privileges granted toforeign merchants suggest. Moldavian Principalities had both a regionalan international and dimension, asthe surviving forstruggle suzerainty over newlythe founded Danubian Principalities. states, trade-route segment crossed the territories of the newly created Wallachian and Moldavian 286 founded Moldavia. activities was also linked to the commercial route that ranacross the second DanubianPrincipality, the newly 284 largethe market-towns of Lviv (Poland), Bra headedand River, toward Dnestr partof the Moldavian the on andMaurocastro Danube delta atthe Wallachia of in part the situated Licostomo, of at harbor the Seastarted Black the of East-Central duringEurope the fifteenth century. the Br participation in international trade activities. The terrestrial link betweenHungary and the Black Sea lay along 1409, the Hungarian kingdom focused on Black Sea relations to continue its commercial politics and road toward theBlack Sea Middle during the Ages), ´in Central Europe,” in Europe,” Central 285 ibidem, 101. in Century” Seventeenth to the Fourteenth the from Europe East-Central of Towns “The Bogucka, Maria also Erwin A. Gutkind,Erwin See also Chirot, Petre Panaitescu, “Drumul comercial al Poloniei la Marea Neagr Marea la Poloniei al comercial “Drumul Panaitescu, Petre Henryk Samsonovicz and Antoni M Antoni and Samsonovicz Henryk 5ă dvan ă ă (Bucharest: Editura Enciclopedic 285 ila route that ranacross Wallachia. The participation of the Polishkingdom ininternational commercial The main towns dominating the commercial exchange between the Hungarian kingdom Hungarian the between exchange commercial the dominating towns main The The trade between Transylvanian and Polish commercial towns and Wallachian and The terrestrial commercial routes that linked the Western and Oriental trade routes via routes trade Oriental and Western the linked that routes commercial terrestrial The , Ora the commercial interests of the Hungarian and Polish kingdoms partly explain their explain partly kingdoms Polish and Hungarian the of interests commercial the ú ov/Bra ú ele din ă întro societate peripheric East Central EuropeTransition in Social Change in a Peripheral Society ú Urban Developmentin EasternEurope: Bulgaria,and Romania, theU.S.S.R ov.t, Sibiu/Hermannstadt and, lateron, Bistri ğ ara Româneasc ҥ czak, “Feudalism and Capitalism: an Alliance of Changes inEast- ofChanges Alliance an Capitalism: and “Feudalism czak, ă , 1994), 91. ă , 160. After the Venetian state reconquered the Dalmatian coast in coast Dalmatian the reconquered state Venetian the After 160. ă , 56 . (Cambridge: Cambridge University 1985),Press, 12; see ú ov ov (Hungary) and Leipzig (Germany). Asthis 287 Interpret The territories of Moldavia and Wallachia of Moldavia territories The . For the Romanian edition consulted see Chirot, consulted edition Romanian the . For 284 ă ri române ă în Evul Mediu,” (The Polish commercial Polish (The Mediu,” Evul în Ġ a/Bistritz), mostly a/Bistritz), populated by ú ti:de Studii istorie economic 286 288 Perhapsdue Vol.3 (New Vol.3 ăú 72 i CEU eTD Collection Ilie and ruled alone. ruled and Ilie very astheyunstable continuously were overthrowing each other until1442 whenStephenblinded brotherhis 291 3. ofchapter beginning 290 Moldovei,” 164; See also R also See 164; Moldovei,” 1442).291 Consequently,in first part the of chapter,the Ishall tradingaddress the privileges the reign of the sons and successors of Alexandru the Good, Ilia inrelated Wallachia tothereign of Dan II(1420-1424, and II1427-1431) andin Moldavia to forgoods consumption began tobe recorded. This turningin point survivingthe is documents and for relatedconflicts various of totrade –gradually freeletters those - orders passage, privilegestrade andafterwards, Soon regulations. the documents type of trade broadened, and laymen. of community among restricted avery documents written of circulation the stimulated that have issues fewfactors beenamongthe seem to trade-related institutions, clerical evidence, especially in Wallachia, was extremely scarce and was issued mainly on behalf of documents are trade-related twenty urban archives, 289 in the Bra Aldea of the (1431-33) reign dating upto twenty-one Wallachian documents of activities. a total of Out areexclusivelyforeignsurvivingto trade documents related indocuments is Wallachia especially most prominent where, theearlyperiod, of during the by abroad of sentTherole documents Wallachian and Moldavian princes. trade-related and Moldavian princes, emphasize their asinternational crucial role trade agents. Anjou (1342-1384)and SigismundI ofLuxemburg (1387-1437)–aswell as by the Wallachian Thenumerous privileges issuedon behalf ofBra to its location, Bra The politicalThe situation during the of sonsreign the successorsand of Goodthe Alexander (1400-1432)was On the type of documents, and the figures mentioned in this chapter see the distinctions I have made at the Formore informationabout this see Papacostea, “Inceputurile politicii comerciale a In the early period of state foundation, trade related documents usually foundation, related documents In theearly comprised of state trade period During the fifteenth century, trade-related documents constitute a large part of alarge of constitute the documents part fifteenth century, trade-related During the ú ov became one of the main centers of redistribution for oriental products. ă dvan , Ora ú ele din ğ ara Româneasc ú ov traders by kingsthe Hungarian – Louis of 290 ă , . Thus, during a period when written when period a . Thus, during 170. ú and Stephen (1432- ğă rii Române ú ú ti ov 289 73 ú i CEU eTD Collection 294 295 românesc, 1925), 85. comer 293 and Meier, 1932), 77-94; Panaitescu, “Drumul comercial al Poloniei la Marea Neagr Marea la Poloniei al comercial “Drumul Panaitescu, 77-94; 1932), Meier, and “Privileges” in Wallachia, my note] as if in their own country.” They were granted a single tax fee for transit for fee tax single a granted were They country.” own their if in as my note] Wallachia, traders “the two countries shall be considered as one and merchants shall go about [in broad commercial advantages on Wallachian territory in transit and local trade: for the Bra for the local trade: in and transit territory Wallachian on advantages commercial broad Hungarian kingdom, the on state Wallachian the of dependence political initial the of asaresult Papacostea, privitoare la rela 292 They were granted crossing principality. the commercial the dynamics of state’s existence, witnessing routes to Transylvanianmaledictions. specific by Wallachia, towns andwitnesses, wereoccasionally backed upby taken by noblemen oaths and the prince in and, to Bra seals and to in addition documents, Early charters. internal the to was similar privileges the of format The rights. staple enjoyed towns certain only barriers: commercial as well customs, with in as Wallachia pattern the Moldavia Western established followed routes, and product. mentioning the trade routes, specific, arevery documents The privileges. in commercial the were stated towns neighboring custom posts, and detailed custom fees to be charged andregulations privileges 4.1 Commercial for each to documents attesting conflicts trade andrequests for various commodities. and regulations granted toforeign merchants andissued by princes,the turning subsequently The privileges issued by Wallachian princes to Polish subjects did not survive. See Nicolae Iorga, See Nicolae survive. not did subjects Polish to princes Wallachian by issued privileges The Papacostea, “Inceputurile politicii comerciale a Bogdan, See for instance, the first extant Wallachian privilege from the reign of Mircea the Old; Bogdan, Old; the of Mircea reign the from privilege Wallachian extant first the instance, for See Ġ ului românesc:perioada veche In Wallachia, trading privileges were especially common during the early period of the with Principalities Romanian Medieval the of relations commercial the of nature The 292 Rela The texts of the privileges indicate that the organization of commercial activities of commercial theorganization that indicate privileges of the Thetexts Jean Favier, Jean Ġ iile Ġ iile ğă ğă rii Române 295 rii Române Bra Gold andSpices: The Riseof Commerce the Middle in Ages ú ov merchants, as subjects of the Hungarian kingdom, received ú ti cu Bra ú ti cu Bra ti cu (The history of Romanian commerce, early period) (Bucharest: Tiparul (Bucharest: period) early commerce, Romanian of history (The 293 ú ovul ú ovul ú ğă i cu rii Române ğ ú i cu ara Unguresc ğ ara ú ti ú i Moldovei,” 170. Unguresc ú ă ov in particular. , no. 4 (1421), 13no. (c.1420-1424). ă , vol. (1413).1, no.1 See also ă în Evul Mediu,” 88 Mediu,” Evul în (New York: Holmes 294 According to Documente Istoria ú ov 74 CEU eTD Collection 300 299 1427). 298 297 Wallachian custom posts and local administration. Similarly, during his short reign, he reign, short his during Similarly, administration. local and posts custom Wallachian the to known well be would regulations trade the that insuring letters administrative (1431); See also R privileges of the local Wallachian traders from from Târgovi Wallachian local traders the of privileges written confirmintroduce issues.documentsprince first tocommercial to Hewasthe the charters record land donations. land record charters internal charters: fourteen documents were issued on behalf of Bra behalf on of issued were fourteen documents charters: internal 1424, and1427-1431)the samenumber privileges andregulations wereissuedas of trade and trade regulations issued on behalf of Bra behalf issuedof on regulations andtrade privileges were commercial four of which out extant, documents related trade and charters six documents, areatotal of andreign there (1421, short 1424-7), Radu Prasnaglava of merchants constitute largethe majority of For survivingdocuments. the instance,from the by the Wallachian chancery. by Wallachian the bestowed on them by Wallachian the thusincreasingprinces, numberof the issueddocuments advantages commercial the inreturn record to keen were turn in their merchants Presumably, princes such as Vlad Dracul often required the political support of Bra of the support political the required often Dracul asVlad princes such instability,Wallachian fifteenthforerunners.political asaconsequence of century, the During renew byhis new almost is theprivileges hadrepeatedly every to prince significant: granted commercial until privileges werebestowed 1443-1447) reign of the Vlad Dracul(1436-1442, 1368, June 2,is firstthe survivingWallachian document. 296 and products, tax exemptioninternal for trade. Bogdan, See DRH B, vol. 1 Bogdan, Iorga, See, for instance, Bogdan, Bra behalfof on issued regulations andprivileges trade reigns, certain During The first commercial privilege, granted by granted behalf commercial I on Vladislav The firstBra privilege, of Acte Rela Rela ú i scrisori i Ġ Ġ iile iile ă dvan ğă ğă rii Române rii Române , Ora , no. 2(1368,June 28). ú Rela ele din ú ú Ġ ti cu Bra ti iile ti cu Bra ğ 299 ara Româneasc ğă Dan been involved have particularly intrade II seems to rii Române ú ú ovul ovul ú ú i cu i cu i cu ú ú ti Bra cu ă ğ ğ 296 ov ov traders. , ara Ungureasc ara Ungureasc 172-3. ú ovul 298 ú i cu i cu During the reign of (1420- Dan II of reign During the ă ă , no. 13 (1420-1424). , no. 4, no. 5 (1421), no. 6, no.7 (1424- 6, no.7 5 (1421),no. 4, no. no. 297 ğ ú ara Unguresc te. The frequency with which with frequency The 300 ú He also often issued ov traders, while fifteen while traders, ov ă , no. 4 (1421), no. 17(1421), no. no.4 ú ov traders on traders ov ú ov traders. ov ú ov 75 CEU eTD Collection 303 on Bra 302 (1424), no. 18 (1431). 301 Bra The princes. Moldavian the from privileges commercial their of renewal and Hungarian early of the repeatedly Moldavianthe state, Polishrequested tradesmen period of archivalpractices. unsettled indicates asaconsequence record surviving than the more active was rights their commercial by embraced local Possibly, Wallachian pleaof written for confirmations the their traders. weresoon merchants foreign of practices written the Moreover, norm. been the have seems to in communication Wallachia oral during period that this fact the despite rights commercial as granted andproof of integrate written issuecommunication documents princes hadto internal use of writing.” reconfirmingleastmore claim“thereinitially Goody’s isfor evidence forthat at external than issued partofdocuments, alarge behalfcentury comprise their on surviving the half fifteenth from first of the the documents Commercial documents. of written importance may support the assertion that, during the early period,foreign traders were more aware of the foreign merchants almost discontinued in Moldavia and decreasedsignificantly in Wallachia thepresent. chanceofsurvivinga better to have had (andarchivingthem) records written the more to behalf of accustomed a community or do they account only time, that at awhole as principalities two the of culture written of the part significant a here, for the tip of the iceberg? Certainly, foreign of leastfive the privileges confirmed Bra times at documents issued on Goody, Already Already ofthe reign (1433-1446), after Vlad Dracul commercial the privileges andtrade regulations bestowed Bogdan, At the direct request of a community more accustomed to written practices, Wallachian written practices, to more accustomed of a community request directthe At of withdrawal the after communication written of exchange the that fact the Nonetheless, Were especially the survivingdocuments, documents specificthe Iam trade discussing ú ov merchants were beginning to decrease gradually. decrease to beginning were ov merchants In similarMoldavia, byforeign trading practices merchants may be During observed. Logic of Writing Rela Ġ iile ğă rii Române , 100. 303 ú ti cuBra ú ovul ú i cu i cu ğ ara Unguresc ú ov ov traders. 301 ă , no. 9, no. 10 (1422), no.9,10 11, no. no.12, ú ov traders once traders ov 302 76 CEU eTD Collection June 2),June 229no. (1456,Jan.15), no. 231 (1456, June 29). 205 (1437,Apr. 29),217 no. (1448,Sept. 11),218 no. (1449,Aug.3), 223 no. (1452,Aug.12), 277no. (1455, Oct.8), 180 no.(1433, Apr.9), 186 no. March (1434, 18), no. May189 (1435, 204 (143726), no. Apr 23), no. 309 308 307 305 306 conflicts: ibidem, trade relations of the Moldavianstate withBra reign ofreign Alexanderthe Good (1400-1425): Alexander Goodin the 1408. privileges granted to the town of Lviv are less numerous. One of the first was written by 304 for a shortPoland. and Moldavia between period relations commercial the curtailed have to seem during the reign of Petru Aron, record of inbenefitstheir Moldavia isdiscontinued. the contrary, seem haveto yielded their position to the Bra resume The theirfirst trade. surviving datefrom documents 1435. Bra of behalf on princes Moldavian the and reconfirming their Ten commercial privilegesrights. as areattested having issuedbeen by confirming in active andwereparticularly towns Transylvanian lead the the more among took twelve were commercial privileges. twelve werecommercial of which out merchants, foreign issued behalf of were on letters twenty-three needs, external for produced letters out of sixty Great, the reign Stephen Uptothe of important. more less important in Moldavia thanin Wallachia. Documents topoliticalrelated issues remain are documents trade-related material, surviving in entire the considering However, general, rights. commercial renewals of existing ledtorepeated princely removals and recurrent instability political of periods several Wallachia, in as in Moldavia, Thus, Great. the Stephen foreign intraders inMoldavia Wallachia, as with exception the of Alexandru L of behalf on privileges commercial issuing discontinued princes Great, the Stephen reign of After the commercial letters, concern seven privileges. of which are trade-related fourteen The entire collection ispublished in Cost In 1456, Prince Aron twice confirmed the commercial privileges of the Lemberg triders inMoldavia. triders Lemberg the of privileges commercial the confirmed twice Aron Prince 1456, In Iorga, They recieved their first privilege from the Moldavian prince in 1433. Seeibidem, 1433. in prince Moldavian the from privilege first their recieved They Ibidem Indirect references attest, however, that Bra that however, attest, references Indirect Istoria comer , no. 176. n o. 179 (1433), no. 187 (1434). Ġ uluiromânesc, 90. 306 By the end of his reign, the conflicts with the Polish kingdom ă chescu, 309 Cost During Stephen’s reign, out of sixty-one extant letters, extant sixty-one of out reign, Stephen’s During ú ă ú ov traders in addition to seven letters of invitation to invitation of letters seven to in addition traders ov chescu, ov merchants received commercial privileges at least from the from least at privileges commercial received ov merchants ú Documente înainte de ov are confirmed as well by the documents attesting trade Documente înainte de 305 308 Thesurviving commercial Moldavian they discontinued after the reign of ú ov merchants, since after 1438 the ù tefan celMare, ù tefan cel Mare, 304 Traders from Traders Sibiu, on no. 180. no. 162,no. no. 189. 307 ă pu Resumed 176(1408, ú The early The neanu I 77 CEU eTD Collection 312 311 310 regional of exchange goods. a to commerce scale high international from switched towns commercial neighboring with Danubian ofthe Principalities trade relations the in Moldavia (1457-1504), Great Stephen the Sea camean to end. Thus, after the reign of Vlad Dracul (1433-1446)in Wallachia and that of via the Black Orient andthe Europe Western between relations trade international to Iorga, century. sixteenth by theearly the BlackSea of control Ottoman A inthe dominancegradual upsurge political ofthe Ottoman inthefull Empire resulted them. with changes commercial brought that transformations in political grounded been have conflicts. trade usedin replacedof resolution byletters the gradually privilegeswas grantingdocuments trade in attestingrelationscanbe trade typetransformation the seen. Thenumberof documents of conflicts 4.2 Trade (1552-1561, II1564-1568), whose particular commercial activity is well known. comer question the oldmoved to Wallachian princes the and political Ottomansthe grew powerof the state Hungarian of the political power of Papacostea,the with weakening the according to Lateron, merchants. over byWallachian was didsurvive and taken international trade it was only by foreignwhich it out wasmainly foreign replaced carried traders. traders moreinof Wallachians involvement ethnic exchanges – sincetrade trade international the who withdrew from commercial activities in the area, while Ibidem, 68. Ibidem, Charles King, Charles The turning point in The in point documents of turning transformation the the type seemsto trade-related a in Wallachia, earlier acentury half and inMoldavia century sixteenth the of turn At the According to Iorga, the turn toward regional trade had as one of its outcomes the Ġ uluiromânesc, 66, 67. The Black Sea: AHistory 67-74. 311 (Oxford, University Oxford 111;Press, 2004), Iorga, 312 Conversely, Chirot argued that Chirot Conversely, 310 Consequently, according Consequently, Istoria 78 CEU eTD Collection 316 315 314 of Bra urban and the authorities urge subjects his of rights collective the defend to letters several issued who prince, Wallachian the seacoast.” the to up even note] my - [Wallachia anywhere safely travel to have they “if subject Wallachian urged the Bra1427-1431). Inhis firstsurviving issuedletter, mediate anindividual to conflict, Dan trade II individual and collective grievances of wasWallachiantheir subjects Dan II II (1420-1424, issues. commercial or administrative of resolution inthe communication written administration of Bra letters as between an well urban stimulated requests the exchange of as individual grievances segmentbroader of Wallachianthe population gotinvolved in activities,trade collective merchants local of attempts by matched was to Principalities the of markets inthe earnposition dominant trade privilegesmaintain traditional recording, their and, torecord through traders by exhibited Saxon that would The and drive merchants. local foreign conflictcollective between a stimulated protracted grant them similar rights. In addition, as a 313 As grantedtoBra divergences. the early privileges trade attesting numberof documents inthe maybeobserved anotableincrease conflicts, from such commercial exchanges. thatresulted benefits inthe controlling interested it increasingly became grewin strength state territory. Wallachian on traders Saxon the to granted rights commercial Ibidem, Bogdan, Chirot, Papacostea, “Inceputurile politicii comerciale a Trade conflicts seem to have multiplied continuously through the fifteenth century, fifteenth the through continuously multiplied have to seem conflicts Trade Among the first Wallachian princes who used written documents to resolve the Regardless of the significance of the economic or political factors that lay trade behind factors that political or of economic the significance of the Regardless Schimbarea social , no. 15, 16 (c. 1427-1431). Rela Ġ 315 iile ú ov traders to return taken merchandise to a certain Stoica, presumably a An extra tax charged at Bran castle seems to have particularly distressed the distressed haveparticularly seems to Bran castle chargedat tax Anextra ğă rii Române ú ov ov and theWallachian markedprinces and the beginning use the of of ă , 62. ú ti cu Bra 314 ú ú ov to settle the matter. to ov ovul ú i cu ğă rii Române ğ ara Ungureasc ú ov merchants this wereoften ov challenged, ú ti ú i Moldovei,” 185. ă 316 , no. 14 (1424-1427). 313 As the Wallachian 79 CEU eTD Collection documents. Despite the fact the Despite documents. Vladthat Monk (1482-1495)repeatedly the traders assured Saxon from resulted his request. seal.” “thethe town’s with endorsed 319 318 317 less than 25be inno agreements confirmed should requested thatthe indicated Fairexplicitly Radu the days in a written by help similarrequests stimulated Wallachian to written princes practices the their subjects. document issuedtown seal so that my people can moveby freely,if they trade at your place (…).” the Bra a written document, prompted asimilaryou request: "Thus, too,give meyour under letter the by endorsed granted, conditions The (…).” inmy country trade everywhere can move around my your men under sothat sendyou letter, seal, this “(…)I be resumed: could circulation free factthat the as aconfirmation of that hestated letter, in as same the of agreements, support up inspired RadutheFairagreements. theapparently use in foreign took of documents documents seem tohavebeensettle customarily used to disputessupport trade new and to their belongings. Therefore we paid you with the same token.” their goods and the profits from them; and they were leftin distress, not free [to dispose] of Bra of and achieve rights trade staple inbusiness surpass the to fights developed. reciprocity The structural misunderstandingstrade between Wallachian the and Transylvanian merchants increasing consequently issued the numberof letters by Wallachian the Gradually, chancery. ( Fairthe whowrote“(…) (1463-1474), everything byyou.initiated was Asmypaupers Vă Ibidem. Ibidem. Ibidem, no. 83 (1470, March 6)). racii ú Individual Individual constitute continue a conflicts trade to significantproportion of survivingthe Thus, important matters were communicated through written channels. Moreover, foreign were importantchannels.communicated matters through written Thus, Moreover, conditions written establishfor trade, Given good Wallachiansthe to desireof the ov merchants, or institute the same practices, unfold in the data from the reign of Radu ) [he means his tradesmen, M.G.] were going there with you took meanstheirhis therecommodities, M.G.] weregoing with ) [he tradesmen, 319 Unfortunately there are no later data about what 317 ú ov town administration and 318 80 CEU eTD Collection leastletters complaining three his about aswell losses others’ in Sibiu. by issued on behalfAndre’s whose supported Radu brother, a certain Mikhnea, at Great the one as,for the instance, documents writing of the several motivated conflicts Certain misunderstandings. trade attesting to aredocuments towns, archives of Transylvanian the 71 Radureign preservedout of of in the181survivingletters Great(1495-1508), urban the inBramistreatment by encountered traders was issuedinresponse to privileges granted totheBra granted privileges 1517, wherein Lajos II(1516-1526), Hungarian by king, Basarab the with Neagoe politicalsigned treaty there was a clear statement of a major and explicit alteration of the early Bra 322 321 320 noblemen, house, againsthis own committed injuries trade when enumerating madethreats open Neagoe Basarab. Neagoe of during reign the by Wallachian subjects suffered abuses to trade surviving documents concerningconflicts trade issued in Wallachianthe in chancery relation insixteen attested are relations of trade Deterioration century. sixteenth of the quarter Saxon traders. tothe freegranted of rights the circulation question him to caused These difficulties in encountered Transylvania. of treatmenttraders Wallachian the by complaints individual various comprise hisreign from surviving letters about his commitment to respect their early rights of free circulation, fifteen out of thirty-one Târg Târgovi towns: market Wallachian three in merchandise their sell to had traders Instead, territory. Wallachian 324 323 325 ibidem, no. 153 (1517, March 17). Ibidem, Ibidem, no.157 (1517-1521). Ibidem, no. 159 (1491-1492). The Wallachian prince denied the Kronstadt traders their old rights of free and unrestricted commerce on commerce unrestricted and offree old rights their traders Kronstadt the denied prince Wallachian The Ibidem, 156no. (after 1517). Iorga, ú Thus, during the fifteenth century, a significant part of the surviving Wallachian material Wallachian of fifteenth surviving part the significant century,Thus, a the during Trade conflicts between between Bra conflicts Trade ú ov. or and Câmpulung where only wholesale trade was allowed with clearly designated custom fees. See fees. custom designated clearly with wasallowed trade wholesale only where Câmpulung or and Acte 323 n The change in power positions indicated by these letters becamein the by clear letters indicated these The inpowerpositions change 322 o. 158,o. no.159, no.160 (1512-1521). ú i fragmente, or against Wallahian traders as a whole, killed or injured while trading in trading while injured or killed whole, a as traders Wallahian against or no. 279 (1500,Apr.12), No.280 (1500, Apr.12, No.282 (1500,May 31). ú ov merchants. ov ú ov and Wallachia seem in step upeven more seem first the to Wallachia ov and 324 320 ú 325 of Until ov. end the the However, gradually, 321 his ú te, 81 CEU eTD Collection of Lemberg), vol.I (Bucharest: Tipografia lucr Lemberg. 327 românesc, 326 political the Alba wereunder and Cetatea of Chilia harbors Sea Black commercial long asthe as privileges commercial in Moldavian interested been have to seem traders Lviv Moreover, littlefrom evidence survives chancery Moldavian the attesting commercial relations. innot localand Moldavian principality. trade with the earlier the hadreplaced that route Moldavian usingthe international trade the inin Polish weremost interested traders culture. participating dissemination for the written of towns discontinued. relations theTransylvanian with trade Empire, Ottoman on the Wallachian principality dependencyof the by accompanied stronger the place intook that changes economic and thepolitical reflects butrather documents use of written the area. With documents. in written attested conflicts trade only six are Bravethere the the establishment Michael of endthe reign the foreign upto of lands,while sentto letters out of 125 conflicts concerning trade letters there werethirty-one 1558-1559) II (1545-1552, Mircea Shepherd the ofproportion of the WallachianOttoman documents. From the reign of Radu the Great up to the reigncomprise asignificant ceasedto conflicts trade Shepherd, Michael of reign the the of after political especially Afterwards, abroad. sent documents letter of fifty-four out conflicts trade attesting letters only are seventeen Basarab,there thereign of Neagoe Already powerduring in Wallachia. in became lessrepresentative documents century, trade-related of sixteenth course duringthe the the region “Inceputurile politicii comerciale a comerciale politicii “Inceputurile Papacostea, see this about information more For century. fourteenth of the half second the in Empire Tartar from the commercial towns of Caffa or Lviv.books inis atthe coast account of the BlackSea merchants well the documented Moldavian and Oriental trade, served as an alternative for the Iorga, The new road – symptomaticis changes documents, however,number inthe not of The decline intheof Moldavian suggestMoldavian data trade that misunderstandings werealess issuerepresentative Rela (Commercial relations of our countries with Lemberg. Regestas and documents from the town archives town the from documents and Regestas Lemberg. with countries of our relations (Commercial 87. Ġ iile comerciale ale via wallachica – ğ ğă erilor noastre cu Lembergul. Regeste that connected the Baltic Sea and the Polish kingdom with the Black Sea Black the with kingdom Polish the and Sea Baltic the connected that rii Române rii ă torilor asocia ú ti ti via tartarica ú i Moldovei,” 167, 201-5. See also Iorga, See also 201-5. 167, Moldovei,” i 327 Onthe other hand, privileges, beyond trade Ġ i Marinescui that was abolished after the disintegrationof the 326 The presence of Lviv and even of ú i ù ú i documente din Arhivele ora erban, 1900), 34. Istoria comer via tartarica ú Ġ ului ului 82 CEU eTD Collection 117 (1526, Dec. 29). 332 331 florins. The letters alleges that Laurentius depleted almost the same sum in hisstruggle to recuperate his debt. nostrarum commissioned by Moldavianthe prince Ilie (1433, 1435-1442) on behalf of Laurentius, issued as the consequence of letter in 1519, was, according to the Moldavian prince, unjustly imprisoned and ill-treated on in Moldavianimprisoned andill-treated the letter unjustly was, accordingprince, to 1519, 330 329 Bistri subjects, they describedashavingbeenimprisoned anddetained inthetown of were cases when Moldavianthe Stefan prince, mediated Young the infavor(1517-1527), of his 328 by Moldavian such as imprisonment.subjects, unjust or death suffered grievances trade of cases in severe only in writing resolved were misunderstandings commercial that shows also evidence the successors, and sons Great’s the Stephen of foreign documents, only three letters were issuedto resolve trade conflicts. During the reign 67 of out Great, the of Stephen thereign From time. increase with not did towns commercial Bra with either conflicts trade Wallachia, in as same the the Great as the Ottoman control of towardthe end Moldavian the (1485).Afterwards, princes of of reign the Stephen Empire took the towns of Chilia and Cetatea Alba, commissioners) cease to be mentioned in the documents issued from the Moldavian chancery. of body a collective (as merchants Foreign misunderstandings. private and cases individual between documentingletters surviving suchconflict Bra Thefew conflicts. attesting trade by wereprivileges inMoldavia seldom replaced documents trade evidence, extant the to according principality, Wallachian to the contrast In accordingly. privileges requested by from Polishthe merchants Moldavian werediscontinuedprinces commercetrade (on inLevantine shores the goods of BlackSea)declined.the Cost Cost Iorga, King, Cost Although firstMoldavianthe conflict trade has therelatively of early date 1433, Ġ ă ă a. ă chescu, chescu, The Black Sea: AHistory, Sea: TheBlack chescu, 332 Istoria comer towhom Iohannes, a citizenof Bra Subditus Matheus Desw Documente Bogdan Documente Documentele moldovene Ġ ului românesc,ului ù a trade mistreatment encountered by Moldaviana high dignitary Brain tef ă ni Ġă , no. 68(1504, Dec.28), no. 73(1508, Nov.5), no. 78(1510,July 10). 112. , no. 106(1519,May no.30), 108(1521,May 17), no.113 (1523,Nov.9), no. 107. ú ti înainte de , for instance,forin , whose cause Stephen Young the wrote a ú ov son and of Judge Valentin, owned twenty-eight Hungarian ù tefan cel Mare, ú no. 179(1433, March 15).The letter was ov to and ov are restricted Moldavia ú ov or with other Transylvanian other with or ov 331 For instance, in almost all in almost instance, For fusor monetarum 328 329 the Polish the Thetrade ú 330 ov. Itwas almost 83 CEU eTD Collection 337 141. 336 335 specified. being date year no month, and ofday date the only record Bra instances of Slavonic letters are edited in Bogdan, edited are letters ofSlavonic instances activity. trade local in small involved mainly were who villages, even or towns small from coming exchange and“small” traders trade in international who were accomplished merchants for trade relationsevidence between isMoldavian andMoldavian Poland scarce. rather Lviv. in archives of urban the such wererecorded to trade related disputes certain as commerce local in involved became subjects Southern and Moldavian more merchants, foreign of withdrawal and trade of type in the change the of consequence privileges tolesser is related inMoldavia conflicts lackof andbeyond.trade The century fifteenth granted duringleadamongissues increase the inMoldavian were not the that to documents major the by the Moldavianmoney a owed to Moldavian merchantGrigorie bereturned. princes to foreign traders. Possibly, as a direct 334 “smaller” traders. statedignitariesEspecially andeven century, fifteenth highest the traders. “smaller” during Suceava) who were mistreated at Bistri administration of Bistrisurviving. 333 instance For moreissues. more they minor Rare ordinary as record Rare a charge murder. of The Latin letters from the reign of Petru and Ilie Rare Ilie and ofPetru reign the from letters Latin The Cost Chirot, Iorga, Iorga, ú Chirot considered that two types of merchants were active inWallachia, “high|” wereactive typesofmerchants consideredtwo that Chirot towns commercial Transylvanian the of administration the with conflicts trade However, The number of Moldavian trade conflicts multiplied slightly during the reign of Petru of reign the during slightly multiplied conflicts trade Moldavian of number The ovului, ú and his son Ilie (1546-1551), as from andhis sonIlie (1546-1551),asfrom Ilie Rare ă chescu, Rela Acte 337 Schimbarea social 334 no. 23 (c. 1530, Oct. 30), no. 24 (c. 1530, Jan. 24). With very few late exceptions, Slavonic letters Thesurviving testify the use records ofwritten evidenceto only rarely bythe Ġ ú iile comerciale ale i Scrisori, Moreover, trade conflict letters seem shortly afterwards to become perceived as become perceived to seem letters afterwards shortly conflict trade Moreover, Documente 333 no. 693(1535, Feb. 14). ù tef ă Ġ a on behalf of “ , 61. ă ni ğ Ġă erilor noastreerilor Lembergul, cu , no. 106(1519, May 30). Ġ a, while selling their salted fish, or asking that the Documente moldovene homines nostrihomines zwchwawyenses ú are published in Iorga, in published are 34. See also Iorga, ú 335 ’ short reign eleven letters are’ shortreign elevenletters ú ti din sec. XVsi XVI în Arhivul Acte Istoria comer ú wrote in wrote 1527 tothe ú i Scrisori, i 336 ,” (inhabitants of Nevertheless, while the few Ġ uluiromânesc 84 , CEU eTD Collection 345 344 343 342 341 340 1462). 339 (1434, Apr 21). and humbles ( nostrarum conflict: attestinga trade letter Moldavian name “our folksof individualsthe involved. of status their nor names the neither mentioned subjects Wallachian of molestations financial since heisthe missing, be shall hair no and him to it return shall you amount, the of regardless possessions, any have he would wherever that, know, you let I this, of “Because Martin: about wrote subject,” our man,” our subject,” were arbitrating. letters, the princes often mentioned just the Christian names of the subjects for whom they Moldavian citizens whom he labeled: “ nosri 338 Bra of citizen a whom from Christian names, they were employingfor settlement written the evidence misunderstandings. asatool of Besides trade usually referredsubjects the of status the indicate seldom only letters to commercial Moldavia as or Wallachia in Unfortunately, activities. commercial in the involved often were themselves princes the Iorga, Iorga, Bogdan, Ibidem, 16no. (1427-1431); Bogdan, Ibidem, 51.no. Ibidem, no.72: “our Dumitru.” man Bogdan, Only seldom Only seldom isof asin status indicated, the personsinvolved the first the surviving . For instance, in 1434, Prince Ilias (1433, 1435-1442) intervened on the part of intervenedinstance,of incertain on part (1433,1435-1442) Ilias the . For1434,Prince Acte Acte Rela Documente Documente . Rela 345 ú ú i fragmente, i fragmente Also in Wallachia, the princes sporadically mentioned the high status of their Ġ tr’govtci isiromasi) iile Ġ iile true subject true 339 ğă ğă Any specification about the status of the complainer usually refers to “our (liudi) rii Române 340 ú riiRomâne i regeste or “faithful subject” as, for instance, as,for or“faithful Dracul subject” whenVlad (1433-1446) , no. 28; Cost no. 25(1433,March 15). 342 orour humble ones They asa under general community the integrated are presented ú (1905), no. 15, no. 16 (1427-1431). of my highness.” my of ov took without payment 33 oxen. 33 payment without took ov ú ti cu Bra ú ti cu Bra ti .” ă chescu, 344 ú ovul ú ovul Stephanus cumMartino, ú Documentele moldovene i cu ú i cu Conqueritur nobisLaurencius,monetarum fusor ğ (siratzi) ara Ungureasc 341 ğ ara Ungureasc Often, letters recording the physical and homines nostri ,” 343 or in the best cases “our merchants ă , no.188. ú ă ti înainte de , 338 no. 14 (1424-1427),no. 72 (1456- no. Similarly in the Wallachian inthe Similarly , socio suo, hominesnostri” subditinostri ù tefan cel Mare, , or servitori no. 187 85 CEU eTD Collection 349 350 348 347 Sarandino. of Jupan behalf on twice wrote Vlad Prince Wallachian his knowledge orwill, ran away and embraced the faith of Islam.” Turks and requireTurks (these) attheir payment.” turn the from cattle the taking were note) my merchants; (Wallachian they as debts his return and jupan as named instance, was for Sava, grievances. their helpresolve to documents written princely whoasked forclass upper actors record continued to number hand,documents one of a a servant for his instruction indicates that he was well-situated financially at least. Stanislav tolearnwanted languagea foreign used in Transylvania and wascapable of paying servant letters:Wallachian “And Itell that highness yourafter theproblem about our of in the used rhetoric the was rather but status social low indicates means no by name Christian relationship with the princes. relationship with a personal had who status social high of noblemen been have also may writing in intervened mayindividuals thatamong indicate godfather,” the first for whom Wallachian the princes noblewoman into Bra Fair aidRaduthe governor, whose wrote (1523-1524) wrote on wrote previouson behalf(1523-1524) dignitaries, high of two achamberlainand status recorded in the letters testify that the denomination of denomination thatthe testify letters in the recorded information often, other More century.fifteenth the issued,during letters especially princely low of number be the might unwisegiven lower categories social to belonged unrecorded 346 their indicating subjects, Ibidem Bogdan, Bogdan, Bogdan, Bogdan, From the turn of the sixteenth century, however, the documents seem to diversify. On the On diversify. to seem documents the however, century, sixteenth the of turn the From (nobleman) by heasked Bra Basarab,(nobleman) when Neagoe Stanislav, who took aservantfrom Stanislav,whotook Bra , no. 190. no. Rela Documente Documente Documente Documente Rela Ġ Ġ iile (jupanitza) iile ğă ğă rii Române ú ú rii Române i regeste i regeste jupan and relations. kinship , 160no. (1512-1521). , 86no. (c. 1464-1472). ú 348 ú ti cu Bra ti cu Bra ti cu status next to the Christian names. Christian the to next status To assume, however, that persons whose social status went status social whose persons that however, assume, To ú ú ovul ovul ú ú i cu i cu ğ ğ ara Ungureasc ara Ungureasc ú ov to teach him teach language, without ov to who, the 350 347 Moreover, in 1524, Prince Vladislav III Certain identifications such as “our as such identifications Certain ú ov, was recorded with her status of with her wasrecorded ov, status siromakhu ú ov traders to“givehim fair justice ov traders ă ă , , No. 171. no. 45, no. 46 (1433-1437), when46 (1433-1437), 45,no. the no. 346 349 (poor subjects)nextthe (poor to Preia, sister of of Dragomir sister Preia, Presumably, the fact that the Presumably, humble 86 CEU eTD Collection 356 regeste 355 354 353 352 4.3 Useofwrittenevidencetorequest goodsforconsumption involved in trading and processes moreimportant in here, process the of using documents. exact recordsaboutdoubt his humble origins,despite his shepherding activities. Unfortunately, lack the of hinders ourwell as while factthat, the imprisoned, he adebtalso paid of florins44 may still suggestsome understandingisDumitru as recorded being a in refugee from Transylvania reign the of Radu Paisie of when from his 450sheepbackhim collected were taken which on away home. way and whether workingthat at several masters for Bra lower social classes were to grazefrom sheepto as M inTransylvania Dumitru subjects Wallachian for some customary haveitmight been it that seems Moreover, position. may for whom subjects suggesta ratherhumbleprince Wallachian social arbitrated the indicationAlthough is there no being about their work the by status, social carried out the Transylvania and several collecting halfsheep, which of takenby were custom the guards.” labeledwhom he “our men, and Oprea were beggingwho Tatu, in and herding cattle Wallachian subjects, certain on of behalf Basarabwrote instance, Neagoe For documents. even subjects appearamongLater, seem mentioned mistreated commoners to inwritten the least at noblemen seem tohave secondinthe who of rank activities. beeninvolved trade be freed(…). to Gherghina, my chamberlain uncle, “(…) man of the of on behalf instance,wrote for Great, 351 chancellor. See,for instance, Cost For the identity of Prince Radu mentioned in the letter see the note by the editor, Bogdan, editor, the by note see the letter the in mentioned Radu ofPrince identity the For Bogdan, Tocilescu, Ibidem, no.194. Bogdan, The evidence of written requests for acquiring goods is rare in both inDanubian is both rare for acquiring goods requests The of written evidence , 195, 140no. (1558-1559. Rela Documente Documente 351 534 Documente, 534 On the other hand, the lower nobility also seems to unfold in the data. Radu the 352 Ġ iile The information may indicate that it was not only high status dignitaries, but dignitaries, status high only not was it that indicate may information The ğă rii Române ă ú chescu, i regeste no.260. Documente Bogdan , 140no. (1558-1559). ú ti cuBra ú ovul ú ú i cu , no. 68(1504), no. 78(1510, July 10). ov ov andin being charge of husbandry heanimal ğ ara Ungureasc ăĠă u complained before Prince Vladislav before u complained ă , No.165. 354 The fact that fact The Documente 355 356 as 353 87 ú i CEU eTD Collection 360 Young (1477-1481)wasamong firstof the Wallachianthe princes record in whotried to Basarab the survivingrecord, the According to goods. specialrequest private to documents earlyquite Wallachianon, the princesand high-rankingeven use noblemenbeganwritten to separate letter, Vlad Dracul asked for Transylvanian military goods and Vlad carts. letter, military Transylvanian for Dracul goods separate asked aletter of credence. or in letter a political recorded information letters for fromwere inserted asadditional arenotseparate but goods requests abroad attested merchandise such as guns,mainly sporadically inwritingInitially, princes the as well. requisitioned war requested bows, or raw materialAlthough mentions militarymost recur often of inprivateletters, were goods goods these to manufacture aremost atotal from so that, extantthem. stabilereigns, 51 letters of Wallachian the principality. Moreover, the from the survive letters princely several first Usually, disseminated. they that were consistently record no is there century sixteenth the of end the to up but century fifteenth the of middle the comeback. to not return a Gypsy slave, who being sent to Bra in Bra 359 358 357 purpose. the for given Bra to sent was Paul Governor Bistri of town to the wrote Moldavian Bogdan(1504-1517) Prince legal certain misunderstandings, Forinstance, or custom inrequirements. 1516,the was required or as theresultwritten of in evidence particular goods administrative acquiring of involvement the documents, in the appearing information implicit the From agreements. Principalities. Presumably,using of process goodswascarried the purchasing out oral Ibidem, no.33, no.55 Bogdan, Tocilescu, Ibidem, no. 86. See also Iorga, In Wallachia, explicit requests for military or personal goods began to be attested from be attested began to personal goods military for or requests explicit Wallachia, In ú ov as shown by a request by Neagoe Basarab to the urban administration of of Bra urban Basarab the by to administration by as shown ov Neagoe a request Rela 534 documente, Ġ iile 358 ğă rii Române 357 Some Wallachian servants, as well, were no less tempted to remain to tempted less no were well, as servants, Wallachian Some no.262. Acte Acte ú ti cu Bra ú ov to purchase guns but ran away with the money he had been had he money the with away ran but guns purchase to ov ú i fragmente ú ovul ú i cu , no. 1169. ú ov for acquisitions of various goods had chosen ğ ara Ungureasc ă , no.22. 359 Inthe firstsurviving Ġ a that the servantof the a that 360 Likewise, ú ov to ov 88 CEU eTD Collection 364 363 362 361 belonged them. goods to such informTransylvanian that custom officials keen the and convince were certainly to Wallachian and Moldavian princes enjoy did a special intax exemption Transylvania, they inform that being custom the posts goods the weregoing carried Wallachian the As to princes. have issued seemto been to inWallachia, especially requests, written majority the the of the needs and requirements of the Wallachian princes, in Basarab. instance,of for letters Neagoe the as indicated, jewelry their number remainfor skillful tomakecraftsmen various luxury items such as low.clocks, shops, printer piecesor of Moreover, Great. of from reign Radu the the forleast surviveletters record Wallachian the remains Onlyeightprinces. sparse. However, might at have been practice goods a regular acquisition Transylvanian the of suggestthat also florins.” three buy five pieces of soap with four florins and another five pieces of soap, of poorer quality, for “andyour wehavesentto servant grace our Oncea; laborand Iaskyour graceto for usand a wider variety of products such as fur coats, fur, textiles, and even various categories of soap: Atgoods. of the sixteenththe turn Radu the Great (1495-1508) requestedin century, writing supposedly oralwritten demandsor other thefirst preceded forsurviving ordinary request and letter suggestthatforeign princeproducts, the offered wasaconnoisseurin of first the his house. for tables wooden nice, round, asten well as cradles comfortable writingmore his need furniture elaborate for from big Herequestedtwo Transylvania. and gradually came to be perceived as more trustworthy and reliable and consequently be could consequently morebereliable and and trustworthy perceived as gradually came to Bogdan, Tocilescu, Ibidem, no. 205 (undated). Ibidem, no.137 (dated by editorthe to1478 or between1480-81). Although during the sixteenth century, the documents diversify and permit us a glimpse at us aglimpse diversifyand permit documents the century, thesixteenth Although during was aneed indicate that there letters princely goods, various materials and raw Along with Rela 534 documente Ġ 362 iile The direct indications about the price and quality of the soap, for instance, for soap, the of quality and price the about indications direct The ğă rii Române , 233,no. 249. 364 ú Presumably a written record endorsed by the princely seal princely the by endorsed record a written Presumably ti cu Bra ú ovul ú i cu ğ ara Ungureasc ă , no. 203. (1496-1507). 363 361 The details The 89 CEU eTD Collection VI (1532-1535) in Bogdan, 370 Bra pomože gospodinù mi Vlad voivod, a mi kemo za edno dve platiti ili tri.” Bogdan, tri.” ili platiti dve edno za kemo mi a voivod, Vlad mi gospodinù pomože 369 1508). See also no. 435. for services. return Wallachianthe producedby documents noblemen the simply requested tax exemption in 368 payment the postpone Wallachiannobleman towritingbeen had of unusual the entrusted giventhe to demand throne -my note, M.G), for one we shall pay two or three (coats).” gain Wallachian the (to Vlad prince the my master, assist shall andif God coat, with a textile textilecoat suitable for his imminent exile: “(…) so Iplead, if God shall guide you, to helpme from came governorof the inVlad Dracul, nobleman the Voicu, who 1431 askedfor a commercial exchanges with the towns of Sibiu and Bra assistyou as you wish. shall my goodness, in I, and merchandise, my charge not and goodness our assist to highness, avoid tax payments is so recurrent that it became almost formulaic: “Thus I pray your 367 366 365 poor.very is however, record, commercial His activities. Followingin commercial interest particular a with reign ofhis Mircea the reign,Shepherd. amongWallachian princes, appreciated have seems beenparticularly that to Mircea the Shepherdsuch is gradually acradle, for Thelast inWallachia. anitem goods request decreased merchandiseof considered written to be one of the princes evidence of commercial activity was entirely Prince RadutheGreat fourinstance,letters outof used toinsureissued eighttax necessary exemption. the by For See also the request of Wallachian the Prince Vlad the Monk (1482-1496) in ibidem “(…) togo viradi molim], ako vi qetBog [naùchiti, pomozete mes] ednim Tocilescu, Bogdan, Ibidem, no. 184, 201,no. 203,no. no. 204. Ibidem,178, no. no. 183, no. 184, no. 186, 201,no. 203,no. 204,no. no.205. ú Sporadically,importantmost the Wallachian state dignitaries involved were also inactive Up to the last quarter of the sixteenth letters century, the attesting for various requests ovul ú i cu Documente si regeste, 534 Documente ğ ara Ungureasc 368 The first surviving written request for apiece for Thefirst merchandise of survivingrequest personal written sine die 367 365 Documente si regeste , no.413, issued by Gherghina, military administratorofRaduGreat(1495- the ă seem to have been issued for tax exemptions. tax for issued been have to seem , no. 207(1431). no. 103, no. no. 104, no. 136. . , no. 106. no. , ú ov. Similarly to those of their princes, dž ùbom otpostava, aako bog[ 369 Rela Presumably therequest Presumably Ġ iile , 366 no. 152 or that of Vlad that or 152 no. 370 ğă Theattemptsto rii Române dates from the ú ti cu 90 CEU eTD Collection took place on a regular basis. Due to the rather constancy of the record it is possible to trace to isit possible record the of constancy rather the to basis. Due aregular place on took Bistri with letters of exchange the reign, his during that seems It Wallachia. and Moldavia eight surviving letters. ones, as well as the constant need for skilled includingfor them.concerns dominated various requests goods private Commercial activities, craftsmen andprivate and doctorscommercial letters, his in addressed are also are issues recordedpolitical and administrative in seventy- Transylvanian are119survivingthere Although towns. addressedto documents of of Bistri town commercial Transylvanian the German towards werereoriented subjects his Moldavian political relations with the town of Bra of town the with relations political and commercial reign, his During town. commercial aTransylvanian with correspondence century. by infifteenthbe abroad began requested from such oil the writing already textiles to as and purchased. had he arms and swords the with Moldavia to return to Michael, craftsman the servant, In 1476, Stephen latter the Great. the askedthe administration of Bra from letters date reign the survivingfirstof Thetwo were only documents preserved. 18 371 from recorded reign the of Alexander L uneven. A of profusion commercial requests of eithermilitary personalor goods items is only discontinued. 372 Bogdan Bogdan, /ă pu L of from the reign extant evidence The commercial The number of letters attested from from L attested letters The number of In Moldavia, the record of written orders for foreign merchandise is scattered and is scattered formerchandise foreign orders of record written the In Moldavia, 372 Ġ ú a, possibly a, possibly because itwas staple granted rightby Hungarianthe in king 1526. , Documente, neanu is the first and only Moldavian prince who conducted aregular who commercial is conducted andonly neanu thefirst Moldavian prince Rela 371 A letter from the same reign suggests that, at least sporadically, routine goods Ġ iile ğă rii Române ù tefan cel Mare, ú ti cu Bra no. 148 (1476, Febr. 18), no. 188 (c.1500-1503, Sep.13). ú ovul ú ov discontinued. Political and commercial relations of relations commercial and Political discontinued. ov ă ú i cu pu ú ğ neanu (1552-1562, 1564-1568). Up neanu to his rule ara Ungureasc ă pu ú neanu’s reign significantly increased as increased significantly reign neanu’s ă , no. 165 (1482, June 17). ă pu ú neanu is unique for both for unique isneanu ú ov to allow ov to the prince’s 91 Ġ a CEU eTD Collection capital necessary to acquire various goods. various acquire to necessary capital Bistri documents to written sent he regularly that indicate data the motivation, of the Regardless process. the processes mighthave andconsequently eased to trade communication addedsome precision large variety large variety eitherof products, common luxury items,or such as garments, bilateral commercial connections with the town of Bistri town with the bilateral commercial connections sent backby son becausehisfatherwasdead. prince’s the his reign.was often during requested Moldavian court the at presence his as trusted, much very have to heseems whom Andrei, physician Moreover, in another letter from March 1567, Alexander asked once more for the same facilitated by the commercial interests of L of Prince interests by commercial facilitated the 378 377 28), 997no. (1559,March 31), 1001no. (1559,May 6), no. 1003 (1559,June 5), no. 1135 (1564, Oct. 20). 376 375 Aug. 29). 374 Bistri Suceava to time, 15,1564, on October samethe Andrei had from physician alreadybeen sent back presence of the physician Andrei at the Moldavian court to treat his sick eyes. In one week’sfor the 1564, Alexander 8, asked in from October letter instance, a For communication. been very good in this period, as letters sometime attests an almost weekly if not daily 373 Bistri relatively good connections between the Moldavianmaintaining and German capital or in Latin of thatcorrespondence time, regular Iassy conducting of and capable the scribes town of foreign of court princely the presenceat continuous the letter exchange, of procedure the Ibidem, 909no. (Nov.24). Ibidem, 1138no. (1564, Nov.9). selling of The especially Junepigs is often 909(1552,Nov.attested. Seeno. 920(1553, no. ibidem. 24), no. Ibidem, See also ibidem,1032 (1560, no. June 7), 1037 no. (1560, Aug.1); no.1163 (1567,Aug.20); 1164no. (1567, Iorga, Ġ a. The connections between Moldavian towns and the town of Bistri Presumably the established conditions needed for the exchange of letters were letters of exchange the for needed conditions established the Presumably Acte ú i fragmente, 1171. Ġ a to procure procure medicinea to neededwasunavailablethe inMoldavia. that Ġ a confirming sent money or, more often, fattened pigs to providemore fattened often,money the pigsto a confirmingsent or, no. 1134. 376 His requirements seem to have encompassed a ă pu ú 374 neanu. He seems to have regular had to neanu. Heseems Ġ 375 a. The possibility of written possibility a. The regular of AlreadyAndrei onMarch 16, was Ġ 377 a seem to have clocks, 378 or 373 92 CEU eTD Collection brewer. /ă accordingly and your honorback himwith guide highness.” to him gift shall my highness M.G.), note my - work his finish (to come will time the “when come churchnewly some blower inhis and that to constructed promising construct windows Moldavia. mentioned the princely demand that Antonius, significantlycontributed growth to the of Moldavian records duringwritten his time. a silversmith from Bra of the year 1560 he sent three letters to Bistri to letters he three of sent year1560 the instance, bring constantly in attest hisefforts invarious to For thespring types of craftsmen. makers demand given plaguethe that(…) 393 392 391 390 389 388 387 386 385 384 383 382 381 380 379 builders, stone in Moldavia time that At letters. in his mentioned oil, parchment, 394 Bogdan, Ibidem, 1026no. (1560, May 13). Ibidem, 1023no. (1560, March 10), no. 1025 (1560, April 6), no. 1026 (1560, May 13). Ibidem, no. 913 (1553, March 25). Ibidem, 1026no. (1560, May 13). Ibidem, 1139no. (1564, Dec.2). Ibidem, 909no. (1552,Nov. 24). Ibidem, 1127no. (1564, Aug. 21). Ibidem, no. 1023 (1560,March 10); no. 1025 (1560,Apr.6), no. 1026 (1560, May 13). Ibidem, 1051no. (1561, Apr. 7). Ibidem, Ibidem, 1041no. (1560, Oct.31). Ibidem, 1138no. (1564, Nov.9),1028 no. (1560, May 14). Ibidem, 908no. (1552), no. 1050 (1561,March 31). Ibidem, 1024no. (1560, March 24). Bogdan, pu 381 In addition to private goods, L In additionprivate goods, to ú carts, neanu, most of the craftsmen were requested for the building of churches. Rare churches. building of the for requested were most of craftsmen the neanu, 388 One of the first Moldavian letters, dating from the reign of Stephen the Great, 392 or beerbrewers or Thus, direct princely involvement in commercial or administrative activities administrative or in commercial involvement princely direct Thus, no. 1003 (1559, June 5). Rela 393 Documente 379 From the same period, the Wallachian prince, Radu the Great, asked for aglass- asked prince, Great, Raduthe Wallachian From sameperiod,the the and whichwereaskedfor repeatedly. spices Ġ 382 iile or iron, or ğă rii Române ù tefan, 383 161no. (1481,March 7). 389 steel, marble steel, ú seem to have been rare. Even unskilled workers were in great ti cu Bra ă pu mille hominum evivis sublevavit ú ovul ú neanu needed a continuous supply of neanuneeded supply acontinuous people.qualified of ú i cu 384 385 ğ and other raw materials are all commonly all are materials raw other and similarly bakers, to Ġ ara Ungureasc a asking for stone builders, fora askingstone ă 380 , no. 201. no. , However, hisneed forregular 386 394 . 390 clockmakers, Up to the reign of L ú ov, was to come to ă 391 pu together with a with together ú neanu’s letters neanu’s 387 tile 93 ú , CEU eTD Collection information. The records of of L Prince information. records The of exchange mostly oral on werebased activities commercial like justWallachia, Moldavia L ideathe that been lessfocused in onacquisitions of goods form.written Asthereis no evidencetosupport have to seems in writing, information administrative and political of exchange in the involved such princes as Ieremia Movil asIeremia such princes does notseem haveto established a pattern. After him, the commercial record is sparse. Even unum balneuminhocoppido nostro volumus facere bath in the Moldavian capital of that time, Iassy,is also recorded in another of his letters: (…) for the entire process of church erection organization. and ofchurch canonical erection entirefor the process a assisting help and neededwith them conducted regular correspondence administrative cash 1566, he From 1558 to desire tobuildachurch. urgent Lvivandtheircommunity of Orthodox in the interest strong a had have to seemed but churches, local about concerned inn proper a poor and not and have their activity seem to remainedin ofhis focus the attention he as tobuildstruggled a requests for various craftsmenimprove inhis effortto thewell-being of his subjects. Traders building with of construction the establishments.social Written often documents his record 398 397 396 July 13222), no. (1565,July 24), no. 133 (1526, Apr.23), no. 134 (1566, Aug.20). June129 (1565, 20), Apr.22),126 (1564,Sept.15), no.112 (1561, 130 (1565,no. Apr.30), no.131 (1565, no. Aug.26),106 (1558,Dec.27), no. 107 (1559,Feb.23), no. May 109 (1559,Oct.23), no.108 (1559, no. 28), no. 101 (1558July 102(1558,5), no. July (1558,6), no. 103 July (1558, 104 22), no. Aug. 25), (1558,no. 105 395 building churches. Thus, he repeatedly letters askingwrites for stonemasons andpainters. by and wasdeserted ofhismost his noblemen, changed into political and territorial ambitions theOttomans of hands atthe defeat suffered whenhe his reign years of last in the especially There are eighteen extant letters: Bogdan, letters: extant eighteen are There Ibidem, 1116no. (1564, May 29). Ibidem, 964no. (1557,July 29). Iorga, Unfortunately, the frequent Unfortunately, duringexchangecommercial letters of L the As opposedto previousthe princes, L Acte ú i fragmente, ă pu ú neanu’s letters were kept in special archival conditions, it seems that in it seems that conditions, werekeptinspecial archival letters neanu’s no. 807, no. 824, no. 833, no. 834, no. 835. no. 834, no. 833, 824, no. 807,no. no. spelunca ă , who seems to have been educated in Poland and was often in and Poland haveeducated been to seems , who for their comfort. ă pu Documente arhive biblioteci polone ú neanu indicate however, that aftermiddle that the of indicate however, the neanu ă pu ú neanu combinedin hisinterests church 396 The building of The apparently public building of an . 397 Additionally, hewasnotonly 398 , no. 100 (1558,Febr.22),, no. no. ă pu ú neanu reign 395 94 CEU eTD Collection 403 402 401 behalf of traders issued on letters administrative the Michael I (1415-1418), of reign from the already Attested from Bra local administration. between and central followedcorrespondence by internal were soon an foreignletters addressedto institutions urban of Trade-related and/or communities traders. dignitaries for social levelleast suchashigh-ranking certain state individual categories at 4.4 From the office of the prince to the registers of the merchants towns. Moldavian and Wallachian south of development the Empire, Ottoman the towards reoriented were exchanges commercial the after and, towns Wallachian and Moldavian northern of bythedecline wasoncemoreemphasized practices role of trade in the development influence. of sphere its into increasingly moved of urban Principalities Romanian medieval the institutions as well as the establishmentthe Polish of writtenand Transylvanian towns to a rather local commercedeclined. with the Ottoman Empire, towns commercial The as Transylvanian and commercial Principalities Danubian the between exchanges letter relations after the middle of the sixteenth century switched from 400 officials. regional administrations, county to and layers administration. of state between different communication 399 inlanguages. correspondence different princes andregular werecapableof adiverse century,sixteenth Moldavian conducting DRH B, vol. 1, no. 78. DRH B, vol.1, no. 40. DRH B, vol. 1, no. 183. Bogdan, Panaitescu, “Drumul comercial al Poloniei la Marea Neagr Marea la Poloniei al comercial “Drumul Panaitescu, Trade activities stimulated the use of written evidence at the institutional and Unfortunately, afterwards, especially after the second reign of Alexander L reign second of the after especially Unfortunately, afterwards, 403 Rela Early data indicate that collective as well as specific individual trade issues were issues trade individual specific as well as collective that indicate data Early Ġ iile ğă rii Române ú ov represent some of the first Wallachian instances of written ú ti cu Bra ú ovul 401 ú local custom posts, custom local i cu ğ ara Ungureasc ă în Evul Mediu,” 144. Mediu,” Evul în ă , no.2, no.12, no. 18. no. no.12, no.2, , 402 400 as well as high-ranking state high-ranking as aswell Documents were addressed were Documents ă pu ú 399 neanu, The 95 CEU eTD Collection 406 405 administrative letters was issued on behalf of Bra of behalf on wasissued letters administrative regional Wallachian first the of One dignitaries. state urban and regional of those by soon followed were letters issuers princely asthe activedocuments rolethe of on take gradually to evolved structures bythelocal power documents of reception passive level. The documents in Danubian butleadtothe production Principalities the of a local atdocuments written documents. the with familiar were officials administrative Wallachian the as well as traders individual ideadocuments thatwritten wereindeed Wallachian circulating on territory and that the reinforces fact This well. as level personal the at but institutions, state of level the at only receivedthe documentswith themselves. Thus, activities trade involved use of notdocuments, carry to wereexpected traders private that indicates demand upon and presented carried along justice private on-the-spot. or mistreatments documents written on their behalf” 404 Bra of rights the respect to them urging administration Moldavian often local central regional and structures. addressed and urban princes in Wallachia. by traders Saxon encountered mistreatments trade byparticular motivated were Others territory. Wallachian on be and metby roots to fees, established general conditions foreign detailedtraders tax trade recordingbein the conducted, activities wereto framework institutional the which trade put into writing. Certain documents were issued to inform local administrative bodies about Ibidem,190, no. no. 197, no. 199(1435). Cost Bogdan, In Moldavia too, foreign traders seem to have stimulated the use of between use the have writing of stimulated seem foreign to traders In Moldavia too, ă chescu, Moreover, foreign merchants not only stimulated the circulation of administrative of circulation the stimulated only not merchants foreign Moreover, in shallbe A specific documents thespecifying that documents) clause(recorded Rela Ġ Documente înainte de iile ğă rii Române ú ti cu Bra 404 ù tefan Mare,cel 405 ú ovul and, similarly to Wallachia, to avoid any collective any avoid to Wallachia, to similarly and, ú i cu 406 ğ no.190 „(...) smotrite nasi listy shto esmi im’ dali.” ara Ungureasc ú ov traders by Cazan traders ov ú ov merchants, “to observe the princely the observe “to merchants, ov ă , no.18 (1431). mare vornic mare (the high 96 CEU eTD Collection letter of invitation to Bra to of invitation letter 411 announce myannounce highness.” from comemy (letter, M.G.)him mybook you note country this without shalland stop revealed through indirectevidence.revealed through Forinstance, thefirst letter Moldavian produced in urban haveseem by Unfortunately, customarily to ismostlyused traders. the their existence territory. Wallachian onthe restricted extremely was when evidence written period, from early an areextant by oral oaths enforced freeby andevenbyregional governors of princes century. commissioned Letters passage fifteenth half the from of first the traders Wallachian by have the embraced been seem to wrote totheBra Dracul (1438-1446) Wallachian from instance,princes such deviceswritten provided an Vladearly For period. travel seems tohaveand been particularly trade appealing. safe by guaranteeing commissioned a letter Wallachian the princes of traders, “safe-conduct,” Western other similarto merchants, Wallachian the For identity. their attesting documents behalf for their subjects. eithertheiror own letters, on trade-related and commissioned thirteen surviving letters byWallachian dignitaries state high were also letters. were trade-related towns Wallachian the high dignitaries,state regional soon and urban followed.administrators issued by letters Similar bytheprinces. only commissioned initially merchandise were private 408 407 governor). 410 409 Tocilescu, Tocilescu, DRH B, vol.1, no. 176. Bogdan, Favier, Furthermore, “personnel” trade documents, such as registers, chirographs or receipts Persons involved in activities supposed commercial carryindividual were to For instance, six out of eight Slavonic letters issued by the urban administrations of Gold and Spices: The Rise of Commerce in the Middle Ages Middle the in Commerce of Rise The Spices: and Gold Rela 407 534 Documente 534 Documente 534 Administrative letters, trade conflict letters or various requests for public for or various requests letters or conflict trade letters, Administrative Ġ iile ğă rii Române ú ov traders. , No.107. Governor, No.107. of WallachianPrincethe Aldea (1431-1433), Albul issued a , no. 457. no. , 410 Again, foreign practices of document use as an identity device ú ti cu Bra ú ú 411 ov administration that he requested that “whoever he that that administration requested would ov ovul ú i cu ğ ara Ungureasc 408 Furthermore, forty-five out of one hundred , , 79. 409 ă , no. 58. , no. According indirectevidence, to 97 CEU eTD Collection 416 415 414 Mircea Ciobanul. Mircea had a high social status as he was recorded as being the son-in- law of the Wallachian prince, strongly suggest that he belonged to the Wallachian sphere of influence. It seems that Radu seal and an seal alleged an and intact and unharmed under the same seals they had been sealed” was endorsed by the Radu’s 413 5. that the “cattle of his father given to aBistri For instance, the receipt commissioned or issued by Radu, son of Socol, Walah, confirming skills. literary active having activities commercial in the involved subjects Wallachian to point the Wallachian or Moldavian origins of the producer of the document. Other receipts however personally or by a hired scribe. The Romanian words used in the Slavonic text point only to merchants. Wallachian of the request may that languageof The Slavonic papersweredrawn-up atthe the indicate documents the quantity of wool, signed for by Dumitru and Voicu from Râmnic with traders from Bra of agreat and acquisition selling for the written agreements two are there been havepreserved repeatedly. recorded inkand of paper was asacquisition tothe traders familiar quite were activities written for the princely court or for the prince’s private needs was recorded. It reinforces the idea that itmight have that agentasoften indicates by been goods acquisition trade of kept a prince’s registersfrom arepreserved,dated the firstone Its content trade of instances 1508. surviving municipal din Moldova” (The earliest urban document from Moldavia) from document urban earliest (The Moldova” din municipal 412 inhabitant of the Moldavian town of Baia. 1421 already mentions a personnel commercial register kept by Niclos Hecht, aGerman Ibidem). Iorga, Tocilescu, Bogdan, Akta Grodzkie i Ziemskie Personal Personal orchirographs receipts seldom survive.few Among the such documents that Acte Rela 534 Documente, 534 ú i fragmente, Ġ iile 416 ğă rii Române Other data testify Wallachian issued that traders in receipts various manu propria 413 , vol.IV, 108-9 (Lemberg, 1873); apud Petre Panaitescu “Cel maivechiu act no. 984 (1558, May 2). no. 460, no. 461 (Feb. 14, no year date). year no 14, (Feb. 461 no. 460, no. ú ti cuBra signature. ú 414 ovul It is unclear though, if the text was drawn-up ú 412 i cu Ġ 415 However, only from the sixteenth century a few a citizen, Zewch Lenart were returned to him ğ His Christian name and the affiliation ara Ungureasc Revista Istorica ă , N o. 205. 9.1-3(1923): 183-6, 184- ú ov. 98 CEU eTD Collection 420 endorse in hadendorse whatbeenwriting agreed upon. administrative authorities inBra authorities administrative from Sibiu to Bra to Sibiu from notified in writing the Bra 419 418 417 (1420-1424, II1427-1431). II Dan privileges from trade of their confirmation received who awritten traders Wallachian of local community thefirst was Tragoviste from merchants of community the instance, it. For employing of andcapable of word written the have importance the aware of been to seem merchants Wallachian of communities large The activities. commercial their during etveluto petunt. predicta kaftan vigesimatoresvendereIs autemnepos venderenequivit, autemnunca debeat. noster telonium etexmiseramus, unam peciamveluti ut kaftan videlicet Opprevocatum,unum ex sorore, unsold: remained his merchandise that the fact despite goods, pay akaftan fees for heother custom factand hadbeenaskedto the complaining that about Sibiuinstance,to for wrote ChancellorTudor, inactivities. involved commercial often was elite political the that notion the support also letters conflict of evidence The activities. in commercial involved persons and elite political Wallachian the between relationship strong documents. of commercial commissioners of the two receipts and the relation to Socol might indicate a kinship relation between the two ranking dignitaries among whom a Ioan Ban, son of Socol was mentioned. Forinstance,languages. aLatin was commissionedreceipt by Wallachian high- several Tocilescu, Bogdan, Ibidem, 353no. (1509,June 14). Ibidem, 938no. (1554,August, 14). It seems, however, that it was not only the political elite employ personnel documents personnel employ elite itonly political the was not that however, seems, It The high social status of certain commissioners of written documents points to the Rela 534 Documente, n Ġ iile ğă ú ov. They sent a written document with their trading conditions to the to conditions trading their with document written a sent They ov. rii Române ú o. 450 (undated). ov administration about their decision changeto their trading place 419 ú ti cuBra Furthermore, the same urban community of urbancommunity Târgovi same Furthermore, the of 418 ú ov and asked in return a similar document that would that a similardocument inreturn asked and ov ú ovul ú i cu ğ 420 ara Ungureasc ă , no. 13(1420-1424). Per quemdam nepotem nostrum Per quemdam 417 The close dates ú te traders te 99 CEU eTD Collection 423 422 although “he could not show any receipt to prove that Costea was in debt;” Besides wasin taken the Costea Besides debt;” prove that to show anyreceipt not “hecould although merchant, the Transylvanian officials took from his “children” ten times the worth of the loan Wallachian by owned the account debt a on that The prince specified Costea. trader, Wallachian a of nemojni”) I (“mali children” small “the against Bergner) (jupan officials Wallachian prince, Moise Vod 421 Ro histhat (presumably had books been receipts) by by forceretained citizen,their Cristea governor of Vlad the Monk, Dragomir Udrishte, also complained to the Bra itput hand backinhis sincethereisno highness from thatyourithim.” rule can take to return taken the documents: “(…) and receiptthat you have takenfrom my man you shall urged theBra Great instance, Raduthe For away aconflict. during be taken to that they firstthings the are among indicate high valuetheevidence enjoyedas a have to seem transactions commercial attesting documents written The archives. personnel They individualemployed attestingreceipts their trade transactions oreven leftbehind merchants. byWallachian documents trade useof andreconfirmsthe primary documents usefulness. their lost documents after discharge intentional with coupled been have might destruction account is made even worse by their limited period of usefulness. Presumably, their accidental of personnel general Thelowsurvival and various letters calamities. or merchants’ of rate land lastingthe charters, value of iswhich well occurred repeatedlyattested, thecourse during “misfortunes”Various may havehindered theirpreservation. destruction Eventhe of private survival. of rate low a have documents commercial personnel that statement general the Ibidem, no. 236. Bogdan, Britnell, ú ul. 423 However, the indirect evidence supports the evidence found scattered the within evidence the supports evidence indirect However, the The number of surviving Wallachian and Moldavian andreceipts registers reconfirms The existence of istraders’ personnel archives broughtupin issueda letter bythe Pragmatic Literacy, Rela 421 Ġ iile ğă rii Române 15. ú ti cu Bra ă (1518-20). He complained (1518-20). an injustice about of Bra ú ovul ú i cu ğ ara Ungureasc ă , no. 185. no. ú ov urban administration ov ú ov administration ú ov ov town 422 The 100 CEU eTD Collection 426 1558. from any Moldavian town. Mainly indirect records, such as foreign accountor Moldavian books from such as Mainlyindirect records, any urban town. of Suceava. town postponementof processin a dispute hisPoland given in ongoingprocess Moldavian the for a a Greek asking from Suceava merchant Archive to belonging in thePolish State the written word such as Greeks or Armenian,use more to activitiespresumably offoreign of attestinggroups, trade ethnic accustomed the are very sporadic. A single letter Even documents period. early the exception of inMoldavia,of with practices written is preserved wasdocuments in incipient amongan stage Wallachian traders. “real” sourceperiod ofof their information. employmentsymbolic functioned device. more as This Ita symbolmighthave as functioned seem to written the document that suggest his by only receipts providing andbefact proofthat, of similarlymayownership also thanto land as a indicatecharters, request toshow them backloans) by wasexpected (while claiming tradeWallachian the prince. receiptsthat duringthe asthe nonetheless, seem havebeen extensively to used receipts Commercial widespread. circulationthe early was practice the that indicates archive personnel single of a existence the what extent of written 425 424 loans.” his men sent and my note) (Wallachia, country myhighness’ withfrom and Hungary from towns other and those receipts loans Costea’ inBuda which attested Costea’s Bergnerreceipts all “appropriated of goods, everywhere and gathered all his (Costea’s my note M.G.) Bogdan, Iorga, Tocilescu, 424 Accordingdirect documentsin hadlesserevidence, to impact trade development the The fact that Bergner and hismen were apparently able togather all of Costea’s loans clearis not it to Unfortunately, Costea’s status. social indication is noabout There Acte Documente arhive biblioteci polone 534 Documente, 534 ú i fragmente, 426 Unfortunately, no direct record of trade related disputes are preserved no. 984(1556, May document2), The wasup drawn inHungarian, no. 315. no. no. 230 (1597, Dec 8). 425 anno domini 101 CEU eTD Collection 432 431 comerciale ale 430 noastre cu Lembergul, as evidence. in Polish a receipt issuing of was capable back,money Nicoara his Receiving justice. princely debtorthatunless the threatened receivenot hehis did back, hewouldpayment appeal to of residence for florins,lent 1130polish to thePolish apparently Afterwards, he subject. town his in a chirograph issued have to seems Nicoara Schoczavia. from Vallachus Theklitz andNicora betweenAichinger Sebald overadispute casearose acivil between 1564-6, during period the indicates that book from a Lviv account arecord instance, For activities. Moldavian traders; they haveseem to frequentlyused during documents their commercial by the wereassimilated practices written that indicates reference Theindirect books. 429 428 427 my highness shall keep it until my merchandise shall arrive in my hand.” demanded the town official to “send abook (receipt, my note M.G.) with the town seal so that he Consequently, endorsement. written without free go him letting avoided jewelry, of piece aBra honesty of the about for instance,uncertain 1521), (1512- Basarab Neagoe Prince Wallachian The letters. commercial Wallachian in especially mentioned ofare repeatedly in formalagreements support for documents reciprocal requests were circulating as of inproof ownership both andengagement Moldavia andWallachia. The transactions. commercial conflictstrade testify useof the about written documents by during Moldavian traders their from from Suceava, Moldavian ethnic traders such as Nicolae Brânza from the town of Siret, Bogdan, Iorga, In1589, Petrus Wallachus was registered as having had a dispute witha citizen from Lemberg. See ThodorWallachus had alegal disputewithGavril ByalerCracow. in See Ibidem,30. no. Iorga, Writing was used as a device of public reprobation and control. Two Wallachian control. Two and reprobation of public as adevice Writingwas used Despite the sparse primary record, indirect evidence indicates that letters andreceipts letters that indicates indirectevidence record, primary thesparse Despite Rela Rela Documente Ġ Ġ iile comerciale ale iile comerciale ale 431 ğ erilor erilor noastre cu Lembergul, 429 Unfortunately, nooriginal documenta Moldavian belonging to survives. trader or Petrus Wallachus from Iassy no. 34. no. ú i regeste, 427 Especially after the turn of the sixteenth century, the activities of activities the century, sixteenth of the turn the after Especially ğ ğ no.268. erilor noastre Lembergul,cu erilor noastre Lembergul,cu no. 91. no. 430 have come to light in the Lviv account no. 41-42. no . ú 24, no. 25, no. 27, no. 28. no. 27, no. 25, no. 24, ov craftsmen employed to produce a employed craftsmen to ov Rela Ġ iile comerciale ale 428 432 Thodor Wallachus Rela ğ erilor Ġ 102 iile CEU eTD Collection 434 Wallachia. milieus various hadanimpact trade on introduction the in of practices Moldavia and written that demonstrate related documents trade Thus, transactions. in employed trade receipts mentioned inWallachia and a Turkish word inhave Moldavia. often to employed form been seems chirographs of in Western usereceipts southerninfluence. The specific the of Wallachia astronger enjoyed principality was morebyWestern influenced and structures cultural while traditions, Moldavian the trade-related typesdocumentsAs with other showthat documents, of activities. in commercial employed documents of denominations different the by witnessed differentforeign influences on Wallachianthe and Moldavian documentsuse trade of is of impact The laymen. of community restricted very a among if even territory, Wallachian important most the of activities were one marginal, trade very was culture written and developed foreign yetfully not chancery were state the institutions including when state state, of Wallachian the factors development of written culture isself-evident, especially in Wallachia. During anearly period that contributed to the circulationsoulless (…) otherwise theirnames would nothave been written on the town gate (…).” of written documents on 433 andB Coman Wallachian namessubjects, his wasinformed Vlad the theMonkprince, (1482-1496), that of The gate. town the on wrongdoers the of names the displayed administration urban Sibiu century, fifteenth the During inTransylvania. bysuchthe asituation wereaffected traders Iorga, Bogdan, The impact of commercial activities and foreign practices on the spread and spread the on practices foreign and activities commercial of impact The Acte Rela ú i fragmente ă Ġ iile rbat were written on gate. the written were rbat ğă rii Române , no. 1102. ú ti cu Bra ú ovul ú i cu hoget Vlad reacts by writing that they were “unfair and ğ ara Ungureasc * was customarily employed for the common ă , no. 154 (c.1482). 434 They were not were They 433 103 CEU eTD Collection 435 by lackthe of any institutional form of in archiving two Danubianthe Principalities. More to the end of the sixteenth century. Moldavian and Wallachian towns and the mostimportant state officials issued documents up Wallachian Principality.institutions is similarly low asonly 121 such letters survive from Moldavia and 127 from the Moreover, the survivingadministrative produced by and letters political Moldavian and Wallachian urban and regional record indicates from Wallachia areninety-nine. princes’ chancery,there while that only a couple the outside from produced Moldavia, charters There areninety-five century. sixteenth the of the Wallachian Moldavianor institutions, noblemen villagersand remained low uptotheend of mainly from the last two decades of the sixteenth century. reignthe of whileinVlad theMonk (1482-1495), Moldavia thesurviving evidencedates Afuma with foreign institutions was sparse and only begins emerge to from reignthe of Radu from correspondence survivingthe (1400-1431).InWallachia,urban to Good evidence, according a foreign institution during was produced the reign Moldavianthe of AlexanderPrince the with for communication intended letter urban first the where towns in Moldavian the recorded central state chancery was almost the only producer of written documents. Few exceptions are See mainly DRH B, vol. no. 7, no. 8, no. 11; forMoldavia DIR A, vol. 3 and 4. (pragmatic) documents involvement of the clerical milieu in the producing of The documents. of issuers as offices local and regional Chapter 5. Diversification of documents’ producers: urban, Ġ In the Danubian principalities, up to the second half of the sixteenth century, the century, sixteenth the of half second the to up principalities, Danubian the In The low number of survivingthe documents might have been significantly influenced by letters produced internal and The number of documents, charters foreign extant i Inregionalcontrast, (1522-29). land surviveand urban in charters from Wallachia 435 The number of commercial, of number The 104 CEU eTD Collection Târguri sau ora Târguri Giur See successively. representatives asingle appoint to preferred attested, are inhabitants Romanian and the Romanianthe Principalities), 141, 143); Other ethnically in mixedvillages towns such as Bac (Medieval Române” Prinicipatele în medievale “Comunele See Panaitescu, Camenita. and Lemberg 439 secolul al X-lea pîn to the sixteenth centuries) ( Bucharest: Editura Principalities through Poland and Galicia. See Constantin Giur SeeConstantin Galicia. and Poland through Principalities until the creation later of the county administrations. They were called 437 (Bucharest: Editura Academiei, 1994), 128. 438 Române,” 131. switched gradually from military to civil duties. See Panaitescu, “Comunele medievale în PrinicipateleMoldavia, they were replaced or doubled by juridical, fiscal, and during the early period, military authority. Before the middle of the sixteenthcentury in to their own law as for instance, the Armenian population in lawto instance,population Armenian Suceava. their own asfor the werealso local groups haveethnic entitled andbe their to judgedadministrator own according was electedevery year inhabitants. by town the as early Moldavian Wallachianand towns were organized accordingMagdeburg tolaw, and Principalities) In Principalities) 436 princes. the of properties werethe towns embodying two parallel institutions. institutions with foreign offices urban andWallachian oftheMoldavian Communication writingoffices: 5.1 Urban princely chancery. the outside communication written of implementation the stimulated that factors main the institutions and individuals private urban, atthe regional villageand level. Iwill show to try may number oncethe today produced. attested reflectnot of documents local of number low and the Consequently, valuable. documents important asless perceived being as in time, lost been have to likely more are they chancery, prince’s the by confirmation local levels subsequent requiredthe urban, regional and at issued asthe charters than that, Giur They are the oldest representatives of the central power locally, the supreme instances in this particular region particular this in instances supreme the locally, power central the of representatives oldest the are They It was called See Petre P. Panaitescu, “Comunele medievale în Prinicipatele Române” (Medieval villages in the Romanian the in villages (Medieval Române” Prinicipatele în medievale “Comunele P.Panaitescu, SeePetre ă scu, The urban administration of Moldavian and Wallachian towns was very similar, In the following, I will trace the gradual involvement of written practices by state Târguri sau ora ú ù e, Interpret oltuz from the German Schultheiss orVoit (Vogt); they reached the medieval Romanian 128. ă lamijlocul secolului al XVI-lea ă ri Române ú e , 127. The custom was influenced by the practices from the Polish cities of cities Polish the from practices by the influenced was custom The , 127. ú ti. Studii de istorie economic 436 ureadnici, One represented the authority of the prince as the ù tiin 437 The second urban administration was autonomous Ġ ific (Burgs or towns and Moldavian fortresses from the tenth the from fortresses Moldavian and towns or (Burgs county governors with the same status as their functions ă 438 si Enciclopedic In ethnicallythe mixed cities, old andlarge ă scu, ăú Târguri sau ora i social vornic de oras ă , 1967),, 125-6. ă , ed: Stefan S. Gorovei et all ă 439 u or Hu ú (city governors) and had e Theurban ú i cet ú i where Hungarian ăĠ i moldovene din ă scu, 105 CEU eTD Collection 443 442 441 inhabitedwere by German a strong engagedin community from that commercial activities an in Moldavia towns northern The Iassy. of town southern the to moved was capital Moldavian Alexandru Lapusneanu(1552-1561,II 1564-1568) when; for commercial reasons, the bishopric from 1413. Later on, Baia is recorded as being the centre of the Catholic community in Moldavia. It had a 440 1384 onbehalf of survivingproduced document on Moldavianthe territory was a princelyfrom endowment to first the survivingfrom document Moldavian the principality. the Moldavian principality. The Franciscan monastery from Baia is attested from 1345, prior Moldavian northern towns during the early period. The town of Baia was the first capital of Moldavian letters confirm the religious, economical and political importance of these two issuedletters, were twenty-three bytheir Thefirstadministrations. surviving urban correspondence with foreign institutions. Out of twenty-nine surviving Moldavian urban Moldavian towns, Baia and Suceava, that maintained a relatively continuous written TheMoldavianevidence. 5.1.1 princely chancery. Moldavian urban institutions are attested as the first issuers of written documents outside the foundations. state territory of the Danubian principalities and, according to some historians, even preceded the on the attested institutions be the oldest to areconsidered ofcertain towns administration For more information about this see Giur see this about information more For DRH A, vol. 1, no. 1. For more information about this see ibidem, Giur ă scu, The town of Suceava succeeded Baia as Moldavian capital up to thereign of capital up to asMoldavian ofBaia Suceava succeeded The town The surviving evidence from urban documents indicates that it was mainly two Târguri sau ora 440 fratres predicatores fratres They possessed their own chancellery, seals, and town archives. 443 ú e , 132. ă scu, at the request of of princess. a MoldavianCatholic request atthe 186. Târguri sau ora sau Târguri ú e , 186. 441 Moreover, the first 442 106 CEU eTD Collection 449 448 184-5. Moldova,” din municipal 447 446 the German language for written communication was determined by the fact that itby was fact that wasdetermined forthe written communication Germanlanguage the the mostly of towns by Baia andSuceavawerepopulated Germans. issue him a confirmation of his study. a letter of confirmation about the status of his parents, without which his teachers refused to plead for apupil from Bistri in 1472. The German urban official Rymer addressed Jerig Eyben, ajudge from Bistri engagedwho were commercial inbroad activities. of such communicationwritten by were produced the Germaninhabitants in Moldavian towns kept by Niclos Hecht. merchant’s testimony, the urban administration brought in the personnel commercial register Lviv administrationtown debtthe owed to him by amerchantfrom Lviv. Tosupportthe the to left he that will last in his specified activities, in commercial involved was who Hecht, urban administration informed Lviv town officials that a German inhabitant of Baia, Niclos based on the names within the documents, mainly on behalf of German ethnic groups. Romanian. SeeChivu, Romanian. 445 444 of Baia and eight documents from Suceava. Most of them were written in German, by administration produced town the letters fifteen are there preserved sixteenth century of the early period. Giur Iorga, See, for instance, Iorga, instance, for See, Asingle late letter produced by the joint Armenianand Moldavian administration was issued invernacular Ibidem,189. Akta Grodzkie i Ziemskie ă scu, The German language of the documents made Romanian historians to consider that to historians made Romanian documents languageof the The German The earliest document surviving from The earliest documentsurviving from letter wasan Suceava produced administrative The first urban letter was produced inadministrative Baiain 1421. Officials inthe The surviving documents from Baia orfrom Suceava are notnumerous. Up to the end Acte Târguri sau ora ú 444 i scrisori i Documente , no. 134. no. , 447 Acte , IV, p.108-9 (Lemberg, 1873); apud Petre Panaitescu “Cel mai vechiu act ú e The surviving evidence, therefore, indicates that the first instances , 189. ú i scrisori, Ġ a, who had studied the tanner’s trade in Suceava and who needed ú i însemn no.203 (1481,Apr. 10). ă 448 ri române ú ti din secolul al XVI-lea, 449 no. 97. no. Possibly, the choice of 445 and, 446 Ġ a, to 107 CEU eTD Collection 452 Vaslui’s letter from 1437 to the second half of fifteenththe century and dated it between1450 and 1500.Cost contrast, In respectively. 1437 and 1434 to century, fifteenth of the half 451 to Dr. Anna Adamska forthis material. Ruthenian Towns,” (unpublished paper delivered at the Leeds MedievalCongress, July 2008), 4.I am thankful 450 Baia issuedat documents the of The characteristics there. training their been received have might at least or Transylvanian, probably most origin, foreign of been have may personnel As during period, were this Germandocuments issued only at the urban level, writing the during thefifteenth century, scribes professional wereactivein Moldavian urban offices. atthe urbanlevel.issuing documents indicates and that the Moldavian as ethnic group well as foreign were involvedgroups in were available at the town level in Moldavia to a greater extent than the surviving evidence attestation of documents,the from 1434and1437, around inhabiting Southern Moldavian towns were actually Moldavian. The relatively early majority of people the testify Bogdan, that to in issued and,according Slavonic letters the southern Moldavian towns of Byrlad and Vaslui. They are the only urban Moldavian citizens. private the inhabitants of the town as it seems that the first documents were issued on behalf of foreign urban the practices, administration of for Baia andSuceavaprovidedfacilities writing of imitation in Possibly, towns. Moldavian of inhabitants the by correspondence written activehave into useof been to translated appear written practices, to more accustomed apparently in Transylvania, towns Saxon the with relations administrative and commercial The abroad. communities mother-tongue their with relations close had principality territory inhabitingMoldavian German serve asatestimony Moldavian the groups that ethnic in language asarecord area. the credited Doc. 194, POB, Cluj State Archives. See also Doc. 243, POB, Cluj State Archives. See Bogdan, Red Medieval Late Usein Language and Communities, Ethnic Commune, “Urban Janeczek, Andrej The format and style of the Moldavian letters issued from Baia and Suceava show that, preservedfrom aretwo letters there surviving Moldavian Among earliest the Documentele lui ù tefan celMare 450 , 10. The letters are undated. Bogdan dated them to the first the to them dated Bogdan undated. are letters The 10. , Thefirstsurviving produced documents on 451 suggests writing that facilities ă chescu changed the date of date the changed chescu 108 452 CEU eTD Collection 460 459 (1592, Aug.6), no. 1314 (1592, Dec.14), no. 1350 (1595, Sept.12), 1356no. (1595,Oct.28). 458 century. 457 State Archives (1527, Feb 26). 30). Iorga, 456 During the last decade of the sixteenth century, three German documents were issued by the Voievod when a business letter was addressed by two burgers from Suceava to the town of Bistri there are seven other letters extant. letters other seven are there 1595 up to sothat had have arevival to seem 1570, when documents the Baia upto disappear suggests a regular existence of written facilities at the disposal of the town population. Bistri to political letters two sent official, atown Kirschner, Nicolae letters. inurban addressed for the local German community. Only by the end of the century do political issues start being continuedbetradition. usedin to Letters administrative resolution the issues of narrow rather Suceava are attested. Despite the low number the Despite ofsurviving documents, Suceava areattested. 1527), Stephen Young(1517- of the Voivod the theendof reign the isto sparse.Up record the active in the urban chancery of Baia. However, it is unclear if their positions were stable since were scribes numberof increased an bycentury already fifteenth of the seems end the that 455 454 453 play. at were conventions A wereenclosed andsealed.number onthepage,wayof different letters positioning the text the in, written were texts script the documents, of presentation the in continuity no is that duringindicate fifteenth the a uniformcentury was notyetestablished.tradition Iorga, Ibidem, no. 1350 (1595,Sept.12), no. 1356 (1595, Oct.28). Iorga, sixteenth of the quarter first the in Suceava from 4 and of Baia administration by the issued 6letters are There Cost Document 492 (605), POB, CSA (1514, Feb 28); Cost Doc. 194, POB, Cluj State Archives. See also Doc. 243, POB, Cluj State Archives. Iorga, Ġ a to givea to for anaccount theunstable Moldavian political situation. ă 455 , 120no. (1526,July 15) chescu, Similarly, urban the from evidence Suceava records a hiatus in up letters to 1562, After the first quarter of the sixteenth century, the record is very uneven. Letters from Letters uneven. isvery record the century, sixteenth of the quarter first After the Acte Acte Acte Acte Acte eight letters written by the urban administration of Baia Acte si Scrisori, Acte ú ú i scrisori ú i scrisori i i scrisori, n i scrisori, Documente moldovene , 1065no. (1562,March 24). , no. 1192 (1570, June 8), 1195no. (1570, Nov.6),1223 no. (1574, Aug.15), no. 1311 o. 135,o. no. 136(around 1472). no. 535 (1527, March 12); no. 239 (1502, June 20); document no. 843,POB, Cluj 454 ; d ocument no. 841 (958),POB, Cluj State Archives (1527, Febr.11). Provided that the close dates of the documents are certain, it ú ti de la Bogdan Voievod 458 However,type the of the letters point toacontinuity of ă chescu, , no. 77 (1510, May 30 ); no. 83 (1514,March Documente moldovene 456 and four letters from letters four and 459 457 ú ti de la their continuity their ù tef ă 453 ni Ġ There Ġă a. 460 109 CEU eTD Collection Moldavia and Wallachia with the same name of Câmpulung. 466 Tocilescu, 465 464 463 462 letter is preservedsingle A data. extant the on based citizens from urban of behalf on thedocuments Moldaviancommissioned ever town of Campulung. communication. where the year was almost always omitted in the letters intended for regular in letters, setSlavonic conventions the the werefollowing letters of vernacular the producers precise dating, with only dateofmonththe and day being may recorded, indicate thethat parish priest came to play a more significant role in the production of documents. The lack of language, the asa recording vernacular with of acceptance the the that indicate witnesses the scribe of the letter was not mentioned, but the several priests recorded as having been among The point the production. scribes which novelty todocument andthe practices of untrained by such as aletter of letters Campulung Gheorghe vernacular language(s) stimulated of record the use of at writing urbanthe level. The early surviving movement was feltinitially at the urban level. Presumably, the accreditation of vernacular as the first letters were produced in vernacular Romanian may indicate that the Reformation asNeam such towns in asin issues Suceava tobeaddressedBaia, political werebeginning urbanlevel. atthe century); See also Iorga, See also century); know it comes from the end of the sixteenth century; no. 1454 (no date, dated by Iorga at the end of the sixteenth461 from citizens Bistri assuredthe Suceava continued producedocuments up to to theend of sixteenththe century. German this administration that indicates which of Suceava administration urban German Iorga, Ibidem, No. 1458. Ibidem, no.1458. Iorga, Ibidem, no. 1335 (1594, June 22), 1453no. (Apr 28). lastThe document does not record yearthe although we State State officialsfrom Moldavian representing towns the authority princeof hardly the In the lastyears of the sixteenth century, other urban administrations of Moldavian Acte relative la R Acte Acte 534 documente, ú i scrisori 465 Ġ , 1457.no. 462 Acte relative la R ă zboaiele and Cotnari no. 527 (undated; second half of the sixteenth century). There are two towns in ú i Cuceririle lui Mihai Viteazul, ă 463 zboaiele are attested as producers of documents. The fact that Ġ a that the political situation indicating that was stable situation political the a that ú i Cuceririle lui Mihai Viteazul vol. 12, no. 471 (1600). 471 no. 12, vol. 464 466 indicate unsettled written unsettled indicate The letter was commissioned was letter The 461 , vol.12,, no. 471 (1600). The lastletter from 110 CEU eTD Collection 470 469 Cost addressed to his brother at Bra Negril Moldavian urban offices for their foreign correspondence. Only certain names such as that up to the middle of the sixteenth century,it was mostly German ethnic groups who used level administration. practices at the of central recent written also testify to Slavonic. the style details However, andrecorded and areatypical institutional letters may for me eating.” for backto them give and Pintea from Sângeorz at that I shall not be so deprived without having what and how toeat. Ihave two packs of cheese beg for God’s name togive meback some ofmy goods,how much shallGod youguide so earth,I thegreennessof majesty, Iweepto beg“Andso Iweepand your behind:had left 468 467 business. commercial mainly addressed survive that letters Wallachian twelve the as activities commercial by stimulated 5.1.2 The urban evidencefrom Wallachia record. of Moldavian ethnic only be group began vernacular acceptedasalanguage Romanian to when while trade. mistreatment conducting supplicated the urban administration of the town of Bistri refugee The(Câmpulung), Moldavia. Dolgopole of country andthewhole(governor) Bistri from a refugee Harbuz, apparently by Nichita See Bogdan, Iorga, Document 332,POB, ClujState Archives, Catalog number 439. Iorga, Tocilescu, ă chescu, ă The surviving Wallachian is urban record and very havepoor seems been to greatly suggest that members suggestthat of Moldavian the used ethnic urbanthe group offices toresolve The study of the names on whose behalf the urban documents were issued indicate Acte 469 534 documente ú Documente moldovene i scrisori i Documente si regeste , no. 1457, no. 1458 (c.1600) , 527no. (undated; second half of sixteenththe century). 470 ú , no. 225 (1524). A letter issued by a German craftsman from from issued A Târgovi byaGerman letter craftsman ti de la ú ov, indicates that the German speaking community was 468 ù tef Urban offices were used to a greater extent by the ă ni Ġă Voievod , no. 120 (1526, July 15). Ġ a, and confirmed byDan confirmed a, and Ġ a to senda to him some of the wealth he Acte Acte 467 ú The letter was produced in i scrisori i , no. 239. See also ureadnic ú te andte 111 CEU eTD Collection by the urban administration of Târgovi 479 478 Documente 477 române din Sibiu (1470-1653),” no.11 (c.1500)). Br (1524) – this document is onlythe surviving letter with apoliticalcharacter), Târg of the commercial towns of Râmnic (Tocilescu, 476 475 (c.1500). political situation inthe situation area. political Bra inform to meant was letter The Romanian. in vernacular produced letter first of the author as the historiography Romanian is to the known Dolgopolie” Neac merchant Wallachian name the of the as residence, of at their places butalso chancery prince’s the in only not affairs commercial their resolve could merchants Wallachian that indicates also It towns. Wallachian certain of diversity religious and ethnic the to testifies and administrator 474 473 472 the same town of Câmpulung, trade letterWallachianmerchant, issued Neac behalf trade in a on Slavonic of Germans wereMoldavia, in as well as in Wallachia that amongindicates solicitors, the of and administration the first communities accustomed to the written culture. Later on, a 471 skills. literary active capable of employing for scribes writing theirpersonal letters. They may haveeven possessed Romanian; instance,for wereissued in fourlanguages: German, variety the of employed languages. The four surviving from letters of town the Câmpulung, Tocilescu, Tocilescu Iorga, ă The remaining eight Slavonic Wallachian urban letters were issued in the first half of the sixteenth century out century sixteenth ofthe half first the in issued were letters urban Wallachian Slavonic eight remaining The Tocilescu, Dragomir, “Documente nou Ibidem, no. 568, (1528, Dec.22). Ibidem, no. 503 (1524, Feb.11). Iorga, ila (i bidem The first attested document in document German, attested The first The few Wallachian urban letters that have come down to us are peculiar mainly for us arepeculiar havedown to that come letters urban few Wallachian The Acte Acte ú , 534documente i regeste, 475 534 Documente, 534 Documente, 534 , 452no. (1533)), no.453 (c. 15th-16 ú ú i scrisori i i scrisori i the latter the one beingfirstsurviving the produced in document Romanian. ú u indicates that he was born or resided in the town of “Neacsu in residedheof Câmpulung. town or wasborn the indicates that u no 186. no 471 , no. 503,(1524, Febr. 11). , no. 690 (1534, May 24). , no.455; the letter undated, is Bogdan dateditbetween 1521-1545. See Bogdan, no. 456. The letterwas dated by Ioan Bogdan to 1521. no. 456. The commercial activities of Neac ă privitoare la rela 479 ú 478 The fact that the first vernacular Romanian letter was letter Romanian vernacular first the Thefactthat te. See Ioan Bogdan, ed. appears next to the Wallachian name of the town 534 Documente th Ġ iile centuries)) and Arge and centuries)) ğă rii Române 477 next toGerman names of the urban , no. 457. (1506)), Târgovi 472 Documente Latin, ú ti cu Sibiul însecolii XV si XVI,” no.67 ú (See Panaitescu, “Documente slavo- “Documente Panaitescu, (See ú u areattested also in aletterissued 473 Slavonic, ú i regeste privitoare larela ú or (i ú ov officials about the about officials ov bidem ú u of in Dolgopolieu of ú te ( 474 , no. 454 (1530)), Ibidem, and vernacular no.451 476 Ġ 112 iile CEU eTD Collection 482 481 480 history history of Romanians),the vol.2 (Bucharest: Editura Ministerului de Instruc thirteen thirteen issuedcharters bytheMoldavian administrationsurban of of towns the Suceava, mainly incentury. decades sixteenth lasttwo the the of sparse andconcentrated very is level urban the at charters of production the concerning evidence towns, Moldavian charters of land producers as institutions urban andMoldavian 5.2 Wallachian activities. commercial dynamic with communities, religious multi and in multiethnic attested was milieu literate urban early an in Moldavia as well as Wallachia known as an important and onthe most livelysituated routes was theresearchedperiod commercial during the of place for collectingwas It Wallachia. in community of astheresidence Franciscan the is attested Moldavia staple right taxes. Thus, I can conclude that(Câmpulung) andisdatedtoa 1330.time to prior in official, atown mentioned a tombstone on recorded urbanIorga, in officials operated town tostatethe foundation.prior from Aninscription 1330 ğă Târgovi time that of capital Wallachian the to similarly state, Wallachian level. institutional reached it before business commercial their for used was Romanian vernacular that and skills literary actual possessed merchants Wallachian by ideacertain involvedthe inproduced activities supports a person that commercial vernacular was in issued Romanian letter Wallachian thefirst factthat The various languages. community,involved incommercial activities and capable of written producing documents in in produced locality same toamulti-ethnicCâmpulung points of the multi-lingual and Thefirst extant urbancharter was issued in1580 (DIR A,vol.3, no. 184). Iorga, Nicole Iorga, ed. Iorga, Nicole rii Rumâne Despite a relatively early exchange of written communication specific for certain for specific communication written of exchange early relatively a Despite Târgovi The town of Câmpulung and its officials are attested prior to the foundation of the Studii ú ti cu Bra ú i documente ú te was inhabited by a German-speaking community, and similarly to Baia wasinhabitedto in community, similarly te and bya German-speaking Studii ú ovul ú i documente cu privire la Istoria Românilor. ( , vol.2, 273. ú i Ungariai , no. 187. The editor dated the letter tobetween1530 and 1545. 481 Studies documentsand concerning the Laurentius deLongoCampo Ġ ie, 1903), 273. ú te. 480 According to 482 Only 113 CEU eTD Collection from the town of Râmnic, The areextant. firstWallachian documents survivefrom documents capital the Târgovi only three period, early from this Yet, century. sixteenth the decades of first from the such offices as Neam Wallachian Wallachian and Moldavian gainedin andtowns importance emergedasthe new capitals of Panaitescu, with the reorientation of the main trade towards the Ottoman Empire, the southern to According towns. southern to northern from activities trade of re-orientation the with may becorrelated Bucharest of urbanchancery the of The activity names. scribes’ several only in the Bucharest urban office that amore regular activity is recorded by the attestation of documents issued by the administration of issueddocuments by administration the Baia of other three least at of existence the suggests evidence Indirect charters. three preserved arethere letters, foreign of commissioner active most the Baia, from Only office. place and documents. atproduced urbanthe level in Moldavia remained low with nineteen only surviving locally.provide documents to collaborated Sporadically, findsdocumentsindicating one county that and urban administration facilitiesprovidedattest writingneeding forin urbancitizenstheir the to writing. property by urban administrationsautonomous thatprincely indicate representatives in also towns the administations of of Buz administations middle of century,the surviving the recordsslightly increase innumber and the urban vol. 2, no. 94. One document is extant from Râmnic ( DRH B, vol.2, no. 157 (1517, July 14)). 485 484 483 Trotu The firstThe extant document was issued inTârgovi DIR A, vol. 4, no. 243. Ibidem, 469.no. ú , Piatra, Birlad, Roman, Cotnari and Agiud survive. In addition, several charters issued several charters survive. In addition, and AgiudCotnari , Piatra, Birlad, Roman, In Wallachia, charters attesting landed property began to be produced much beproduced began earlier, to attesting landed property In Wallachia, charters Moreover, there is hardly more than a single charter extant from one and the same Ġ from from have where nodocuments beenpreserved. ă u, Argeu, 485 localities actively involved in commercial activities. After the After activities. in commercial involved actively localities ú , Pite ú ti become attested as producers of land charters. It was It land of asproducers charters. attested become ti ú te between 1512-1521 (the document is not dated).DRH B, 483 However, the attested number of land charters land of number attested the However, 484 as well as the existence of other urban ú te andte 114 CEU eTD Collection 492 491 “Alexandru Ioan Cuza”, 2006), 205-21. sp documents from the sixteenth century regarding the history of the city of Bucharest), in Bucharest), city of the of history the regarding century sixteenth the from documents 490 489 488 487 486 documents of one kind or another. allbag-makers got boilers,commissioned sword-makers, various such as soap craftsmen, andin Merchants whoinvolvedcategories were becoming of documents. commissioning the aswell. beattested began to merchants landmoreGreek of dominant, purchases was Greekpresence the century,sixteenth when merchants Greeks,either urban documents. the production of land charters at the urban level.Merchants often appear as commissioners of among the merchant elements native and foreign both of presence the class and activities Commercial level. urban who were more accustomed ofto useBucharest written documentsled to its Principalities. Danubian the stimulatedemergence as one of the most active producers of documents at the remained restricted to high-ranking social dignitaries and sporadically to monastic to high-ranking andsporadically to dignitaries social remained restricted recorded. are often us. Landdown to transactions while arealmost absent, purchases of shops,housesandmills come have that documents urban in the mirrored is still class social noblemen’s and group nativesell landed outside their law property to prohibiting people property. unwritten The their purchases in form the of houses, shops,and vineyards. institutions. monastic and society membersof urban in of hands powerful estates the of concentration sixteenth century are also reflected at the urban level as well in urban documents with Ġ Zahariuc, DRH B, vol. 5, no. 266; DRH B, vol.8, no. 109, no. 136; DIR B, vol.5, no. 425, no. 448, no. 454. Petronel Zahariuc, “Noua documente din secolul al XVI-lea privitoare la istoria orasului Bucuresti” (Nine Bucuresti” orasului istoria la privitoare XVI-lea al secolul din documente “Noua Zahariuc, Petronel For more information see Br see information more For DIR B,vol.5, no. 307 (1587), no. 425 (1589), DIR B,vol.5, no. 448 (1590). DRH B,vol.5, no. 226 (1563). Panaitescu, “Comunele medievale în Prinicipatele Române,” Prinicipatele în medievale “Comunele Panaitescu, iul românesc în secolele XVI-XVIII: Studii Moreover, the Wallachian urban record begandisplayMoreover, Wallachian the record social more to diverse urban Documente din secolul al XVI, 492 Conversely, in Moldavia, the commissioners of documents at the urban level urban the at documents of commissioners the in Moldavia, Conversely, 491 A bit later on, the social changes occurring in the second half of the ă tianu, 486 Presumably, the growing economical importance of the town Sfatul domnesc 490 no.5. For |Moldavia see DIR A, vol.3, no. 449. ú However, they were seldom able to purchase landed 489 i documente, 487 ú i adunarea st or craftsmen, became very active inrecording active very became orcraftsmen, ed. Lauren 150. ă rilor în Principatele Române Ġ iu R ă 488 dvan, (Yassy: Editura Universit In the last quarter of the of quarter last the In Civiliza Ġ ia urban , 33. ă din ăĠ 115 ii CEU eTD Collection Moreover, the evidence recorded in contemporary charters specified that given property was property specifiedthatgiven charters in contemporary recorded evidence the Moreover, of the isolated documents surviving either from from documentssurvivingHârl of either isolated the written activities were taking place inHârl place weretaking written activities monastery of the town. in preserved Franciscan the were period, from early a relatively of town kept Câmpulung, 497 496 century. sixteenth the of half 495 494 493 Moldavian urban administrations of Hârl levelon inat the urban indicated The theof survivingthan documents. registers the went transactions land written more that hypotheses the support level urban the at place taking duringapparently legal the requested process. document seems to have been a sufficientjudicial proof as no further witnesses were her landfather. daughter the of Târg of administration urban issuedby the a charter to “according law thenoblemen true and hisjudged to mentionedaccording with that prince he the dispute, the herfather’s land.During inherit his nieceto legitimacy of the uncle contested in 1571,an issued all documents, of havewhich since been For lost. instance,in a land dispute recorded Târg of town in the that as such administrations, urban unrecorded other that but previously must haveexisted more charters indicate notonly that data The Wallachian aswell. butevidence landby indirect only charters inare witnessednot thefewsurviving institutions. DIR A, vol. 3, no. 454. Iorga, DIR A, vol. 3No. 5, p. 236, 239, 432, 433. See also Giur See DRH B, vol. 7, no. 61. DIRA,vol.4, 292no. (1598); DIRA,vol.3, no. 449 (1587). The presence of urban registers in the two Moldavian towns may well indicate that Other indirect evidence such as existing urban registers recording indirect evidence existing landtransactions the registers urban Other such as in Moldavia or Wallachia in either level urban the at facilities writing of existence The Studii 493 ú i Documente 496 , vol., 2,292-3. 495 In Wallachia, according to Iorga, the urban registers of the 494 Theindicate also documents by1571,a local that ă u andTrotu ă u and Trotu and u ă scu, ú arementioned from in secondthe data Târguri sau ora ă ú u or from from or Trotu u on a greater scale on a greater than evidence the ú e , 136. ú or,” and granted the and granted or,” ú 497 might suggest. ú or, had also had or, 116 CEU eTD Collection Chancellor Stroici are rather exceptional in the Moldavian context. Moldavian inthe exceptional rather are Stroici Chancellor strong Polish affiliations. However, I have not included them in the general picture as the written activities of 498 number of survivingdocuments.Thethe seventy-one letters letters. administrative and commercial individual of commissioners as mostly recorded are noblemen century, fifteenth the of half first the from conversely, Wallachia, In nobility. Moldavian the of body social whole by the commissioned letters political collective the by isconfirmed nobility agreements signed by thepolitical andconfirming witnessing to was inconfined documents presence the the princes. Later on,mostly involved in political letters.commissioning During fifteenth the early century, their the strong were noblemen Moldavia, In political documents. princely the mirror connections external maintain position of the Moldavian of documents andproduction inthecommissioning noblemen Wallachian Moldavian and of involvement officials:The state and high-ranking institutions 5.3 Regional tradition. archival and low tolocal weak value the documents local rather level but attached at practices written and hencerecords urban may activities writing beenpracticedhave actually along for time. urban suggeststhat tradition the reference The to in registers. urban customarily recorded commercial activities. commercial between tworegionsthe may liein stronger involvementthe of Wallachianthe in nobility from whom 115 letters have been preserved. One of reasonsthe for this indisparity numbers officials, state Wallachian to incontrast documents of producers active less were noblemen There are 21 letters exchanged with Polish noblemen by a Moldavian chancellor, Luca Stroici, who who had Stroici, Luca chancellor, by Moldavian a noblemen Polish with exchanged letters 21 are There The difference between the two principalities lay not only alsoin butlay only not in type principalities the the two the between The difference to employed noblemen Moldavian and Wallachian that documents of types The Thus, once again, the low number of surviving documents may not reflect the lack of 498 may Moldavianthat suggest 117 CEU eTD Collection 502 on scribes. chapter seethe information more For 501 500 Bra property. both According to directand indirectevidence, it seems Wallachian that noblemen beginning of its activity laymenand hardly documents commissioned attestto theirlanded pridoh2 i ne prinesoh2 mi niqo.” imta dadwh knig2;rekoh2 dami v]se,dones]t] qoestmoe, ix2st]da mi prines 499 i “I4nami v7rcontinued: ž7l] vas,zaradi est popr]vo fruitless othertwodocuments.his tohave produced attempts Ashe hiswealth returned, personal Hisdocuments. insurviving documentChancellor firstspecifiedwritten that Coica, been been already involveddynamically in commercial activities andhence production the of his have of beginning still career. well atthe he been might chancery, Wallachian in the attestation recent his given Coica, Chancellor as letter his signed he although and chancery Wallachian the in employed he was that attest period the from inproduced by 1431 noblemana Wallachian named Coica. was letter Wallachian surviving first The letters. commercial personal of commissioners more in often writing by dignitaries. Wallachianstate the have issues seem beenaddressed to trade form. personal in Furthermore, written their subjects of behalf on misunderstandings trade addressed often officials state Wallachian level. local at significantly activities number theregional the contributed produced to documents of and commercial that fact the to point communication external for produced letters Wallachian The forty-five letters testimony of outof commercial and receipts 115surviving the The Wallachian5.3.1 evidence Ibidem, 206no. (1431). chancellors. and ofscribes function the between confusion was there Wallachia, in period early the During Ibidem, no. 206 (1431). Tocilescu, ú ovul It shouldbementionedaround that 1431, Wallachianthe chancery was still at the Again, the employees of the state chancery seem to have been among the earliest The firstletters issued byWallachian noblemen often addressed issues.commercial ú i cu 534 Documente, 534 ğ ara Ungureasc no. 403.See also Bogan, ă , no. 234,236,239. no. 502 . Documenteprivitoare la Rela ʇ vah vah Han2 ivasegokantilari 499 501 500 Nonetheless, he seems to have to seems he Nonetheless, The Wallachian documents Ġ iile ğă rii Române dž 7 Linard2 ʇ ú ; a tie ti cu 1 18 CEU eTD Collection about hisabout intention bringingof them a new ruler arenoteworthy. and Therigorous elaborated noblemen as an Wallachian answer the all of name in the commissioned letters Two to documents. thecollective and/or information individual both commissioned sent regularly they activities their byof course in the the Thus, rivalries. Moldavian political Princein concurrent part anactive took noblemen Stephen princes, Wallachian of changes frequent the Great thirty-four surviving issued political letters by Wallachian that noblemen indicate in the keeping. for therecord than communication external Wallachia’s statement that, during the first half of the fifteenth century, writing was more used in my may landed reinforce of possession record a written than asmore ephemeral perceived have might been letters commercial factthat andthe type the documents, of However, with the Wallachian land charters, which were usually kept at home or in the monasteries. Transylvanian townsmay have to contributed better chancestheir of survival, ascompared merchandise remaining in the house of a Bra of house in the remaining merchandise brother Constantin, commissioned personal and princely letters in an effort to have family relation to their personal trade affairs. Treasurer Stanciul,for instance, together with his 507 506 505 504 503 treasurer, as the for Vlad acted such who officials Dracul state Wallachian high-ranking Several same prince. 1442) representhalf survivingthe of charters issued on behalf Wallachianof laymen by the lettersrelated commissioned byWallachian noblemen during the reign of Vlad Dracul (1436- their commercial than relations record to landedtheir properties. Thefive surviving trade during this early usedwritten period moreletters communicate often to information about Ibidem, 211no. (c.1433-1437). Ibidem, 216no. (1442). chancellor The addressed political issues. Ibidem, 207no. (1431). Ibidem, 213,no. 214no. (c.1437). Ibidem, 211no. (1433-1437). The fact that commercial letters were stored in the settled urban archives of the Besides commercial questions, noblemen’sletters often addressed political issues. The 503 chamberlain, 504 governor 505 ú ov citizen returned. citizen ov and chancellors 506 507 issued documentsmainly in 119 CEU eTD Collection was also commissioned by Cazan on behalf of behalf Cazan Bra was by of on commissioned also as treasurer first matters private and administrative, political, on correspondence regular quite held Cazan, commercial, political Thegovernor and of documents. Basarab Youngthe (1478-1482), of asproducers administrative, attested dignitaries areconsistently and state among other wife as well as the state treasury, stolen and held by his rival in Bra Wallachian Prince Basarabthe show theirYoung (1477-1481) desiretohelphim back get his the of noblemen the by commissioned letters remarkable The princes. their of behalf 510 (1479-1480), no.224 (1480). 511 509 (1481). kind to him, let him rule your country after your death . (..) and give lessons to your own subjects and leave us leave and subjects own your to alone.” lessons Bogdan, give and (..) . death your after country your rule him let him, to kind 508 affairs: internal in their prince noblemen, Wallachian very by presumably involvementof distressed Moldavian the the directly by weredictated letters the that suggest strongly singular of person second the nobility. The very colloquial language and short-tempered approach combined with their use Wallachian the by commissioned letters the to contrast in direct is style princely Moldavian of the Moldavian land. Do you have any humanity, do you have any brain for sparing your ink and paper for the for paper and ink progenyyour of sparing thefor son of brain the whore any have you C do humanity, any have you Do land. Moldavian the of Tocilescu, Ibidem, 399.no. Bogdan, “ From the entire community of Br community entire the “From Beginning with Radu the Fair (1462-1472), Wallachian governors took precedence took Wallachiangovernors Fair (1462-1472), Raduthe Beginningwith Certain Wallachian dignitaries were involved personally in political affairs, mainly on mainly affairs, political in personally involved were dignitaries Wallachian Certain svoôzemlô, kako ga te sl est gospožda, qo ô s po tvoe s]mr]ti gospodar] na tvoe mesto, i mater m ere ti est sin[? Ako ti Ako sin[hoke ere tiestsin[? est I ti qo si xteti gospodar “Wt v]seh bol7ri Brailovski i wt v]she vlaseh pi vlaseh v]she iwt Brailovski bol7ri v]seh “Wt Documente privitoare la Rela 510 534 Documente 534 and then as high governor. high as then and Documente privitoare la Rela ʇ dž moldavski.li Da est xr]niloi hart , no. 393, 395.no. ʇ ăOĠ dr[žali una, and tell to us that he is your son? And if it is so, and you want to be ʀ ă é izrad ʇ ila and Wallachian noblemen, we are writing to you, Prince Stephen, ruler Stephen, Prince you, to writing weare noblemen, Wallachian and ila žit, awt nas se var Ġ iile ʇ ğă Ġ ʀ iile na ʇ edno dete wt kurve, sina Kalc rii Române tebe xlov7xestvo, ima tebexlov7xestvo, 511 ğă dž e zemle svi ribari Brailovski. (…) I The first Wallachian internal administrative letter administrative internal Wallachian first The dž rii Române dam ú ʇ ti cu Bra ú dobro ov traders urginglocal administration the ov traders ʇ i;” ú ti cu Bra 508 dž ú emo tebe, Štefane voevodo, Štefane tebe, emo ʇ ovul ʇ a t xini ú ovul ʀ ú ô dž i cu dž li , a ti daest a ti ga wstavi , ʇ ú ú ğ ʇ zmi ta ôdr]ži, da ti i cu ov. ara Ungureasc m, imam, ʇ 509 nina, ta govori ğ ara Ungureasc dž li moz[k, li ʇ ă , xi si no. 223 no. ă dž , no. 229 , no. 120 CEU eTD Collection ú 515 trade. about chapter see the zakon.” See also no. 234, no. 239.For more information about trade documents issued by Wallachian noblemen 514 513 (1481): “Ali wt Sasi da se var us to follow the procedure asit broughtinitially probably,us tofollowunfolded. tothe case was Most the procedure the by taken of son Marco. the decision in the involved all at not was Stanislav that documents written via administration Governor faith. Islamic the Danubethe andembraced crossing left Wallachia son Marco´s Subsequently Cyrstian,Stanislav. noblemen, a Wallachian as well of Bra a citizen between reconcile differences to letters issued administrative as the Wallachian with prince, the Cyrstian, together (1495-1508), Great Radu the of governor Wallachianfirst before regional andgovernors only subsequently in frontof princes. For instance, the prince, tried to convince the Bra me.” M.G.) and refuses to givedistressed governor continued:them “Cyrstea Roshul keeps backthose books of mine (receipts, myto note me; andhim to the Sibiu administration,even concluding that this was a completely different matter. As withthe this you did personally arbitrate inhis and hadrefusedadministration there had to trading conflicts sent not adjudicate for inBra presenceof acquaintances the despite that Hebitterly complained treatment. receiveto preferential not was very hetroubled misunderstandings, trade encountering certain his transactions. of records written keeping and behalf own his on documents commissioning trader, active an been have to him show 512 Dragomir of by issuedMonk (1482-1492), governor the theVlad Udri head.” their from missing be shall hair no that so Saxons from away stay “to i cu i cu Tocilescu, Ibidem, 236:no. “Drugo, midr]ž Ibidem,235, no. no. 236, no.235, no.238, 239.no. 240,no. 241.no. Bogdan, ğ 514 ara Ungureasc Certain recurrent letters indicate that Wallachian subjects advanced their advanced complaints subjects Wallachian indicate that letters Certain recurrent Stanislav had hired the son of Marco from Brasov himfrom hired language. to teach Stanislav acertain Brasov had Marco son of the Documente privitoare la Rela 534 Documente, 534 ă , no. 247 (1496-1507). ʇ ete, da m no. 412. Bogdan, 515 Unfortunately the lack of dating on the document does not allow ʀ t Krst7 Ro ʇ ga ne lipsat ni edin vlas.” Ġ iile ğă džʀ Documente privitoare la Rela ùl wnei knige, qetne da mi ih dast; i s] temzi eqe mi ne ùxiniste rii Române 513 ú ti cu Bra For instance, trading in Bra ú ovul ú i cu Ġ iile ğ ara Ungureasc ğă rii Române ú te (c.1482-1492), te 512 ú ov, Marco, and Marco, ov, Seven letters ú ă ti cuBra , no. 231 no. ú ú ov and ov, the ov, ú ovul ú 121 ov CEU eTD Collection 23, 25 no. , no. 35 (1600), no.37 (1600), 41 (1600),no. no. 49 (1600), no. 50(1600). writing practices areand documents of way the of representative surviving the how lossesin documents, these spread of questions againthe possible officials state raises once byGerman Brave waspreserved in the Principalities. of fact, personal the that Michael skills.archive the had thattestify they The writing active notes,and signatures letters, such assigned byofficials Wallachian evidence produced the On the one commissioneddignitariesdocuments, byWallachian state survive. hand, the signed mainlyfrom (November 1599-September 1600), 25, and when commercial administrative documentssixteenth century, duringperiod short the of Michael Brave’srulershipthe in Transylvania of culture. written business in conducted writing tofamiliarizing certainly contributed nobility Wallachian with of kinds manifold The levelsalike. regional central atthe or written communications through resolved regularly been have to seem subjects Wallachian and Transylvanian the between conflicts trade andadministrative recurrent The an period. early from correspondence to bejudged by andacquitted of Neagu, governor Radu theFair . Documente 1436,1483 (1600); Chivu,1389, no.1328, no.1296,1333, no. 1342,no.1300, no. no.no. 1276, no. 1246, no. 517 inhabitants of TârgoviWallachia, traveled to 516 Iorga, Bra Literatus Stephanus called merchant foreign a for in 1469 commissioned letter, A Latin citizens. foreign of behalf conferhoping to ahigher proof histo testimonies. intervention prince’s the father,Stanislav requested Marco’s convince attemptto unsuccessful an after Possibly, more details. recorded as his document governor, regional of the attention Densu The pace of the Wallachian letters multiplied, especially in the written with acquainted seemtohavebeen dignitaries state Wallachian Thus, the last years of the Sporadically, Wallachian governors resolved commercial and administrative issues on administrative and commercial resolved governors Wallachian Sporadically, ú ianu, Acte ú i însemni ú Documente privitoare istoria la românilor, i scrisori, i ă ri române no. 127 (1469, Nov.15). ú oviensis, testifies that he, being accused by four Greeks whowere by four Greeks he, beingaccused that testifies oviensis, ú ti dinsecolulti alXVI-lea, ú te andBucharest calumniators to findthe te to then no.18 (1599), no.20 (1599), no. 22(1599-1600), no. vol. 12, no. 1114, no. 1115, no. 1154, no. 1170, no. 516 517 Moreover, some of the 122 CEU eTD Collection 521 520 519 Ungureasc 518 oaths, quote direct singular, Thesecondperson useof the letters. is Wallachiandocuments colloquial the early especially, often andoral,similar to princely century fifteenth the of language The uneven. still were scribes and officials state Wallachian of practices written the that indicate noblemen by Wallachian written letters Slavonic the of language and style the uncertainty, avoiding of possibility no is there While lost. entirely been now by has these of sign any although purposes internal for documents written foreign archives mayhinder any conclusions since other social stratamay also have employed werepreservedin documents relevant factthe most and that Wallachia However, Moldavia. in both century sixteenth the of end the by multiply noblemen high-ranking and princes during the early period, the Moldavian nobility is attested mainly is Moldavian issuers during the the early nobility collective of attested period, as number than with Wallachianthe letters only letterssixty-five surviving. Moldavian Asnoted, 5.3.2 The Moldavian Principality. nobility. to a variable process and a gradual implementation of writing practices amongWallachian Thus, the Wallachian written evidence produced at the regional and local level clearly testifies characteristics. earlier‘oral’ dignitariesthe preserve of state issuedby thelower-rank letters improvementin the quality of the language used in Wallachian letters. However, an the isthere few century sixteenth the of turn the after Only documents. issued in the language Tocilescu, Ibidem, no. 210. Ibidem, no. 208(1431-1433), no. 217 (1474-1482), no. 233(1482-1483). See, for instance, Bogdan, instance, for See, 519 The issued letters Moldavian bylocal institutions and privateindividuals arelower in and appealsofinformation spoken as ă , no. 210, no. 213no. (c.1437), 215no. (1433-1440), 219no. (1478-9). 534 Documente 534 , no. 430 (undated). Documente privitoare la Rela 520 testify to the use of oral and colloquial Ġ iile ğă 518 riiRomâne in addition to threats, recorded ú ti cu Bra ti ú ovul ú i cu ğ 123 ara 521 CEU eTD Collection 530 529 528 527 Ibidem, 617no. (1529), no. 669 (1530). (1529), no. 652 (1530), 656no. (1530), 663no. (1530), no. 669 (1530). Moldavian capital Suceava were most active. See Iorga, active. most were Suceava capital Moldavian 526 fee. tax extra an charged been who had servant 525 517 (c.1447-1504); Iorga, 524 523 (1434), no. 195 (1435), 202no. (1436), 216no. (1448); Bogdan, treasurers Transylvania 1530),Moldavian(1528 to noblemen, especiallymilitary administrators painters scribes to dignitaries inaddition high state involved politics active war expenses. His to achieve, or tried to Moldavian prince the which peaceprocess the to related interventions Rare During preserved. been have dignitaries state of level issue. commercial iswhile whichthere a commissioned by aMoldavian a letter, records single treasurer, five are commissioned noblemen behalf byMoldavian political on documents theirof princes, 522 received. Rare Petru of reign the from mainly letters, Wallachian the than later century a almost unfolding documents endorsing politicalmattersinvolving decisions. high state frequently with corresponded in minortowns Transylvania,resolvingissues even in writing. prince. of with marriage Moldavian allowthe his sister the Polishthe theirto king(1504-1517), whenMoldavian addressed collective appeal to officials Bogdan of thematrimonial Prince troubles caseof asin support their the as abody princes to Ibidem, 755no. (1541,May 6). Ibidem, 755no. (1541,May 6). Ibidem, 810no. (1543). There are sevenletters issued by the Moldavian military administrators. The military administrators of the SeeTocilescu, Bogdan, Cost Cost ú (1527-1538, II 1541-1546). Prior to his reign, only six documents survive his sixdocuments reign,only to Prior II 1541-1546). (1527-1538, ă ă chescu, chescu, From the reign of Petru Rare of Petru From reign the Individual letters commissioned by Moldavian officials have a late attestation late a have officials Moldavian by commissioned letters Individual 529 Documente 527 530 towhom he issued/commissioned and receipts acknowledgedthe things he engaged in written record engaged asnineletters correspondence active a rather Military ofMoldavian Military haveinadministrators Transylvaniapossessions seemto Documente Bogdan Documente înainte de 534 Documente, 534 525 ù tefan Acte , no. 134 (1468), no. 166 (c.1480-1484); Tocilescu, ú i scrisori i no. 515 (c. 1447-1504) a trade conflict solved by a treasurer on behalf of his , no.70(1506). ù tefan Marecel , no. 320 (1506), no.322 (1507), 368no. (1510). ú , thirty-four of sixty-five Moldavian letters issued at the issued at letters Moldavian sixty-five of , thirty-four , no. 163 (1387), no. 166(1395),182 (1433),no. 185 no. Acte ú i scrisori Documente 523 , 608no. (1529), no. 623 (1529), no. 645 ù tefan cel Mare ú 534 Documente ’ military campaign in campaign military ’ 522 They also intervened also They , no. 130 (1462). , no. 515, no. 515, no. , 524 of which 528 526 and and 124 CEU eTD Collection 533 532 chamberlain). Moldavian no.1306 (issued by a cupbearer), no.1307 (1592), 1308no. (1592), no. 1312 (1592) (the last two issued by a drink they hadmost shared, probably as a symbol of intimacythe of their relations. support from a Rodna He addressedandhim official. himdirectly food aboutthe reminding by whosenamefailedfor toberecorded aMoldavianinstance, scribe, asked the treasurer, For letters. in Wallachian employed often so language oral of specific symbolism special the end of the century reveal at produced vernacular documents certain Conversely, existed. practices writing established the direct forms of communication, filled with activities. of absence writing details and the an always not reflect does of an records absence that indicate mayit also Correspondingly, were similar to thoseexisting there. wastheirto related survival archival traditions of Michaelissued during Rare the Braveinternalfor needs, their asupto endthe of century the survived. Theletters nodocument and resulted documents written it noblemencirculated is However, Moldavian documents. unclearwhether in a richer Moldavian had noblemen indicates that the means andproducing capability of written body of evidence. 532 531 survived. was letters almost discontinued. end Uptothe thesixteenth of have century only letters 11 eight documents while afterwards only one document is extant. During the Rare Iorga, Ibidem, no. 1307 (1592). See, for instance, Tocilescu, instance, for See, Ibidem, no. 1000 (1559). The language of the Moldavian Latin letters Thus, relations of Rare the Moldavian the prince shows that well-trained scribes and The relatively rich record from Rare After reign the Prince Rareof Acte 532 ú i scrisori i ú reign, the military reign,military the administrators of Ciceu castle in produced Transylvania ú ’s reign on behalf urban of Transylvanian institutions mayindicate that , no. 1012 (1559). 534 Documente ú (1527-1538, II1541-1546) (1527-1538, the recordof noblemen’s , no. 523 (second half of the 16 ofthe half (second 523 , no. ú ’ reign, preserved in Transylvanian town archives ú with Principality Transylvanian the 531 th c.); Iorga, Acte ú i scrisori 533 , 125 CEU eTD Collection editor. (1474), no. 218(1476-7), no. 219(1478-9), 220no. (c.1482), no. 221 (1477). The documents were dated by the to the end of the sixteenth century was restricted to the high-ranking state dignitaries. The that the commissioning of documents or at least the commissioning of foreign documents up 534 Manea) signed the five under survivingletters namethe ofnobleman Dragomir Manev(son of under three princes, never recorded in the commissioned documents his state function and their precise state functions. For instance, Dragomir, son of Manea, Wallachian governor servant. behalf her issue on of resolve administrative an triedson, to commissioned by a woman, was sent by the widow of a former governor, who along with her letter Wallachian administrative only The state. of dignitaries or princes of widows the as quality their in only and letters of commissioners the among present incidentally beonly seemto Women capabilities. literary their useof required careers since their letters chancellors or treasurersthe whoresults are communicated and themselves justice well exercised also They disputes. attestedtrade or administrative in writingas being among requestinginvolvedjustice in their for early citizens theon wrote territories, governors to first Transylvanian to their on produce prerogatives administrative and juridical Exercising Wallachia. in writtendynamic most officials. werethe governors Regional scribe. a professional of presence the implied presumably office There were also documents. in vernacular early these state officials written better practices in than Wallachia although oral and colloquial language wasstill used such employed letters ofvernacular Theproducers inLatin. forproduced documents especially as 535 Tocilescu, Bogdan, Unfortunately, when they documentscommissioned dignitaries usually not record did whose dignitaries state high were letters of producers active most the summary, In Thus, the contribution indicate Moldavian documents better trained scribes of 535 However, the recurrence of the same names in the surviving documents indicates in documents of same names surviving the the the recurrence However, Documente privitoare la Rela 534 Documente 534 , no. 446. no. , Ġ iile ğă rii Române ú ti cu Bra ú ovul ú i cu ğ 534 ara Ungureasc ă , no. 217 , no. 126 CEU eTD Collection prince’s office, “according to the custom of the country.” mentioned that they validwould be only a until could charter “proper” beissued in the by Moldavian produced officialsdocuments andstate regional administration explicitly 537 536 chancery in was confirmed yearby following the Wallachian prince. the prince’s the his outside Baleawife and by Chancellor commissioned charter the instance, For century. sixteenth the of end the to up chancery princely the in confirmed subsequently by regional administrators Wallachia.comparedMoldavia to and other in writingmore tradition mature a presenceof indicate the of documents confirmation the state officialseightcharters have come downtous. The style,format, Slavonic language and used seals for had a theiris number lower than of that Wallachianthe provisory documents asfrom Moldavia only thirty- statusurban charters: they are attested mainly from the last two decades of the sixteenth century and and had to be survive. as 65Wallachian by becomesevidence more produced consistent dignitaries state charters However, similarly to the urban charters, it is only from the middle of the century that the institutions. Wallachian urban than earlier century, fifteenth the of end the from Wallachia dignitaries. andstate institutions regional bytheWallachian andMoldavian commissioned 5.4 Landcharters communities. foreign with relations administrative or commercial with dealing landed nobility does not seem haveto beeninvolved in productionthe of written documents See, forinstance, DIR A, vol.3, no. 368, no. 571; DIR A, vol. 4, no. 173, no. 327. DRH B, vol.11, no. 69 (1590). Thus, low the numberofsurviving land produced charters outside the princely As with written urban charters, Moldavian As charters, andWallachianwith written urban documents commissioned In Moldavia as well, regional and local documents retain the characteristics of the Regional institutions and high-ranking state officials began issueto in landcharters 537 536 Moreover, the Moreover, 127 CEU eTD Collection 540 539 538 ban the that of indicate instance, for data, Some fullyyet established. not was level regional the at issuing documents of practice the it seems that however, early period, the During landed property. a of for ownership confirming legal basis had asa served witnesses that the stillformer wereissued toreplace local of the that Apparently,charters oral testimonies exist. by documents produced Wallachian noblemen, and Moldavian tothe actual compared number preserved attesting documents theirlanded property is well known. atdocumentproduced the prince’s office is although extant in mannerthe monkswhich local documents. of basis the on charter for aprincely ask andonly from 1588 indicates that monastic institutions as well could resolve theirland disputeslocally from highgovernor. the a note Vartic, andsince hehadseen trusted and Dumitru hisfather landof he the bythePriest acquisition mentioned that confirmed inexist instance, today. in For Moldavia alandfrom Schiopul charter Petru 1589, Prince localthe previouslycontains official references existinglocal to longer documents no which that indicate confirmissuedthey by to were produced a local transaction document and the produced in local previouslylocalthose survive existed.do Onlyseldom charters compared documents to the princes’ office. a local was issued. orit requestafterto preserve document aprincely incentivecharter to More oftenhave any not did either land owners the Thus, chancery. in thestate be produced was to the charterschanceries. A local document was considered haveto only a producedtemporary validity, until a record Principalities, atradition conferredthat juridical validity charters issuedonly to in prince’sthe in the centralmedieval Romanian in two the attested tradition judicial the to be related might chancery offices See also ibidem, no. 530. no. ibidem, also See Ibidem, 489.no. DIR A, vol.3, no. 530 (1589, Aug 14). Thus, based on surviving data, similarly to the urban charters, there were more were there urbancharters, the to similarly data, based onsurviving Thus, ideamorethe Wallachia from andMoldavia The secondary that evidence supports 540 538 539 Another document Another Only the second the Only 128 CEU eTD Collection 546 545 544 vol.1, 245.no. 543 before the prince in Wallachia and Moldavia; 1611-1831). (Bucharest: Editura Academiei,1979) I, p.67). Georgescu and Ovidiu Sachelarie Ovidiu and Georgescu return banthe Craiovaof confirmed thelandedestate which had previously belonged to in whom to brother, his from money borrowed he money, the return to unable or taken had he lardof that he hadsell. been asked to justifying Having trouble what hadbecome of goods the for himmoney 600pieces ban,Arca,owed instance, of Craiova asubject the For regionally. Craiove princes they should have served; he was the only local dignity who had the right He ofwas givenmilitary, juridical and fiscal jurisdiction and often their actual powerwas greater than that of 542 the 541 clucer was also made on behalf of Bistri dignity.hold state important to considered most the Oltenia,ban was of the great governor, historicalWallachian whose of province Oltenia Craiova “wentin front of the prince” to record his land donations. Vladislav Monk(1482-1495). the withdisputes family, donor’s local was soon the the by confirmeddocument actingthe prince, their servants or fellow noblemen. of those also but chancery regional in the donations personal their recorded only not Oltenia of increased. province of administrators the Oltenia, the Moreover, town, ban Craiova of at documents produced residenceof the the of numberof the century sixteenth the onwards, middle the From testimony. oral and communication written between gap extend the able to be precedencecould written the document produced took over oral anddepositions then was Craiove influential the of one Bistri DRH, vol.4, no. 184 (1545, July 25). DRH B, vol. 4, no. 184, no. 292. DRH B,vol. 2, no. 246 (1494,March 16). The first charter is not dated, modern editors have dated it to a time prior to 1494, March 16. See DRH B, The position of the ban of Oltenia or ban of Craiova was among the highest ranks of Wallachian noblemen. of Wallachian ranks highest the among was of Craiova ban or of Oltenia ban of the position The DRH B, vol. 2, no. 191. Ġ a monastery. As most probably the monastic institution was willing to avoid to further institution willing was Asmost monastic probably the a monastery. The first producers of written land titles at the regional level are recorded inthe landlevel arerecorded regional atthe of titles written The firstproducers ú ti governors. ti 546 Land confirmations on behalf of recorded werealso laymen Land onbehalfof confirmations Judecata domneasc ú ti brothers, donated several villages to the family endowment of endowment family the to villages several donated brothers, ti 544 545 Thus, with the creation of local offices where documents The first charter of of made Thefirst charter a village by Badea donation Ġ a monastery, patronized by the powerful family of ă în ğ ara Româneasc 542 Prior to 1494, to Prior ăú i Moldova (1611-1831) ( 541 ius gladii 543 for example, Barbul, . See Valentin A. The trial The 129 CEU eTD Collection recorded recorded a land donation to her servantAlexie in 1598. herself) calls (asshe governess the Stanca, charters. of commissioners wereactive widows The first and most active state dignitaries for provide theirThe first writingand active facilities inMoldavia state to most documents), as well as for their fellow noblemen, servants and lower social classes (24). officials, state former and officials state to sons performed. for herdead needed services have liturgical tobeablein the land to She sold the order Stanca. Barbu in andVladislav also recorded writing thelandby sold mother, thenoblewoman their Tismana Monastery. to his father-in-law of donation land confirmed the who Radul, chancery, Wallachian of the issued by head the instance, was for documents, their personalland acquisitions families’ their their attest own, dignitaries, with the exception of regional governors ( governors of regional exception the with dignitaries, state Wallachian the Moreover, from office. single a areextant documents twenty-seven where province of Oltenia administrators regional the than less active were they Nevertheless, thatsurvive. documents asindicatedissue bythe thirty-eight began landcharters, to in prince’s office. local the of the confirmation charters 557 document is written isSlavonic which suggests a professional scribe. 556 555 554 553 552 551 550 549 548 547 Arca. See, forinstance, DIR A, vol. 3, no. 108, no. 368, no. 411, no. 479. DRH B, vol. 11, no. 273 (1598). It is unclear who wrote the document forStana as DIR no B,vol.5,scribe no. 414 (1589). is mentioned; the See, forinstance, DRH B, vol.8, no. 104 (1577); DIR B, vol.5, no. 414 (1589). Ibidem, 95no. (1577-9), DRH B,vol. 11, no. 66 (1590). DRH B, vol. 8, no. 93. DRH B, vol.4, no. 225, (undated; dated by modern editors to 1547). DRH B, vol. 11, no. 273. DRH B, vol. 8, no. 93. Ibidem, no. 206. DRH B,vol. 4, no. 205 (undated). 547 The Moldavian state officials provided written facilities for their personal needs (14 facilities for their personal written officials state The Moldavian provided From the mid-sixteenth century From mid-sixteenth century andformerpresentdignitaries other onwards, the state The further brother, following ofmonastic practice the requested institutions, 552 More often, however, Wallachian state dignitaries inwriting confirmed state often, Wallachian however, More 553 549 or their donations to monastic institutions. monastic to donations their or or their servants’ their or 555 family members and especially wives and 550 556 548 vornic land transactions. One of first the of One landtransactions. ) usuallyissued to documents 551 The chamberlains The 554 Moreover, next 130 557 CEU eTD Collection 563 for aformer military townadministrator ( the principalitiestwo and writing the employed abilities remains sizable sincetheMoldavian servants. their for documents produce personally could noblemen written. regional similarly produced at documents those to levels other of were rigorouslygovernment Moldavian contrary, the On central office. inissued the charters of formulary respect the not chancery. timein state the atthat who served scribes, professional would employ employed in the chancery during the period. Forinstance, aWallachian military administrator by scribes were written dignitariesthey indicate that state byWallachian Moldavian or chancery. in state the received their training apparently who scribes certain canItrace is activity recorded, continuous Craiova, where commissioners of documents dignitariesCourt orterritorial issuednobility sporadically charters. also had their personal scribes. Only for the regional office of 562 561 560 mentioned.See DIR A, vol.3, no. 479 (1588, Apr.15). confiscated land they need to pay twelve oxes and three gold coins for boots.head.” It Asis unclear,a result, the localthough, governor why confiscatedboots are his lands 43). and notified no. the family (ibidem, that in order nobility to redeem the territorial by the or 327), no. (ibidem, 559 servants bycourt 293) no. (ibidem, country 558 Murge from certain “people to estate a landed of donation in the confirmed lower Moldavia country of the instance,in high governor For1588,the theyproduced. in reflected documents the governors were in governors. regional were chargesubjects of tax collection or administration of justice and their duties are DIR A, vol.4, 244 no. document(the is partially preserved. Modern editors dated it tobetween1598-1599). For instance, the scribe St scribes. on chapter see the information more For DIR A, vol.4, no. 327, no. 179. his for pay to means any have did not he since run and aman killed “had he that specifies further charter The See,for instance,documents issued by the governor of the lowercountry (DIR A, vol.4, no. 173), or upper ú By the end of the century, some instances indicate that Moldavian and Wallachian However, theWallachian issued documents the prince’s outside chancery usually did It is unclear whether all Wallachian dignitariesand Moldavian state appearing as ti village” which he had expropriated from from Iona he hadexpropriated ti village” which ă nil ă .See DIR B, no. 316 (writing forthe Wallachian prince) and no. 414 (1589) portar 558 As mentioned, in Asmentioned, both Moldavia and Wallachia, ). 561 From time to time, documents produced by produced time, From documents to time ú co Boboc for committingco Boboc amurder. 563 The differences between Thedifferences 560 562 131 559 CEU eTD Collection property rightstolanded attesting Charters level: atvillage produced 5.5 Documents priest. a parish land holder and asmall between transaction a land attesting acharter commissioned dignitaries landand instance, holders. For aregional ( administrator, In Moldavia, noblemen issued land mainly charters behalf on lower-rankingof state village. Radovanu from free peasants of behalf on ban Craiova the of office in regional the issued were century sixteenth the decadeof from last the of documents ten survivingfour out from moved regional the inWallachia.During year1596, central the the especially to offices, preserve orlower nobility betweenfreestrugglingtheir to peasants disputes estates andthem land-selling or landed struggledmore acquire estates, strata sharper andto wealthier social the noblemen, Gradually,in themid-sixteenth century, they included free peasants, diverse. Thewere first disputants limitedmonastic to institutions and high-ranking noblemen. 573 572 571 570 569 568 567 566 565 564 documents. the on (1561-1563), Moldavian closedignitaries tothe princesput their began to personal signatures supposedly easier use vernacular Romanian. of wereabledignitaries issue in to Slavonic,documents DIR A, vol.3, 494 no. (1588). See DRH B,vol.11, no. 152, no. 198, no. 199, no. 202. DRH B, vol. 4, no. 184; DRH B, vol.11, no. 288, no. 343. DRH B, vol. 11, no. 132. DRH B, vol.8, no. 90. Ibidem, 157.no. DRH B,vol. 6, no. 151 (1569,June 13). DIR A, vol.4, no. 43 (1591-1592). DRH B, vol.11, no. 251 (1597). Ibidem,43 no. (1591-1592); no. 244 (1598-1599). 573 The documents produced at the village level were only land property. with villagelevelonly atthe concerned were produced The documents The social thatused groups regionalthe for settlingoffices land their were problems 569 clerics, 566 570 as well as monastic institutions. monastic as aswell 565 In addition, after the reign of Despot Voda 564 while theWallachians turned tothe 571 As inequality social the grew pârc 567 parish parish priests, ă lab ) Gheorghe, 132 572 568 CEU eTD Collection no. 83. been lower. In certain cases, the documents specify that state dignitaries and their family their and dignitaries state that specify documents the cases, In certain lower. been sinceprepare documentscost probably price villagethe written the paid to at have levelmust nobility. lower by or used the ones commoners similar to estates. landed of sellers as even or aspurchasers documents local in dignitaries chancellors chamberlains, such arerecorded as governors, or high-ranking state Often land inasingle transactions. involved wereoften social category as various groups 581 580 579 578 577 85. no. 81, no. 80, transaction. the as to stood witnesses strata social same from the people” apparently “good rather certain cases, in Moldavia especially, noblemen are recorded aswitnesses. arerecorded noblemen especially, inMoldavia certain cases, in However, transaction. of the warranter and commissioner as ahigher authority record by produced documents the high-rankinglocal orstate officials, didprinces not documents for Moldavia DIR A, vol.3, no. 9, no. 49, no. 309; Chivu, 309; no. 49, no. 9, no. vol.3, A, DIR Moldavia for 576 575 574 in Wallachia. earlier in Moldavia century of sixteenth in the quarter last the They are attested even somethingtermed like this:in Moldavia was It note. short a of consisted rather holders land small for used formulary The Wallachia. in level at local the attested formulary often the or chancery in employedcentral one the documents.the These lower-ranking socially usually documents notresembledid either the formatof inlay the officials bystate or office central by produced the andthose documents landtransactions. their personal record to peasants, DRH B, vol.7, no. 231, no. 297; for Moldavia see Chivu, DRH B, vol.5, no. 167 (c. 1560); DRH B, vol.6, no. 191 (1578); DRH B, vol.7, no. 106 (1572). DIR A, vol.3, no. 9, no. 13. DRH B, vol.7, no. 106. See DIR A, vol.3, no. 309, no. 471; DIR A, vol. 4, no. 8. ForWallachia see, forinstance, DRH B, vol.5, no. 167; vol.6, no. 23, no. 191; vol.7, The first no. extant4, no. 9 etWallachian passim; document dates from 1560, March 15 (DRH B, vol. 5, Thefirst extantno. document 167). produced inMoldavia dates from 1572, January 3 (DIR A, vol.3, no. 9). I assume that the choice for this specific type of document might have been related to might been haverelated of document for type this specific choice I assume the that 580 In certain cases it is hard to attribute the extant documents to a particular social a particular to documents theextant attribute hardis to casesit Incertain 575 They by were produced lower-ranking including social groups, free zapis Documente Documente 577 576 or The main difference between their between difference main The ú Uă i însemn ú va i însemn ú in Muntenia. ă ri române ă ri române 581 Their documents are 574 and adecade about ú ti, 579 ú 578 no. 60, no. 61, no. 61, no. 60, no. ti , no. 66, no. 68, no. 66, , no. In Wallachia In Incontrast to 133 CEU eTD Collection chancery up to Constantin Mavrocordat), Constantin to up chancery 589 attesting to his acquisitionof land. 588 documents still remained confined to issuesdocuments land still its of confinedattestation.remained ownership and to The ifnewHowever,land be even inwriting,most began of types transitions recorded to written confirmation of a matrimonial issuedendowment in 1596 byvillagers from Dobrotei. a Only occur,such of as newtypes documents higher-ranking groups. occasionally social did forestablished. scribes were offices century seventeenth române office. asanotary was alsoused seat bishopric the indicate Moldavia priest or in other laymen’s houses. laymen’s in or other priest local the of house in the house, beneficiary’s in the usually transaction, the recorded scribes 587 586 house of “Titiana from Iasi” (see DIR A, vol.4, no. 117). 585 584 583 582 in Slavonic, written Among at produced of local the level 41documents the inrecord. 20are Moldavia circa ordepredationstaxes, by Tartars. the high as caused byfamine, andpoverty of a consequence soldmembersdistress estates their not exist during the period either in cities either exist period the during not witnesses. or involved houses parties the inof private the apparently Most of were poorly them written, language of record. the vernacularas Romanian used atvillagelevel produced documents inSlavonic. written Nicolae Gr Nicolae DIR A, vol.3, no. 411. It may have beencaused by the fact that a bishop was the recipient of the charter ForMoldavia see also DIR A, vol.4, no. 38, no. 170; forWallachia see Chivu, DIR A, vol.3, no. 306. Adocument written in1593 in Iassy indicates that the land transactionwas accomplished and recorded in the SEE mainly DRH B, vols. 5, 6, 7, 8, 11. See DIR A, vol. 3 and 4. 66. no. Ibidem, ú ti, The types of documents produced at village level were similar to those produced by produced those to level weresimilar village at produced documents of The types The documents produced at village level often used the vernacular as their language their vernacular as the often used level village at produced The documents As the documents testify, special offices created especially for drafting documents did no. 5. no. ă mad ă , “Cancelaria domneasc , “Cancelaria 583 584 while out of the 29 locally produced Wallachian only6are locally documents theproduced 29 of whileout Thus, half of the Moldavian documents and almost all the Wallachian Codrul Cosminului ă 587 582 în Moldova pîn Moldova în Other documents issued by county the in governors 585 or villages. or ă 9(1935): 129-231. la Constantin Mavrocordat” (The Moldavian (The Mavrocordat” Constantin la 589 586 Priests as well as professional as well as Priests Documente 588 Only later on, in the in on, later Only ú i însemn ă ri 134 CEU eTD Collection regular by regular end the century sixteenth the of of as out twenty-seven surviving documents, be byloweruse ofland thattheinconsistent supposed charters class more hadbecome people is nowritten mentioned. document of landareindicated, previousthe owners property. Unfortunately, situation this cannot begeneralized. cases, Inother although four mighthave employing beenaccustomed to as documents proof of ownership of theirland evencommoners landednobility or the indicates that local charters, two had commissioned suggesting thus thatIgnatmighthave been lower rank.of The fact Ignat that documenthe possessed, 592 591 590 %ă ( bein from written much ascan note parted indicatedthe] [land the Ignat instance, For evencommoners. landednobility or smaller moreamong common becoming spread andimplementation written culture. of the asfor aswell needs for their importance ofmajor personnel was literate and cheaper offices local of availability The commoners. between probably most level village the at place for small tobeproduced gradually landtransactions taking started documents Nonetheless, participators in production document as sellers landof their tohigher-rankingindividuals. followed by inlower-ranking werepeople social Initially,groups. ratherpassive latter the and embraced soon were nobility higher-ranking the by on settled models The groups. social a continuous dissemination andinfiltration of written records from to upper to the lower a donated share ofhis owned land as a dowry for his daughter. by document produced from villagers Dorotei certifiedneighbor thattheir (fellow) Cire DIR A, vol.4, no. 115 (c. 1593-4) DIR A, vol.3, no. 421 (1587, Mar 25). DRH, vol. 11, no. 163. laci.” ùXú Sporadically documents testify that the use of written records for land transaction was landtransaction for records written useof the that testify documents Sporadically was there century sixteenth the during that suggests data the of presentation the Thus, 591 cala from the village of Nicoreni indicated that he “(...) sold a landed estate (...) as (...) soldhe alandedestate that “(...) indicated village of Nicoreni cala from the The status of Ignat zapis , indicates that itindicatesmight that , beenat thelocal have produced level ùXú cala is not clear. However, the name of the wriiten 590 zapis ) I had broughtfrom ùXú 592 cala by 1587 It may only ú 135 co CEU eTD Collection format of the charter do not follow the usual pattern of monastic charters. ( chancellery. state the in previously employed been have to seems who Doncea, scribe by a written Crâstea, laymen, surviving chartersee DRH A, vol. 1 no. 289 (1448). It recorded a land donation to noblementhe commissionmonastery aswellof Nem private documents to record their donations to the monasteries. For the first instance, DRH B,vol.1, no. 34 (c. 1407-1418), no. 101 (1450), no. 102 (1451).Sporadically Moldavian 596 Roumaines, See Turdeanu, century. fifteenth established the Moldaviancalligraphic tradition with its strong Bulgarian influence in the first half of the 595 pân Princpautés Roumaines Moldavianand manuscripts see EmilTurdeanu, 594 342,288, no. no. 343, no. 426. documents issued inthe lastdecade see DRH B,vol.11, no. 109, 132,no. no. 152, no. 198, no. 199, no. 202, no. 593 have their donations legalized in writing. especially up to mid-sixteenththe gobefore institutions century. had Monastic princeto the to chancellery, level princely atthe the of placeexclusively took almost andWallachia Moldavia in landed estates the of written transactions that indicate principalities) from Danubian the attestingland ownership transactionsmain andits (the type of thathasdocuments survived Thedocuments documents. of pragmatic asproducers poorly represented institutions are production of Nonetheless, manuscripts. religious direct the evidence monasticthat indicates 1405, and later in Moldavia from 1424. copied earlyfirst fifteenth from the book Slavonic century. inWallachia The Gospel dates Wallachia andMoldavia the during fourteenth century. 5.6 Theroleof clerical milieuasproducerof pragmatic documents. twelve wereissued during lastdecade. the DRH A, vol. 2, no. 3 (1449). See also DRH A, vol. 2, no. 73 (1458), no. 79 (1458). ForWallachia see, for Fifteen religious manuscripts, copied by Gavriil, son of Uric, have survived from Moldavia. Gavriil, For the establishment of monastic institutions inMoldavia and Wallachia and forthe surviving Wallachian See DRH B, vol.4, no. 184, no. 205, no. 292; DRH B, vol.6, no. 85, no. 151, no. 157, no. 227). For the ă la1688 Only from Only from secondthe half of fifteenththe afew century, surviving remain documents for milieu clerical in the employed actively was writing century, fifteenth the During monastic wereestablishedin institutions According survivingevidence, to the written 86. (History of religious writings of Romanians the up to 1688) (Bucharest: Minerva, 1905). DRH A, vol. 2, p. 455.) It is unclear whether it was written in the monastery, as he style and (Brill: Leiden, 1985). See also Nicolae Iorga, Études des littérature roumaine et d’écrits slaves et grecs des Princpautés 595 596 Études des littérature roumaine et d’écrits slaves et grecs des 593 594 Scribal activities began began Scribalactivities from only Istoria literaturiireligioase aromânilor Ġ by a 136 CEU eTD Collection Wallachian Wallachian and eleven Moldavian produced inmonasticcharters institutions have survived. Father Eremia and gave a vineyard on the hill of VerneFathervineyard the hill of Eremiagavea and on and Radu, sons of Danciul frominstitutionsmake to donations andhave them “Andthere: recorded noblemen we,the Bogdan Pope they they had received. religious dignitaries more began often toproduce monastic about records land the donations soul as long as this holy place shall endure.” yourfor healthpromises and fulfill (and pray) our to children your childrenand grand wife, wehavegratitude, what carried wehad out avowedinfront of your highness, and infrontof requests: “(…) andwe, oh,sonof churchthe and friend righteous seeing of yourours, fulfill allhis to thedonator andpromises recipients the of in name the he speaks charter, of allfor part inthe specific donator exchange second the In given prayers. objects the the of name the in enumerating document the of part first in the singular person first the for instance, in the first document produced in the Moldavian monastery in Moldovi monastery Moldavian of instance, documentthe forin first produced the an incipient tradition as the documents retain characteristics of oral speech. The monk Ilarion, suggests however, style, Their onwards. from then regularly whichwasused kindpattern of servants. and monastic recordthedonationsoflaymen issuedfrom surviving to were charters fifteenth the century ontheir behalf. Ignatie treasurer high Moldavian the 601 600 599 598 597 in1462 and of institutions the monastic Moldovi 1476 in produced documents first The monasteries. in produced were the charters that to showthat DRH B,vol. 5, no. 80(1556). DRH B,vol. 7, no. 152 (1573). DRH A, vol. 2, no. 102 (1462). DRH 1,B,vol. no. 57(1425), no. 252(1495). DRH A, vol.2, 102 no. (1462), no. 205 (1476, Jan. 25), no. 207 (June 1), no. 208 (1476,June 29). Towards Towards middlethe of sixteenththe monastic century, institutions and high-ranking The form of first inThe form themonasticinstitutionsof produced the documents showa already 600 Apparently,laymen godirectly beganmonastic clerical and to to 598 ú ti, came to the Holy Bishopric of Buz 599 Ġ a and Putna record donations record madeby a andPutna 597 ú ti ti (…).” In Wallachia, the two monastic 601 However, only twenty ă u, in front of Ġ a, used 137 CEU eTD Collection year in the Wallachian princely office. princely in Wallachian the year valued and the number of have andvaluedrecipients the multiplied, numberof seemto their producers and clerics institutions, both in Wallachia and Moldavia. bymonastic donations for testamentary as testimonies promoted and weredocuments used written Similarly, settlement. dispute Wallachian in testimonies written involve to first the were institutions monastic century, sixteenth the of turn the at Furthermore, endowments. institutionsemploy were proof providesafeguard keento writing extra to to their institutions remained thecustomary lawoutside ofthe Danubian the monastic Principalities, to titles land written landed attest their property.As laymen of donations madethe onbehalf monastic of employ to first the were institutions monastic used, sporadically but were especially in fifteenththe Duringthe written first half century, Wallachia. documents of when ones. monastic the than validity greater much a had charters princely that indicates documents and Radufrom Pope reconfirmedin mentioned theprincely by noblemen Bogdan Thedonation earlieroffice. the Similarly, inWallachia, even after the middle of the sixteenth century, monastic charters were chancellery. state Moldavian in donation the the recorded also of Putna monastery the from 604 603 602 samethe year (1476). monastery during atthe threetimes was recorded Putna Monastery madeby Iuga to donations of earliest the one instance, For validity. juridical lacked haveseemed higher to charters, at levelthe produced land monasticThe institutions? titles,similartoother of clerical What accounts for the low pace of production or the low survival rate of the documents This factis morethe surprising as werewritten importantrecords generally monasteries. for DRH B,vol. 5, no. 109 (1557). Ibidem, 211no. (1478). DRH A, vol.2, no. 205 (Jan. 25,1476), no. 207 (June 1,1476), 208no. (June 29,1476). By middle of the sixteenth century, when the written documents began to be more be to began documents written the when century, sixteenth the of middle By titles land written of commissioners as prominent is institutions monastic of role The ú ti made theto Bishopric of Buz 602 But two years after the monastic charters were drawn up, the monks weredrawn up, the monastic years Buttwo the charters after 604 Reconfirmation at the central level of theprevious level of central the at Reconfirmation ă u was reconfirmed during the following 138 603 CEU eTD Collection 610 609 608 607 (1968): 185-204.. PăQă Regele Carol I, 1941), 20 and note 4, 21 and note 1, 2, 3, 4. See also VictorBr hasbefore survivedend the of sixteenth century.the document no multiplied. However, registers monastic various to references indirect century, who omits paying andbring himtomy highness.” anybody in register record their “ arefree to Monks that declared and Monastery Tismana the sixteenth century. sixteenth of the quarter first to the dates registers monastic of existence the to reference indirect first tavern that they should have themselves recorded in thesupplies during monks’ century. the fifteenth By toldindividuals Great 1458, Stephen the runninga register. Damian P. Bogdan, ed. 606 605 monastic such institutions Moldovi as categories of documents to be preserved and others destroyed. Itseems that certain Moldavian was employed bymonastic institutions and that“filtering caused mechanisms” some (1457-1504) is a copy justof such an earlier necrology from 1407. notsurvive.do Theearliest survivingmanuscriptdatingfrom reign the of Stephen Great the fifteenth- and sixteenth-centuries originals, written on wooden tablets or the walls ofchurches Moldavian and Wallachian monasteries from the early fifteenth century. monastic in from Moldavia. same the chronicles date period written first The behalf. fellows their or own their on written titles land local of producers asactive attested also They are scribes. asprofessional chancelleries in theprincely more often involved were land They titles. ofwritten producers active as role a greater played moldovene Ibidem, No. 224(1524). The registers of the custom post were attested from 1505. See DRH B, vol. 2, no.DRH vol.30.A, 2, no. 75(1458). Bogdan, For more information about the necrologies preserved from Moldavian and Wallachian Principalities see Principalities Wallachian and Moldavian from preserved necrologies the about information more For For more information aboutsixteenth-century Moldavian narrative sourcesBogdan, seeIoan stirii Sucevi Moreover, indirect evidence suggest as well that certain types of “pragmatic writing” “pragmatic of types certain as well that suggest evidence indirect Moreover, ú ti pân Pomelnicul M Ġ ă a” (The a” (The high necrology of Sucevi la Urechia 609 Pomelnicul M In 1524, Vladislav III confirmed control of the custom post of Calafat to ăQă stirii Bistri (The early Moldavian chronicles up to Urechia) (Bucharest: 1891). ăQă Ġ a, stirii Bistri 20. Ġ a already kept registersa already concerning kept incomes their and Ġ a Monastery), Ġ a (Necrology of Bistri 605 Necrologies were already kept in the 610 Mitropolia Moldovei From the middle of the sixteenth Ġ a Monastery) (Bucharest: Funda ă tulescu, “Pomelnicul cel mare al 607 606 ú 608 i a Sucevei Unfortunately, the Unfortunately, In Wallachia, the Wallachia, In Vechile cronici Vechile 44. 3-4 Ġ 139 ia CEU eTD Collection 611 levels which local urban and regional, atthe issued have might been letters other that indicate survival that of certain patterns to points archives in foreign preserved were communications provisory status and required subsequent in confirmation princely charters. a had chancery princely the outside produced documents the century, sixteenth the of end the to up binding.Therefore, legally chancery as inissued state the only charters the treated that tradition judicial a in lie to seems loss in this implicated most factor The lost. subsequently were documents of majority the although levels regional and urban both at out carried suggestdocuments orregisters written that mustdocumentation been have regularly quite lost to references is low. However, landtransactions of asrecords produced or institutions proof of individual ownership. furnish the need to to foreign entities with from communications broadened written culture use Thus, the charters. of land-related the of producers amongwere also most prolific the skills, literary active with individuals employed offices whose officials, state High-ranking be fordocuments recordkeeping produced beganto in multi-lingual same the communities. century, sixteenth the along Gradually, outposts. commercial significant time same the at were which communities, multi-religious and multi-ethnic with towns were communication place. safeguarding them, they depended on the new machinery literacyof which the state had put in andrecords land in estates, of accumulation However, their apparent. becomes record-keeping I am grateful to prof. Clanchy for this observation. this for Clanchy prof. to grateful Iam 611 The fact that most documents intended for administrative, political or commercial or political administrative, for intended documents most that fact The foreign information either toexchange with The numberof of used documents Thus, as a conclusion, I can see that among the earliest actors who used writing for for instruments asvaluable of documents importance the of awareness monastic Thus, * 140 CEU eTD Collection seem differto significantly from those identifiable in the extant data. documentthe andthesocial types, in involved groups their not commission anddo production that conclude I lost, subsequently been have may documents many if even Thus, Reformation. of impactthe by wasstimulated the documents the dissemination of the suggests that documents vernacular of output The century. sixteenth the of quarter last the by documents increase in production the significantof indicatea of dynamics practices writing the throughtime andFurthermore, distributions the documents the of period. researched Wallachian officialsstate scribes were stillunformed and andvaried the throughout written of thatthe practices indicate byWallachian produced noblemen letters Slavonic produce written thestyle languagedocuments. means Incontrast, and of the andto ability the had in Wallachia or Moldavia in either officials state high-ranking that fact the confirms from from reignsthe of Rare rich record relatively The lacklost becauseof practices. archival well the were of established ú andMichael theBravein preserved Transylvanian the town archives, 141 CEU eTD Collection king as in his first charters. South Slavonic influence became dominant in the Wallachian in the dominant became influence Slavonic South charters. first his in as king and was keen to call himself independence influence. kingof the from I(1364-1377)gained Hungary In1374,Vladislav prince by the grace of God and not a vassal of the Hungarian cavalerus named is charter ofthe beneficiary the and kingdom, Hungarian ofthe saints patron the Emeric, and Ladislas, 614 consequentlyand a further spread of faith Latin writing. Catholic the of acceptance the to obstacle an as served have might princes Wallachian and Moldavian over 613 Latin document was issued for Nov. the second 25))and fora private nobleman (DRH B, MayMoldavia vol.1,no. 4(1372, the 8)). Inonly 612 charters extant first for the characteristic influence Hungarian The inWallachia. especially charters, the of in formulary the and chanceries for Slavonicexchanged monasteriesand new Orthodox be began moreto richly endowed. Church. Eastern the with affiliation favored rulers Moldavian and Wallachian first the reasons, political for Possibly scarce. is evidence Latin administration. Hungarian and Church Catholic the by influenced was of writing adoption the that suggest first charters the documents, Latin otherearly Along with nobleman. a private and community, Catholic the missionaries, Catholic of behalf on Latin 6.1 EarlyMoldavian and Wallachian chanceries in employed offices. the light on clerks the can as itfunction shed additional and existence chancery’s the on drawing by begin will I education. of level and relations, family ages, status, their persons, literate first the were who investigate shall I record. The dating is according to the Catholic calendar. The charter is put under protection of the saints Stephen, saints of the protection under put is charter The calendar. Catholic the to according is dating The A possible association of the Western Church with the claims of Hungarian and Polish kings forthe suzerainty In Wallachia the first charter was issued on behalf of the Catholic community (DRH B, vol. 1, no. 3 (1369, Chapter 6 Who is writing? Literacy and scribes Political and religious oscillations are reflected in the organization of early of the in organization the arereflected oscillations andreligious Political in written were principalities Romanian medieval in the produced charters first The In Ishall chapter this focus mainly clerks on literate the whoproduced written the (DRH B, vol. 1, no. 3). fratres predicatores 613 In less than a decade after the first charters, Latin was Latin charters, first the after decade a than less In (DRH A, vol.1, no. 1 (1384, May 1)). 614 wasaddedby to a South Slavonic 142 612 CEU eTD Collection 623 622 621 620 619 618 chancery), Georgeta Ignat, “Constituirea cancelariei statului feudal moldovenesc” (Thefoundationof the Moldavianstate 9 (1928): 36; Gr diplomatique bulgare, serbe et slavo-roumaine,” Constantin Mavrocordat), Constantin (1400-1431). began tobe employed in Moldavianthe chancery during the reign Alexanderof Good the Gr Good the ofAlexander long the early reign as noticed as can be already It period. time earlier Wallachia despite the fact that the Wallachian chancery began producing documents from an (Contributions to the study of early Moldaviandiplomatic), and Bratei (1401), 616 l’Association Internationale d’Etudes du Sud-Est Européen siècles,” XVe et XIVe les pendant Valachie dela princière chancellerie etla Serbe diplomatique la entre “Contacts Ionescu-Niscov seeTraian common; in elements many had they since influence Bulgarian or Serbian show chancery Wallachian the to specific elements various whether uncertain are historians Other attested names of in names Goian, Moldavian chancery: the of attested employed clerks first The influence. Western significant a more to testify and formulary Wallachian the from to feast days, and according dating clauses, boundary as such centuries fifteenth early and fourteenth the during 617 chancery. via Wallachian camethe Slavonic characteristics Byzantine and South while Lithuania, and Poland of chancery offices Slavonic the through chancery Moldavian the reached elements Western chancery. Moldavian Romanian Diplomatics from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries) charters written in cursive; see615 Damian P. Bogdan, origin. Serbian or Bulgarian chancery. Ibidem. See Nicolae Iorga, “Cât de veche e veche de “Cât Iorga, SeeNicolae Ibidem, 19,no. 21 (1401). Ibidem, no.19 . 13. 12, no.11, Ibidem, DRH A, vol. 1, no.7. Bogdan, Formore about thissee DamianP. Bogdan, “Contribu The mastery of the language and the calligraphy of the first charters show a resemblance to the Bulgarian the to resemblance a show charters first of the calligraphy the and language ofthe mastery The ă mad ă Standardization of the documents and practices in Moldavia was established before established inMoldavia andpractices was of Standardization documents the Early Moldavian documents testify to a fusion of Western and Eastern elements in the , “Cancelaria domneasc “Cancelaria , AnuarulInstitutului deIstorie si Arheologie A.D. Xenopol 615 Diplomatica slavo-romana The first Slavonic scribesin the Wallachian office are considered haveto been of 623 ă mad ă proclamatio 621 , “Cancelaria domneasc suggest foreign scribes of PolishRuthenian origins.or Codrul Cosminului ă 616 în Moldova pîn Moldova în “to all those who shall see or read” bear significant differences , 53. ú coala la români?” (How early is the Romanian school attested?) school Romanian the is early (How la români?” coala 617 Certain elements of the Moldavian charters employed ă 9 (1935): 133; Michel Lascaris, “Influences byzantines dans la dans byzantines “Influences Lascaris, Michel 133; 9(1935): în Moldova,” ă la Constantin Mavrocordat,” (The Moldavian chancery up to up chancery Moldavian (The Mavrocordat,” Constantin la Byzantinoslavica Diplomatica Slavo-Romana dinsecolele XIV siXV.(Slavo- 10, No.2 (1972): 275. Revista Istoric 149. Ġ ii la studiul diplomaticii vechi moldovene (Bucharest: Imprimeria Na 9(1972): 107-33. 3,Leon No.(1931):4; 2 ă Român 618 ă 4(1935), 92-140;Nicolae Iatsco, 622 Ġ ional Native scribes 619 ù Tamash, imanschi and ă , 1938), 53. Bulletin de Lamura 143 ú 620 ti” CEU eTD Collection 631 scribes. former 630 the as function same the had to have seem they chanceries, central the in record of 629 Moldova,” prince’s council and high dignitaries from Moldavia and Wallachia) (Bucharest: Editura Academiei, 1968), 176. 1968), Academiei, Editura 627 (Bucharest: Wallachia) and Moldavia from dignitaries high and council prince’s 628 Slavonic. They were ranked higher than the former scribes and were assigned to write documents in 626 624 place. inMoldavia first the on credited and wasranked highly be to began chancellor the of office the century, sixteenth early the from on, Further high governor. the after inplace second it was In the Moldavia social scale. the higher on called of scribes a newclass and created had been personnel chancery the of specialization further time, same the about at Moldavia In chancery. Wallachian there are opinions though Even documents. of drafting in the a routine established chancery Wallachian the exactly harddecide when makesquite to it which oflinear evolution, There wasnoprocess slower. (1400-1431). 625 state in other among lastplace the ranked in was Wallachia of position chancellor the century, century. sixteenth middle of the (1495-1508), Great Raduthe of reign during the in Moldavia. wereestablished chancellor chancery. in Wallachian a standardization note of practices the one the does is recorded, documents of number the in increase an when century, sixteenth the of turn of the fifteenth century, various deviations are still attested after this period. Only after the Stoicescu, Gr language a as widely more used was Romanian vernacular when century, seventeenth ofthe middle the Until Stoicescu, Gr Nicolae Stoicescu, Nicolae Bogdan, Gr ă ă ă mad mad mad In Wallachia the standardization of practices in the chancery have been in to chancery seems the of practices thestandardization In Wallachia By reign the Stephen (1457-1504), theofficesof Great the of secondthe and third ă ă 629 ă 176. , “Cancelaria domneasc , “Cancelaria considers that this division was influenced by Polish practices; Gr practices; Polish by influenced was division this that considers Diplomatica slavo-romana , “Cancelaria domneasc “Cancelaria , Sfatul Sfatul Moreover, at the same time, the position of the chancellors began to be ranked , 173. , 184. Sfatul domnesc 624 that the formulary was settled by the beginning of by part of settled second formulary beginning the the that was ă ă în Moldova,” 178. Moldova,” în înMoldova,” , 35. ú 627 i marii dreg This points once more to a slower development of the 625 ă tori din The Wallachian second chancellor is attested 626 ğ ara Româneasc and the third chancellor only after the after only chancellor third the and 631 Conversely, up to the mid-fifteenth the Conversely,up to ă ăú mad i Moldova: Sec XIV XVII ă uricar , “Cancelaria domneasc “Cancelaria , hademerged. (The ă 144 628 630 în CEU eTD Collection in the chancery were usually lengthy; skills seem to have been learnt in the office, as during as office, in the learnt been have to seem skills lengthy; usually were chancery the in wealthy noblemen, offspring of highly positioned dignitaries. secular clergy state or Careers involved inthe transaction persons and the landconcerned. just the in recording specific very theyare cases as inmost modern documents, to closer called validity, juridical with a temporary documents a new of type Moldavia, brevity. In by a specific characterized parchment for writing charters in the two chanceries. The documents of the period began to be Wallachian offices, behind the ranks of ban and governor. 634 documents issued forprivate noblemen.See DIR A, vol.2, no.218. 633 632 laymen. were Principalities Romanian medieval status inboth principalities. Judging from names their and family scribes inrelations, the chanceries. princes’ institutions areattested.Thus, I concentrate mostlyon shall the personnel employed in the Only single documentsproduced byvarious and regional urbanchanceries or by monastic culture, notthere is much evidence of the practice ofthe written beyondword the prince’s offices. and familyrelations status, Theircareer, period: 6.2 Functionaries employedinthe prince’schanceriesduringthe early raise in number of the documents. the by influenced the and forbeen accounted have might useof asthe as paper well chanceries dignitaries. Sporadically certain names testify to monastic scribes, but they are used only singularly in both principalities. The old charter’s formulary survived inthe records made forthe religious institutions, but seldom in the Ibidem The scribes the early, first, during have seem period to enjoyed social aprestigious During the early period of chancery existence, the given restricted character ofliterate By the middle of the sixteenth century paper began to be used in addition to addition in be used to began paper century sixteenth the of middle the By 632 Afterwards, the position of chancellor raised to the third place of the ispisoc began to be used. The new documents written on be paper came on used.Theto began written newdocuments 634 They seem to have been young and young been have to seem They 633 The developments in the developments The 145 CEU eTD Collection 641 640 them. 639 sealed who chancery, of the heads the and charters, the wrote who scribes, between made were Stoicescu, also mentions ina footnote that the positionof scribeswas similarto that of the chancellorinMoldavia; see indicated in adocument from1401 that he instance had writtenforwith it ownBratei his (DRH hand A, vol.1, no. 21).Stoicescu Chancellor documents. the in chancellors called were scribes certain period early very in Moldaviain (see Bogdan,“Contribu 638 637 chancery. sealed it. Moldavian Moldavian chancery until 1422, when expand; numberof the scribes andchancellors began to in only werethe the scribes employed clerks fathers andtheir thetwo document, extant tothe heis son.According that Isaia he mentions Gârdu’s meant him when that possible son of Gârdu. in indicated hewasa that and1414 between in 1409 chancery 1420, attested Moldavian the Isaia, Chancellor century. fifteenth early the during documents to signed names two other scribe samechancery. in the 636 Societies 635 mentality. dynastic a reflects families certain of recurrence as the family context in the learnt were skills writing mightbe that It formerfrom scribes. selected usually were chancellors future early the period mentions the names of Bratei of names the mentions Moldavian office asblood-related noblemen. Thesigned first Moldavian in document, 1401, an facilitated augmentation of and social wealth standing. from the same families. A survey of several careers indicates that service in the prince’s office employedas of inthechancery as among successive generations scribes andchancellorswell in kin service chanceries attest state often among asdocuments the various members relations Ibidem, 29.no. Ibidem, 52.no. DRH A, vol. 1, no. 64 (1419). Despite certain opinions that there was no confusion between the position of scribe and that of the chancellor of the that and of scribe position the between confusion no was there that opinions certain Despite In the Danubianprincipalities the title In Wales” Medieval Late in of Literacy Impact “The Smith Beverly Llinos Pan is a title of Polishorigin for a nobleman. , ed.Huw Pryce (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 196. From the early fifteenth century sources disclose the clerks employed in the employed clerks the disclose sources century fifteenth early the From 638 Sfatul, Nineteen years later, Ivashko, son of Bratei (Ivashko Brateevici), is recorded asa is recorded Brateevici), Bratei (Ivashko of son Ivashko, later, years Nineteen 640 183, note 219. Only by mid-fifteenth century clear distinctions in the formulary of the charters A inscribe Gârduis attested Moldavian the inchancery 1407 635 Certainly noblemen had a strong interest in their or their relatives’ their or in their interest a strong had noblemen Certainly 639 Ġ Moreover, the same father-son between be relation pinned can father-son same the Moreover, ii lastudiuldiplomaticii vechi moldovene logof logof ă t, ă (chancellor) t (from the Byzantine 636 as its scribe and logothetos ú ti”), Ihave noted thatduring the ) was used for the head of the Literacy inMedieval Celtic Pan Tamash, 641 and it is 637 who 146 CEU eTD Collection possession. See also Cost See also possession. 648 647 646 645 year. In this context the number of charters received by priest Iuga might be significant. For Scribe Mikhail see Cost also Mikhail Scribe For be significant. might Iuga priest by received of charters number the context this In year. richest andinfluential most persons of his time. own become frequentthe he seems to oneof purchases through and donations prince’s andthe time over increased estates His politics. in foreign as well as office in the active been have to he seems chancery, of head Moldavian Asthe office. the inside from those early periods the during selected were chancery of the higher personnel the and in office the learnt were skills administrative that statement general the confirms which service, yearsof twenty-one is attested as a priest of a higher rank, confirmationof land estateshis together with Mikhailson, his (DRH, vol.1, no.196). In thelastcharter (1439) he new villages (see DRH A,vol.1,56, 102, no.128, 129,no. no.165). no. no.1439 In he received anew Ilie, andStephenfrom1436. 1424until Insomecharters ownedhe villages andadditional ten free to land found 644 643 642 himabout from continuously 1422 until 1470. an at early age office in hisservice prince’s hethe began seems that charters. Moldavian in the recorded clerks number of greater a year were this after Only chancery. Moldavian standing. economical and political initial a man’saugment might intheprince’s whatchancery extentservice illustrates to and also office in prince’s the employee neededan tobecome individual one that status the indicates Poland and therefore in the preserved were archives family His records. preserved of basis on the trace to possible information about his career are physical whoseexamples political property,andwhereabouts family relations, career, is rich. An analysis of his life course by reign (1457-1504) namesof mentioned. the Stephen are Greatthirty-five other the DRH 250,vol.no. 254, no.1, A, 279,260, no. no. 286. no.More than fifty villages recorded are inhis DRH A, vol. 1, no. 242. DRH A, vol. 2, no. 169. DRH A, vol. 1, no. 76. There are extant five charters received by Priest Iuga confirming his lands received from Alexander the Good, the Alexander from received lands his confirming Iuga Priest by received charters five extant are There DRH A, vol. 1, no. 76. See DRH A, vol 1. Mikhail is attested forMikhail isattested the firstin 1422, a time for therelatively early period early the of one is office, Moldavian the in chancellor and scribe Mikhu/Mikhail, ă chescu, Documente înaintede 643 ă chescu, Mikhail was the oldest son of a wealthy and influential cleric. influential and a wealthy of son oldest the was Mikhail Documente înainte de protopop. ù tefan cel Mare From 1424 until1436108charters are preserved, 9charters per , vol. 2, 501-5. , vol. ù tefan cel Mare 646 In 1443 he became chancellor 648 During hisservice of thirty-two , 505-6. 645 as there is information as there 642 647 after 644 147 It CEU eTD Collection attested as head of the Moldavian chancery. See Gr chancery. Moldavian of the head as attested 7ă (1902): 483cited inGr Nicolae Iorga, “Contribu another scribe who signed documents in 1555. The son of Dragot son The 1555. in documents signed who scribe another 655 654 involved. were name Christian same the with persons two (see DRH A, vol. 1, no. 146). This is the only attestation until 1464 and given the time span it is possible that 653 fact which points to the significance of Mikhail’s position (DRH A, vol. 2, no.no. 136). 138, no. 169). One ofthe thefirstin back him letters yearinvited Stephen ofNonetheless, hisprince. in reignwritten Moldavian became refuge took and(1457-1504) Great indeed the continuedStephen after Mikhail by Poland Moldova. Stephen to quit to inviteforced be would he himwascase in for at thirteennoblemen thePolish from request yearsdonations to come of (DRH the A, vol.Polish 2, no. 66, king, no. 89,Documente privitoare la istoria românilorCazimir, another brothers, (Costachescu, brothers, himself wrote a generous a wrote himself 652 more profitable than land exploitation. considered were offices state See period Stoicescu, this during Moreover, Poland. to exile his after only activities commercial chancellor under Stephen chancellor underStephen Greatandhis hethe Moldavian forson, Bogdan; servedthe princes centuries. three officefor Moldavia the to chancellors and clerks provided family his that fact the of illustrative also is case his “Logof T chancellor, activities. commercial least, not and, relations, diplomatic career, for apolitical endeavor the facilitated 651 286; DRH A, vol. 2, no. 21, no. 33, no.48. 650 chancery. of the as head attested is Petru Aron, Petru of the chancery. The last document sealed by him is inJan. 1454. See DRH A, vol. 2, no. 39. Inthe last reignof 649 career. political properties during hisservice, which tosignificantpoints wealth. significant histhan father’s Iuga.He was incontinuously the processof new acquiring properties. received land or bought newly or owned years 7ă DRH A, vol. 2, no. 201. DRH A, vol.2,no.119(1464).Another T DRH,58 vol.2, no. (1456).Poland In seemshe enjoyed tohave social standing, high asin 1456Cazimir Nicolae Grigora no. 279, no. 269, no. 254, no. 250, no. 234, no. 228, no. 225, no. 196, no. 175, no. 165, no. 1, vol. A, DRH Inthe last year and a half of Mikhail’s presence in Moldavia there is a document extant attesting him as head utul is attested. In1621, Mihail T utu remained in service until 1511. His son,Dragot 649 ă tul Mihul”tul (Chancellor Mihul), Mikhail is not the only such example. During the reign of Stephen the Great, another Great, the Stephen of reign the During example. such only the not is Mikhail in the Moldavian chancery, he received fourteen charters confirming his confirming previously fourteen charters he chancery, received intheMoldavian ă utu, made a similar brilliant career. Scribe in Scribe madeutu, career. 1464 brilliant asimilar 652 ú considered that his income came from commercial activities. See Nicolae Grigora His position in the state chancery allowed a certain social standing that Documente ă mad Ġ ii la istoria bisericii. noastre II, B salvus conductus ă “Cancelaria domneasc , D, No. 806) as well as liberty for hiscommercial activities, see Hurmuzaki, ă utu wrote adocument forVasile Lupu In (220). 1673 Mikhail T Studii Studii , vol. 2, .no. 111. He received several estates, customs, and money and customs, estates, several He received 111. 2, .no. vol. , offering security Polish the throughout kingdom for and him his 655 ă utu is attested in1430 cartularyin a from eighteenth the century ú His career is one of the longest known; he was i cercet ă mad Sfatul ă înMoldova,”In the seventeenth 215. century Dr ă ă ă “Cancelaria domneasc “Cancelaria T ri istorice , 133. ă utul, is attested as scribe in 1497. Ion Tautulovici is ă line ă 650 T ú ti.”, ă 19, No.2 (1946): 126.Sources attest his Mikhail’s land estates weremore land estates Mikhail’s utul is attested in the sixteenth century; see century; sixteenth the in attested is utul Anuarul Academiei Romane 653 651 ă andin chancellor 1475, în Moldova,” 176. Moldova,” în He also had a prominent 2, No. 34 ă utu is ă 148 gan 654 ú , CEU eTD Collection sixteenth century Moldavian nobility, itis also indicated that the three scribes employedthe in Moldavian mentions he is thesameperson, althoughquestionwhy itisa that firstfrom document his in1484and untilthatmay aroundsuggest 1492he never span time close relatively The dascal.” of Ion “brother he Toader, as person same the is was priest, son of a priest. In the prosopographical analyses by Maria Magdalena Szekely on the signed as “Toader1503). Insingle a case,documentin a from 1492preservedPopovi inacopy date is uncertain),(the Toader, ascribe, credincios pan Toader pisar simply Toaderdaskalbrother (no.259, 1484), in most of the cases (no. 1, 1487). Probably the same Toader is confirming his land estates as intriguing Toader, brotherof daskIon indicatedbrother thathe ofis a Iondask 662 661 263 (1502). 660 659 123. no. 658 Turdeanu, diplomatic activity of chancellor Tautu), 657 the chancery when possible; see Gr possible; when of chancery head the of the career the to advanced and period long a for chancery prince’s the in remained scribes previously state dignitaries. Inote in various examples that this is specific only after the turn of the sixteenth century, while Gr to dignitary keep the ofprince possible aformer and opponent. case Inthis keptBogdan father’s his dignitary. 656 forty-seven years. Moldavian chancery during the same time span. time same the during chancery Moldavian Ion brothers, thatthree possible in the Moldavian chancery. aninconsistentmanner Despite of itsigning theirnames,is and as one hisland attesting chancellor domains. asascribe charters four chancery, hereceived yearsin thestate of eight of service period “prince’s noblemen.” as highly reverently in “faithful charters noblemen,” They are addressed or the ranked. dignitaries, the prince’s adviser, and messenger on various diplomatic missions. century in the Moldavian chancery both as issuer as both chancery Moldavian inthe century fifteenth endwas active of the atthe who Luca, ofthePriest brother instance, Toader, as, for Iondask Ibidem, no.263 (1503). Ibidem, 179(1495), no. no. 192(1495), no. 196(undated charter, the editorsmodern dated itafter 1495), no. DRH A, vol.3, no.3, 10, 24, 25, 74-77, no. 130, 134,no. no. 204, no. 247, no. 293, 295no. and passim. During the fifteenth century Moldavian noblemen were called were noblemen Moldavian century fifteenth the During For his diplomatic activities see S. Gorovei“Activitatea diplomatic Usually new princes changed the acting heads of the chancery since this was an important position in which in position important an was this since chancery ofthe heads acting the changed princes new Usually ă mad ă By the end of the fifteenth century, a pattern emerges of kinfolk individuals employed individuals kinfolk of emerges a pattern century, fifteenth the of end the By havebeen to seems chancellors, the that of to similar scribes, of Moldavian The status considered thatthe careerof a scribe was undertaken short, asastep to apermanent position among the Études des littérature roumaine etd’écrits slaves et grecs des Princpautés Roumaines ă l (teacher) isattestedDRH invol. first 2, no.199(1475), 206;then A, no. his brotherCoste, who (scribe)179, (no. 1495), (faithful nobleman)263, (no. 1502),chancellor Toader and his brother,priest (no.286, Luchii 656 During his long service in the chancery, he became one of the first state first the of one became he chancery, in the service long his During 658 ü ” (son of priest) (DRH A, vol. 3, no.114). It is uncertain whether Toader, son of a They often received written confirmation of their land estates, such land estates, of their confirmation written They received often Toader diac ă mad ă l (Ibidem, no. 259(1484)), who signs variousin ways, as Toader, Ion’s Toader boier,pisar ă “Cancelaria domneasc “Cancelaria daskal ă SuceavaAnuarul Muzeului Jude l (ibideml no.249(1483),251, no. no. 252,253) then and the most (scribe)51, 1489), (no. Toader gr (teacher), Coste, and Toader were writing in the 661 662 (nobleman, scribe) (no. 196,1496), Fortunately, they received numerous land numerous received they Fortunately, 659 ă and recipient of documents.During and a of recipient în Moldova,” 152. înMoldova,” pan , under Polish influence; DRH A, vol. 2, ă a marelui logof Ġ ăPă ean tic (scribe)tic 1488) (no.32, and 5 (1978): 237-53; see also ă t IoanT 657 , 136. Toader boier, ă utu” (The 149 660 CEU eTD Collection Alexa, sonof a priest from Iassy) DRH A, vol. 2, no. 108. well as to prince’s relatives. See Stoicescu, relatives. prince’s to as well 668 667 666 665 664 286. 663 Ioan Cuza, 2002), 42-4. fifteenth the in throughout office Wallachian the together scribeswereemployed foreign natives and among that indicates them, names which Manyforeign are attested Moldavia. eleven names come downbescribes begin recordedin to largernumbers, by and reign the of (1448-1456), Vladislav II to us. The total in did reign namesof the Wallachian the Vlad Dracul(1437-1444) 1418.Duringof number of scribes’omitted. Only a few Wallachian namesclerks are attested until the end of the reign of Mircea the Old is still fewerthe Wallachian chancery. Even by the middle of the sixteenththan century scribes’ names are often in documents extant from the fifteenth century of and number thesmall abruptthe from standardization result may This record. to difficult of more the is them practices among relations in were employed as scribes in the Moldavian chancery. in asscribes Moldavian were employed the examples similarly indicate that by the end of the fifteenth century a number of sons of priests testify to the high social standing and wealth of the Moldavian scribes of the period. Other Good. Magdalena Szekely, Magdalena Popovi grandchildren of were brothers other and Luca, Priest Coste, Scribe his brother, with together Toader, chancery of Prince Petru Rare Petru ofPrince chancery alone Toader Scribe endowments, DRH 2303, no.108;A, vol. no. (“IonPopovi The status of Székely, See DRH A, vol. 3, no.127. DRH A, vol. 3, no.179. See,instance,for charters the received by above-mentionedthe Toader.DRH 3, A, vol. no.179, 196, 197, 263, ü 666 ; probably she did not consider him the same person as Toader, brother of Priest Luchii. See Maria In early Wallachia, data about various members of the state chancery as well as family The recorded land possessions and the noble status of ( their andthenoble land status grandfather The recorded possessions Sfetnicii lui Petru Rares 663 pan where the extensive family was recorded. receivedby In aproperty family wherewasrecorded. charter extensive the , borrowed from Polish nobility, was given to the most important noblemen of the country as country of the noblemen important most the to given was nobility, Polish from borrowed , Pan Sfetnicii lui Petru Rare 664 Negrea, or in a charter of family land partition it is mentioned that Scribe that mentioned is it partition land family of charter in a or ú were brothers. However, she does not mentioned the scribe who signed as signed who scribe the mentioned not does she However, brothers. were 665 , 48. who is attested as governor during the reign of Alexander the Alexander of reign the during governor as is attested who Sfatul, ú (Counselors of Petru Rare ofPetru (Counselors ü 28. Ion [son] Ion ofpriest); 668 ú PisalPopovici Alexa Ia ot ) (Iassy: Editura Unirestit Editura (Iassy: ) ăĠ ú i ii Alexandru ii (Written by (Written pan Toader ) 150 667 CEU eTD Collection 673 672 671 Wallachia), prince’s court. See also DRH B, vol. 4, no.22. 674 Studii de istorie medievala si Moldavia?), of stiinte chancery auxiliareby the periods certain during attested not charters are (Why Moldovei?” Tarii cancelaria din perioade unele pentru uricele “De celipsesc Punga, See Gheorghe chancellor. of the absence the in be drawn half of the sixteenth second the century Only after a new type missions. of document withdiplomatic atemporaryvarious on juridicalsent usually validity absent, was were instituted that chancellors couldthe when periods the mandatory for the juridical validity of the given document. given the of validity juridical the for mandatory These omissions transaction. the had witnessed who among dignitaries the recorded not were chancellors in the the of names asthe be incomplete, to lists seem witness the cases in certain Moreover, record are chancery. state the of Wallachian employees of careers the intracing difficulty significant difficult a constitutes this institutions, monastic of behalf on issued were charters Wallachian to understand since chancellor presence was 670 no. 86,87, 88 (1439)); Latzco (DRH B,vol.1, no. 127, no. 128 (1465)), no. 131 (1468)). 669 an early age at begantheir service scribes Wallachian that nonetheless indicates It still scarce. dignitaries. state high of kinsmen laymen, as scribes Wallachian reveal sources however, registered, are relations kin his monasteries. to of donations charters inthe especially century. that are recorded inthe are recorded that in early charters. the chancellor andscribes the between was, however,It specificfor chancery the Moldavian and isofgreathelp indistinguishing charters. for Wallachian characteristic sealisnot with prince’s the documents written newly during early the period. and chancellors in the Wallachian office as both of them were called See ibidem.. See also Stoicescu, See also ibidem.. See See, for instance, DRH B, vol. 2, no.122, 123, 124. See, forinstance, DRH B, vol. 2, no. 28, no. 49, no. 56; no. 97, no. 98. DRH B, vol. 1, no. 248, no. 281. Clerk Ban indicates that he is a son of the governor, the second office at the See also I.-R. Mircea, “Mari logofe “Mari Mircea, I.-R. Seealso Calcio (DRH B,vol.1, 72 no. (1431), 94no. (1441), no.110 (1453)), Coica (DRH B,vol.1, no. 64 (1429-30), In Wallachia, the names of the chancellors can be seen only from the witnesses’ lists witnesses’ the from only seen be can chancellors the of names the Wallachia, In describe ofscribes functions in the to terms the isused confusion Additionally, there 669 Hrisovul 1 (1941): 117. 670 corroboratio A clause in the charter introducing the chancellor endorsing the Sfatul, 674 Ġ i din din i 179-180. The Moldavian chancery often stopped itsactivity during Up to the end of the fifteenth century, the evidence is evidence the century, fifteenth the of end the to Up 1 (1999), 12. . Unfortunately, often witnesses were not recorded, not were witnesses often Unfortunately, . ğ ara Româneasc ara ă (sec. XIV -XVI)” (High chancellors from chancellors (High -XVI)” XIV (sec. 671 673 As a great majority majority early of Asa great Whenever a scribe’s status or status scribe’s a Whenever logof ă t (chancellor) 672 151 CEU eTD Collection Mateia Mateia 15 (DIR March A/XVI,from andthen 1, no.192), 1537to no.356, 364.Similarly no. 1540 (DIR XVI, 1, A Totru chancellor famous the replacing 1513, in T chancellor became who Isac, skills. literacy required functions both as chancellor, 680 679 678 Editura Academiei, 1973), 8. istorie alingvisticii române chancellor’s role. chancellor’s functions of the the be out in of carrying capable training provedto thechanceries practice. be acommon to ceased former scribes among from chancellors of election the Great, the Stephen of reign the after in Moldavia contrast, In century. sixteenth the throughout chancery Wallachian inthe practices of a continuity to testify and attestations sparse earlier the confirm chancery documents members. of The state anychanges the practices the indicate of century the sixteenth 6.3 Theemployeesofthestate chanceries and their practicesaftertheturn of coupled with state other dignities. during Wallachian period.the status have been high, as they are addressed by the princes as areaddressedbythe been high,havethey as state dignitaries. See Stoicescu, dignitaries. state 677 208, 244.no. 676 675 century. fifteenth the during endowments land written received 1424 shows up in the witness list as one of the first heads of the chancery. from scribe Wallachian asan active is who Coica, attested instance, For first chancellor. or and high second intheof officeposition earning remained for along time, consequently Especially in the early sixteenth century, I note a continuation between the function of treasurer and that of that and oftreasurer function the between continuation a I note century, sixteenth early the in Especially scribes. former as attested are chancellors all Great the ofStephen reign of the end the Upto See DRH B, vol. 1, no. 232, no. 242; DRH B, vol. 2, no. 49. Up to the end of the fifteenth century,Only two chartersthe status (undated). are 63 no. vol.1, extantB, DRH of written on behalf of scribes up to the sixteenth century; see DRH B, vol. 1, no. ú an, whoan, replaced chancellor1516 Isac in (DIR 1, no.A/XVI, 101) isattestedand aschancelloruntil 1523, ú ú seeSzékely, (chancellorfrom 1541to 1548), was previously employed treasurer. ashigh details For of careerof the The sixteenth-century Wallachian record, richer than the previous one, does not does one, previous the than richer record, Wallachian sixteenth-century The In Wallachia, little evidence is recorded about the scribes’ wealth, as they seldom 679 ă Probably widerspreadliteracy due tothe of skills,formernoblemen without utu, was previously employed as treasurer, see DIR A/XVI, 1, no. 80. See also the case of Gavriil 680 Sfetnicii lui Petru Rare From the early sixteenth century onwards, the first dignity of the of dignity first the onwards, century sixteenth early the From ú ti (Studies about lexicology andhistory of Romanianlingvistics) (Bucharest: Sfatul , 27. It is of Serbian origin, see George Mihail 678 677 ú , 82. Later, the better documented figure of Luca/Lupu Stroici was Stroici ofLuca/Lupu figure documented better the Later, 82. , At times, data indicate that the scribes’ positions were positions scribes’ the that indicate times, data At jupan was givenonly to the highest noblemenand high jupan 676 Yet, their status seems to seems status their Yet, (nobleman), highest the ă , 675 Studii de lexicologie 152 ú i CEU eTD Collection 3, no. 308; see also Szekely, see also 308; no. 3, ( scribe ranking a high as attested is Ivanco, Toader (1504-1517). Later was he attested as chancellor: DIRA/XVI,vol.1, 25;no. grandson The of chancellor Dubrul, 684 Moldaviain during the sixteenth century) (Chishinau: Pontos, 2005), 26. for disclose fourdocuments his generations: predecessors the wife of Vartic, the high governor, the second highest office in the Moldavian state. earlier. than century sixteenth in the recorded often more is scribes chancery and dignitaries state high between relation blood Moreover, century. seventeenth the upto chanceries state for the Great, the Stephen under chancellor Dobrul, A, vol.4, no. 156 (1595). charters he signed. See DIR A, vol. 3, no. 148 (1579), no. 188, no. 194, no. 224, no. 522 et passim. Seebetween 1579 and 1595.;also this is uncertain,DIR sincehowever, he did not record any further detailsinthe numerous 686 685 domnie în Szekely, see families, same the within dignities the preserve to noblemen Moldavian among practice general a was there century sixteenth 683 Certain highly positioned noblemenfamilies, however, suchas T the include beganfamilies low wererecruited which noblemenfree peasants. to of scribes and 682 names, mentioning just that the document “was written by a priest.” 681 Anuarul Institutului de Istorie dreg marilor “Lista Stoicescu, Nicolae See also (1580-1591). chancellor and treasurer as employed previously also in documents Moldavian chancery. the becontinued recorded to betweenonly various scribes and priests,whobeganproduce to scribes and chancellors began be in separated to Moldavianthe Kinshipchancery. relations of categories the it that seems century from sixteenth the Thus, merits. special for recompense as dignitaries state other to princes the by bestowed been have to seems chancellor Moldavian ChancellorDobrul hadason; Ivanco [son] of Dobrul, is attested asascribe during reignthe of Bogdan DIR A, vol. 3, no. 389 (1586); DIR A, vol.3, 380 no. (1586), no. 398 (1586), no. 468 (1588), no. 545 (1590). possibly the same scribe, Iona For the Forthe T See also Gr See also DIR 208,A Vol.2,no.184, no. no.210; DIR A, vol.3, no.They 495. do theirindicate not even Christian ă tori aiMoldovei sec XIV-XVII” (The list of high dignitaries from Moldavia: XIV- XVII centuries), 685 For one of the Moldavian scribes belonging to the category, newscribe ofscribes belonging to For one Moldavian the ğ For instance, the scribe Ionashco is shown to be son of a chamberlain and brother of ara Moldoveisecolul în al XVI- lea ă utufamily see DIR 3,A, vol. no. 380 (1586), no.468 (1588). Szekely considers that during the ă mad ă , Cancelaria Moldovei, Sfetnicii Sfetnicii lui Petru Rare ú i Arheologie “A.D. Xenopol” , 39. See also Virgil Pâslariuc, Virgil also See , 39. 180. (The political relations between grand noblemen and princedom and noblemen grand between relations political (The 681 uricar Gr ú , 88. 684 ă continued to providescribes and chancellors continued to mad ) during the seventeenth century. See DIR A/XVII, vol. 8(1971): 402. ă considered that the social pool out of ú co was very active in the Moldavian chancery Raporturile politice dintre marea boierime ă utu 683 or the family of 686 uricar 153 682 ú , i CEU eTD Collection from from theyserved. princes the suggest that their werewell services purchasepaid. They continued to landand receive estates kinsmen, ashekeptpurchasing parts of commonly the heldvillage from his relatives. his than position economic and social better a in been have to seems chancery, prince’s 688 (DIR A, vol.3, no. 161 (1579-82), no. 178 (1580). neighboring villages, and togetherwith hisfather, Chamberlain Vartic, had struggled to secure his land estates 687 cousins. Compared family toother members, Mih however, Cârstea Platon, priest------Toader, unordained priest------Stanca, married chamberlain Vartic Mih Cârstea asoriginally modest, have fairly been to seem means family the of The financial members. chancery of position fortunate the of illustration Mih ScribeCârstea thecase of decline. contrast, In began to of for Mih instance,scribe as, that familiesnoble certain of situation instability, the Ibidem, 410.no. DIR A Vol.3, 44 (1574),no. no. 76 (1575), no. 262 (1583).Additionally, he numeroushad disputes with ă ilescu shared asinglevillage,inherited from their his with grandfather, siblings and Additionally, other records of Additionally, records scribes’ andcapabilityland other wealth estates purchasingof | He was the andgrandson dignitaries, son of state which indicates ahigh social status. After the turn of the sixteenth century, due to social, political, and economic Figure 1 . Example . Example of anoble tree illustratingfamily kinrelations amongscribes in Zaharia, former governor ( former governor Zaharia, | 688 Although sometimes Moldavian scribes are attested to have sixteenth-century Moldavia Isaia ------Cârstea Mih vornic | Damian Cârstovici, scribe ) married Nastea | . ă ilescu, high scribe ( | ă ilescu himself is a good isa himself ilescu ă ilescu, employee of the uricar 687 ă ) ilescu 154 CEU eTD Collection charters of Neagoe attesting donations to monasteries do not record any lists of witnesses. of (ibidem,governor ,no.78).Ivan logofat isattestedonly March on15, 1512(ibidem, no.99)since first prince,Vlad the Young (ibidem,68 (1510, no.April 24)) tomove fromhisoffice aschancellor one tothe higher Theodor(a formerscribe) ismentioned aschancellor(DRH B,vol.2, 54). Inno. 1510 he returned with the new after holding the dignity of high 695 694 693 692 37. 36, romani?” la scoala of chancellor. function the Iorgaattain was and of scale the opinion social the that scribesascend could did notnoblemen belong lower way to the this classin that of noblemen,He considers Iorga, “Catchancellor. de veche e 691 690 689 became chancellor. land estates, sold their instance, the scribe Stanciu confirmed his inherited land property, which consisted of of land of parts consisted which property, inherited hisconfirmed scribeinstance, the Stanciu For estates. land considerable possessed scribes that suggests land property confirmed, the prince.pay Wallachiannoblemen, had usual taxesas for to other tothe asthey form yet. It is also possible that the high price of written documents was an obstacle landin forsecure theirwritten feel possible an neednot early they did to at the age, their careers, them of beginning the at Possibly charters. of written asrecipients attested wereseldom scribes chancery. in the life career a from noblemen Wallachian influential that fact the the and instability political Probably Moldavia. in office than shorter been have may chancellors of the chancellor (1512-1521). Basarab Neagoe by Young(1510-1512)wasremoved the Vladthe 8 January Wallachian Prince 1512, when was ranked the third highestchancellor. in Wallachiafor quite kepta long The evidence scribes served (1495-1508). in confirms thatcertain chancery Wallachian the certain time period, and often former scribes made a transition to the post of After Staico, in1505, March 26, Bogdan became chancellor of the Wallachian office (DRH B, vol. DRH 1, no. 32)B, vol. 2, no. 93. DRH B, vol. 2, no. 78. DRH B, vol. 1, no. 227. Stoicescu Ibidem,67, no. 380,no. no.409, 468.no. also Ibidem, no.398, no. 545. mentions that in Wallachia there was a transition from the function of scribe to that of Unfortunately for historians, even after the turn of the sixteenth-century Wallachian sixteenth-century the of turn the after even historians, for Unfortunately The practices in the Wallachian chancery The practices in onlyfrom Wallachian reign the chancery unfold the of Radu the Great 691 For instance, Oancea is attested as scribe from asscribe from 1491 instance, For isattested Oancea 693 However, as chancellorhe remained in the Wallachian office only up to 689 usually they were rich landowners according to the extant records. extant tothe according landowners rich usually they were stolnic 694 Other examples also illustrate that the careers of Wallachian of careers the that illustrate also examples Other . From 1508, Radu the Great was replaced by Mihnea the Bad and 695 692 until 1510, when he Yet, when Yet, 155 690 CEU eTD Collection documented especially towards the end of the century. Chancellors’ sons were employed as employed were sons Chancellors’ the century. of end the towards especially documented broadly was and sixteenth the century middle by of anincrease the shows chancery esteem period. during this scribeTudor, 701 office. prince’s the in was confirmed afterwards which there, secured was charter alocal and Râmnic in made was transaction the probably however, practice, later the Knowing Râmnic. of administrators urban ofthe front in paid was money the that states only It chancery. urban the in produced record 700 699 accomplishment. proper its guarantee to prince by the 698 (ibidem, 65)no. chancery and continuedof the to be mentioned head until 1510,as was when1509 replaced by in (ibidem, Oancea witnesses no. 81). among mentioned He is 40). no. (ibidem, attested is chancellor nephew,all estateshis to a monastery isnot mentioning brother.his Tudor, Priest Frâncu’sfirst son, ChancellorStanciu’s land estates for him attestedand his brother while confirmingcharters estateshis (ibidem, 157,no.146, inno. no.161, no. 162).In the first the charter, hesecured his last two charters (Sept. 1,as show1517 the family and relations Oct.betweenvariousscribe 29, literate 1517)individuals (ibidem, he donatedno. 78). Stanciu received another fourchancery, Stanciu, secured firsthis charterin1510. He mentions Priestin Frâncu as brother,his which helps to 1504. As early as 1505 a Tudor who describes himself as writer and notfigurein as does record the PriestFrâncu in islisted firstthe place, asuggestion of age and probablyhigh Yet hestatus. prince’s office, after a possible preliminary record in the urban chancery. in the twice estates They secured their have very been record-minded. seems Frâncu to prince’s service. in Iuga, was the Moldavian the Priestsimilar to priest, Frâncu, landestates. purchasers of ( 697 696 land estates. chancellor, Tudor. examples isPriest Frâncu,hisbrother, Chancellor Stanciu, and hisson,scribe then and family and the passing of chancery positions andfive villages slaves. between family members. One of the earliest ispravnic) See ibidem, no. 42. Ibidem, no. 35, no. 42. The charter secured in the prince’s office did not clearly specify that itwas Ibidem, 35 no. (1505).based on a witnessed1512 exchangeIn the among he Ibidem, state 115. no. highest dignitaries; aland andwas appointed Frâncu himself Ibidem ,no. 231. seems to have been in the prince’s service in 1512 as agent of the princely authority or The attestation relationskinship of among various members of Wallachian the Gradually, the Wallachian record unfolds to reveal several literate members of a single literate several toreveal unfolds record Wallachian Gradually, the (DRH B, vol. 2, no. 115), where he is attested as Priest Frâncu from Coste 699 701 Together with his brother, Chancellor Stanciu and his son, Tudor, Priesthisbrother, Chancellor son, TogetherwithTudor, hisStanciuand which indicates once more that the status of scribe was in particularly high in particularly was scribe status of the more that indicates once which 698 697 Later, he is attested among the first Wallachian laymen who purchased Similar to Moldavia, data show them as wealthy landholders and active and landholders wealthy as them show data Moldavia, to Similar 696 jupan ; the highest status is bestowed only on his son, the son, his on only bestowed is status highest ; the 700 In the documents, ú ti. The head of the 156 CEU eTD Collection similarly employed as chancellor and both of them increased their wealth through official through wealth their increased them of both and chancellor as employed similarly chartershenumerous secured,as landowners. hisappears family wealthy the In noblemen. high of large into properties the wereconcentrated land estates when small have ashe landduringseems been of actively aperiod social to crisis significant, purchased income His attain longerit higherpositions. the to took period, in later the office prince’s the chancellor, as thesecond is attested office. in theprince’s scribe son of Chancellor Coresi, Coresi, Scribe century. sixteenth the during office prince’s the to clerks of generations three seems to have had in his turn a son or a nephew identified aknown kinand respected relationship. employed relation the when only names grandfathers’ or fathers asrecord to a customary more been have for their position to this support point in relation privileged as theirrecords. learning. assumes, one and, name, estates, him their grant agrandson nephew and or choose would uncles childless or Grandfathers years of service in the prince’s chancery. prince’s the in ofservice years 708 707 chancellor. third the or ascribe as acted acting head of the chancery and the second chancellor706 (DRH B, vol. 6, no. 100 same position(1568)). chancery inthe (see DRH B,vol.7,Nn. 90 (1572). It might be that he still also to be noted that the children who were given theirhis father’s sons or grandfathers’ or nephews names were later oftenCoresi.84. As givenit was customary the Thus,to name one of sons with the“Little father’s name, Chancellor Coresi mightCoresi” have named one of might have been a son or nephew of Chancellor Coresi. It is it was customary to name the offspring with the Christian names of family members. See also Szekely, chancellor, and it is impossible that he would have signed in this way.the In medieval RomanianPrincipalities 705 704 703 702 sons, and fathers between only not attested is relation A strong chancellors. as later and clerks DRH B, vol. 6, no. 43 (1567). According DRHto B, vol.the 7, extantno. 232. record, Coresi received his first charter only after 29 DRH B, vol. 4,no. 54; in 1568 he is mentioned as chancellor together with fiveother chancellors, next to the A scribe who called himself “Little Coresi” signed a document in 1572, when Coresi was already the second the already was Coresi when in 1572, document a signed Coresi” “Little himself called who Ascribe Forone of the most detailed accounts see ibidem, no. 130. DRH B, vol. 6, no.10. See, for instance, DRH B, vol. 11, no. 27 (1595). 702 For the late period, an indicative Wallachian case is caseFor thelate anindicative period, Wallachian family, provided who Coresi the but also between between andnephews. orunclesand butalso grandfathers their grandchildren 705 Coresi in Coresi as began hiscareer 1538 a scribe 707 which shows that, given the numerous employees of employees numerous the given that, shows which The honored favorites seem to have been eager to eager been have to seem favorites honored The 706 708 and inonly 1575 His father was 704 It seems to Sfetnicii 157 703 , CEU eTD Collection thousand aspers.See DIR B,vol.4, 215no. (1576). 716 715 land property; DRH B,8, vol. no. 97 (1577). 714 high as it generated a new written document to ask forthe payment back. 713 712 writing is precisely document specified.. for scribes See and of chancellors payment the 1349, in written Code Law , the in already however, Serbia, 711 inPolish Late Medieval Towns,” was established earlier, in 1492, see (See Gr 710 (1969): 56. Coresi” (A great editor and printer from the sixteenth century: Coresi), information about Coresi, the printer, see Dan Simonescu, “Un mare editor editor mare “Un more Simonescu, see Dan For books. printer, the Coresi, about liturgical information Slavonic and Romanian known first ofthe one published who Transylvania, second ofhalf sixteenth the century (1560-1581) a printer ofthis wasname activeSibiu in (Hermannstadt) in 709 century. tradition suchaswriting, of established Poland, they were by sixteenthonly early the mature in amore with Even countries had existedearlier. drafting fortaxes document sporadically fromduringonly data sixteenth the century. suggest Theno records the fixed that land transactions. of private registration the as through income aswell second reign of Constantin (1741-1743) Mavrocordat for 250aspers,andfifty thecharter.aspers werepaidfor Another examplefrom the same period indicates that a“strip or abelt land” of was purchased villagebehundredwhile partof could sameperiod purchasedfor zloti.a duringa the layman, Andreica,paidforty zloti for (goldcharters and coins) two 14for a title-deed, in for price washigh.the Forinstance, paid redaction the documents 1585 acertain of increased duringincreased period. this payment forpayment writing for acharter the laymentwo Radu andMo DIRB, vol.4,no.187. The price of the a gipsy slave during period between could range andfive hundreds a See, forinstance, DRH B, vol.7, no.128 (1573); DRH B, vol.8, no. 5 (1577). Itwas part of a village that a certain memberof the community inherited afterthe partition of the common DIR A, vol. 3, no. DIR 337,A, vol. 3, no. 353. SeeDIR also DIR A, vol. 2, A,no. 77. vol. 2, no.77. Nonetheless, the price recorded might have been particularly In his second reign in Moldavia, he established the taxes. See Cogalniceanu, taxes. the established he Moldavia, in reign second his In In Poland the exact amount of taxes to be paid for the redaction of various documents was established in 1511 DRH vol.7, B,no. 232(1575-6). More membersliterate might haveexisted the Coresi in family thebecause in ă mad The price to be paid for the redaction of written documents began to be mentioned Tentative asthe records are, the extant taxes indicate that during the sixteenth century Another source of scribes’ income was writing private charters, the demand for which the demand charters, private writing income was of scribes’ source Another 710 InMoldavia suggest narrative sources thatthey were established only under the ă , Cancelaria Moldovei Acta Poloniae Historica Dushan’s Code, 85, no. 129. 715 Corpus Iuris Hungarici , 155 and note 3). See also Agnieszka Bartoszewicz, “The Litterati Burghers Litterati “The Bartoszewicz, Agnieszka also See 3). andnote 155 , For instance, chancellor Coresi received a Gipsy slave as a 83 (2001),HungaryIn 17,19. amountthe of tax the , I, 548-550., I, 711 714 Studii ú ul. ú i tipograf din secolul al XVI-lea: al secolul din i tipograf Cronicile Romaniei 716 ú i cercet 709 Not in the last instance ă ri debibliologie III, 183). In 158 713 712 11 CEU eTD Collection 719 ù charters for Harvat mentionchancellors were exemptfromthat the payment of atleast the some taxes, as two out princeof six original “had pricesdignitaries.even for Possibly thehighest wereexpensive that forgivendocuments of written the payment of the Basarab fifty-five charters commissioned onbehalf noblemen survive. mayof suggest This horse,” which individual for period, the dignities. state he held other when of years six period former from the is attested nocharter while year, per acharter chancery,almost his service inthe prince’s during werereceived All them of new and purchases. landestates hisprevious confirming charters (extant) eight whoreceived (1512-1521), Basarab Neagoe under chancery the head of of Harvat, is that case interesting Moldavian or Wallachian noblemen received so many written donations as chancellors. An Moldavia and uptothe middle of sixteenthinthe century Wallachia, no group other of involved. actively were noblemen high Wallachian many which activities firstflourishingtrade which halfof century the sixteenth inthe up were and to 717 wealth. significantand brought prestige, honors besides position, their that indication an is which clerks, various by made acquisition land permanent to points record the Nonetheless, accessible. more were documents written for their services. Itcommonly inherited land. Consequently,itis not clear much how clerks mighthaveis received possiblefrom members family other the thatexclude to charters family falsify because sometimes they did they had a special status at the princely court, Stoicescu, 718 descendants of were familiesscribes of that high status. indicates dignitaries state high among was or grandfather father their that fact the however, inWallachia were elected from among former scribes who did not belong to the high noble families of the land; tiin DRH B, vol.2, no.121, 144, 167, 171, 172, 179, 204, 206. See also Stoicescu, Seealso Heisattested ashighconstable from 1508to 1509 andas high treasurerbetween 1510 and1514.See Nicolae Ġ ific ă According to my reading of the sources, until the middle of the fifteenth century in century fifteenth the of middle the until sources, the of my reading to According , 1971), 63. Dic 718 This is one of the highest numbers of charters received by aWallachian by received charters of numbers highest the of is one This Ġ tionar al marilordreg Sfatul , 175., He considers that due to the required knowledge of written skills, chancellors 719 and a significant number in itself, as from the reign of of Neagoe in as from reign itself,the number and asignificant ă tori din ğ ara Româneasc 717 Another source of income might have been the been have might income of source Another ăú i Moldova: sec.XVII XIV (Bucharest: Editura 159 CEU eTD Collection (1478-9). 725 (1463-1470): Radu the Handsome sent one of his scribes, Constantine, to Br 724 Theodorus Bolo Theodorus 723 722 721 history) (Bucharest, 1969), 130; Giurescu, 720 tax. the of part constituted Moldavian throne. Moldavian the for rivalries noble endless the during politics internal in role important an played have estates in written form in a period when written documents began to be more credible. financialthe means enlarge to theirlandbutalso estates in apreferential status securing these information is more elliptical. of envoys One the Bra sent to Bra 723 letters. later, of written information oral or, of carriers princes, andWallachian Moldavian the of asmessengers and arescribes recorded chancellors administrations, Transylvanian urban upon conditions.the agree to impossible, was if that or, to bepaid amount decrease the try to to Istanbul sent to inwho 1456, when Moldaviansthe pay agreed to firstthe tribute tothe Ottoman Empire, was regular wasfunctions.first Among the Moldavianthe attested chancellorMikhail/Mikhu, of their wasone this that suggests emissaries foreign as personnel chancery’s of the attestation proto-diplomats. The abundant asthefirstrecorded abroad, themselves distinguished Constantine, to Bra to Constantine, examples. For instance, their during ofdocuments as periodthe aremany of missions; there diplomatic producers the Wallachian Prince Radu the Handsome sent one of his scribes, Bogdan, Bogdan, In one In of the political missions by Moldavianthe Prince Ilia DRH A, vol. 2, no. 58 (1456). DIR A, vol. 1, no. 259. Henri Stahl, Henri ú ov administration as well as to the Transylvanian prince. Besides their economic wealth, chancellors and scribes of the state chanceries seem to chanceries seem state the of andscribes chancellors wealth, their economic Besides The scribes sent toBra Documenteprivitoare la Rela Documente privitoare la Rela ú fulfilled the function of legate. See Iorga, See of legate. function the fulfilled Controverse de istorie social 721 ú ov. 722 Later, alike Moldavian chancellorsscribes andWallachian and In the frequent Wallachian and Moldavian missions exchanged with exchanged missions Moldavian and Wallachian frequent the In 724 Scribe Oprea, in his turn, carried Basarab the Young’s letters to the 720 Consequently, the employees in the prince’s office had not only Consequently,in prince’s had employeesthe the office ú ov as envoys of Moldavian or Wallachian princes are recorded Studii de istorie social Ġ Ġ iile iile ă româneasc ğă ğă rii Române rii Române Acte Acte ă (Controversial issues about the Romanian social Romanian the about issues (Controversial ú ú ú (1546-1551), the Moldavian Chancellor ti cu Bra ti ti cu Bra ti ú ă i scrisori ,251. ú ú ú , 869no. (1548,July 2). ov ov by Vlad Dracul(1433-1446) ovul ovul Dú ov. ú ú i cu i cu i cu 725 In certain the cases Incertain ğ ğ ara Ungureasc ara Ungureasc ă ă , , no.115 no. 82 no. 160 CEU eTD Collection (1474). 733 732 731 730 729 728 727 could actively participate in its performance were perceived as unique innovators. This innovators. asunique perceived inits performance were participate could actively higher social position, wealth, and status. Written culture was restricted and persons who of Moscow, reign of Stephen the Great, is attested as Stephen’s envoy Bra envoy to as isStephen’s attested of Great, the Stephen reign the chancery during in theMoldavian active Vulpas, scribeFor instance, andchancellor the similarly diplomatic with conducted administrationsthe relations of towns. Transylvanian the Moldavian ambassadors Polishto the KingAlexander. and even to the Hungarian king. Hungarian the to even and Bra the asenvoy to attested is repeatedly instance, for Tatul, Chancellor havemissions. mostactiveof conveyors the among seemto diplomatic remained chancellors documents. 726 PolishGiurgea,to the KingAlexander. Lithuania, and Moscow. Among them, Scribe Matia scribes century, fifteenth the endof at the theGreat by Stephen established relations foreign multiple were often amongWallachian prince Radu Paisie.” the messengers of his diplomatic missions Bra forprivilege the sentperson to Poland,as the was referred to as “Michael,scribe my truthful and honorable nobleman.” Possibly he was the same Michael, who was active during Vlad Dracu’s reign. He wrote the Bogdan, Cost Cost SeeCost Tocilescu, Tocilescu, DRH B,vol.1, no. 82 (1437), no. 90(1440). Bogdan, ă ă chescu, chescu, Thus, in service office prince’s the wasan opportunity brought employee the a that to In Moldavia as well, active chancery scribes are attested as the first diplomats. In the diplomats. first asthe attested are scribes chancery active well, as In Moldavia ă Documente privitoare la Rela chescu, Documente privitoare la Rela 727 534 documente 534 documente 731 Documente Documente Later on, after the second half of the sixteenth century, Wallachian scribes and scribes Wallachian century, sixteenth the after half second the Later of on, and one year later, in 1499, the scribe Costea was enumerated among Documente ú ov merchants in merchants ov 1437, ù ù , 338.no. , 332,no. 337 (undated). tefan, v tefan, ù tefan vol.2, no. 141. no. vol.2, ol. 2, no. 180. 2, no. ol. 729 728 , vol. 2, no. 173. no. 2, vol. , Like Scribe Nanul, he delivered the “truthful words of the Ġ iile Ġ iile 730 ğă ğă rii Române In 1498, the scribe rii Române 726 and is also attested as a producer of internal ú ti cuBra ú ti cuBra 732 ú was sent, together with Governor Moldavian scribes and chancellors ú ovul ù ú andru was sentto the high knez ovul ú ú i cu ov. ú ğ 733 i cu ara Ungureasc ğ ara Ungureasc ú ov administration ov ă , no. 49. no. ă , n , o.87 161 CEU eTD Collection Documente deistorie României.a Clec the teacher of his son Stephen. his son of teacher the ù private PrinceThe Moldavian offspring.hired princely Petru instruct attest teachers to home. data at Later least, some children were taught at Iassumethat, and laymen they were there were professional teachers for the offspring of noblemen. of offspring for the teachers professional were there of attestations Several monasteries. home, in the family,learned at skillswere literacy clear whetheris not it Consequently, Moldavia. or Wallachia from mother, or rather, father to son,6.4 Education of the personnel literate or whether they were taught in 737 religioase a romînilor pân also suggest noblemen that hired private teachers fortheiroffspring. See Nicolae Iorga, 736 735 734 case of quo, as means topreserve financial the status the social it necessary the instability provided helpedan preserveoraugmentnoble existing status.Further, during thetimes of and political financial benefits. capacity certainly led appreciationto among their fellows, a risein social status and, notleast, personally through his land ownership. personally careerand through inherited; securehis noblemannoblemen’s positions every hadto position werenot Principalities, Romanian medieval in the As provided. it benefits political and economic place was nolonger so closed and elite-oriented in Moldavia, which testifies once more to the dignitaries alike in Wallachian state interested if equally remained chancery even service, this young Moldavian theirand for inthe and relatives. chancery secure leadingpositions chiopu, himself possessing active writingin his skills, willindicates amountbethe to paid to Iorga, ed. DRH 199, A, vol.2,no. no. 201.In1475 Ion 3. romanesc,” trecutul in sociale “Clasele Filitti, John Oxenham, There are no attested schools during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries in either in centuries fifteenth and fourteenth the during schools attested no are There Uricar Domnia Cârstea Mih Cârstea Literacy. Writing, Reading and Social Organisation 734 ú i via Consequently, certain influential families tended to monopolize the role the monopolize to tended families influential certain Consequently, ă la 1688 Ġ a lui Petrua lui Vod ă ilescu suggests. ilescu . Ġ 737 iaHurmuzaki) (Bucharest: CarolGöbl, 1900), 685 no. (1602,April 30) Moreover, several books are listed among the princely the listed among are books several Moreover, dasc ù ă chiopul ă l dasc (teacher) in the Moldavian chancery suggest that ă l (John the teacher) signed his first charters. Later data Later charters. first his signed teacher) the (John (The reign and life of the Prince Petru Schiopul) In Schiopul) Petru Prince ofthe life and reign (The 735 A position in the princes’ chancery in Aposition theprinces’ (London: Routledge, 1980), 66. 736 Their names suggest that suggest names Their Istoria literaturii Istoria 162 CEU eTD Collection 743 Cuza” Ia Todera (Chishin Gerd Franck, “Un mare ctitor-boier: Luca Stroici” In Stroici” Luca ctitor-boier: mare “Un Franck, Gerd see bibliography a detailed For Poland. and Transylvania, to Germany from ranging proposed been have places 742 narratives. See Tatiana Celac, ed., Celac, See Tatiana narratives. 741 The Romanians:History A East-Central Europe crafts was practiced in Wallachia and Moldavia at other social levels as well. Wallachian Huniadi. of Janos court the remained at 1418) had courtof up atthe grown his Hungarian the the Similarly king. Impaler, Vlad son, (1386- Old Mirceathe Wallachian that Prince suggests the record indirectinstance,For an for raising. aproper sentabroad descendants exchange of aprivate disclose rather princely’s thatheindicate in probably studied abroad, Poland. language and Polish the Latin alphabet the with his familiarity Luca Stroici, activities of home, in Transylvania. at or monasteries, in or Poland be donepossibly movements influenced Moldavian the only attested schools. princely practices. followed Universitar Cr /ă prince, Moldavian the of instance adaughter for as use written communication, to leastnot onlybut boysdaughtersinstructingseems were acquainted that at their offspring. It 739 738 belongings. Moldavia,”in origin. For more information about this see Maria , “Protestantism and Orthodoxy in sixteenth-century 740 DRH D Vol. 1, No. 53. Thelocation where Chancellor Stroiciwas schooled isstill the subjectof debate in the literature. Various The practice to send children for education abroad is mentioned in the seventeenth century Moldavian century seventeenth the in mentioned is abroad education for children send to practice The ă Bogdan, Ibidem. Thefirst attested school Cotnari at was founded by Despot Voda (1561-1563), aProtestant prince of foreign pu ciun and Ovidiu Ghitta, eds, ú ú neanu is attested as commissioner of written documents. written of ascommissioner isneanu attested cu, ă ú It seems that the custom of sending children abroad for the acquisition ofschoolingevidenceDirect however, about is abroad, during sparse period. Sources this various Counter-Reformation and Reformation the century, sixteenth the of end the to Up u: Hiperion, 1990), 195. i, 2004), 295-6. Documente arhive biblioteci polone , ed.Bogdan-Petru Maleon Alexandru-Florin and Platon.( ă Clujan 738 The Reformation in Eastern and Central Europe Other princes as well as high state dignitaries had the same practices of ă , 1998); Maria Cr (Aldershot:Ashgate, 2002); Jesuits foundedhad aLatin school Jassy at (Vlad Georgescu, , ed. Matei Calinescu (Ohio: Ohio State University, 1984), 61. Churchand Society inCentraland Eastern Europe. Letopise ă ciun, Ovidiu Ghitta and Graeme Murdock, ed., Ġ ul 743 No. 57. ğă rii Moldovei Confesiune 742 ( Aldershot: Scholar Press, 1997), See also Maria (The (The chroniclel of MoldavianCountry)the ú Iassy: Editura Universit Editura Iassy: i cultur 740 Regular schooling continued to 739 ă în Evul Mediu: InHonorem Ion Most probably, Most noblemen (Cluj Napoca: Presa Confessional Identity in 741 For instance, the instance, For ăĠ ii “Alexandru Ioan “Alexandru ii 163 CEU eTD Collection 748 747 Sept.30). 745 746 documente.v from prison is also noteworthy. Polish ZamoyskyChancellor by Moldavianthe Chancellor Luca Stroici forfreeing his son study. for Sniatin of Consul the to son his he sent as standing social high had have might Petru that nonetheless, seems, It sender. the of status not social type does tell of aboutthe anything ageor source Unfortunately,education, the Petru is in basic education abroad It is recorded 1582. aletter of grievance of layman, a Moldavian Walachus various than In of crafts. supposedlyone learningMoldavia, aboutthe early of the examples frominformation about the training of chancery staff. The early information hardly attests Jassy,more whose son, sent to Lviv “for education,” died there. 744 have been hired for instruction in foreign languages. least some of the high noblemen, assumptionthe abroad thatmight schooling have supports for been at a practice Moldavian In certainmoreinlearned languageby a society. Moldavian TheknowledgePolishthe of certain situations it seems children of Moldavianthe highprinces or noblemen mighthave that grown presumablyup abroad, a foreign person could who sent his son to Bra issuedby Moldavian in1436 Prince Iliathe letter is a attestations earliest the Oneof Poland. or Moldaviaand Transylvania Wallachia or between apracticechildren exchanging of exchangeddisclose Transylvania with letters available. However, it seems reasonable to assume that such practices might have grown out have mightgrown such practices assume that to itseems reasonable However, available. forduring seventeenth the is information century; earlier periods only unsubstantiated In a narrative from the seventeenth century. See Celac, century. seventeenth the from a narrative In Ibidem, no.190(1496-1507). Iorga Nicolae, “Documente ale Mitropoliei din Iasi” (Documents of the Jassy Bissopric) In Bogan, Cost ă chescu, Unfortunately, neither direct, nor indirect evidence allows us to grasp any grasp any specific indirect allowsusto evidence nor neither direct, Unfortunately, The direct evidence about schooling evidence abroad The direct about Documente privitoare Rela la ol 5, No. 25. Documentele moldovene ú ov “ ad docendum rasoriam artem.ad docendumrasoriam Ġ 746 iile ú ti înainte de The information might be another indication that the that indication be another might information The ğă rii Române ú ù on behalf of a tailor from the town onbehalffrom a tailor town of Roman of the tefan cel Mare ú Letopise ti cu ti Bra 745 747 748 The letter of addressedtothe letter gratitude The or in the monasteries is attested only isattested monasteries orinthe Ġ ul ú ovul ğă ” , No. 200 (1436, June 9). 744 rii Moldovei ú i cu i cu ğ ara Ungureasc ,223. ă , no. 290 (1599, ,no. Studii si 164 CEU eTD Collection 749 noblemen that: Brave. the Mikhail of deeds the about by a Wallachian forchancellor, instance, in wasused 1597 by Baltazarfor his Walter work inclinations. They are attested as library owners and writers of chronicles.A chronicle written endorsed. begantousesignatures sporadically chancellors and princes century, sixteenth middlethe of the instance, after For chanceries. Wallachian and Moldavian in the practices Western new of implementation the to led however, writing, training.improper and knowledge partial their to testifies arbitrary, even sometimes text, the in formulas pre-existing The usageof certain acraft. were rather activities For them scribal intellectuals. first mighthave among early been reckoned literates indicate failsthat to similarly chancellors have been superficial.only Lackof mentions any of early libraries belonging toscribes and mastery the language aforeign scribes, Slavonic of the bynative them, for seems to exceptional situations. children. Documents seem to have been resorted to only indicateto hostile situations or is and about beingthere children oral for norecord agreements, fosteringtraveling or placed of an older tradition. As most of the fostering of children seems haveto been based on private chronicals) Wallachian internal the to compared Brave the Michael about Walter ofBaltazar Chronicle (The contemporane” 750 Istoria literaturiiIorga, See practices. notarial Western by influenced been have to rather seems it however, documents; the of to began ofsignatures usage the that be employedonconsidered documents Iorga as a new formNicolae of authenticity in consequenceConstantinople. in up of the simplificationbrought was who of the formularyTurcitul, signaturesGreek. are in See DIR A, vol.2,no. 159,no. 162.InWallachia Greekwas introducedby Mikhnea In Moldavia, In itwas introduced first the fortime by of origins,a prince foreign Despot Vod Dan Simonescu, “Cronica lui Baltazar Walter despre Mihai Viteazul în raport cu cronicile interne cronicile cu raport în Viteazul Mihai despre Walter Baltazar lui “Cronica Simonescu, Dan Cultural Cultural with relations neighboringthe cultures with a better-established tradition of It seems, nonetheless, the level that duringschoolingof this period waslow.least At Studii 749 Chancellors bebegan to mentioned first asthe lay individuals intellectual with , 102. ú i materiale de istorie medie Walachico conceptum, sermoneaDn.Cancellario atqueabipsoWaiwoda 750 3 (1959), 55 The author declared in the dedication to the German manu propria in the charters they charters the in ă (1562-1563). His 165 CEU eTD Collection No. 6(1959): No. 2. documents concerning RomanianPolish and relations from period the 1589-1622),” Editura Academiei, 1979). (Bucharest: century) sixteenth The archives: inPolish found ofRomania history the concerning (Documents 756 306. Stroici,” “Luca See Franck, today. proved see Ha Melanchton; Camerarius, Carion, as such ideas Reformation of sympathisers the mentioned Hasdeu authors the Among himself. chancellor ofthe hand belonged to ChancellorStroici. He described itas being writtenon four files of parchment, inSlavonic, by the 755 ú 3ă 754 753 chancellors Wallachian and Moldavian alike that again indicates it uncertainty, this of beganRegardless him. to to be among the first withis it was addressed andexchangeofletters friendship letter thatthe Zamoyskee, possible laymen of their timeshisduring Polishnobility the relations timeaswellhis given and with the generally with literacy activities.him.been to promised in 1597by Polishthe chancellor, JanZamoyski, he askedfor a the Brave. See Iorga, Brave. the 752 751 noblemen. Polish noblemenMoldavian an conducted who active correspondence political and with private library. a private owned who laymen Moldavian first approbatum contextum, in aula Targowistea obtinebam medieval Romanian Principalities. Romanian medieval of in aperiod cultural renaissance whichmaybeconsidered the seventeenth the century, and culture written with a restricted period theprevious between transition madeprinces, the LucaStroici/Stroicz, century. end sixteenth of the employee. chancery some least of at preocupations theliterary to ittestifies is uncertain, chancellor Wallachian 757 i filologie See Ilie Corfus, ed., In 1861, atthe University of B.Lemberg, P.Ha rintele filologiei latino-române,” (Luca Stroici: the father of Latin-Romanianfilology) in Concerning the treasurer and then chancellor Luca Stroici see Bogdan Petriceicu Ha Petriceicu see Bogdan Stroici Luca chancellor then and treasurer the Concerning He acted as treasurer and then chancellor as from 1580 to 1591 and thenfrom 1595 to 1610. The chancellor was identified by Nicolae Iorga as Theodosie Rudeanu, who acted as chancellor under Mihail under chancellor as acted who Rudeanu, Theodosie as Iorga Nicolae by identified was chancellor The Ibidem. See Sulkowska,Irena “Noidocumente privind rela by be attested the began to literacy activities chancellors of inMoldavia,Similarly , ed. Grigore, Brâncu 756 Istoria literaturii, Documente privitoare la istoria Românieicuprinse arhivele în polone. SecolulalXVI-lea In a rather political letter addressed to an unknown Moldavian chancellor Moldavian unknown an to addressed letter political arather In 752 757 Given the fact that Luca Stroici was the chancellor in Moldavia ú i (Bucharest: Editura Academiei,1988). 8. 754 Among other literate preoccupations, he was one of the ú deu. “Luca Stroici,” 70. However, his affirmation cannot be cannot affirmation his However, 70. Stroici,” “Luca deu. ú deu discovered thecatalogue of private the library that had Ġ iile româno- poloneperioada 1589în -1622(New 753 who acted as chancellor under six 755 Similarly, he is one of the first the of is one he Similarly, . 751 Although the name of the of name the Although kronike woloska Studii Revist ú Studii delingvistic deu, “Luca Stroici, “Luca deu, ă deIstorie which had 166 12, ă CEU eTD Collection 759 Institutului de Istorie from hired of they werefrom Catholic ranks origins. Moldavian Later, the the Transylvania middle of the fifteenthup tothe considered documents, that written the of particularities the on basing hisstudy century, Moldavian scribes of the Latin documents were of Polish Arheologie “A.D. Xenopol” Gr abroad. weretrained documents andGerman Latin ofthe scribes someof least the for scribe the Latin envisaged documents. that requested was the might assume one chancery.in Therefore, wereactive Wallachian the documents of Slavonic scribes several reign timeRadu Paisie’s of at the is known that it well but languages, Slavonic in or Latin trained ascribe needed Paisie Radu Prince doesnotmention whether The letter 758 and trained “a asked forTransylvania. Radu from (1534-1545) well Sibiuof Paisie administration the Latin from request scribes to been mighthaveit a practice indicates that letters Wallachian hadwhich thescribes thanfrom of they carriedLatin documents documents out the wrote. missions, political the from known better is information available rare the Consequently, mentioned. seldom but are names the Even names. their besides documents German is of little knowntheproducers Latin and about Unfortunately, correspondence. external Wallachian statechanceries intheMoldavianand active oftheLatindocumentswhowere 6.5 Scribes multiplied. owners library and works, important of authors times, their of intellectuals as attested scribes Later, from the middle of the seventeenth century onwards, the number of chancellors and Panaitescu,“Documente slavo-române dinSibiu (1470-1653),” no.47. See ù The Wallachian prince’s request for a scribe from Transylvania might indicate that at that indicate might Transylvania from a scribe for request prince’s Wallachian The Even less information isEven less information their available ethnic about origins background. or of One the for mainly used were documents German and Latin exceptions, early few very a With tefanGorovei, “Nicolae (Milescu) sp 758 learned ú i Arheologie “A.D. Xenopol” scribesince theprevious onegotsick andIdonothave any left.” other 21(1984): 179-182; idem, “Unc ă tarul. Contribu 23,No. 2(1986): 681-98. Ġ ii biografice,” ă rturar uitat: Logof Anuarul Institutului deIstorie ă tul Grigoratul ú ,” ă Anuarul mad 167 759 ă ú , i CEU eTD Collection whom he had sent on a political mission three years before. whom a politicalmission three on he had sent 767 of Bistri of town the administration Rare asPetru however, tohavebeen fidelity seemed questioned, their Georgius behalf de Revelles on of L Prince by issued affairs, commercial on letter A German princes. Moldavian the of confidence prince’s behalf, mightsupport which ideathe thatthey had a positionprivileged andthe the on names own in their documents issue to able been have to seem scribes some Moldavia, administration that he would treat the scribe with honor and remunerate him accordingly. of Sibiu letter request tothe his in promised RaduPaisie Prince position. Wallachian The scribes. native with along missions diplomatic with chancery in the service combined have might documents issued.is It possible,however, foreign that scribes, given theirlanguage skills, the language of the to according havechanged to seem names Christian The scribes. 768 766 765 20. 764 763 nostrum. 762 task, seeSzekely, task, 761 760 litteratus, as“Georgius Wallachian such princes or ofthe Moldavian servants literate notaries or by accomplished missions foreign indicate alike documents Wallachian and Moldavian The priests. Ibidem Ibidem, Iorga, Panaitescu,“Documente slavo-române dinSibiu (1470-1653),” 47.no. Ibidem, Ibidem, no. 695. Iorga, Basedon numerous attestations, Szekely considered that diplomatic functions might have beentheir main Gramada, “Cancelaria Moldovei,” 26-27. Although scarce, the documents indicate that Latin scribes enjoyed an elevated an enjoyed indicate scribes Latin that documents scarce,the Although The function of the scribes seems to have missions. with diplomatic coupled been seems of to The function scribes the Acte Acte Acte siscrisori, Acte 760 , no. 723 (1538, Dec 15). , ” 695no. (1535,May 15). , no. 520. He held multiple letters of credence attesting his mission to Sibiu underRare 762 764 ú It is uncertain, however, whether the princes referred to Slavonic or Latin i scrisori, Gasparus litteratus Sfetnicii 1002no. (1559,May 6). no.796. , 447. 763 Ġ a to arrest his secretary and enemy Iohannes Literatus, Iohannes andenemy hisarrest secretary a to or, in Wallachia, or, ă pu ú neanu,is one example. 768 Iohannes Salanchy, secretaium Iohannes 766 In certain situations certain In ú ú urged urged the in1525, Dec. 765 168 In 767 761 CEU eTD Collection 775 June 1), 1161-1166 (1567), 1169 (1567, Nov.24), 1171 (1568, March15). 774 (1569, Apr.25), 1193 (1570, Aug.19),1194 (1570,Sept.26). 770 771 772 Feb 18), 1049(1561, Feb.19), 1050 (1561, March 31). 773 ishis knownabout otherscribes’ or education, origins. ethnicity, or skills of Revelles toissue in documents Latin German and support idea,this although nothing 769 Lapu Prince that been have might It regularly. names mention their to ceased scribes foreign reign Bogdan’s after Unfortunately, chancery. in a princely timethe wasactive at foreign scribe might have continued and their chanceries princely inthe service long and aconstant have enjoyed could local ones, servicesthe to similar scribes, underforeign that indicate They newproducers. their of names princes. regular several It seems as well that only a single the Latin letters issued during this period. issued this during letters Latin the have almost all produced 1570. Heseemsto Moldavian from 1564to princes in of theservice remained who Dees, a Stephanus by replaced been have to seems Revelles throne, Moldavian German he wrote Lapusneanu’s (1561-1563), in for whom Despot serviceof the enemyandsuccessor, Prince political as fulfilling diverse attested /ă of German documents. mentionedin above, stayed Lapusneanu’s servicefrom 1562 as 1559 to regularthe producer of years. Georgius Revelles, for atleast three in service haveHe seemsto been prince’s the Ibidem Iorga, Ibidem Ibidem Ibidem Densu Ibidem pu ú neanu’s reign and prince’sserved the after death his Bogdan. son and successor, Stephanus Literatus, the secretary of the Moldavian Rare Moldavian Prince the of thesecretary Literatus, Stephanus show documents German Latin and more Moldavian consistent period, From a later Acte , , , ú no. 552 (1528, Febr.14). (1559,no. 1003 5),1040 June (1560, Oct31), 1046 (1561, Jan.1), 1047 (1561, Jan13), 1048 (1561, no. 1064 (1562, March 17). , , ianu, no. 677 (1531, April 8). The messenger of Rare No. 1172 (1568, March 16), 1173(1568, May 23), 1177(1568, Nov.19),1180 (1569, Jan.12), 1184 ú i scrisori, Documente privitoare la historia Rom 772 1102no. (1564-8), 1103 (1564), 1159 (1567, June 1),1158 (1567,Apr.29), 1159 (1567, and Latin letters. andLatin 771 When Lapusneanu Georgius was overthrown, de Revelles remained ú neanu enjoyed the services of better-trained scribes. The scribes. better-trained of services the enjoyed neanu 769 and economic and 773 774 Afterin Lapusneanu regainingsucceeded the He remained in the Moldavian chancery in the Moldavian Heremained chancery during Ġ nilor, ú to Bistri vol.2.1, no. 378 (1562,March 27). 770 Ġ missions for the Moldavian prince. Moldavian the for missions a. ú , is one of firstis of one the , 169 775 CEU eTD Collection 779 778 777 issued by Cotnarithe urbanoffice in1598, Sept.10 (DIR A, vol.4, no. 292). attestedBârlad in in1591,2 (DIR Aug. A, vol.4, no.35) Scribe and Iona 776 locally well. as are attested scribes different between practices them intheoffices. urban or about little information scarcity provides conclusions. drawing tentative allow some village records or urban, casesdo regional rare which their suggests that inconsistentscribal activity and probably was in occasional. Only a most attestation, have only single names of of local the the producers Even whenrecorded, scribes. the information about no bear most documents of the Unfortunately, village levels. documents multiplied.written Furthermore, documents. documents In the second began halfto be ofattested the6.6 Thelocal sphere:The documents issuedatthe producersofthe locallevel sixteenth at regional, century urban, offices and able to issue written the officethe foralong period. in stayed have to seem they scribes, central fellows, their to Similar employed. been have to inindicate thatin written urban laymenthe Slavonicwith seem offices professional training The documents locally. were translated chancery central in the employed practices regularthe in the last decades capital Wallachian the of office urban in the on going of activity thecontinuous and busy was there sixteenth century. The that indicates a time at several scribes of presence asthe as well of informationdocuments The number about the scribes about theirand producers. some conclusions permitare more consistent however, Bucharest, suggests that in offices. wereactive Moldavian scribes the professional native that suggest words vernacular employed sporadically with documents Scribe Voico mentions that he is the son of Deico. See DRH B, vol. 2, no. 157 (1517, Eftimie July is attested14). between1563 and 1571 (DRH B, vol. 5, no. 266, DRH B, vol. 7, DIR no.A, vol.26).3, 376 no. (1586,March 23); DIR A, vol.4, no.14 (1591, Apr.1). Scribe Ion is attested in 1587, Oct. 3, in the urban office of Baia (DIR A, vol. 3, no. 454; Scribe Sava is Despite the fact that several names of Moldavian urban scribes are recorded, their arerecorded, scribes urban Moldavian of names several that fact the Despite a continuous led for demand to principalities inboth experienced The social changes In Wallachia the picture is similar. The documents extant from the urban office of 778 Kinship relations between scribes and priests, as well as 777 779 For instance, Eftimie, the most active most the Eftimie, instance, For ú co wrote only the charterinternal 776 Slavonic 170 CEU eTD Collection 786 Efrem. Chancellor and Ivan Chancellor were scribes two ofthe names The 3) Dec. (1597, 268 no. vol.11, DRHB, Stanciul; Chancellor no. 150);Zahariuc, Ibidem, no.454 (1590, Apr.14) Scribe Gherghe, who in 1596 isattested asGherghe the priest,DRH vol.11,B, XVI, (1587, Feb.(The 6) document is signed by Scribe Stan from S the Old began to be recorded. began Oldto the 785 784 For Scribe Vlad see Petronel Zahariuc, “Nou 781 780 leastchancery until at February1590. Vlad. scribe, from 1571along another in employed with theurbanchancery Wallachian 1563 to a monastic order, but nofurther information is available about him except the fact that he was Grozav. Priest of son the inscribeis urban theBucharest as mentioned in office, beingnote a Greek a contemporary 783 782 2 (1565, May 24). century, decades of the two inthelast inurban office Bucharest the wererecorded documents for Craiovesti noblemen during the early sixteenth century are attested among the chancery’s the among attested are century sixteenth early the during noblemen Craiovesti for been directly dependent on the state chancery,as certain clerks who provided writing services by produced monastic institutions. Conversely, Wallachian the regional scribes haveseem to landcharters to issimilar documents urban of formatthe asthe monasteries, in the trained been have might they Instead, chancery. state the in employed tradition the on dependent been have not might scribes urban that suggest documents the of format in the distinctions at verbal is beginning the the instance, invocation alwaysemployed of documents. the fromisformat Their in chancery. documents slightly state produced For different the the in areas. least urban level,certain atthe at were continuous writing activities See, for instance, DRH B, vol. 5, no. 266 (1563, May 13). Zahariuc, DIR B, vol.5, no. 448 (1590, Feb.16). ForScribe Dimitrie, see B,DRH 266 vol.5,no. (1563, May DRH13) and B, 26(1571, vol.7,no. May 20). DRH B,vol. 5, no. 266 (1563). Zahariuc, (DRH B,vol.8, no. 73 (1577, May 26), 109(1578,no. Jan.9), no. 136 (1578, July 5), no. 329 (1580, Nov.2). , no. 7(1587,May 29) Scribe Neanciul; DIR B,425 (1589,vol.5, no. May 30) Scribe Old;the Grama 781 The documents issued in the Wallachian urban chanceries are written inSlavonic. written are chanceries urban Wallachian in the issued documents The Later, a scribe Dimitrie is attested from until ascribeis Later, 1577 1580; attested Dimitrie 785 Nou among them a priest and three chancellors. The rather numerous staff indicates that Nou ă ă documente din secolul al XVI-lea documentesecolul din alXVI-lea Nou ă documente dinsecolulXVI-lea al 780 Eftimie’s Christian name suggests that he might have belonged to belonged have might he that suggests name Christian Eftimie’s 783 Dumitrie the Old continued his service in the Bucharest in the service his continued Old the Dumitrie 784 ă documente din secolul alXVI-lea,” no. 1(1565, March 1)and no. Besides these two, Besides eight namesother these of producers of , no. 4 (1580, Jan.13), no. 5 (1580,March 16). , no.6(1585,Oct.29), Scribe Neag; 307 vol.DIR B,5, no. , no. 9(1593, May 14) The scribe signed his name as ă ve ú ti); Zahariuc,ti); 782 Nou early in 1580Dimitrie ă documente din secolul al 786 The 171 CEU eTD Collection 793 in 1714. priests literate on only a bestow exemption tax to Mavrocordat, Constantin Prince Reformist century, which allude to eighteenth narrativesthe from by endorsed is Wallachia. This conclusion eitheror the Moldavia great distress of old parish priests at the decision taken by the 792 family land estates. 791 790 789 Unfortunately, originalthe documents are longerno scribe. preserved. same the suggests which one, this to similar very are Andonie by Priest charters previous the in employed probably Priest Andonie also recorded the land transaction from 1596. Moreover, the style and peculiar formulas transaction at the house of another priest, Stoia from Balbo document (no. 105), the scribe is not recorded, but the fact that all his previous transactions were recorded by Priest Andonie for recorded BantaGovernor were transactions previous his all that fact the but recorded, not is scribe the 105), (no. document among the witnesses. the among among the witnesses. the among attested are priests and persons literate other fact that the despite documents of producer the as isregular have ashealways scribal recorded activities, PriestAndonie carriedout to seems from from from 7096 (1588)records. as adocument another, to village from one hadtotravel record written forneed the in persons Dr 788 no. 47); the same scribe Stepan is attested writing documents for Wallachianthe princes (ibidem, no. 72, no. 81). 787 from Childe Andonie priest Moldavian wasthe level. of them One local/village atthe scribes priests as village of activity continuous can Itrace occasionally mentioned. Only areseldom status scribes. Celac, Chivu, DIR A, vol. 3, no. 459. An entire family of free land owners traveled from one village Ibidem, 105.no. to another to sell their See ibidem, no. 83. Chivu, The first two written donations made by Craiove ă gu ù ú eni, to record a transaction, despite the fact that a local priest, Lupu, was attested Lupu, a local fact that priest, the atransaction, despite record eni, to Thus, I conclude that literate priests were not available regularly at the village level in atthevillage available regularly werenot priests literate that Thus, Iconclude The scribes who did the writing at the village level are obscure and their names and ura (“P 787 793 Documente Letopise Documente ú ti, who recorded landti, who for Banta Governor transactions ă Ġ ul tru ot tru ğă ú i însemn ú i însemn rii Moldovei, 789 790 ù Moreover,he traveled his from village Childesti anotherto village, It seems that literate persons were not available everywhere and available everywhere werenot persons literate seems It that ura”) traveled from his to another village, Balboto his from ura”) traveled ă ri române 791 ă riromâne The same situation is also recorded in Wallachia: Priest P ú 157. thatthelandand is same village,from the Dr ú ti dinsecolul al XVI-lea, ú ti din secolulti din alXVI-lea ú ti noblemen were written by Scribe Stepan (DRH B, vol.2, no .5. no , no. 66, no. 68, no. 83, no. 105.In the last the 105.In no. 83, no. 68, no. 66, , no. ú i (“Stoia ot Balbo ú from from 1586 until 1596. ă gu ú ú i”). ú ani, indicatesani, that i, to record a record i, to 792 ă 172 tru 788 CEU eTD Collection no. 218, no. 221, no. 286. no. 221, no. 218, no. 802 801 800 799 798 797 52 (1582, March 25). personnel at the village level. Alike, young relatives of court dignitaries sporadically acted as acted dignitaries sporadically youngcourt of Alike, level.relatives village atthe personnel literate necessary the provided scribes former professional or active presumably, countryside; Itis period. Wallachian known Moldavian that noblemenand had their residencesinthe chancery at level.: same state during villageof the the scribes the were active produced they mentions that he is from the village of Galbeni. place of placeresidence. of professionaldocumentthe scribe had style allowed himself a less rigorous andindicatedhis makesimpossible apply it any it to ispaleographic analyses; however, that in possible, a local from Lovi local Priest Luciul instance, village. likewise,from InWallachia for Iva scribes, Galbeni Documente scribe Iona period; the scribes from among chancery’s the were attested Somethem of scribes. by professional written been have to seem however, century, sixteenth the of end in land vernacular. transactions the their recording of capable members literate had holders land small of families some Moldavia, 796 795 794 century.local samethe period, During a documentwas signed bythescribe monks, DIRB, vol.5,no. 316. He wrotealso documents in the central chancery, seeDRH B,vol.8, no.19, no. 20, See, forinstance, DRH B, vol. 8, no. 32, no. 94. Ibidem. Ibidem, 306no. (1584,May 4). DIR A, vol. 3, no. 306 (1584); DIR A, vol. 4, no. 8, no. 38). Chivu, The writer of the document signed in vernacular Romanian as Romanian vernacular in signed document of the writer The DRH B, vol.11, no. 75 (1594, July 8). DIR A, vol. 3, no. 471 (1588, March5). 794 Almost half forty-twothe Moldavianof documents produced at villagethe level by the Besides parish priests, among local producers of written documents therewere documents of written producers local among priests, Besides parish Documente church servants, ú ú i însemn te ú co was active in the Moldavian chancery in the last decades of sixteenth of the decades in last the chancery in Moldavian the was active co 801 or St or ă ú ri române 800 i însemn He also mentions that he is writing the local document in the house of house in the document local the writing is he that mentions also He ă nil ă , ă 795 802 ri române ú ti dinti secolulal XVI-lea, and possibly teachers. and possibly were attested among the writers of the twenty-nine documents twenty-nine of the writers among the wereattested 797 ú ti din secolul al XVI-lea, 799 no.(1592, July 85 Wallachia21). For see i The document is Thedocument preserved ina which copy 796 By the end of the sixteenth century, in century, sixteenth the of end the By Ion dasc no.104. ă l, which means teacher. See Chivu, teacher. means which 798 for instance, a Iona ú bidem, co , who , ú no. 173 co CEU eTD Collection 807 of the edited documents. Chivu, 806 (1591-2), i 43 no. 4, vol. A, DIR See service. his was in he Possibly father.” “our called he whom nobleman a for documents that village basic turned inSlavonic morethat only to the priestsand received afterwards training Slavonic formulas linkingand are employed words in Romanianthe Thisdocuments. suggests had written documents the had written novice. masterya fluctuating ofwriting,style, presents an orthography suggesting untrained and positioned on the page, while the document written by the Wallachian P written by Wallachian priest the whilethedocument positioned page, on the lines, in in well script, accurate a nice wrote scribe instance, governor’s the For local priests. of the skills writing insufficient the to whichtestifies are crude, and content their appearance language vernacular andBesides the both forfinger printemployed thevernacular documents, in by written hand scribe of local and theassured a professional written priest. those the documents differencesbetween private aresignificant There practices. written unsettled a pointgood knowledge to of their craft. scribes usually employed the formulary in used prince’sthe chancery and their documents documents andnot vernacular Romanian, by usedmainly parish the The priests. professional scribes and parishis priests professional that scribes used the languageSlavonic local for professional the between distinction first The written. well are noblemen by commissioned 805 804 8, no. 157 (1577, Dec.15). 803 transactions, those of their servants producedforscribes for documents fellows.their Capro For the characteristics of the Romanian language of the sixteenth-century documents see the Introduction to Introduction see the documents sixteenth-century ofthe language Romanian the of characteristics the For Two documents signed documents Two DIR A, vol. 4, no. 298, no. 244. InWallachia, a nephew of a chamberlain wrote a document in1577 fora noblewoman Irina. See DRH B, vol. Documente 806 The language of the vernacular documents testifies to a transition period as many a as transition period to testifies documents vernacular The languageof the suggest usually priests parish the by written Romanian documents Conversely, The language and formulary of the documents vary. Usually the documents ú u, “Documente române “Documente u, bidem, Sporadically, parish priests, similar to the practice of the time, mentioned that they mentioned that time, of the the practice to similar priests, parish Sporadically, no. 298 (1599). ú i însemn ă manu propria ri române manu propria ú ti din secolele al XV- lea -al XVII- lea,” no.3. lea,” -al XVII- lea XV- al din secolele ti ú ti secolul din XVI-lea, al 804 by treasurer ( or fellow noblemen. . 807 FăPă 803 They might have recorded their personal their recorded have might They ra ú ) Iona 158; see also the facsimile no. 5, no. 6, no. 7 805 ú co Ba ú ot ă are extant. He wrote the ă tru of ù ura in ura 174 CEU eTD Collection 810 809 period recorded a transaction in the village of Galbeni, in the house of Priest Luciu from Galbeni. from Luciu Priest of house the in ofGalbeni, village in the atransaction recorded period 808 poverty and distress of out estates sold their who family, chamberlain’s impoverished a an of transaction the and sawpersonally heard less chancery, for Andonie from are Priest instance, he stereotyped. that Childesti recorded, vernacularaccessible language. noblemen became involved in processthe of drafting documents. more lower became and widespread literacy the after even inthechancery service in their interested remained noblemen Consequently, policies. family of development diachronic the of written culture is not attested only by individual the madecareers it possible, butalso by lowerthose of statusin moving upon socialthe scale. The social standing relatedtopractices their aided rank and orelevate secure offspring noblemen’s helpedin the chancery career well as increased wealth. Asin PrincipalitiesDanubian was noble inherited, status not a were elected from among aschancellors former in early the period, lengthy, especially in chancery careers the were usually scribes. This led Their are evident. chancery the tovarious membersof among because kinrelations family,the an augmentationin taught been have to seems knowledge Their ofstatus. and wealth political significant with noblemen career as asmore affordable. wererequested priests existing despite villagelevel, professional atthe scribes case that, the been have may it Consequently, needed. was service low-priced a when cases the of one might documentsberule, onbehalf ofnoblemen.Itthis seldom parish thatwrote was priests DIR Al, vol. 3, no. 306. Iona Ibidem, no. 8. Chivu, As written culture spread farther and documents certifying land possessions were possessions land certifying documents farther and spread culture As written The parish priests’ documents, similar to the early documents produced in the state To sum up, the professional clerks in the two medieval Romanian principalities were principalities Romanian medieval two the in clerks professional the up, sum To Documente ú i însemn ă ú ri române co, the scribe from Galbeni, attested as scribe in the central chancery during the ú ti dinsecolul al XVI-lea, 808 to a family member, governor Bantas. governor member, a family to * no. 66. no. 810 the services of of parish services the 809 As a 175 CEU eTD Collection written culture. written of dissemination farther the led to and categories lower social for documents written access to by charged local werelower priests than those professional the of the Thisfacilitated scribes. need. languagelevel met and usethevernacular Probably this prices the their ability to literateatthevillage andscribes priests of availability The inwriting. their newtransactions requiredby landprinces potential during disputes,smallland holders wererecord to keen 176 CEU eTD Collection religious-legal codes were among the first manuscripts printedreligious-legal tobe inMoldavia codeswereamong copied the first or Byzantine the Although law. customary on solely based was century sixteenth the of towrittendocuments as opposed oralcustoms 7.1 Landdisputesprocedures: how oral tradition replaced was addedor to bythewritten document. Moldavian and Wallachian lay society assimilated new written practices, why they did so, and thoroughlyfollowing Ishall the written culture. bywhich Inthe process the trace chapter, to indicate asociety thein data more Conversely,inconsistently Moldavia, and slowly. adapted last information,exchange of of records include although wills) began to documents, written land possessions, to related asdisputes (such customs oral certain common preliterate, weak writing practice, ifweak writing practice, any.” very a with culture, oral in an “lived neighbors, their to similarly noblemen, Moldavian and Wallachian lack that by practicesrelated butrather to fact the wasnot archival of documents Moldavian Wallachian and range of thattherestricted land indicates titles mostly comprise factin that neighboringthe Hungarian survivingkingdom the documents ofnoblemen also selling, resolution fixingof disputes, boundary limits, and over time, orwills. testaments The 812 Middle Ages in Trust,” and “Forgery Mostert, by Marco recently added were nuances and distinction Further reliance.”. such of means or need without person a is illiterate literate” “is an individual who must rely on the literacy of another for access to written transmission.Finally, of at least an the social elite, members the where if not and of literate, all is social one “no levels,which in society are dependent a as society on oral preliterate traditionsthe defined Bäuml (…).” 246. and Conversely, a“quasi- Illiteracy,” and Literacy ofMedieval Consequences and “Varieties Bäuml, H. Franz 811 Erik Fügedi, “Verba Volant… Oral Culture and Literacy Among The Medieval Hungarian Nobility,” 13. Nobility,” Hungarian Medieval The Among Literacy and Culture Oral Volant… “Verba Fügedi, Erik For the definition of anoral orpreliterate society contrasted to a fully literate orquasi-literate society see versus illiteracy and quasi-literacy. Orality Chapter 7. From the oral customs tothe written word. Literacy The surviving Moldavian and mainly Wallachian documents consist land of donations, Despite the fact that apparently the Wallachian society asa be can society apparently characterized Wallachian the that the fact Despite The administration of justice in both Medieval Romanian Principalities up to the end the to up Principalities Romanian Medieval both in justice of administration The , ed. Petra Schulte, Marco Mostert and Irene van Renswoude (Turnhout: Brepols, 2008), 37-59. 812 Strategies ofWriting.Studies on Textand Trust in the 811 Speculum 55.2 (1980): 243 177 CEU eTD Collection witnesses’ oral witnesses’ oral depositions; thesewere old andvenerable noblemen,appointed by princethe villagers free or (noblemen laymen Wallachian between litigations land numerous increasingly carefully described in1511 (see DRH B, vol.2, no. 41(1511), 85(1511). 820 819 818 817 816 815 (1971): 241. Roumaines?” principautés les dans reçu été a-ti-l Romano-Byzantine “Le droit Hanga, Vladimir see Principalities Romanian medieval the in Codes Law Byzantine ofthe reception the For 228. Literacy in Early Medieval Europe 814 Brave. the Michael and Cercel by Petru (1562), DRH B, vol.6, no. 97 (1568), DRH B, vol.11, no. 160 (1596). Wallachian charters were commissioned the Moldavian prince Petru 813 be mentioned.to beprove would ableto basedland their only ownership title as on a written ceased witnesses brought a written charter into the dispute to support its claims. servants”. “according justice to and law” customary (meaning law) together with all his “impartial written codes. the to reference any made only seldom have procedures function asymbolic and thedispute hadrather Wallachia, they seem as to not mentioned even in the first disputes of the monastic institutions. monastic the of disputes first the in even mentioned not were Charters witnesses. the of deposition oral the on solely grounded are century) fifteenth during future disputes. aspirations as guardians of the Byzantine tradition and not to provide abody of reference Principalities were presumably envisaged asinstruments expressto princes’the ideological Wallachian and Moldavian princes, the law codes that circulated in the Danubian There is only one exception until 1525. See DRH B, vol. 1, no. 208; the procedure DRH is B, vol.2, for no. 10 the (1504). first Two villages disputedtime a mountain.more Ibidem, 295.no. DRH B, vol. 1, no. 238 (1493). See, for instance, DRH B, vol. 4, no. 198 (1547). See, for instance, DRH B, vol. 1, no. 221 (1490). Monks provided 24 witnesses while the laymen only 12. Simon Keynes, “RoyalGovernment and Writtenthe Word in LateAnglo-Saxon England,” in Among fewthe examples see,for instance,DIR A, vol.3, no. 480 (1588), 569no. (1590) commissioned by Nonetheless, three years after the first dispute is attested, in 1493, Tismana monastery Tismana in 1493, is attested, dispute first the after years three Nonetheless, Especially in Wallachia, the earliest land disputes (from the last decades of lastthe of (from land decades disputes the earliestin Wallachia,the Especially 819 816 ) up to the first of quarter ) uptothe sixteenththe century. 818 Conversely, not a single written document was mentioned during the during mentioned was document written a single not Conversely, 814 ù chiopu for the monastery of Pobrata. For Wallachia see DRH B, vol. 5, no. 232 , ed.Rosamond McKitterick (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 813 820 Commissioned mostly by the by mostly Commissioned Judgmentwas based solely on Revue Roumaine d’Histoire 817 Soon after, the monks 815 The prince judged Theprince The Uses of The Uses 2 178 CEU eTD Collection integrated into the first documents as an extra factor of reinforcement. A report from the mouth.” of be word done bythe to businesscontinued important Much evidence wasaccepted. written cautiously how shows documents, on than rather witness oral on rule the base in title. written was endorsed land ownership unable provide to witnesses was lose process condemned the to regardless factthe of their that 824 823 822 mentioned. even not were documents 821 involvedrituals divinepower. that witnesses’ by wereconfessions accompanied taking oath on books the of other Gospel the or its perception indicate to contributed as legally bindingandthat data The evidence. solid oral testimonies were still more reliable and trustworthy. land written they titles, proof were still of asinconclusive perceived ownership. theirjust aside decision, setting andrequesting the documents oral testimonies. princes them bedeclared to fake and untrustworthy, hardly anyfurther detailsgiving about Frequently, trusted. not often rather were documents these century, sixteenth the of half first the In evidence. written on property their defend or land for claims their base to began landof ownership gradually customsthe penetrated of Wallachianthe lay society. Laymen noblemen continued to be fully immersed in the oral tradition. while commissioned, earlier had they charters useof the to accustomed were institutions chosen or by involved. parties the 825 826 Celtic Societies Clanchy, From DRH B, vol. 5, no. 36 (1554), DRH B, vol. 4, no. 97 (1539). DRH B,vol. 4, no. 209 (1547). See also DRH B,vol. 3, no. 23(1526), no. 50 (1528). See, forinstance, DRH B, vol. 4, no. 170, no. 171, no. 177, no. 178, no. 179, no. 181 (1545) where written Wendy Davies, “Charter-writing and Its Uses in Early Medieval Celtic Societies,” in Societies,” Celtic Medieval Early Usesin Its and “Charter-writing Davies, Wendy DRH B, vol. 5. no. 161; vol. 6, no. 131. The invocation of divine intervention into the oral testimonies might have further have might testimonies oral the into intervention divine of invocation The mentioned procedure litigation land the if even century, mid-sixteenth to up Thus, After the first quarter of the sixteenth century, the use of written documents as proofs 824 , ed Huw, Pryce. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1998), 102. Memory to Written Record, 821 Thus, it seems that during the early period only monastic 826 263; Mostert,“Forgery and Trust,” 49-50. Presumably, similar religious elements could be could elements religious similar Presumably, 823 As Michael Clanchy wrote: “The tendency to Literacy in Medieval 825 822 Traditional Theparty 179 CEU eTD Collection family family beganto dispute its land from the reign of Vlad the Monk (1482-1495). 831 830 829 828 827 fourteenth century shows that the first land titles were recorded on icons. was denied also.” a swore solemn on a gospel oath couldbook belying accused of only when God’s authority Witnesses truth. who because it created it was“true” and form anacceptable gave past the witnesses. of sets by other andreplaced perjurers declared often later on were takers oath that fact the of regardless century, sixteenth of the (the curses my note M.G.) and destroy the charters of the early princes.” with hugecurses andgreat myhighnessso that frightenedwas todisregard before God them charters early had cursedinthose princes Andthose belonged Holy the estates to Monastery. land those that men old and noble numerous by testified was it M.G.), note my Monastery, Tismanainthe “(…)monastery (provided thesince early by charters princes’ Tsimana ininstance, apieceland decisions. For Mircea theShepherd of 1560, attributed to disputed sixteenth century, invoked thebinding often forceof cursesinthe earlier outcome of their during the disputes that were to follow. The Wallachian princes, even in the second half of the be finished very potential spiritual curses. Theextensive to relevant with proved punishments pledge in favor of Lal were overridden by another team Lallost team of byanother pledgeof takers, the Lal were infavor 24 oath overridden disputes duringtheYoung(1559-1568)in of reign the noblemen the Petru took which 12 who two Micsan. After of Lepsa and sonsof Bratei the with Malureni and Soptani villages the of ( with comrades instance,their for together and Dragomir, Lal of sons The rituals. religious by backed testimony oral of basis the on righteousness their more generations. four or over stretched See, forinstance, DRH B, vol. 7, no. 166. The dispute is attested in 1574 and the Mostert,record “Forgery and Trust,”indicates 50. that the See among many others DRH B,8,vol. no. 113 (1578), no. 169 (1576), no. 188 (1579). DRH B,vol. 5, no. 184 (1560). See DRH B, vol. 1, no. 1, note 1. Oral Oral by endorsed testimonies toprevailtaking continued oath in even the secondhalf 830 Documents were not mentioned even during certain disputes that disputes certain during even mentioned not were Documents 831 Offspringas had theirancestors only demonstrated 829 As Marco Mostert put it: “Testimony it: put Mostert AsMarco cetasi ) entered into a disputeinto with ) entered 828 827 In addition, they 180 CEU eTD Collection eliminating other siblings and trying to get a greater share of family land, or in exchange for in exchange or land, family of share a greater get to trying and siblings other eliminating behalf, own their on either charters family forged literates professional blinding, by punishment or penalty death the Despite in process. the part an active took scribes chancery Apparently, strengthened. charters land the of evidence probative the as intensified fake labeled of inthenumber charters increase The false documents. of by menace potentially the testimony still prevailed. itself procedure the in mostway probably (as their oldandthinking) of traditional oral in written but aliketo testimonies Thus, grewacquiescent judges and disputants presumably justice. princely the of emphasize the righteousness to used information, apparently additional 833 832 by documents.written thefirsttobe intoconsideration testimony and was taken wasitslater probity only reinforced thatoral itself of indicates in procedure The Wallachia. narration firmly the established yet not was fortestimonies written predilection the quarter century, sixteenth of the in last the title was providedrequested. nor neither proved sufficient to by Gospel teams witnessedfinally of and two by the showoath-takers neighbors the ten priests the righteousness of his claims regain and villages.the Acomplex ritual of reiterated oath-taking on Holy the of Lal. Despiterighteousness the prove to managed team Lal’s oath, the took who thenoblemen the with together complex process,imprisoned and times three beaten being and litigations successive six a other writtenholding After brothers’his land. his toreclaim Alexandru Young,Princethe MirceaPetru and (1568-1577), of give However, hedid the successor not his landedupandapproached estates. litigation and See among many otherDRH B,vol. 8, no.208 (1579), 222no. (1579). DRH B, vol. 7 No. 73 (1575). The acceptance of documents as a reliable proof of ownership was possibly hindered waspossibly of ownership proof asareliable documents of acceptance The Although number ofcharters intoowned bylaymen the brought the increased disputes 833 Charters, when mentioned, came at the end of the procedures as came endthe procedures of the when mentioned, at Charters, 832 181 CEU eTD Collection 836 835 54. 834 couldlaymen’sin charter thehisproof landed sufficient provide about possession. property of noblemen,our defend could not himself in any way.” with other laymen. the princely court by Maicolea, amongoccurred noblemen noblewomen; thatweknow dispute and was first the to brought Stoian’s daughter,the who enteredwritten into litigation documents of her estates than on oral tradition.charters were forged and the authenticity of genuine ones wasSimilar difficult toprove.” medieval numerous since in sentiment, as well as in substance strong was which a case to earlier thereland was ample room for fraud. Thus, according toClanchy: “Objectors to written record had titles, first disputesdisregard their charters: “since they are fake and written without our knowledge.” to scribes these of script specific the recognized who all those summoned princes that extent strangers. of behalf on money even who was the plaintiff of the case. the of plaintiff was the who even 839 838 DRH vol.A, 1, no. 62(1418). 837 how Iva in Wallachia. than earlier acentury century, almost thefifteenth middleof from the procedures dispute the Iva and based and disputes “(…)And litigated was solely they litigated testimony: on written Clanchy, DIR B,vol. 5, no. 260 (1586). ForMoldavia see, for instance, DIR A, vol.1, no.37 (1505), no.259. See also Mostert, “Forgery and Trust,” DRH A, vol. 2, no. 85 (1459) The procedure was still very schematically recorded. DRH It A,hardly vol. 1, allowsno. 210 (1440). to grasp She was mentioned only by her Christian name, Maicolea and by the fact that she was Stoian’s daughter. See ú co from from Sireco in Land disputes hadMoldavia been that since unfolding more 1418aregrounded on any registers, drafted without copy ina single issued were usually As thedocuments ú co had given him these villages willingly; and Iva From MemoryWritten to Record 838 Besides, by Besides,by fifteenth secondhalf the the procedure of of century,certain the Ġ el lost these villages completely for Ion introduced a grand charter showing agrand introduced charter for villages Ion these lost completely el 837 Moreover, written laymen Moreover,written charters belonging arementioned to during 834 Some scribes seem to have misused their function to such an , 297. * * 839 ú co here, in front of us and in front Thus,by in 1459, Moldavia a 836 835 182 CEU eTD Collection 842 841 840 witnesses. of the bedeposition bywritten replaced inMoldavia cameto overtime, oral Moreover, testimonies been written down wouldbe abletoconfessin orally support of litigantsthe oras a substitute had names whose witnesses the disputes, potential During witnesses. participating the of and of ceremony the as arecord transferred, been hadorally estates the after only chancery state in wereproduced withthe coexisted together butceremonies them. charters Consequently, supplemented by the customary ritual. And correspondingly, it did not replace the oral was notperceivedcentury, yetdocument awritten aslegal land of unless proof succession Mikhail.” neighbors, andwith their oldgive privilege (land title) to andmark entire the toBan border according estate this of border entire the him give shall and go shall they when be paid shall rest to the agreement;performed: “And Mikhail (…)paid had been landtransition only whole the themof after ritual estate landed for apurchased a theyshare out of theshall cost of theby high-ranking noblemen,Moldavian such as Chancellor Mikhail, they madeestate full payment goin advanceout and theinout carried were transactions land when Even them. with intermingled rather but conveyances the company of noblemen,church,prove wassufficient to their andhelped ownership win process. the and by the oath of six other priests, testifying that indeed the document had burnt together with the priest towhom they had trusted their charter for safekeeping intocourt. His oath accompanied defenders had been burnt. The litigants, however, managed bringto the oral testimonies of the indicated land thatthe involveda dialogueinbetween parties the title alanddispute, of the of interesting verbatim examples, anapparently record One evidence. anddetailed most the of Ibidem, no. 21(1452). DRH A, vol. 2, no. 100 (1461). DIR A, vol.4, no. 283 (1598). Thus, the documents were not substitutes for the oral reaffirmation of land of reaffirmation oral the for substitutes not were documents Thus, the However, when the document was missing, oral testimony substituted the written 842 Thus, apparently even for a Moldavian chancellor at the end of the fifteenth the of end the at chancellor a Moldavian for even apparently Thus, 840 841 183 CEU eTD Collection 846 845 844 843 without any reference to the written documents. documents. Moldavia. important than theThose performance of memorable rituals.” theirattested performance. by rituals Documentsinvolved weredocuments. andwritten andsupported inoral ceremonies traditional interplay between becan traced apermanent Thus, document. recorded forAs the are Marco almostMostert pointed exclusively out: “Probably the charter resolved itself was less on the basis of written generation. new each with werecommissioned new documents in cases, at least certain that, indicate documents of series landrecorded long The title: his of written his property out true donated century in the Moldavian land The charters. documents specifieda person that had sold or sixteenth the of turn the after introduced formula a special by is testified documents the mentioned.useof wereregularly The frequentdocuments written transitions andsuccessions, a charter issued during the reign of Stephen the Great (1457-1504). Yet, by several (1457-1504). Stephen issued1574, reign Great the of a charter the during previous century entirebased had extended theirthe family ownership of on family the estate place before. had taken land in manner family succession which important than moretraditional the became century in tohighlight order inflectionthe wheninformation points relevanceof the written a landed almost over of transfer property I followed the Fete. a certain of as grandnephews inways is illustrated thefollowinglarge case-study of familya patrimonial defined itself that See, for instance, DIR A, vol. 2, no.129 (1560). DIR A, vol. 3, no. 33 (1573). See, for instance, DIR A, vol. 2, no. 168 (1565). Mostert, “Forgery and Trust,” 52. After the turn of the sixteenth century, the number of land disputes lowered in lowered land disputes of number the century, sixteenth of the turn After the The process can be traced from a Moldavian dispute recorded in 1574. During the recorded in1574.During dispute from a Moldavian be traced The process can oral customary, tothe asopposed of proof ownership written of The newsalience 846 844 Only exceptionally were litigations resolved on the basis of oral testimonies oral of basis the on resolved litigations were exceptionally Only 845 Moreover, along all the recorded land 843 184 CEU eTD Collection sufficient to prove sufficientownership to land. of the owner. Thus, stolen fraudulous obtained or inother ways, landtitles were still presumably there was no relationshiphavebeen used (orat least were hoped beto used)for proving possession despitebetween the fact that the familypossession landof continued tobeassociatedwith titles Documents couldproperty rights. for whom the title documents, old could charters be still usedland assymbols of ownership. Apparently, the was issued and its currentissued the administration about by state the werekept noregisters as apparently However, my highness’ charter.” they had land taken their my title infront of highness all and put sons of their grandfatherin disputes, asked the princes correctto the omissions of,for instance, their grandfather: “So that of informationwritten and errorsandof consequently their prevent strivingpotential to supposedly Rare 847 familytheir previously. practices the family of part one document, in of written increase evidence the tothe tradition. probative the Due excludingwithout basing thenon-exclusionary anybody, presumably onoral practice Great. the issuedby Stephen charter original from the had ason beenomitted of Fete, ancestor, name their of the that basis branchonthe suedacertain family extended the of lineages Moldavia, the rich evidence from the sixteenth century be could century indicates documents that from rich the Moldavia, sixteenth the evidence 849 848 Europe, 850 In the charter recording the dispute from 1574, a previous dispute is mentioned, under a prince Petru, DRH B,vol. 8, no. 25(1576). DIR A, vol. 3, nNo. 37 (1574). Susan Kelly, “Anglo Saxon Lay Society and the Written Word,” in ed.Rosamond McKitterick (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 245. When estates were sold, new charters were issued and the previous ones declared void. In Wallachia well,largeas patrimonial families, becoming conscious of relevancethe It is worth noting that at least the first generation read ú (1527-540). and acted solely upon the written evidence against the custom evidenceacted solely upon against written andthe custom hadguided the that 849 848 850 Consequently, both in Wallachia and in and inWallachia both Consequently, 847 had previously owned the estate The Uses of Literacy in Early Medieval 185 CEU eTD Collection (1520), 447, no.387, no. no. 525. ForWallachia see DRH B, vol. 11, nr. 307 (1598); forMoldavia see DIR A, vol.1,vol.1, 387, no. no no. 447, 147no. 525). The (1520),information aboutburntcharters is no.155recurrent in Wallachia andMoldavia. 857 856 or with relatives. seldom laymen’sdeposited documents werecharters, keptathome in beneficiary’shousethe established only archives institutions asmonastic werenot As and state written documents. titles as oflandsymbols potential ownership. land ofthe value the aware of they werestill but read their contents to wereunable documents slaves.” Gipsy and andvillages estates their of titles he them tormented badly, burnt them the and took of titles heirsthe lands, and bought eleven above estatesenumerated for (…)andseizing peopleheldthe the whohis land, overthe titles 855 854 853 852 851 from Vlad, portar and slaughtered resentment filledwith family) was large(a patriarchal could kill in winnerthe their wrath and his steal land titles. Forinstance, in “Dolofanii 1576, litigations defeated during property and those acquisition disputed leadtothe of potentially attested. as well seals are of his were stolen in privileges other many when governor, former a Gavril, G.) M. note (husband-my nobleman her1564-1568) her by (1552-1561, II theprivilegethat “(…)waslost of grandfather, Gavril of wife Miriica, noblewoman, stolen along with jewelry and other important valuables. The causes are multiple, but most often is attested burning down houses or even of the entire village (DIR A, (DIR village entire of the even or downhouses burning attested is often most but multiple, are causes The The fact is attested from an early period. See, forinstance, DRH A, vol.1, no. 199. See also Tóth, DRH B,vol. 8, no. 21(1576). DRH B, vol. 4, no. 229, DRH B, vol. 11, no. 21 (1594). DIR A, vol. 2, no. 46 (1554). DIR A, vol. 1, no. 142. Thus,noblemen in Wallachia asas well in Moldavia safeguarded carefully their In Wallachia, the stealing of charters or using torture in order to seize documents or seizedocuments to in order usingtorture or charters stealing of Wallachia, the In Literacy andWritten Culture 856 As most houses were wooden and natural calamities and natural houses were wooden Asmost ù ipote (…)” 853 Documents seem to have been seen as a means which could 852 vornic , 181. 855 , complained infrontAlexandru of Lapusneanu 854 Most probably, the robbers of the 851 For instance, a Moldavian 857 were as much as to were ù uici 186 CEU eTD Collection hidden in the hollow of hidden in theof hollow trees, 863 862 sixteenth century,their numbers multiplied. 861 860 859 plunder is also recorded inMoldavia. See DIR A, vol.1, no. 174 (1522). 858 meaning a with donation, an“adequate” made before prince thus, came the and governor, longer areliable donation if by even it was supported traditional curses. The son of the no was tongue” his “with twice donated land a century, sixteenth the of end the by officials curses giveand urgedhis son Chamberlain theto village to Pârvu.” the Governor Dragomir ithisagain reiterated donation “with and tongue with supported Wallachian unable provide to him with sincea written Prince record Mihnea hadbeenfrom banished the throne and was governor asDragomir byhistongue “was given goes) thecharter The donation (as he had to follow aland1596 records madeDragomir by ChamberlainGovernor donation former the to Radu. him intowritten documents was clearly seen as the most reliable evidence.exile.” Forinstance, acharter from legal fluctuatingsymbolicperception between still to and back possession the again, of Moreover, itsrole by complemented was still although of and practices, written documents onoral his the Although century. deathsixteenth the of half second in the Wallachia in and Moldavia in both bed, high the indicate number in of requests to renewlost land especially Moldavia. titles, attested. familythe land title was hidden.” Mu and Pantelei of son “Crâstea, Mu place thedocument hadbeenhidden.instance, in For noblewoman1464, aMoldavian named violence, beas human feared DRH B, vol.11, no. 182 (1596). DIR A, vol. 4, no. 261, no. 265. They are attested from an early period. See, forinstance, DRH A, vol. 1, no. 199. DRHYet, A,after vol. the 2, middleno. 121 (1464).of the DIR A, vol.2, no. 46 (1554). Tartar or Turkish plunder ismost often attested.See DIR A, vol.1, 356,no. no.396, no. 424, 482.no. Polish ú a requested a new title for her estate declaringwhen lost previous the one was that estate for anewtitle her a requested Thus, the evidence points to the increasing salience of written proofs of of increasingownership proofs tothesaliencewritten of evidence points Thus, the 861 The repetition of the same formulas attesting lost or destroyed charters may charters destroyed or lost attesting formulas of same the The repetition 859 858 ú sometimes with only a single family member knowing the knowing member family single a only with sometimes written land written buriedin could titles be the ground also or a fell from a horse and died speechless, unable to tell where tell to unable speechless, died and horse a from fell a 860 Litanies deploring lost or stolen titles are abundantly 863 For Wallachian For 862 187 CEU eTD Collection Anglo-Saxon England,”247-8.DRH vol.1,B, 69, no. 71 no. 70, no. passim. and 867 monks and by nobody else; noblemen shall not dare to try to collect them. And any of my of any And them. collect to try to dare not shall noblemen else; nobody by and monks from the smallest taxes, or penalties all And him. believe not toshall you you, to thelying be shall ifsomebody biggest(…), shall belong to theand so my highnessmonastery commands you (…) that you shall not belong to any noblemenand or be collected monasticthe institution them ignoreand ordered to commandsthe noblemen: of any “(…) by Tismana villagesinformedinhabitants Monastery,belonged they that to of several Old the Mirceathe in Wallachia. used communication written of instances earliest the beamong may they that suggests directly addressee characterizedby brevity, in theiroral style themanner and which addressedthey the alsoattested. them,as MichaelClanchydefined are another,” to person one from commands “written or writs several Wallachia, In behalf. their during fifteenth the letters survivecentury few the that wereissued administrative mainly on since merchants foreign by introduced been have to seems communications administrative 866 865 864 Wallachia by produced Wallachian and Moldavian from princes reignthe of inMikhail (1418-1420) letters administrative of employment sporadic by interspersed been have to seem information the Medieval Romanian principalities tended tobe oral. However, oral traditions of conveying in between local administration and central the communication century, fifteenth the During oral? versus Written communication: 7.2 Administrative state officials, land any donation had obviously beto by supported a written record. high-ranking for least at century, sixteenth the of end by the that means This charter. written For the Anglo-Saxon evidence see also Simon Keynes, “Royal Government and the Written Word in Late in Word Written the and Government “Royal Keynes, Simon also see evidence Anglo-Saxon the For Clanchy, Ibidem, 141no. (1435). DRH B, vol.1, no. 40(c. 1418-1420). In the first Wallachian writ that we know of, produced on behalf of Tismana 864 From Memory to Written and of Stefan I (1434-1435) in and Moldavia. I (1434-1435) Stefan of Record, 90. 867 866 The fact that these writs were writs fact these The that 865 The use of for writing Theuseof cnez 188 CEU eTD Collection 872 871 Pawe Symbolic Uses of the Documents,” In 870 869 868 at for directcommunication. However, andnot be usedas of intendedownership a proof to monastery from the had escaped (who presumably for Gipsyslaves from some search the variety situations, of carrying out aspecificmission. The reason thatled tothe request of a writ could encompass a sixteenth century. Apparently, they as well seem haveto been issued as a mandate to facilitate bebe to could thought king.”the too, they letters, royal being charters Royal himself. sender the with identical considered were sender,they the merely not represented letters “Medieval specified: Mostert andMarco moment you shall stay away from the estate of the son of Dumitreasa.”in that M.G.), note my (letter, book highness’ my see shall you moment very the at you, malefactor was warned to withdraw at the sight of it: “And in this way my highness speaksdisplayhisentitled supporting document the as adevice while claims to prince’s the to was beneficiary The writs. surviving inthe formulaic became document the to references century, sixteenth of the turn the After prince. the setby tasks accomplish the to messenger displayed or, were documents that however, information suggests, Later written procedure. to practices at least, from a oral perceivedas proof indicates villagetransition possessions of preserved the their document as of only all) at monasticinsupport used (if oral speech. Thefactthe that very institutions a symbol of the prince’s the head of anyone.” power that empowerednoblemen willwho come you amongyou totake orput you you towork, shall knock on the DIR A, vol.2, 150 no. (1560).See also ibidem, no.412 (1587) and DIR A, vol.4, no.177 (1596). DIR A, vol.2, no.181 (c. 1568-1572); DIR A,vol.3, no.119 (1583). Anna Adamska and Marco Mostert “The “Violent Death” of Medieval Charters: Some Observations onthe Observations Some Charters: of Medieval Death” “Violent “The Mostert Marco and Adamska Anna DRH B, vol.2, no.79 (1510-1512). DRH B, vol. 1, no.33 (c. 1407). á Kras Kras (Kraków: Societas Vistulana, 2006), 708. In Moldavia, writs seem to have been employed only in the second half of the was document orally and the possibly communicated information was The recorded 871 868 ) to the right to possess a landed estate. landed a possess to right the ) to Ecclesia, cultura, potestas: Studia z dziejów kultury Ispo 870 872 They seem to have been have to seem They 869 As Anna Adamska á ecze Ĕ stwa , ed. 189 CEU eTD Collection to endorse the oral announcement with the written document. Even if the messages were still were messages if Even the document. written the with oral endorse announcement the to necessity of the were aware as prince, the Tatu, aswell local administrator the Nevertheless, services of a hiredscribe orof a monk monastery whom from the landbelonged.to the gave that land to the holy monastery (…).” book [i.e., charter] you shall shout in the market so that every man shall hear that my highness land,protect guard that best beehivesyour them]. andshall those do [to and this Andwith century. the tasks and duties to be performed by villagers were attested in some places communitieseven up to up into thethe eighties’ present day of Romania.the last The public announcements (sometime with the help of a drum) of 875 874 873 the Monk warns one of his county Vladfrom in 1495, For instance, a document letters. in theearly administrative more explicit administrators ( legitimizing their bearer to carry out his mission. documents were shallletter dare notstop to or hinder him.” used as symbols of inwritten his privilege.” princely powerenough book with this masterof ours to hisbee garden,his purchased true is possession as it or at least andFor this he from bestrong powerful shall bee-garden. bee-master Onicica the Jamenii the perceived“We (Prince my Alexandru note Lapusneanu- gave bookM.G.) our to this man,named as such, some Asthe stated: confirmedof that beehives. scribe received hisownership adocument thus writing possessed written Forinstance,privileges. and owners bee-keeper the Onicica least in certain cases they were requested even when the estate was previously recorded in DRH B,vol. 1, no. 256 (1495). Some fifteenth-century oral practices, if not evenearlier, persisted in rural DIR A, vol.2, 182 no. 1568-1571).(c. DIR A, vol.2, 127 no. 1565).(c. early The documents usuallyare undated. It is not known, if the administrator Tatu was himself literate or had to involve the The use of as documents of elements support, while conveyinginformation, was The formulaic clause end employed atthe of “And documents: the anybody facing this 873 875 874 indicates that in asinWallachia, indicates that Moldavia, vatav ), Tatu from Hin ĠHú ti, that he “shall 190 CEU eTD Collection 880 879 of behalf on problems monastic institutionsadministrative or various laymen (DRH locally B, solve to vol. 7, asked no. were 220, or DIR 5, no.) B, vol.vol. B, 5, no. DIR 435, no. 439).instance, collectors (DIR B, vol. 5, no. 200, no. 493). They might have beencriticized for theirDIR misdeedsB, vol. 5, (see,no. 1, for no. 435; DRH B, vVol. 7, no. 220), urbanofficials (DRH B, vol. 11, no. 306), or tax 878 Arhivul Bra 876 ownership dispute and testified orally in frontof princethe it. about alandBan concerning witnessed practice an oath-taking Deatco high-ranking dignitary, Wallachian from another period, same the as almost oral ones, previous means the replaced in word. form,conveyed oral written depended on the the communication oral Radu from Radu from Bor 877 1989), 28. from Wallachia four from and Moldavia. only attest nineletters data theextant since exceptional been have rather to seems however, oral speech. traditional the than higher authority asa haveperceived been seemto its seals and document greater extent. For example, an administrative letter issued by a nobleman ( nobleman by issued a letter anadministrative Forexample, extent. greater a to local were produced indicates that documents indirect nonetheless evidence Wallachia, arepreserved. For bansgovernors producedbyWallachian or letters administrative levels, seem suchtexts have mainlyto been andnot produced,asreceived only three other At administration. princely to restricted mainly was documents these of production commissioners. merchants, (1561-1563) andlocal from they lay Despot Voda to only reign the of point mainly behalf foreign were issued on letters of itseems thatearly administrative Moldavia, surviving is in record low both Moldavia and According extant Wallachia. tothe in evidence, DRH B,vol. 2, no. 110 (1512). DRH B, vol.2, no.82 (1511). instance for (see administrators county as such officials state local to addressed usually were letters Princely Rosamond McKitterick, DRH A, vol.1, no. 122, no. 127, no. 141 (1435); Bogdan, The use of letters for administrative communication during the fifteenth century, fifteenth the during communication for administrative letters The useof Based survivingthe on up documents, middleto the of sixteenththe century, the ú ovului ăú 878 , no. 5. , no. ti alreadyti is from attested 1511. The Carolingians and the Written Word 877 Even after the turn of the sixteenth century, the 879 Documente moldovene However, the written procedures by no procedures thewritten However, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 880 ú ti dinsec. XV si XVI în jupan ) named 876 The 191 CEU eTD Collection neighboring places [and settled thesettled issue](...).” [and places neighboring sent hisletter tous,gather good and old peopleof from town the from Suceava and the the commissioner theof charter explains that “(...) Gheorghie, military magistrate of Suceava, Hence, hadtrespassed. been village oftheir boundaries thatthe prince the before complaint by Albu, governor of Suceava, explainsmonks that the from Slatina monastery a brought from the last quarter of the sixteenth letters administrative century. For instance, a local charter from 1586 issued level princely office. the the of officials. However, registers on issued documents do not yet seem to have been kept even at Craove (master of the royal house), “to check and write” down all the villages that belonged to the gather all the existing charters that attested land transactions by by land Craiove the transactions attested that charters all existing gather the 884 883 882 881 P Prince instance, writing by was officials princes’ the used carrying their while out duties. administrative oath.” the taken have they that them trust shall my highness so that note) my specified: “So that, if they take the butrather be orally conveyed speech the request that oath, not did previous princes, to contrast your highness shall make for themHe, in witness procedure. anoath-taking to administration regional the Shepherd requested a book (charter- Mirceathe Wallachian Prince instance, 1551, the between 1546 and For more regularly. DIR A, vol.3, 402 no. (1586). Ibidem. DRH B,vol. 5, no. 85(1557). DRH B,vol. 4, no. 218 1546-1551).(c. ú Indirect MoldavianIndirect supports assertion the evidence sporadically) (atleastthat Thus, contemporary information writingThus, contemporary suggests that was regularly used bystate Moreover, other indirect data shows that in the second half of the sixteenth century, sixteenth the of half second in the that shows data indirect other Moreover, oral procedures replace theprevious began to writing mid-sixteenth century, From the ti family along the Jiu river. Moreover, the Wallachian prince asked his official to official his asked prince Wallachian the Moreover, river. Jiu the along family ti ă tra ú were cu the Good (1554-1557) sent one of his administrators, Giura clucer hisadministrators, sent of one (1554-1557) Good cu the produced locally as well. Nonetheless, the evidence dates locally well.only dates as evidence Nonetheless, produced the 884 How Gheorghie, governor of was of Suceava, Gheorghie, How governor ú 881 ti family. ti 883 882 For 192 CEU eTD Collection others was “shouted in three markets, to find (purchasers-my note M.G.) to buy buy M.G.) to note findestate this inmarkets, to (purchasers-my was“shouted others three and ban of Hamza sons bythe ofavillage selling the that specified scribe Wallachian the be instance,in restricted tooral from to For communication continued speech. a charter 1582, among land private owners and even the offspring of former high-ranking dignitaries, formscommunication, of written and oral haveinvolved to seems officials state between better means for perserving than documents laymen.Moldavian had have may letters) administrative Wallachian the of beneficiaries main (the institutions monastic that may bythefact be explained letters of administrative record Moldavian and late scarce of. The disposed easily therefore and as ephemeral them of perception contemporary Romanian. vernacular in in produced by of administration 1596, written town Piatra the letter administrative urban bemay earliest vernacular the of Anindication this of acceptance record. languageof as vernacular the Romanian of by it acceptance Possibly,the was stimulated recent date. 885 traditions by documents.written land thanindisputed werestated, requests.” previously the written by Governorissued charter final in the interested more been have might institution monastic the that I think Albas ( boundaries. of andsettling Albas,the gatheringthe the of confirmed who Governor witnesses issuedby for charter the survived except nodocument However, information. administrative infer that three branches of administration employed written documents for exchanging can I from single record a Thus, practice. his letter awell-attested a official, to may havesent prince assume the that I is unclear. Monastery madeby Slatina complaint the informed about DRH B, vol. 2, no. 110; DIR A, vol. 4, no. 478. However, although by the end of the sixteenth century the exchange of information of exchange the century sixteenth the of end the by although However, a to be related also may letters administrative surviving of number low The Thus, in this respect one can also clearly trace the gradual replacement of in of Thus, canoral gradual clearly respect one this the also replacement trace vornic ), in ), witnesses,which procedure, boundariesthe of and the 885 Yet, the written exchange of information may be of quite 193 CEU eTD Collection forms of record storage of testamentary wills was issued for ecclesiastic institutions. for ecclesiastic issued was wills of testamentary storage of record forms written from oral to first the indicates that transition chancery.in Evidence main state the he had left his testamentary disposition “by my own tongue.” tongue of the owner.” The Moldavian prince Rare wills continued to employ the oral formulas according to which property was given “by the evidenceindirect andby formulae in the wills. written quarter of sixteenththe century, wills were only in exceptionally recorded writing. tongue“. Generally, an oral declaration in front of witnesses sufficed and, up to the last from was procedure 1557, the to gather “good people” “by anddonatelanded estates the in hand down property oral in procedurethe ways. Basedon recorded a will confirmation Last wills 7.3 categories. social various across have been disseminated to seems of power asasymbol documents princely valueof the written However, Moldavia. in and Wallachia in both society, the of levels all at norm the still was communication whose implied work knowledge basic ofliterary skills ortheir useof hired Oral scribes. dignitaries high-ranking was letters communication restricted to state thatvia indicates written England,” 252. 889 888 887 886 above (…).” written ForAnglo-Saxon evidence see SimonKeynes “Royalgovernment and the writtenword in lateAnglo-Saxon DIR A, vol.4, no.129 (1594). DRH B, vol.5, no. 296 (1564); DIR B, vol.4, no. 312 (1578); DIR B, vol. 4, no. 353, DIR B,vol.no. 5, 376, no. 57 (1582). no. 423. Gradually oral testimonies began tobe confirmed bywritten records, usually produced The succession landedof based property on oral hasbeentraditions by confirmed It seems to have been a regular practice in the Medieval Romanian Principalities to Thus, the number of surviving documents, next to the contemporary information, 886 ú , for instance, wrote in his signed will that 887 The first written records concerning 888 889 Being 194 CEU eTD Collection deathbed of the donors. parish priests play began to important roleas an firstthe producers of written at testaments the testaments. written of issuers first the among were officials clerical ranking high chanceries. in state wasproduced the record the Usually themselves. by actors the commissioned 898 897 896 895 894 893 892 891 890 village level, by presumably priestthe confessors. princely support acted as shields against potential contesters. their acquisitions. offspring,monastic institutions usedprincely as andocuments additional toprotectdevice fathersdonations of andgrandfathers wereoften questioned and evenreversed by their encouraged backing-uporal with written As that evidence. testamentary the dispositions the main beneficiaries of testamentary donations, in aland among claiming dispute theland several siblings inheritance of deceased their instance,For oral intestimony. toreinforce supplement and brought only astheywere settled yet asnot ofsubsequent during legal thestatus Moreover,disputes. was course theirproofs secure landed inherited last property through wills. from document Wallachianthe prince. not rely solely on their own documents, by September they had commissioned another As in monksthe could at August. her bymonks deathbed monastery of recorded Glavacioc DIR A, vol.4, 50 no. (1592), no. 277 (1598). DIR A, vol. 4, no. 35 (1591). For Wallachia see DRH B, vol. 7, no. 37 (1576). DRH B,vol. 7, no. 152 (1573). DRH B, vol.5, no.13 (1551-2). DIR B,vol. 4, no. 411 (1579), 218no. (1576). Ibidem, no.81 (1557). DIR B,vol. 5, 338no (1587). DRH B, vol. 7, no.5 (1571). See, among many others, DIR B, vol. 5, no. 338 (1587), no. 346 (1587); DRH B, vol. 7, no. 5 (1571). Only by the end of the sixteenth century were written records of testamentary wills Gradually,laymen as well began to use written confirmations formerof oral wills to 895 Donations were sporadically recorded in monastic institutions as well insince aswell monastic institutions recorded weresporadically Donations 891 For instance, the will of the noblewoman Marga seems to have been 897 By the end of the sixteenth century, wills were recorded even at 892 890 893 898 monasteries were the leading institutions leading the were monasteries Written records as testimonies of as testimonies records Written Most of these wills came to light only light to came wills these of Most 894 896 Similarly, 195 CEU eTD Collection but rather coexisted with them. practices bynomeans oral written documents the previous replaced information. However, documents began to be morelongrequired a familiarization. period of valued thatwouldprocess eventually lead tothe perception of as testaments written legalsolid proofs as proofthe Nevertheless, ones. written by complemented been had inheritance of settling of forms oral landed possessions that level suggests even village at attested were of wills records years century the last of in the thefactthat However, madeby orwitnesses. testimonies oral traditional werethe reliable More as conveyors produced, they yetnot were legal perceived asbeing during of sufficient litigations. weight of be to began testaments written century sixteenth the of end by the when even Besides, wills. recorded in the attested exceptionally only is goods other of donation The writing. in have and consequently asvaluable recorded thatseem beenperceived to properties enough landed only usually was it Moreover, wills. testamentary of transmissions written to oral from transition the marked century the of decade last the Only century. sixteenth the of end 899 to his sister Draga.” madeand priest byhis Nicoara, confessor all the of hethem took oath that lefthis only estates herand he childrensothat be Thus, to would witnesses remembered. she anda note brought his Draga sister only to his leftestates all had Toader that who testified confessor, Toader’s as and aswell people old prince) good before us(the brought “ deceased, (…) Draga, brother Toader, a plea was initially made for an oral testimony. Thus, the sister of the DRH A, vol. 3, no.520 (1589). Thus, after mid-sixteenth century, both in less literate Wallachia and in Moldavia, and Wallachia literate less in both century, mid-sixteenth after Thus, Thus, provisions for testamentary made succession were usually in form oral up tothe 899 196 CEU eTD Collection Alexander the Good (1400-1431), the number of land charters seems to have land seems (1400-1431),the gradually of numberAlexander Good to the charters Wallachia, consisting of land titles and afew political treaties. arefrom extantcentury, numbercoming Moldavia same only with the 15 documents end century) tothe secondhalf of fourteenth foundation (roughly fourteenth the the the points. inflection number of documents seems characterized by a rather monotonous growth, without major traditional land inheritance andpatterns the demands of new land owners. InMoldavia the with strongly incorrelated situations changes landthe derivingfrom andconflict ownership and documents were,amongvarious their social especially dissemination strata inWallachia, of number in the growth of dynamics the that see could I charters. land extant of number in increasing the as reflected of growth dynamics the on foremost and first concentrated of pragmatic literacy as promoters 8.1 Landcharters communications of various kinds. land concerningand ownership records to mainly are practical restricted purposes Moldavia andin that indicate Wallachia. The surviving the use data of for documents in both authority, political a central of foundation the after mainly manifest is writing of The use states. the of establishment tothe prior writting useof limited suggests anextremely evidencecentury. the mid-fourteenth medieval Principalities Indirect Romanian upto of territories the on culture for written isnoevidence from there Dacia Empire’s withdrawal from the end of the fourteenth until the end of the sixteenth century. After the Roman Chapter 8. Conclusions In this study I tried to trace the spread of practical literacy in Moldavia and Wallachia and literacy in Moldavia spreadof the practical trace to In thisstudy I tried In Moldavia, first the after quarter fifteenthof the century, during reign the of state from limited: extremely was documents written of production the Initially, Ihave of by documents, surviving the part far thelargest As landtitles constitute 197 CEU eTD Collection Moldavian society Moldavian havesociety appears to beenmore tothe accustomed use documentswritten of stages, in theearly least at Thus, land titles. of written use of the acceptance with and number of Inthe documents. subsequent growth I see anindicator of a gradualacquaintance to the only regard with remain Changesarerecorded same. the producers and commissioners donationsland, of land and, rarely, disputes. The reasons for issuing documents, their are confined landsales,land contents ownership toordinary transactions: land confirmations, of the sixteenth century, points to a scarce use of written records. unsettled writing while practices, the low value attachedtowritten land titles, upto middlethe reflects documents early formulary of the the I stress that period. research the characterizes claim that the increase in extant documents reflects an actual growth in writing practice that of Michael Brave (1593-1600). the for reign eachyearduring the documents forty-five preserved of almost average an attaining sixteenth century, number the of Wallachian documentssurpassedissued those in Moldavia this annual number reaches eight. However, by the turn, and especially after the middle of the is onlyby turn the of sixteenththe in century, reignsthe of Radu theGreat (1495-1507), that reign of Mircea the Great (1387-1418), there is less than one charter preserved per annum. It ù of Petru that as such reigns yearcertain during per 31charters of an average reachingtripled, Moldavian charters of numbers the century, sixteenth the my period, endof research the each year surviving in the archives theaverage land during issued reign the number (1457-1504), of of Great charters the Stephen increased to ten. After the survive an averageBy mid-fifteenth century,increased: of annually. documents three upto reign of Stephen the Great to chiopu or Ieremiachiopu or Movil The type of The being of type charters issuedMoldavian remained largely Their unchanged. I ages, earlier survivefrom feweris documents that expectancy While there asound Wallachia’s initial increase in the number of surviving charters is slower. During the ă (1595-1600). 198 CEU eTD Collection same task: use written nobility records insteadto of customary the carried toperformrituals oral out the identify me Wallachian andin stimulated that have factors permitted to the documents the have seem cases been only. (specific) inarerecurrent asked for to cases These extraordinary receivedin amatter business, Wallachiawere granted, andas they re-confirmed of ordinary land titles written while inMoldova Therefore, latter. than the rather oral practice favored fifteenth century. The balancebetween oral customary andpractices writing definitely estates. ownedcollective previously of partition the recording charters of consists century sixteenth the of turn the at noblemen Wallachianthan society. Theonly new type of commissioned by document Moldavian In Wallachia land written titlesareseldom the lastof employed upto quarter the x x x during disputes was essential. asprobative strengthening the of role defensive evidence the of charters the increase significant in In numberWallachian documents. of the this respect, accumulationnumberThe great land of disputes (possibly by triggered samethe of process ofencroachment. land to against landedpreserve properties strove to their as owners their form themowned by high-ranking noblemen triggered the appeal of smallwriting to land intoestates landform to great of accumulating process The sixteenth-century great estates) customary circumvent land succession. An intois by a brother). additional here to constituted element attempts broughta stranger (turning adoption fraternal and law) the of purpose the for a son into about a to avoid istothedesire related charters Wallachian of increase inthe number The first defectus seminis defectus through practicesthe of through prefectio (turning adaughter 199 CEU eTD Collection Eastern Church, the Westerninfluence wasgraduallycoupled with a SlavonicSouth one. fluctuations between Western and Eastern traditionChristian settled intoa strong affiliation tothe the Later, as chanceries. Hungarian and in Polish the employed practices the by influenced significantly were Wallachia and Moldavia both that indicate treaties political Early Hungary. were written abroad, in Latin, and using thehost’scustomary format whether it wasPoland or literary traditions tothenewly of created states Moldavia and Wallachia, asthe firstextant treaties which foreign writing practices trickled down into the lands that I have dealt with here. main the media through and represented international relations Danube. Inmyview,trade culture was fairly extended in neighboring Hungary and Poland, as well as south of the culture. written for theearly factors and trade:essential relations 8.2 Foreign previous century. tothe compared only landtitles tripled written the Moldavia, literate morewhile in the endincreasefifteenth nine timescentury, comparedtothe of by to the documents almost Wallachian number of the Thiscaused situation records. for written stimulated ademand that sixteenth century) of large landed estates at the expense of small land holders, a social conflict the namely (during formation the in documents), Moldavian less reflected (whichare changes land titles. The specificities of Wallachia’s social structure brought about major social individual forms of land ownership in both cases is one of the reasons for the multiplication of had a more securewith a strong emphasis on customary (oral) legal practices,in Moldavia writing seems haveto footing society, as apre-literate theWhile sceneroughly Wallachia entered twoprincipalities. the from the onset. The process of transition from collective to Thus, the analysis of land titles reflects the differences between the written cultures in cultures written the between thedifferences landtitles reflects of analysis Thus, the Political treaties were amongthefirst of transmissionconduits of western cultural and in located an area wherewritten were principalities medieval Romanian The two 200 CEU eTD Collection replaced by a written exchange in Moldavia, while in Wallachia the documents attestthe in the documents Wallachia while inMoldavia, exchange a written replaced by oral andwritten communications. Theoral of exchange political information was gradually foreigninstitutions, in both Moldavia and especially in Wallachia, wasbasedon interplayan of just toendorse and confirmoral Thisspeech. indicates that the exchange ofinformation with certain type of document, presumably letters of in credence which instrumentswritten wereused in Wallachia. of practices written a gradual establishment suggest Michael Brave (1593-1600) reign of the pointing toa‘literate mentality’ still by shaped oral issuedculture. Only letters the during the survived, that numberletters with of low very findingsthe corroborate These recipient. to the as verbalization a direct his letters prince languagethe formulated and that spoken and written between differentiation no was there that suggests letters these of style the century, fifteenth the during toas“spoken.” Especially referred itswas transmission and was called“speech” to referred information the oral, and colloquial often is letters political Slavonic Wallachian of style The be duringthereignof andformat Michael Brave(1593-1601). the resumed reign only the to after Mircea theresolved Old(1387-1418) of in discontinued almost writing interactions diplomatic level high active writing; of use in the role important less a played regional languages. established practices, amature tradition and the ability to produce documents in the official (1457-1504), when the number of documents increased, Moldavian letters sent abroad indicate Great the of Stephen reign the From chancery. in Moldavia’s tradition written of establishment constanton-going correspondence with Western kingdoms led, among factors, other to an early mostimportant factor that stimulated the production of Moldavian written communication. The Moreover, the first exchanges of diplomatic letters are attested simultaneously with a with simultaneously are attested letters of diplomatic firstexchanges the Moreover, Conversely,in Wallachia, the political relations with neighboring powers seem to have Correspondence on foreign issuedaffairs from the Moldavian principality constituted the 201 CEU eTD Collection in their commercial business before it reached an institutional level. institutional an reached it before business commercial in their by was produced involveda person in Romanian activities indicates that commercial was used issued (1521) in letter Romanian Wallachian the first factthat Also,the literary skills. active some issued receipts signed issued receipts some and transactions ongoing about personal archives kept Traders intrade. misunderstandings resolve to means as documents written commission to administration princely to the they turned testifyoften that The data exchange. neededin trade registers) chirographs, (receipts, documents commercial as well as devices) identification (as documents official both used colleagues, foreign their to similarly merchants, Wallachian well. as levels personal and stimulated familiarization with written practices at the level of state institutions, but at urban regionalactive and roleurban passive reception of by localdocuments structures graduallythe power evolved to take on the of documents stateled productionatthe buta local Danubian the level. to The of documents Principalities issuersdignitaries. in documents of administrative notonly circulation the stimulated merchants laymen. Foreign as the princely of community among restricted avery documents written of circulation the stimulated Trade letters that have issues fewfactors beenamongthe seem to trade-related institutions, clerical relations were soonevidence, especially in Wallachia, rareand wasextremely mainly wasissued behalf on of followed with by foreignthose of merchants not only the Bra the in Aldea thereign preserved of (1431-1433) Wallachian 21 documents upto Out of of a total activities. commercial to related was correspondence foreign Wallachian the of most when period, early during the is prominent trade especially of Therole diplomatic, documents. researched period. continuing useof andsimultaneous writing andoralcommunication up tothe of the end In Wallachia, written In Wallachia,communication mainly andwas used written for trade-related not ú ov Thus,during when urban archives,totrade. 20wererelated aperiod ov written manu propria , indicate that some of the traders had mastered some traders that of indicate the , 202 CEU eTD Collection structures andstructures even individuals.private later in Moldavia, documents began tobe produced for record keeping byother state communication.After halfin the turn century Wallachia,andeven of sixteenth the a century exceptionally weredocuments producedat the urban and regional level,mainly foreign for Only chanceries. princes level atthe the issuedof wereexclusively letters, almost foreign practices ofwritten ofdissemination 8.3 Theprocess in practices Moldavia and Wallachia. introduction on had impact trademilieusof thatvarious the an written demonstrate documents related influence.Thus,trade southern astronger enjoyed Wallachia while cultural traditions, and influenced structures byWestern wasmore Moldavian principality indicates the that letters. andadministrative than of political that extensive less wascertainly documents trade useof the and discontinued was practice the hisreign after AlexandruL instance,activities prince as,for dignitaries Moldavian state andhigh wereinvolvedprinces aswell in commercial the Certain century. fifteenth the throughout administration state the of practices written the officials. state high-level Wallachian subjects in theswitch trade exchanges,its with century, sixteenth the of fromhalf second the after Only thebehalf. their on mainly use produced internationalof documents were documents surviving The ceasedactivities. in commercial involved often were to owners) estate be restricted landed- large trade(also officials tostate High-ranking elite. a commercial also was elite political to a local/regional one and a deeper involvement of the Up to the turn of the sixteenth century, most of the documents, whether charters or charters whether documents, the of most century, sixteenth the of turn the to Up documents) of types (along with other for trade evidence indirectand The direct to waslimited of writing Theimpact less well-formed. are relations trade In Moldavia, the cases early the of in most documents, these from data on based Nevertheless, ă pu ú neanu (1552-1561, 1564-1568). However, 1564-1568). neanu (1552-1561, 203 CEU eTD Collection Reformation which reached initially the towns. the initially reached which Reformation impactof the tothe of producers multiplication the assign I usedRomanian. charters internal the while employ Hungarian, began to areas foreign to letters as further diversified documents languages the of produced the Moreover, period. previous the with incomparison increased local butthe number survivingdocuments of whoare attested new only not local producers it was twodecades century, of issue sixteenth last the land During to titles. sporadically, began, village structures and urban administration century, of regional, sixteenth the quarter Already first the inafter than Moldavia. earlier thechancery, outside princely produced traditions. written in various trained priests or scribes variety professional of indicatesa languages variety used of the inhabitants (like Câmpulung) multi-ethnic foreignof producer with multi-religious correspondence. In towns and earliest as the attested were and activities in commercial involved heavily were communities German-speaking by inhabited the settlements urban is the preserved: same pattern diversities. religious inwas produced urban institutions involved in commercial activities ethnic broad with and records of written corpus richest the that conclude I charters). as (such documents of types other of production the facilitated later on, which, culture with written a familiarization led to institutions. Thus, Iadvance the hypothesis thethat correspondence foreign with institutions same town administrations that had previously used writing for communication with foreign princely chancery. surviving Thefirst urban land titles indicate that they by were produced the quarter of landbe sixteenththe century, beganin produced titles to Moldavia outside the last the by later, A century activities. in commercial involved communities German-speaking In contrast to the extant foreign letters, in Wallachia, land charters began to be to began charters land Wallachia, in letters, foreign extant the to contrast In the indate.However, andlate isscarce correspondence urban survivingIn Wallachia, by inhabited was by employed towns letters exchange of In earliest the Moldavia, 204 CEU eTD Collection attestation of the chancery’s personnel as foreign emissaries suggests that this was one of of their wasone this that suggests emissaries foreign as personnel chancery’s of the attestation Theabundant proto-diplomats. asthefirst recorded abroad distinguished themselves and scribes Wallachian chancellors and Moldavian generations. across trade transmission of dynastic an almost families reflects certain of names the of as recurrence the context, family from mayusually selected scribes. It former be writing that werelearnedwithin skills the skills seem haveto been learntin the office, as during the early period future chancellors were of high dignitaries.positioned clergy orstate Careers in chancery the were usuallylengthy; laymen. were principalities Romanian medieval in the scribes early the world, Catholic inthe norm the Unlike wealth. and high-rankingsocial status bring practitioner to its that tended to aresource constituted skills literacy active apparatus.of The acquisition state within the of professionals an elite waswriting? 8.4 Who data. extant by the offered image the from significantly differ documents involved inmightnot social commissioningand their the groups andproducing sixteenth ifmaycentury. Thus, even more documents typehave previously the of existed, the of half second in the begun have to seems that transition on-going an reflect practices writing of dynamics the and century, sixteenth the of quarter last the by documents surviving of increase intheproduction the significant However, practices. established archival lack) of hypothesis were filtered documents’ that survivalchances through existencethe of (orthe Catholicthe princes world,confirmsthe connectionsnoblemen to those with strong and survival better the inforeignin preserved ofthe personal archives of archives, addition to rate were communications commercial or political administrative, for intended documents most survive ownership limited the fact Similarly, not because of value. did juridical that their Up to the turn of the sixteenth century, the production of documents was restricted to Indirect evidence indicates that a large number of local charters attesting land attesting a local of that charters large number indicates evidence Indirect They seem to have been young and wealthy noblemen, offspring noblemen, wealthy and young been have to seem They 205 CEU eTD Collection sources of information. Instead they were perceived as symbols of princely power or asa or power of princely as symbols they were perceived information. of Instead sources as“real” functioned nor oral testimonies neither replaced mentality. Documents non-literate in change immediate an about bring not did societies two the of practices in the documents of involvement the Nonetheless, documents. written include to began communication keepingand record such oral as customs common certain justice. Gradually, dealing out were notlimited to, customary law, practices of administration, proof of ownership and my principalitiesstudy twothe relied exclusively almost included,on oral that practices but onsetof at the that bystressing only can beunderstood process This societies. “preliterate” culture culture/Literate Oral 8.5 social among lower strata. the record use to of written from the oral practices transition the facilitating level, local thus parish priests were very important in by possessed literary active skills the However, order writing practices.. andincipient unsettled to supply the demand for the written level.word The local documentsat issuedthe in vernacular Romanian strongly suggest that these were becameespeciallyactiveof atthelocal inWallachia,documents producers priests Moreover, areoften scribesattested. andpriests be betweenvarious recruited.began Kinshiprelations to form of scribes out which social group to chancery began Consequently, an active priests use ofvernacularalimitedintonumber writing brought the of village priests arena. The dignitaries. church and state high of number a limited to scribes professional the beyond toward the end of theranking sixteenth socialcentury high- the However, nobility. of lower the families include to began scribes were recruited writing standing skills becameand wealthdiversified functions. regular of to scribesa small extent continued to be well attested. In addition, I revealed the processes of appearance and dissemination of written culture in culture two of and dissemination written of processes I revealed the appearance which of out pool social the in Moldavia, especially century, mid-sixteenth the After 206 CEU eTD Collection 900 rituals.” memorable of than performance the less important itself was charter “Probably out: the pointed Mostert As Marco with them. co-existed rather others. to belonging or own their either writing, of pieces all preserved landin and carefully to confirm writing began rights to their free Consequently, peasants instruments during potential social extendedstruggles down villageto the level. Moreover, the aspowerful perception of amongdocuments the high-rankingstrata. social atleast records toinvolve written landbegan regularly of transactions century, sixteenth the of precedence By end the overwitnesses. legal valueandtook their increased gradually in testimonies, legal oral faceof the no weight or hadlittle earlier which charters, Written and, more importantly, strata social among various disseminated werebeing documents written that noticed I century, way writtenthere records was werea changeperceived and invalued. end of thethe sixteenth century, most communicationIn the Wallachia, at way of informationeven levels, other took the all oral at forms. century, fifteenth such the of half first the from bycommunication thedocuments end of the sixteenthfor used was writing level societies atof these thehighest fact the that Despite practices. were perceived. texts. the of contents actual the on expended concern little with themselves, symbol of ownership: they were preserved, hidden and stolen as very valuable in objects habits and assumptions, comprising a literate mentality, had to take root inhabits mentality, rootliterate had and assumptions, comprisinga totake social diverse literate is that evident most is “What words: Clanchy’s Michael In officials. state high-ranking or princes certain to restricted isstill skills writing active of evidence Moreover, records. ownership the and communications official beyond went culture written that indicating Marco Mostert, “Forgery and Trust and “Forgery Mostert, Marco However, the written record did not replace the performance of oral ceremonies but ceremonies of oral performance the replace didnot record written the However, in the can beidentified point an inflection that isgenerations anumberof It after only beginOnly inconsistently documents replacegradually written and did to former oral By the end of the sixteenth century, there were very few new types of documents of types new few very were there century, sixteenth the of end the By , ” 52. 900 207 CEU eTD Collection 901 writing skills spread throughout the two societies. were perceived,valued, rather than and actedupon, one inwhich assimilation of active documents impacted written waysin the which of that processes Iunveil a set Wallachia, writers.” literacyor spreadbeyond of class and grow asmall (…) could before areasof groups activity Michael Clanchy, By the end of the sixteenth century, in the Medieval Principalities of Moldavia and Moldavia of Principalities Medieval in the century, sixteenth the of end the By 901 From Memory to Written Record, Written to Memory From 185. 208 CEU eTD Collection Bogdan, Damian ed. Bogdan, Damian P, ______, ed. Bianu, Ioan and Nerva Hodo Bra Mihai. Berza, Urkunden- ed. Albert, Berger, %ă %ă ______. “Reeditareadin ______. unui from1411” (The neweditiondocument a documentof 1411) ______, eds. %ă %ă Aricescu, C.I, ed. C.I, Aricescu, Axinte, Uricariul. Axinte, Andea, Susana and Avram Andea. “M Andea.Avram and Andea, Susana Printed primarysources: Documents No. 243, No.No. 194, 332. Fond POB. ClujState Archive. sources: primary Archival la lan, Teodor, ed. lan, Constantin and P. Cernovodeanu, eds. “Documente inedite slavo-române din lan, Constantin, ed. lan, Constantin, Bibliography ú , Dumitru. “Hrisoave , Dumitru. the editionthe from 1673). Bucharest:n. p.,1887. and original manuscript tothe theversified Psalter according Moldavia (1671-1686), dup Bibliography). Bucharest: Stabilimentul Socec, Grafic1903. J.V. Bucharest: Editura Academiei 1958. R.P.S., Mare. (1571-1585). Cologne:: BöhlauVerlag, 1995. Aus dem vonNachlass herausgegeben Wagner. (1203-1570), BandErnst Band I-II III Olteniei Hrisovul of Bistri documents from Wallachia and Moldavia). Românesc Editura Acdemiei, 1994. Arge Wallachia and Moldavia). Minerva, Editura Bucharest: 1993. Transilvaniae. Institutul de Transilvaniae.Arheologie siIstoria Institutul Artei 1873. 1704) documentare” (The Monastery of Monastery Râme (The documentare” ă ú manuscrisul original (sec.XIV-1848) (The register of income and expendituri income (The register Bucharest, for yearsof andexpendituri the of 1694-1704). (Repertory of monuments and art objects from the reign of Stephen the Great) the Stephen of reign the from objects art and monuments of (Repertory Dosofteiu, Mitropolitul Moldovei(1671-1686), Psaltirea înversuri, publicat 12.1-2 12.1-2 (1960): 97-100. Ġ Repertoriul monumenteleor 7 (1947): 199-201. 7(1947): Câteva documentebistri a). Cluj: Cartea Românesc ă Condica de venituri din veacurile XVI-lea si al XVII-lea (1542-1635)” (Unedited Slavonic (1542-1635)” al XVII-lea veacurile si XVI-lea din Documente bucovinene Cronica paralel Inscrip Acte Moldovene ú ú i scrisori andvechi i (Charters oldletters) (1549)” scrisori Ġ . (Medieval and early inscriptions).modern Bucarest: Romanian Regesten: aus demArchivderStadtBistritzinSiebenbürgen Regesten: aus ii medievale Bibliografia RomâneascBibliografia ă ú a i dup ú i cheltuieliavistieriei delaleatul7202-7212 ğă Ġ ene (1578-1751) ene . Vols. 1-2. Cern ă ăQă rii Române , 1947. ă ú i dinepoca modern edi ú ú ti dinaintede stirea Râme stirea i obiectelor i obiectelor de art Ġ Ġ ia de la 1673 ia dela Romanoslavica from 14 from the ú ti ă Veche1508-1830 (Several documents from the town ú Ġ ăXĠ i aMoldovei. în secolele XIV-XVII. Izvoare XIV-XVII. însecolele 2 (1992):195-203. i: n. p., 1934. ù tefan celMare tefan ă th ă a României. Jude aRomâniei. . (Dosoftei, the bishop of to the 17 the to 11(1965):333-355. din timpul lui din (The chronicles of (Early Romanian th century). (Moldavian Mitropolia ù Ġ tefan cel tefan ul istoric (1694- Ars ğ ara 209 ă . CEU eTD Collection ______. “Inscrip ______. ______. ______Bogdan, Ioan, ed. Bogdan, Ioan, ______. “O edi the Academiei Române” (About Biblioteca slavedin “Despre manuscrisele ______. ______. “Inscrip ______. ______. ______, ed. ______. ______, ed. . ed. . (1908): 23-47.(1908): from Cetatea Alb from Cetatea Bucharest: Socec& Co, 1913. Bucharest: Bucharest: Atelierul Socecu, 1902. I.V. graphic relations Ungaria însec. XVsiXVI with Bra relations with Bra Ungureasc Bucharest: Socecu&Comp.,1905. Bucharest: 1905. documents from Archives City the of Bra române Romanian documents from from Romanian 1905. Socec, documents fifteenth the century) Bucharest: 59. from from archives of town the andSibiu Bra Sârcu necunoscut Sârcu Româneasc Slavonic from manuscripts librarythe of Romanianthe Academy 77. 11-12 (1959): 1018-25. Romanian Popular Respublic from years1494-1805). the Populare Române Ukrainian (Russianand inscriptions on teriitory the the of Biserice Romanian words from Slavo Romanian documents) Bucharest: Imprimeria Na Bucharest: (Necrology of Bistri (Necrology Funda from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries) fifteenth and fourteenth the from I, 1938.I, 1502 period).Bucharest: n.p.,1947. Documents before the reign of Stephen the Great). Bucharest: Funda Bucharest: theGreat). of Stephen reign the before Documents . Documentelelui Documentemoldovene Pomelnicul dela Bistrita si Rudeniile de laMoscova siPomelnicul Rudeniilede delaBistrita Diplomatica Slavo-Romanadinsecolele XIVsi XV. Glosarul cuvintelor Româane Documente privitoare laRela Documente Ġ ii 1941. Regale, Acte Moldovene ú Pomelnicul M ú ti dinsecXV ti, 1946. ti, ă Ġ Album paleografic cuprinzând douazeci ă ie dedocumente slavo-muntene din arhivele Sibiului Ġ însec.XV Ġ 4(1940):119-26. ii ruse iile de la Cetatea Albiile delaCetatea ă ú ă ú i regeste privitoare larela la noi” (An unknown edition of Slavonic Wallachian documents Wallachian of Slavonic edition launknown (An noi” and the Moldavian suzeranity) Moldavian andthe ú ov and Hungary during the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries). ú ti si ucrainieneti din pe anii teritoriul 1494-1805 aflate Republicii Ġ ov and Hungary and fifteenthHungary ov the during and enturies). sixteenth a and the relatives from Moscow and theGreat). Kievof Stephen from Moscow relatives a andthe ăQă ù tefan cel tefan Mare ú ú ti din anii 1426-1502 ti dinanii i XVI (Paleographic album covering twenty albumcovering (Paleographic twenty six facsimils the of stirii Bistri Ġ onal ú ti din sec. XV si XVI în Arhivul Bra sec. XVsiXVI ti din , (Documents and concerning(Documents theWallachian regestas ă Vol.1 (Documents concerning (1413-1508) Wallachian , 1940. ú ti din Documentele Slavo-Române ti dinDocumentele ú ă Ġ Ġ iile a i st (Necrology of Bistri of (Necrology (Documents of Stephen Great)Volsthe 1-2. ú ğă ov edited by edited Sârcu). ov ă pînirea Moldovei ei” Moldovei pînireaasupra (Inscriptions Bucharest: Imprimeria Na Bucharest: ú rii Române ov). Vol.1. Bucharest: Socecu Bucharest:ov). Vol.1. Socecu &Comp., (Moldavian duringdocuments 1426- the Ġ iile ú Analele AcademieiRomane ğă i ú Bucharest: TipografiaBucharest: C rii Rumâne ase de dedocumentefacsimile (Slavo-Romanian Diplomatics (Slavo-Romanian ú ú ti cu Bra i Kiev alui i Biserica Ortodox Ġ a Monastery). a Hrisovul ú ú ú ovului ú ti cuBra i Bra ovul Ġ ù Ġ (Glossary of the ional ia Regele Carol ia Regele tefan celMare. tefan 2 (1942): 41- 2(1942): ú ovului ovului a lui ú (Moldavian ă i cu Bucharest: ă ). Arhiva ). , 1938. Român ú ovul ăUĠ ğ 30.2 ara ilor 210 ú ă i CEU eTD Collection &ă Bujoreanu, M,ed. Bujoreanu, eds. al., et Ioana Burlacu, Tudor, Bucur, ______. “Pomelnicul triptic allui AlexandruL ______. “Pietrele de mormânt F din delamuzeul ______. “Pomelnicul mare______. m cel al ______.“Pisanii, pomelnice ______. “Piatra demormânt______. “Piatra a lui Bogdan tat al II-lea, ______. “Nume______. decalug ______. “Miniaturi ______. “Inscrip ______. “Inscrip ______. “Inscrip ______. “Inscriptii ______. “Inscriptii (Inscriptions altadata.” iconssi icoane privind breslelede about and ______. “Grafitele______. dela Moldovi Br ______. ______. ă linescu, Gheorghe. “Altre nitizie sui missionari cattolici nei paesi romeni” paesi nei cattolici missionari sui nitizie “Altre Gheorghe. linescu, tulescu “DocumenteVictor. Bucharest: Editura Academiei,Bucharest: 1984. Basarab (1652) Sucevei Bucharest: General directorate 1992. archives of Romania, of state the General directorate Bucharest: necrology Lapu Alexandra of necrology )ă Monastery of Sucevi Monastery 7.1-2 (1955):84-95.7.1-2 necroligies and notes from the monastery S monastery of from the andnotes necroligies stone of Bogdan II, father of Stephen the Great) (1961): 166-80.(1961): Humor) (Names of monks and scribes in the grafitti from the monasteries of Vorone Olteniei centuries). eighteenth to sixteeth Oltenia: of churches the from notes and the Putna Monastery) Putna the (1966): 463-76.(1966): churches and monasteries) churches andchurches monasteries) Sucevei previous guilds) inscriptions from the churches of Arge Russian chronicles him).about Bucharest: Libr comments and Göbl,comments Bucharest: notes). 1891. note lticeni Museum) lticeni Vechile cronice moldovene Vlad (Early Moldavian chronicles preceding Urechia: Slavonic texts with translations, with texts Slavonic Urechia: preceding chronicles Moldavian (Early 35.3-4 (1959):179-187. 35.3-4 41.7-8 (1965):419-26. 41.7-8 Mitropolia MoldoveisiSuceveiMitropolia 14.10-12 (1962):690-701. ğ epe Ġ Ġ Ġ ii ii ii Pravila tip úú ú ú ú ú (The Law code printed at 1640 and the Law of Matei and1652). Basarab at1640 Matei Lawof the printed (The Lawcode i însemn i manuscrise M din GlasulBisericii i însemn i însemn i nara i Buletinul comisiilor istorice Ġ ă a) Mitropolia Moldovei MitropoliaMoldovei si Sucevei ri ri Ġ iunile germane iunile germane Mitropolia Moldovei si Sucevei ú ú ă ă ú i însemn ă ă i de dieci în grafitele delam i inscrip ri ri bisericiledin Olteniei: secolele (Inscriptions XVI-XVIII” rit MitropoliaOlteniei ri ri biserici din ri ri biserici din EpiscopiaRâmnic-Arge ă Ġ la1640înM a” (The grafitti from a” (The grafitti Moldovi ú ú neanu from Monastery) neanu from Slatina ti pîn 24.5-6(1965):505-10. Ġ ă ii vechi bisericidin arge ăQă ri ri m din ăQă ă Romania: Foreign sourcesontheRomanians. 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Mitropolia ă 44.3-4 (1968):185-204. 44.3-4 ti-Vâlcea). rcine ăQă 20.3-4 (1961):257-66. 20.3-4 ù ú tefan celMare” (The tomb ene” (Early documents and Ġ stirile Vorone (Vlad Tepe (Vlad a) ú ti-Vâlcea” ti-Vâlcea” (Inscriptions, MitropoliaMoldovei ăQă Mitropolia Moldovei ú i PravilaluiMatei stirea Slatina” (The Mitropolia Olteniei Diplomatarium ú : German and : ú Ġ Mitropolia i Humor” 18.5-6 37.3-4 Ġ and 211 ú ú i i CEU eTD Collection ______, ed. Cost ______. ed. Corfus, Ilie, ______. Radu. Constantinescu, ______. “Date noi legîn noi “Date ______. Constantinescu, N. “Contribu N. Constantinescu, Codrescu, Theodor Codrescu, Chivu, Gheorghe, Magdalena Georgescu et al.,eds et Magdalena Georgescu Chivu,Gheorghe, Chihodaru, Constantin, Ioan Capro Maria. Anton Del, Florentino Chiaro Celac, Tatiana, ed., Tatiana, Celac, Cazacu Matei. “Documente inedite din secolele XVI- XVII” (Unpublished documents from (Unpublished inedite XVII” “Documente documents dinsecoleleXVI- Cazacu Matei. Capro Cantacuzino, Constantin Stolnicul. Constantin Cantacuzino, Camariano, Nestor and Ariadna Camariano-Cioran, eds. andAriadnaCamariano-Cioran, Nestor Camariano, ă chescu, Mihai, ed. ú u, Ioan “Documente moldovene Romaneasca, 1932. Romaneasca, documents preceeding the reign of Stephen the Great) Vols. 1-2. Iassy: Viata Române, 2001. Academiei Editura Bucharest: centuries) seventeenth and sixteenth the archive: Polish XVI-lea XVI-lea Editura Academiei,Bucharest: 1979. century). sixteenth archive: the Secolul alXVI-lea of Romanian origin from the foreign collections. Repertory). Bucharest: DGAS, 1986. early Romanian Law).Bucharest:written DGAS, 1984. Studii XVI)” (Archeological contributions to the princely court from Suceava: fifteenth and fifteenth centuries)) sixteenth Suceava: from court princely the to contributions (Archeological XVI)” Iassy: Tipografia Buciumului Român, 1889. Moldovei Bucharest: Editura Academiei,Bucharest: 1979. secolul alXVI-lea (Chishin Vols.Bucharest: 1-3. Academiei, Editura 1980. Nicolae. Iorga. Bucharest: n. p., 1914. the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries) seventeenth and sixteenth the Istorie Cuza” from documents foreign the archives) Damaschin Mioc. Editura Bucharest: Academiei, 1991. Moldavia between 1695-1754).Bucharest: Editura Academiei, 1965. Moldovei întreanii1695-1754. Italicum Documente privitoare culese laistoriaRomâniei al dinarhivelepolone:Secolele Manuscrise origineromâneasc de ú i cercet Documente moldovene ă ú 2 (1930): 362-431. u: Hiperion, 1990). i alXVII-lea (Register containing chrysobulla, anaphoras and documents) other anaphoras chrysobulla, containing (Register Documente privitoare la istoria Românieicuprinseînarhivelepolone.Documenteprivitoare laistoria , ed. Letopise 37 (1991):171-204. ă Vechiul Repertoriulizvoarelor. dreptromânesc scris. 1340-1640. ri deIstorieVeche Uricariul cuprindzietoriu dehrisoave, anaforale Documente moldovene Documente (Documents concerning thehistory of Romania found in Polish the ă (Romanian documents and notes from the XVIth century). tur Studii Ġ Ġ ul ii arheologice asupra cur asupra ii arheologice ă (Documents concerning history the of Romania foundin the cu Cetatea Neam cuCetatea ğă ú ú i cercet rii Moldovei u et al., eds. Istoria ú ti dela Storia modernedelle rivoluzioni dellaValachia. ú (The chronicle of the Ghicule the of chronicle (The ti din secolele al XV-lea - al XVII- lea” (Romanian 11.1 (1960): 81-105. 11.1(1960): ă ğă ri deIstorie Veche ă rii Române dincolec ù Studii Documenta Romaniae Historica A: Moldova. Documenta RomaniaeHistoricaA: (The chronicle of the Moldavian Country) Moldavian the of chronicle (The tefan celMare tefan Analele aleUniversitatiiStiintifice “Al. I. Ġ ului” (New data related to the Neam the to related data ului” (New ú ti înaintede . Documente 20.2(1967):307-12. Ġ ii domne Ġ ú ii straine. Repertoriuii straine. ti. (The history of Wallachia). Ed. Cronica Ghicule 15.2 (1964): 225-40. (Moldavian documents from ú ti Târgovi din ti ú i însemn ù tefan cele tefan ú ti family. History of History family. ti ă ri române ú i alte acteale ú ú te (sec.XIV- te (Manuscripts tilor. Istoria (Moldavian Vol. 1-3. Ġ town) ú ti din (The Ed. 212 CEU eTD Collection Dobrescu, Ion.C. “Documente de mo Dobjanschi, Ana, Anca Lazarescu et all, eds. et Ana, Anca Lazarescu Dobjanschi, Djamo, Lucia “Documente slavo-moldovene “Documente Lucia Djamo, Densu Decei, Aurel. “Redescoperirea unor documente moldovene documente unor “Redescoperirea Aurel.Decei, ______. ______. Dan, Dimitrie. Cuciu, ______.“Documentele m ______.“Documentele Cre Cr Costin, Nicolae. Costin, ______, ed. ______, ed. ă Ġ eds. A. andIlies, ciun, Ilie ulescu, Narcis. “Documentele m “Documentele Narcis. ulescu, ú ianu, Nicolae, ed ianu, Nicolae, belonging to freebelonging to peasants) Editura Academiei, 1999. Movile 3. With a 1- Vol Collection). Hurmuzaki Romanians. history the of the concerning (Documents centuries) seventeenth and sixteenth the from Moldavia from documents Slavonic (Unedited Editura Academiei, 1900. Bucharest: Bogdan,Vol 1. edited byIoan 1703 fordocuments years1510to the TocilescuGrigore andAlexandruOdobescu, I. Vols1-4; Revista Arhivelor. Direc Revista Arhivelor. centuries) sixteenth and fifteenth the from documents Moldavian certain of discovery Socecu, 1905 Socecu, documents). Vienna, 1912. ilustra Bucharest: DGAS, 1986. arhivistic. Organul societ Arhiva. Organulsociet Academiei, 1963. concerning history, Romanian fifteenth-eighteenth the centuries). Bucharest: Editura privind istoriaXVIII României Editura Academiei, 1942. chronicle from genesisthe of worldthe upto1601),ed. Ion St. Petre.Bucharest: Grafice “Brawo,” 1943. Grafice “Brawo,” documents from documents from reign the of Regele Carol 1940. I, documents from reignthe Bogdan Voievod(1504-1517).Bucharest:of Funda the reign of Stephen the Great) Iassy: Institutul de Arte Grafice “Bravo,” 1933. ù tefan, ed. 0ăQă 0ăQă Ġ ú iuni ti. Documente moldovene Documente moldovenesti dela Bogdan Voievod (1504-1517)Documente moldovenestidela Bogdan Cronica episcopieideR stirea Sucevi (Moldavian art from Stephen the Great to Movila dinasty). Bucharest: stirea (The relations of Wallachia and Moldavia with the town of Bra Romanoslavica Letopise Supplement I Rela (The chronicle of R ăĠ ú Ġ ii iile i comunaPutna ú Ġ Documente istoriaDocumente privitoare la românilor.Colec ul tiin ăQă ğă Ġă ăĠ Ġ Ġ a ifice ifice stirii stirii Neam rii Române Ġ rii Moldovei de la zidirea pîn lumii rii Moldoveidela ii containing documents forcontaining documents years the 1819edited1518 to by ia general Repertoriul manuscriselorde cronici interne: secolele XV- (Sucevi 10(1964):447-56. ú Revista Arhivelor tiin ú i literare dinIa ù ú ăQă Ġ (Repertory of the manuscripts of the internal chronicles tef neni (Br ú ifice ti dela Ġ a Monastery). Bucharest: Socecu, 1923. Bucharest: Socecu, a Monastery). stirii Neam stirii ă ăGăXĠ ă (The monastery village of and Bucharest: Putna). ni ú Ġ ăGăXĠ aArhivelorStatului u” (Documents of of Neam u” (Documents ú ti Ġă ú i literare din Ia ti inedite din secolul al XVI-lea - al XVII -lea” XVII al - XVI-lea al secolul din inedite ti Voievod 1517-1527). Jassy: 1517-1527). Arte Voievod Institutul de ú ă i monastery with an appendix of Slavonic i Moldovei cuBra Arta dinMoldovade la Arta det-Mehedin ù i, cuapendicededocumenteslavone tef 6.1(1944): 30-46. ú Ġ ă i u” (Documents of Neamtu monastery) of Neamtu u” (Documents ni 22 (1911): 407-10.22 (1911): Ġă Voievod(1517-1527) ú Ġ ú i i) (sec XVII-XIX)” (Documents 21(1910):341-50. ti din secolele XV-XVI” (The XV-XVI” secolele ti din 69.1 (1992): 13-25. ú ovul 1369-1803.Inventar Supplement II Ġ ă u monastery). u la1601 ù tefan celMare tefan la Ġ ia Hurmuzaki) (Moldavian (Moldavian (Moldavian containing Arhiva. ú ov). 213 Ġ ia ú i CEU eTD Collection ______. ______. 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Spitalelor Sfîntului Spiridon din Ia Slavonic Vol Romanian documents) 1, 1. part 1460-1600. Iassy: Casei Epitropia Oras city of of the history Bucharest) the concerning the Sultan Mehmed II in Sultan the Mehmed II Moldavia) Mehmed II-leadocuments concerning inMoldova” (Twothe from campaign 1476 of Revista de Istorie (1968): 185-94.(1968): men (1960): 562-579.(1960): manuscripts from from manuscripts of Patriarchy) Library the Romanian the 436-455.(1960): Patriarchy) Romanian the of from Library the manuscripts 32-256.(1960): manuscripts from Library the Romanianof the Patriarchy) 93-122.(1960): manuscripts from Library the Romanianof the Patriarchy) 590-606.(1959): Bucharest: Editura Academiei,Bucharest: 1965. 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Orasul aleRomâniei. iile medievale Ġ iile iile Bucharest: Muzeul a de Istorie Muzeul Bucharest: , 4 (1926-27). , Anuarul Institutului de istorie ğă ú ului Bucure rii Române rii Studii Teologice Studii Teologice Studii Teologice Studii Teologice Studii Teologice Studii Teologice (Acts and(Acts charters: Studii Teologice ú ăFă ú ti. ti cu Sibiul în Sibiul cu ti (Charters and (Charters re (Documents ú ti) 11.9-10 11.7-8 12.7-8 12.3-4 12.1-2 12.5.6 Studii. Iasi 5 214 ú i CEU eTD Collection ______, ______. Iorga, ed. Iorga, Iorga, Nicolae, ed. Iorga, Ionescu-Ni ______.“Noi ______.“Noi documente române Holban, Theodor. Documente de la r Holban, Maria. Guboglu, M.“Inscrip Grigora Gregorian, Mihai and E. St and E. Mihai Gregorian, Grecu, Vasile, ed. Grecu, ______. “Hrisovul albinarilor (1579-1580)” (The charter of of bee keepers) charter (The “Hrisovul albinarilor______. (1579-1580)” Grecescu, Constantin, ed. 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Bucharest:Editura Academiei,A Greek original 1944. work). (1947): 195-99.(1947): history history Wallachianof princes by Radu Popescu).Bucharest: Academiei, Editura 1963. de IstorieMedie Brâncoveanu) Constantin of treasury the of of tasks registers (The family).Cantacuzino Bucharest:1960 Editura Acdemiei, Letopisetul cantacuzinesc. Via Translations. between Romanian-Slavonic documents 24.Iassy:1428-1757) Vols. ú , Nicolae and Ion , Nicolae and Ion Capro Domnia Ġ ú a Româneasca, 1930. Acte relative la R cov, Traian. “Dou Traian. cov, Acte Documente deistorie aRomâniei. Colec &ăOă Via ú ú i scrisori dinarhiveleora Acte i via tori str ú Ġ Ġ i ii de peraclele dincatedrala Mitropoliei Olteniei Craiova.”din (Tomb Documente de istorie a României. Colec Documentede istorie a a sfântului Nifon a sfântului 19 (1982):591-6. 5(1962):353-504 Ġ a luiPetru Vod Istoriile domnilor ú i fragmente cuprivirei fragmente laistoria românilor ă ă ini despre Studii.RevistadeIstorie ă zboaiele documente inedite din prima jum prima din inedite documente ă Ġ ă nescu, eds. ia Hurmuzaki, Mitropolia MoldoveisiSuceveiMitropolia , 1961. (The history (Thehistory Wallachiaof 1290-1690. The chronicle of the ú ú u, eds. “Documente moldoveneu, eds.“Documente ti ti arhiveledin polone ú . Oredac ă i cuceririle luiMihai Voda Viteazul ğă ze ăù rile Române ú ii din Moldova” (Documents belonging to the ğă chiopul Cronicari munteni rii Române vol. 12(1594-1602). Bucharest: n.p.,1903. Ġ ie greceasc ú elor ardelene (Bistri ù Istoria tiintific (The reign and life of the Prince Petru 21.2 (1968): 243-257. Ġ ia Hurmuzaki. (Foreign travellers on the Romanian ú ti deRaduPopescuVornicul Anuarul Institutului de Istorie si ă ă inedit ú , 1976. i franceze” (New Romanian ğă 56.6-8 (1980):628-33. 56.6-8 ă Documente privitoare la Documente privitoare rii Române tate a secolului al XVI-lea” al asecolului tate Mitropolia Olteniei (Wallachian chroniclers). ú ă ti dinsecoleleti inedite al Ġ (The life of Nifon. saintlife of (The ia Hurmuzaki. Vol.15.1 (1358-1600). Ġ a, Bra (Documents and (Documents Studii.Materiale (Documents ú Romanoslavica ti 1290-1690. Hrisovul ú Ġ ov, Sibiu) a, Bra Vol.11. 12.1-2 (The ú ov, 215 7 CEU eTD Collection Lin Limona, Dumitru, ed. Limona, Dumitru, Kozak, E. Kozak, Ka Jacimirskij, Alexandr. “Slavianskie i Russkie rukopisi Rumynskikhz bibliotek Transilvania din în bibliotecile slave “Manuscrise I. Iufu, Virginia. Isac, Iorgu, Iordan, ed. Iorgu, Iordan, ______. ______. ______. ______. Socotelile Sibiului Sibiu Bucarest:(The accountbook). Carol Göbl, 1899. ______. Socotelile Bra ______. ______. ______. ______. á Ġ užniacki, Emil, ed. "Documenta mo "Documenta Emil, ed. užniacki, a, Elena, ed. 1967. Vols 1-3 (Catalogue of the Slavonic Romanian manuscripts from from manuscripts of theVols SlavonicRomania). Romanian 1-3 (Catalogue from the state archives, Sibiu). Bucharest: Direc archives, Bucharest: from Sibiu). state the life concerning of economic documents Documents the Romanianthe Principalities. Documente dinarhivele statuluiRomâne (sec XVII-XIX). Sibiu. Bernardy Ziemskie zczas archives). in (Moldavian andWallachian In Lwow the documents slovesnosti libraries) Romanian from manuscripts Russian libraries) Banat and Transylvanian the from Bucharest, DGAS, 1989. Vol. of archives 11398-1595. Jassy. Moldavia), of town the from documents state the Editura Academiei,and“Collected Stories”).Bucharest: 1960. Vol 19. Bucharest: Atelierele grafice Socec, 1910. graficeSocec, Bucharest: Atelierele Vol 19. Romanians. the (Studies concerning anddocuments Variousof documents) the history letters) Vol.letters) Bucharest: 5. Ministerului Editura de Instruc 5ă Arhivele Ora Tipografia Lucr Bucharest: of Lemberg). Archives from City and the documents Lemberg. Regestas 1-2. Bucharest: 1-2. Institutul de artegrafice, 1905. and Mihai Vitezul). Bucharest: Carol Göbl, 1898. Vitezul Archives). Bucharest: Carol Archives). Carol Bucharest: Göbl, 1900. (Bucharest: Editura Academiei,1911). (Bucharest: va Die Inschriften aus der aus Bukowina.Die Inschriften Scrisori domne Inscrip Rela Documente române Documente noueîn mare parte românescirelative laPetru ú e Studii Studii (A collection new,of partly concerningRomanian, documents Petru (Studies and documents concerning the history of the Romanians. 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(Inscriptions from Romanian from the Churches)Vol. (Inscriptions Vienna, 1903. ú i “o seam ȩ w: n. p.,1878. ă lenii de Munte: Neamul Rom Romanoslavica ú i Serban, 1900. Ġ ei (Romanian documents from Bistrita Sbornik otdeleniia russkogoSbornik iazyka i ă Ĕ Ġ decuvinte” ia General skie z archiwum miasta Lwowa" miasta skie z archiwum ú i Banat” (Slavonic manuscripts (Slavonic i Banat” Ġ ú ie, 1903. i. Moldova 8(1963):451-79. Ġ a economic a ăUĠ ă aArhivelor Statului, (Moldavian chronicle (Moldavian i domne i ù (Catalogue of of (Catalogue the chiopul ú (catalog of the Akta Grodzkie i Akta Grodzkie i documente din i documente ” (Slavonic and (Slavonic â nesc, 1912. ú ă ti, zapise ti, ă a România. ù ú i Mihai chiopul ğă rilor 216 ú i CEU eTD Collection Muczkowski, Josephus. Muczkowski, manuscrit Ms816/S” “UnMoisescu, ancient de Putna. Titus. Gheorghe. Miron, Vasile Mircea, Ion-Radu, ed. Mileti ______. Mihailia, George. “Manuscrisele slavo-române din colec din slavo-române “Manuscrisele George. Mihailia, Mihail, Paul. ______. ______. Melhisedec, Episcop, ed. “Catalog dec “Catalog ed. Episcop, Melhisedec, Turkish (Two Basarb” despre Neagoe turcesti documente “Doua Mehmed, Mustafa. ______. 0ă]ă Litzica, Constantin. Litzica, scrisori ______.“Doua inedite alelui Miron Costin (1684-1685)” ______. ______. reanu, Vartolomei. reanu, ü , L “Novi vlaho-b’lgarski gramoti ot’ Brashov” (New Slavonic Romanian documents Romanian Slavonic (New Brashov” ot’ gramoti vlaho-b’lgarski “Novi L , Typ.Univ., 1892. l’art. Série théâtre,musique,cinema l’art. DGAS, 1983. 1849 Romanian 1369-1600).Bucharest; documents: Academiei, Edutura 1946. from Bra from and history andhistory of Romanian lingvistics). Bucharest: Editura Academiei, 1973). (1991): 343-392.(1991): Romanian manuscripts from the collection of M. P. Pogodin) Intreprinderea “Lupta Moldovei,”Intreprinderea 1948. bishopric).n.p.,1875. Bucharest: bishopric).n.p.,1869. Bucharest: 129-143.(1884): the library of library Neam the of sfintei m documents about Neagoe Basarab) about documents Simion F. Marian. Suceava:n.p., 1902. Vorone Bucharest: Carol Göbl, 1909. 11.5 (1958): 79-90. Romanian manuscripts from from Romanian manuscripts Bra Bucharest: Universitatea Bucure Universitatea Bucharest: Bucure Bucharest: from Universitatea Cluj-Napoca). Manuscripts Slavonic Romanian Studiidelexicologie CondicaM Cronica Hu Cronica Romanului Catalogul manuscriselor dinBra slavo-române Catalogul manuscriselor slavo-române dinCluj-Napoca (From the archival treasury of Suceava. Catalogue of Bucharest: of Catalogue documents). (From of archivaltreasury the Suceava. ú Documente Documente Ġ ti, 1980. ti, ). Ed. Simion F. Marian. Suceava: n.p., 1900. ú ăQă ov) stiri stiri a Neam Catalogul manuscriselor grece Catalogul manuscriselor Sbornik za narodniumotvoreniia, naukaIknijnina Catalogul documentelor ú ăQă ilor Album studiosorum Universitatis Albumstudiosorum Cracoveniensis. Condica m Din tezaurul documentar sucevean, Catalog de documente 1393- Din tezauruldocumentarsucevean,Catalogde documente stirii Solca(Thethe Monastery registry of ofSolca), ú ú i zapise moldovene i Ġ i aepiscopiei cuasemeneanumire Monastery) ú Ġ ului” (Catalogue of the old Slavonic and Russian books of oftheoldbooks (Catalogue ului” Slavonic Russian and ú i aepiscopiei deRoman i istoriealingvisticiiromâne ăQă ú ú ti, 1981. ov). Bucharest: Bucure Bucharest: Universitatea ov). ăUĠ stirei Vorone Studiirevista de Istorie Revista pentru istorie, filologie i sîrbe 26 (1989):3-40. ğă ú ti de laConstantinopol (1607-1806). ti rii Române ú ti ti ú ti ú (Catalogue of of GreekManuscripts). the (Catalogue i ruse Ġ , (The registry of the Monastery of Monastery the of registry , (The (The chronicle of Roman and its and Roman of chronicle (The Ġ ú ia lui M. P. Pogodin P. M. lui ia ú ú ti vechi ce seafl ce vechi ti ov ti: 1369-1600 (The chronicle of Hu ú Revue romaine d’histoire de romaine d’histoire Revue ti (Catalogue of (Catalogue of Slavonicthe 21.5 (1968):921-30. (Studies about lexicology Studii. Revista de Istorie 13 (1896):3-152. (Catalogue of the Romanoslavica (Catalogue of of (Catalogue the ú ú i arheologie ti, 1985. ti, ă în biblioteca în . edited by ” (Slavo ” ú Krakow: i itsand Iasi: 217 29 3 CEU eTD Collection Popescu, Paulin, ed. “Manuscrise Slavone din M Slavone din “Manuscrise Paulin, ed. Popescu, Petriceicu-Ha Pascu, Pascu, ______. “Cel mai vechi act municipal______. “Celvechi mai act Moldova”din from urban (Theearliest document ______. ______. ______. ______. “Documente slavo-române din Sibiu (1470-1653)” (Slavo-Romanian______. “Documente(1470-1653)” slavo-române dinSibiu documents Panaitescu, Petre P,ed. Petre Panaitescu, Panaitescu, Petre P, Damaschin Mioc et al., eds. al., Mioc et P,Damaschin Petre Panaitescu, ______. “Episcopia deArge Odobescu, Alexandru.“DespreOdobescu, unelemanuscrise Ni Mustafa, Mehmed A,ed. Nicolaescu, Nicolaescu, 1ă Ġ sturel, Petre Petre sturel, escu, Constantin. “Vechi ctitorii târgovi ctitorii “Vechi Constantin. escu, ù Romanian manuscripts from Romanian from manuscripts Monastery)Putna Bucharest: n. p.,1866. and 1944 centuries).fourteenth Sibiu: thirteenth in the Romanians of history the to contributions (Documentary Bucharest: Editura Academiei,Bucharest: 1977. Ġ Moldavia) by MihGeorge Romanian Accademy of Science) Second edition ed.Dalila-Lucia Aram ed.Dalila-Lucia edition Second Science) of Accademy the Romanian of Library the from manuscripts Slavonic and Slavo-Romanian the of (Catalog Academy Academy Library). state since Aron Bucharest:Voda). Editura Academiei, 1958. from from Sibiu) published by EdituraIoan Bogdan). Bucharest: Academiei, 1959. Bogdan Româneasc 1119-25. Revista Român someBistri and of books edited (Vîlcea)” manuscripts (About Târgovi sixteenth centuries). Bucharest: n.p., 1905. relationsto the fifteenth ofWallachia andMoldaviathe with Transylvania during XVI si sec. XV cuArdealulîn Moldovei treasury Monastery) Putna of the treasury 1974. (Turkish related documents to the Romanian history).EdituraBucharest: Academiei, ù arile române tefan, Constantin Cihodaru et al., eds. Doc tefan. Manuscrisele Slave din Biblioteca Academiei RPR Academiei Manuscrisele SlavedinBiblioteca Catalogul manuscriselor slavo-române Letopise ù ú tefan, ed. deu, Bogdan. ú ù (Slavonic-Romanian chronicles from the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries sixteenth the and fifteenth the from chronicles (Slavonic-Romanian te) Contribu . “Date noi asupra unor odoare de la de M noi unor odoare “Date asupra . Revista istoric ă Studii Glasul Bisericii Ġ . Vols. 1-8, 11.. Vols. 1-8, Bucharest: Editura Academiei, 1983. ul ă ă (Relations among the Romanian countries) D, Vol.1 (1222-1456). countries)D,Vol.1 Romanian the (Relations among ğă il Documnte slavo-române cu privire laRela 1 (1861): 703-41. ă Ġ rii Moldoveidela Aron Vod iuni documentare la istoria românilor în secolele XIII siXIV românilor însecoleleXIII iuni documentare la istoria ú . Bucharest: Editura. Bucharest: Aademiei,2003. Cronicile slavo-românedinsecoleleXV-XVIpublicatedeIoan Documente turce i Cercet Bucharest, Bucharest, Editura Academiei,1959. Arhivaistoric ú ă ” (The bishopric of Arge bishopric of ” (The 9(1923):183-6. ă 24.1-2 24.1-2 (1965): 128-49. ri 32 (1938): 1-44.32 (1938): Romanoslavica ă aRomâniei ú ú tene (Pisanii si inscriptii)” (Early churches from churches (Early inscriptii)” si (Pisanii tene ti privind istoriati privind României,vol1.(1455-1774) (New Slavonic Romanian documents related ú umenta RomaniaeHistorica D Rela ăQă ú i c Documenta RomaniaeHistorica i slavedinBibliotecaAcademiei Române ăUĠ stirea Putna (sec. XV-XVIII)” (Slavo XV-XVIII)” (sec. stirea Putna ă (Romanian history archive). Vols.1-2. încoace 4(1960):260-88. Biserica Orthodox Biserica ăQă i tip ú stirea Putna” (New data aboutthe data (New stirea Putna” ) ă Convorbiri literare Convorbiri rite aflate la aflate rite m (Slavonic manuscripts from the from manuscripts (Slavonic (Chronicle of the Moldavian Ġ iile Ġ a monastery (Vîlcea) a monastery ğă ă Român ăQă rii Române ă stirea Bistri andrevised 49 (1915): ă B: Ġ 40.1-2 ii între ú ğ ti ara 218 Ġ ú a i . CEU eTD Collection Veress, Endre, ed. Veress, Endre, ______andA.Odobescu, I. ed. Tocilescu, Grigore G., ed. G., Grigore Tocilescu, ù Sulkowska-Kurasiowa, Irena. Sulkowska-Kurasiowa, Sulkowska, Irena. “Noi Irena. privind “Noi Sulkowska, documente rela Sarcu, Polihrom, ed. “Iz’ perepiski Rumynskikh voevod’ s sibinskim’ i brasovsim’ ______. “Pomelnicul M Smochin ______. “Documente decultur“Documente ______. Sacerdoteanu, A.“DinSacerdoteanu, arhivam Rosetti, Alexei, ed. Rosetti, Potra, Gheorghe, ed. Gheorghe, Potra, ______. “Manuscrise Slavone din M “Manuscrise Slavone din ______. imanschi, Ciocan “Acte slavone inedite, dinanii1443-1447privind istoria Leon and Nistor functions in Polishthe kingdom: 1370-1444).(Warsaw: 1977). ( Andegawenow Jagiellonow I pierswszych 1370-1444 Moldova privitoare laleg való viszonyához. Acta etepistolae realtionum Transylvaniae Hungariaeque cum & Teclu,Socecu 1886. Documents concerning history Romanian Bucharest: (1518-1780). Suplimentul Grafic Transylvania 1346-1603).Vienna,1931. n.p., Moldavia with Wallachia and of relations tothe related historical documents history) toMoldavian Moldovei” from 1443 to1447related (Unedited Slavonic documents 187. 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Nicolae, , ă înv 77. 2 (1906). 77. ă deIstorie ă Anuarul Institutului de Istorie siArheologie “A.d.Xenopol ăĠă Român tura lui tura cel MareVasile întocmit Hrisovul Akták és levelek Erdély- és Magyarország Moldovával és avasalföldével Moldovával és Magyarország Erdély- levelek Akták és Scrisori Române Sbornik otdelenia islovesnosti russkagoiazika Imperatorskoi Akademii Documente privitoare istoriala ora ă 12.6(1959): 91-100. 83.11-12(1965): 1043-1062. ăQă 6 (1946): 65-104. 6(1946): 534 documenteistorice slavo-române din Documenty Krolewskieich I w funkcja panszwie polskimzu stirii Argestirii ă ăQă româneasc ă ă româneasc Documente privitoare laistoria Românilor (1518-1780) ú turile cu Ardealul1346-1603 stirii Cozia 1393-1778” (From (From stirii archivesthe Cozia 1393-1778” of Cozia ti dinArhivele Bistri Ġ a). Bucharest: Casa Scoalelor, 1944. ăQă ú ului (sec. XVII- XVIII)” (The ArgeXVII- XVIII)” necrology of ului (sec. stirea Putna (sec. XV-XVIII)” (Slavo-Romanian (sec.XV-XVIII)” Putna stirea Biserica Orthodox ă din veacul al XVI-lea “Pravila sfin “Pravila XVI-lea al veacul din Ġ ă iile româno- poloneîn 1589–1622” perioada veche.C ă Mitropolia Olteniei de ritorul de si ritorul înscolasticul Lucaci 1581” Biserica Ortodox ăUĠ Ġ ei (1592-1638) i (Documents (sec XVII-XVIII)” Royal Documents and their and Documents Royal ă ú Român ului Bucure (534 SlavoRomanian ă ğ 40. 7-8 688-40. 7-8 (1960): 16.5-6 (1964):449- 16.5-6 ara Româneasc (Romanian Letters ă ” 11 (1974): 173- Român ú ti (1594-1821) ti Ġ ilor p ilor ă 8393-4 Biserica Studii ă rin ú ă 219 Ġ ú i i CEU eTD Collection ______, Eugenia Neam contribu “Noi Alexandru. Andronic, ______.andMostert. Marco “The “ViolentDeath” of Medieval SomeCharters: ______. “Waging Warand Peace Making Written Thewith Documents: Kingdom of Final______. “Orality inEast central and In Literacy Medieval Prolegomena.” Europe: Adamska, Anna.Adamska,“The of Introduction Writing (Poland, in Central Europe Hungary,and Secondary Sources: Zahariuc, Petronel. “Nou Petronel. Zahariuc, Zaharia, Dumitru. Zaharia, ______. Wickenhauser Fr.A. Werb ______. Ę czy, Stephen. czy, Arheologia Moldovei din din Ia Sucevei Jassy) city of of the history tothe contributions archeologocal Vistulana, 2006. Studia zdziejów kultury I spo In Documents,” the of Symbolic Uses the on Observations Irene van Brepols, Turnhout: Renswoude. 2008. Middle Ages Trust inthe on Textand Poland TeutonicKnights(1411-1422)” againstthe In Wellendorf, Copenhagen: 69-83. University Copenhagen, 2008. of Oral ArtForms Passageand their intoWriting. 165-192.Turnhout:Mostert, Brepols, 1999. “Alexandru Ioan “Alexandru Ioan Cuza”, 2006). Bohemia)” In Studii sidocumente, Bucure city of Bucarest) In Bucarest) city of DGAS, 1986. from Bac the collection document (The Schlacks, Jr., 2005 Schlacks, Jr., Parts. Three Bucharest: CarteaRomâneasc Bucharest: concerning (Documents History the of Moldavia andTransylvania, Wallachia) Moldavia etValachia Geschichte der Kloster Woronetz und Putna. Documente privitoare laistoria Ardealului, Moldovei ú i.” (The archeological excavation executed at the princely court from from Jassy) court princely atthe executed excavation archeological i.” (The ú ti” (Nine documents from the sixteenth century related to the history of the 41.7-8 41.7-8 (1965): 403-8. Colec Ed. János M. Bak, Péter Banyó, and Martin Rady. Idylwild, CA: Charles The CustomaryWorkthe Renowned LawKingdomofHungary.A in of Die Urkunden des Klosters Moldoviza. New Communication New Approaches toMedieval Ġ ia de documente de la Filiala arhiveloria dedocumentelaFiliala StatuluiBac ă Ġ u and M. Dinu. “Su andM.Dinu. documente din secolul al XVI-lea privitoare laistoria ora dinprivitoare al secolul documente XVI-lea edited by Lauren 5 (1967 ): 169-285. Vol. 1(1468-1540). Stepheneum, Budapest: 1914. Civiliza Ġ ă á ia urban ia ecze , 1933), vols.1-6. , 1933), Ġ ii arheologice la istoria ora istoria la ii arheologice Ĕ stwa , 253-263. Ed.Petra Schulte, Marco Mostert and Schulte, Mostert Marco Ed.Petra , 253-263. Ġ iu R ă ăSă dinspa ă , ed u branch of the state archives). Bucharest: archives). branch of state the u turile arheologice de la Curtea Domneascturile arheologice dela Curtea ă dvan, 205-21. Yassy:dvan, Universit Editura . Czernowitz: n.p., 1886. Pawe Ġ iul românesc însecoleleXVI-XVIII: iul Edited by E. Mundal and Jonas á Kras Czernowitz: n.p.,1884. Strategies of Writing. Studies ofWriting. Strategies , ú i 699-709. Kraków: SocietasKraków: 699-709. Ecclesia, cultura, potestas: ğă rii-Române Mitropolia Moldoveisi . Edited byMarco . Edited ú ului Ia ului ă u. (1400-1864) ú t ú i” (New ú ului ăĠ 220 ii ă CEU eTD Collection Bîrs in “Orality,Birnbaum,and Literacy Literature Rus”In Old Henrick Francisco Egmond, eds. and Florike Bethencourt, ______. “Unde______. afost lucratmanuscrisul c ______. “Ultimul manuscris miniat din epoca lui lui epoca din miniat manuscris “Ultimul ______. Berza, Mihai. “Haraciul Moldovei Moldovei “Haraciul Mihai. Berza, .Behrmann, Communes” inLombard “TheDevelopment City Thomas. of Literacy Pragmatic andIlliteracy” Literacy Medieval of “Varieties consequences and H. Franz Bäuml, ______. “Cercet______. %ă Agnieszka Bartoszewicz, ______andCorina Nicolaescu. Bal ______. “Bisericile lui ______. %ă Badea, Ioan. “În legatur “În Badea, Ioan. “Learning.” In Frederick B. Artz, Artimon, Alexandru. “Cercet Alexandru. Artimon, ______. “Cercet ______. trâna, Lia,B trâna, lan, Ioanichie. ú ă , G. “Bisericile moldovene “Bisericile G. , nescu, Middle AgesandSlavic Middle Renaissance Culture Europe 1400-1700 Ia from manuscriptthe belonging monk to In 1502 Filip) (1955): 109-31.(1955): manuscript from Stephen the Great times) Materiale de Istorie Medie Wallachia and Moldavia during and fifteenth the sixteenth centuries) Woodbridge: The Boydell 1997. Press, In 55 (1980):237-65. 144-171. (Arheological in de (Arheological Argeresearch Curtea research at Curte deArge at research Moldovei Moldovei n. 1928. p., Comisiei Monumentelor Istorice century) sixteenth Poloniae Historica 83(2001): 5-15 (1955): 202-4.(1955): Survey. (Archeological at Târgul.Trotu research territory of the town of Jassy) ú i cuprilejul împlinirii a 70 de ani, Pragmatic Literacy,EastandWest, 1200-1330 ù tefan. “Academia domneasc “Academia tefan. ă Chicago andChicago London:The University Chicago Press, 1980. of trâna Adrian. “Cercet Adrian. trâna ú i Sucevei, 1986 0ăQă ă ă ri arheologice de pe teritoriul ora teritoriul depe ri arheologice rile arheologice efectuate în cursul anului 1979 in Curtea deArge în Curtea in cursul efectuate 1979 rileanului arheologice ă stirea Bistri cu epitaful de la cuepitaful m de “ Buletinul Comisiei Monumentelor Istorice . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. ù The Litterati Burghers in Polish Late Medieval Towns tefan cel Mare” (The churches of tefan Mare” (Thechurchesof Great) the Stephen cel ă ri arheologice de laTârgul. Trotu de ri arheologice at ú ú ti din secolul al XVI-lea” (Moldavian chuirches from the from chuirches (Moldavian XVI-lea” al secolul din ti ) 0ăQă The Mind of the AD200-1500.AHistorical MiddleAge: The Mindof Cercet 2 (1957):7-47. ArheologiaMoldovei Ġ ú a ă i rile arheologice de la Curtea deArge laCurtea de arheologice rile (The Bitri ğă stirea Moldovi 18 (1925). ă ă rii Române rii ri Arheologice a lui Alexandru cel Bun-legend alui Alexandru cel ăQă 275-82. Bucharest: Academiei, Editura 1965. ă lug ú stirea Coziastirea [1316]” from 1989) to 1987 ă ú rului rului Filip 1502”(Where din was produced Correspondence Cultural Exchangein and in 1979) Ġ a Monastery) Jassy: Editura Mitropoliei Studii . NewYork:Peter Lang, 1991. ú ului Ia ú Ġ ti în sec. XV-XIX” (The tribute of tribute (The XV-XIX” sec. în ti a ù . (Moldovi 5(1982):201-5. tefan cel Mare” (The last painted last (The Mare” cel tefan ú 9 (1980):103-19. i Cercet ú Cercet i” (Arheologocal the on reserach i” (Arheologocal , 25-43, ed. Richard ed. Britnell., 25-43, Omagiu lui P. Constantinescu-Omagiu lui ă ă Ġ 21(1928). MitropoliaOlteniei a Monastery). Bucharest: ri Arheologice ri de Istoria Artei Carpica ú Aspects of the Slavic Aspects of din din 1987-89” anii ú ” (Archeological ă (1989):221-68. saurealitate?” 4(1981): Speculum Buletinul Studii .” Acta 7.3-4 5.3-4 221 ú ú ” i CEU eTD Collection Camille, Michael.“Seeing and Reading: Some Visual Implications of Medieval Literacy and ______. Burke, Peter, “Theed. Warren C., Brown, Social History ofed. Britnell, Richard, Language” In Briggs, F.“Literacy, Charles Writing Reading and in MedievalWest” the Br Boldur,Alexandru V. ______. “Cancelaria lui B Mirea cel “Contribu ______. române texte unele “Despre P. Damian Bogdan, Bloch, Marc. Boyarin, Jonathan, ed. Jonathan, Boyarin, seventeenth to the from fourteenth the Europe of East-Central Maria“The towns Bogucka, Bloch, Maurice. ______. “ ______. ______. “Scoala de gr ă tianu, Gheorghe I. Gheorghe tianu, Illiteracy” Univerity Pres, 2004. Polity Polity 1993. Press, Culture. Press, 1997. History Medieval Editura Enciclopedic Bucharest: Principalities). Romanian in the estates the of assembly the and counsel prince’ of of social and history). political Iassy: Junimea,2004. social Revista de Istorie study of early Moldavian diplomatic) (1982): 663-73.(1982): centuries) seventeenth to fourteenth texts, Romanian 1992. University Press, 1985. In century” Athlone Press, 1989. University of California Press, 1966. Romanian School of the monastery of Putna) Juridica fourteenth and during the fifteenth centuries) veacul al XV-lea” (Scribes’ school in the Romanian Principalities at the end of the Înv reality?) legend Good: (The princely academy Alexandru the of or Prince Languages andCommunities Europe inEarlyModern ăĠă ù ăú mântului Superior coala greco-slavo-româneasc French RuralHistory:on ItsBasicCharacteristics. AnEssay Aldershot: Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003. i politic 13 (1967):61-7. Art History Art Ritual, HistoryRitual, andPower East CentralEuropeinTransition Ġ Pragmatic andWest, Literacy, East 1200-1330. The Ethnography of Reading. of The Ethnography ii la studiul diplomaticii vechi moldovene vechi diplomaticii studiul la ii ù Sfatul domnescSfatul Conflict in Medieval Europe: ChangingPerspectivesonSocietyand inMedieval Europe: Conflict ă tefan tefan cel MareVoievod alMoldovei(1457-1504):Studiudeistorie 26 (2000):397-420. 7, 8.39 (1986): 659-668, 729-745. ăPă (Stephen the Great, theprince Thestudy (Stephen ofMoldavia Great, the (1457-1504): 8 (1985): 27-49. 8(1985): tici tici din . 10.9(1968):89-98. Ġă ă rile române delafinele veacului al XIV-lea , 1995. , ú ă i adunarea i adunarea st trân.” (The chancery Mirceaof (The chancery thetrân.” Old) ă de la m la de Revista Istoric : Selected Papers in Anthropology. London: in Anthropology. Papers : Selected ú ti vechi (secolele XIV-XVII)” (About early (About XIV-XVII)” (secolele vechi ti Berkeley: University of California Press, Revista Pedagogica ăQă The Art of ConversationThe Artof Anal. Univ. Al. I.Cuza.Filoz.Econ. Anal. ă rilor Principatele Române în stirea Putna” (The GreekSlavonic (The stirea Putna” , 97-108. Cambridge: Cambridge, 97-108. ă Român Mitropolia Olteniei ú . Cambridge: Cambridge Cambridge: . ti” (Contributions to the to (Contributions ti” ă 4 (1934):92-140. Woodbridge: Boydell 15.6 (1966):20-31. 15.6 . Cambridge: Journal of Berkeley: 34.10-12 Revista Studii. ú i din (The 222 CEU eTD Collection ______. “Observa______. ______. “Diplomatica latin “Diplomatica ______. Ciurea, Dimitrie. “Organizarea adiministrativ “Organizarea Dimitrie. Ciurea, Ciobotea, Dinica, Croitoru, Ana. “Car Ciobanu, Veniamin. Ciobanu, Daniel. Chirot, ______. “Inv Chihodaru, Constantin. Chelcu, Marius “Men Chelcu, Marius ______. “Quelques surle considérations ______. “Le villageoise delarôle communauté danslaformation coutumier du droit en Cernovodeanu, Pavel. Cernovodeanu, roumain” l’ancien droit influencesdans étrangères “Traditionset ______. autochtones Carruthers, M.J. Carruthers, Cândea, Ionel. ______. “Le rôle de la communauté villageoise dans la formation des Etats féodauxla formation “Le dans Etats villageoise des la______. rôle communauté de valachicum.” “Jus Emil. Cernea, siecles)” XIX de le(XIV- leen Moldavie femme statut et “La famille Cazacu, Matei (Obervation about Romanian Latin documents) Latin Romanian about (Obervation 24. Principalities) 235. eighteenth centuries) to (fourteenth state feudal Moldavian of the organization administrative (The eighteenth centuries) In centuries) eighteenth lea-XIX-lea)” (readingbooks of the free peasants from Secu Dolj: the seventeenth and Poland.Fourteenth Poland.Fourteenth sixteenthto the centuries). Bucharest:Editura Academiei, 1985. istoria dezvolt teaching in Moldavia from the fifteenth to the eighteenth centuries) In centuries) eighteenth the to fifteenth the from Moldavia in teaching Good Good (23 April 1399- 1January Jassy:1432). Junimea, 1984. all. Iassy: Polirom, 2002. (Documentary mentions about the charters isued by the chancery of Alexander the Good) Alexander of chancery the by isued charters the about mentions (Documentary centuries). Bucharest: Editura Academiei, Editura centuries). Bucharest: 1973. XVIII) Roumaine d’Histoire Roumanie” Recherches sur l’histoire des institutions etdudroit 1991. roumains” 21-8.(1978): de istorie Cambridge University 1990. Press, ăĠă In honoremIoanCapro (Romanian feudal society as seen by foreign travelers: fifteenth to eighteenth to fifteenth travelers: foreign by seen as society feudal (Romanian Ce povestesc icoanele Ce povestesc SocialChangeinaPeripheral Society mântul în Moldova însec. XV-XVIII. The bookof Memory:Astudy of MemoryinMedievalCulture. 2-3 (1997-1998):1-17. Analeleuniversit Revue Roumaine d’Histoire RevueRoumaine Ġ ğă ii pe marginea documentelor latine ii române documentelor pe marginea ă Societatea feudal Anuarul InstitutuluideIstorie “Alexandru IoanCuza” Ia Ġ rii Universit iuni documentare la acte emise de cancelaria lui Alexandru cel Alexandrucel Bun” lui la decancelaria acteemise iuni documentare rile române Alexandru cel Bun (23 aprilie 1399-1ianuarie (23 Alexandru cel1432) aprilie Bun 5(1971):845-52. Anuarul Institutului de Istorie Anuarul InstitutuluideIstorie ă Mehedin în Recherches sur l’histoire Recherchessur et des du droit institutions ăĠ ăĠ ú ii dinIa ğă ii Bucure i Polonia Ġ (The narration of the icons) Sibiu: Editura Transilvania. Editura Sibiu: icons) the of narration (The ile de lectur ú rile Române” (Latin diplomatics in the Romanian in the diplomatics (Latin Române” rile u ă Ġ i. Cultur , ed. Lucian Leu , ed. româneasc Jus valachicum ú i ă ú , 9-32. Bucharest: 1960. . a statului feudal Moldova (sec. XIV-XVIII)” (sec. Moldova feudal statului a ti, seriajuridic 5 (1971): 119-28. Secolele XIV-XVI ăú ă amo i civiliza ă v (New York: Academic Press, 1976). Apulum ă zut ú ú nenilor din Secu-Dolj (sec. al XVII- tean, Maria Magdalena Szekely et Szekely MariaMagdalena tean, ù 1(1977):7-18. ă coala domneasc ú danslaféodale” Pologne Ġ dec i ArheologieIa ie ă (1943-5): 215-50. 4(1982): 342-6. 1 (1972):19-29. ú ti. Studiu dedimplomatic Studiu ti. ăOă (The Romanian states and Romanian states (The tori str ă ă ú ini (secolele XV-ini din Ia i (Alexander the (Alexander 2 (1965): 143- 2(1965): ú Contribu i 8 (1971):1- Cambridge: ú i” (The Revista Revue Ġ ii la 223 ă 2 ” CEU eTD Collection Damian P. Bogdan. Dâmboiu, Aurel. Cselényi, Béla. ______, eds. eds. Ghitta, Ovidiu______and ______. “Apud Înmormântarea Ecclesia: la biseric Cr Craciun, Ion. Craciun, Cost Constantinescu, Nicolae. “Contribu Nicolae. Constantinescu, P. Connerton, Literacies” and “Literacy Collins, James Cristina. Codarcea, ______. “England and in Cnetury:Power in Knowledge” Thirteenth the ______. “Medieval andMentalities primitive legal inpractice” ______. “Literacy, Law, and the Power “Literacy, In Power andthe ______. of State” the Law, “Remembering and______. pastgood the law”old Clanchy, T. Michael ______. “Rela ă ciun, Maria “Protestantism and Orthodoxy in sixteenth-century In Moldavia” in sixteenth-century Orthodoxy and “Protestantism ciun, Maria ă chel, feudal “Dreptul Viorica. Reformation Reformation in Eastern andCentral Europe 1964. during the time Stephen Bucharest: of Great) the Editura Academiei, 1964. Univerity Univerity 1995. Press, Foundation Foundation Publishing 1998. House, 2004. Alexandru-Florin Platon. Jassy: Editura Universit Jassy: Editura Platon. Alexandru-Florin cultur (Church (Church burials in Moldavia during fifteenth and sixteenth centuries) In Cartea RomâneascCartea Istoric Istorie Veche( Târgovi of court theprincely on contributions (Archeological XVI” XIV-al secolul al Bucharest: Editura Enciclopedic Bucharest: British1-13. Campus of University the Evansville,of 1985. Thirteenth Cnetury. University Press, 2001. Manchester Manchester: Martindale. Jane and Nelson T. Janet Stafford, Pauline ed. de l’état moderne Collection del’écolefrançaiseRome moderneCollection de l’état Blackwell, 1979. “Alexandru IoanCuza” century) sixteenth the during state Moldavian ă How societies remember. How societies ă în Evul Mediu:InHonoremIonTodera în Catehismul romanescdin1544. 31.1-2. (1945): 31.1-2. 113-24. ú te during the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries). sixteenth the to fourteenth the during te Ethnicity and Religion in Central andEasternEurope Ethnicity andReligioninCentral Cultura moldoveneasc Ġ iile externe ale Moldovei în secolul al XVI-lea” (The foreign relations of the De lapiatr Societe etpouvoirenVallachie(1601-1654) entrelacoutumeet laloi ú i Arheologie) “Diplomatica Slavo-Româna” “Diplomatica From Memory Written Record:England1066-1307. to ă , 1946. Procedings of the 1984 Harlaxton Symposium.,ed W.M.Ormfor, Procedings of 1984Harlaxton the ă lahârtie 10 (1973). Ġ 2 (1964):225-40. ú ii arheologice asupra cur asupra ii arheologice Church and Society. Church and i pr ă ă (From (From stone paper).Bucharest: Editura to Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. , 2002. , Annual Review Antropology of întimpullui ă dalica” (Feudallawdalica” and (Romanian Cathehism from 1544 . Aldhershot: Scholar. 1997. Press, (Slavonic-Romanian Diplomatic) In Diplomatic) (Slavonic-Romanian ă ù înMoldova secolelor XV-XVI” tefan celMare ú History Culture etidéologie dans la genèse cu ăĠ Cluj-Napoca: European Studies European Cluj-Napoca: Anuarul InstitutuluideIstorie , ed. Bogdan-Petru Maleon and Maleon Bogdan-Petru ed. , ii “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” ii “AlexandruIa Ioan Ġ ii domne 82(1985):25-34. 55 (1970): 166-72. 55 (1970): Law, Laity andSolidarities defectus defectus seminis Studii , 24(1995): 75-93. . Cluj-Napoca: Cluj (Moldavian culture ú ti din Târgovi din ti Englandinthe ú i Cercet Confesiune Confesiune The ú Oxford: ) tiin ). Revista ă Sibiu: Ġ ri de ific ú 224 te, ú ă ú i, i , , CEU eTD Collection Faki, Simon. Franklin, Franck, Gerd, “Un mare ctitor-boier: Luca Stroici” (A high nobleman church founder: Luca (Ahighnoblemanchurch Stroici” “Un mare Luca Franck, Gerd, ctitor-boier: Fox, Adam. “OralFinnegan, Ruth. and literate culture in early modern England: case studies from legal Filitti, Ion C. 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Gervers, Geremek,literacka“ “Poziomy Bronislaw. przekazustnyi kultury: I tradycja Roumaines principautés les dans byzantine romano droit du “Laréception ______. ______. ”Presentation de quelques manuscrits juridiques de Valachie etdeMoldavie (XVe- ______. “Presentation de quelques manuscrits juridiques de Valachie etdeMoldavie (XVe- ______. “O biruin « ______. féodauxLa place delaValachie delacoutumedesétats dans ledroit roumains ______and OvidiuSachelarie. Georgescu, Valentin A.Valentin Georgescu, Gellrich, Jesse M. Jesse Gellrich, administrative.” en matière l’usagel’écrit de et “Charlemagne F.L. Ganshof, ______. “Verba Volant…Oral ______. “Verba Volant…Oral CultureMedieval andLiteracy among Hungarian Nobility” Fügedi,Erik. ______. “Byzantium and the Originsin of Culturewritten Rus” In ______. “Literacy and documentation in medievalRussia.” ______. “Literacy early and documentation ______. “Booklearning andBookmen in Kievan Rus‘: A survey an of Idea.” localization of the Romanian Psalm românbooks from the sixteenth century) In writing) Akademii Nauk,1997. sredniowiecznej XIV-XV, (Moldavie et Valachie)” In et (Moldavie XIXe siècles)” XIXe sièecles).” Istoric (Jassy-1646 laicLaw code The first culture. languageand Romanian » (1967): 553-586.(1967): milieusiècle.” lajusqu’au duXVIIe et de Moldavie Editura Academiei,Bucharest: 1979. (1611-1831). ( century). Bucharest: EdituraBucharest: Academiei,1980. century). (The Byzantine Empire and Romanian institutions up to the middle of the eighteenth and Fiction 57 (1951):1-25. Bak. London:Variorum Reprints, 1986. Press, 1992. In and Waring. Judith Leiden:Brill, 2002. Manuscript Transmission inByzantiumandBeyond 38. Ukrainian Studies Kings, Bishops,NoblesHungary and Burghers in Medieval ă 20.6(1986): 13-15. The Elephanthy: The Hungarian andHisKindred. The Elephanthy:Nobleman ” (Foreign and local factors in the problem of development of Romanian LimbaRomana Dating Undated Medieval ChartersDating UndatedMedieval . Ithaca: Cornell University 1986. Press, The Idea of the Book in the Middle Ages: Theory, Mithology, oftheBookin Ages: Language The Idea Middle Ġă Ġ The trial beforeThe trial the princein and Moldavia; Wallachia 1611-1831). a limbii a Revue des Etudes Sudest Revue desEtudes Européennes ii la localizarea psaltirilor române Bizan Revue des Etudes Sud Revue desEtudes Est Européennes 12(1988): 830-48. 12(1988): Ġ ú ul ú i factori externi în problema dezvolt problema în externi i factori i culturii române 29.2 91980): 123-7. 366-80. Ed. B.Geremek.Historii 366-80. 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Golner, Goilav,“Bisericile Grigorie. de armene prin le Moyen en durant “La enValachie, Moldavie et Transylvanie Gionea,coutume Vasile. ______. “Moldova în ______. rela ______. “Rela Giur ______. ______. “Organizarea financiar ______. “Organizarea ______. Giur Ġ ă ă a, Alexandru. scu, Dinu. scu, Constantin. “Les relationsscu, Constantin.austro-roumaines économiques e auXVIII duXVe Anuarul Institutuluide istorie siArhologie Ia University Press, 1992. University Press, 1987. 1968. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979. “Dosoftei” Ia Moldavia: the institutions). Bucharest: Editura Wallachia and Moldova). apparatus of Brave) of Michael the apparatus 99-112. 11 (1965):167-201. century) sixteenth and fifteenth the during peninsula Balcan the with relations economic Wallachian al (The în mijlocul secolului XVI-lea” pana XIV-lea Âge.” Revista RomaStudii Int (Moldavia inthe economicalEuropean relations fifteenth during the early century) fifteenth centuries). Bucharest: Editura Editura fifteenth Bucharest: centuries). 1943. Român financialWallachian Ander Mirceaorganization theof reign Old)the sixteenth centuries). Editura Bucharest: secolului alXVI-lea siècle. vechi texteromanesti. ù . Studii deistorie social ù The LogicofWriting andtheOrganization ofSociety. Tîrguri sauora Studii deistorie Medievala tefan. “Oinscrip . The interface Between theOral. theWrittenand interface . The Recherches sur l’histoire des institutions etdudroit Revue Romanine Historique Revue Romanine ă . Memorii Sec Literacy in Traditional Societies. Literacy inTraditional ğ Family andInheritance. RuralSocietyinWestern Europe,1200-1800. Ġ iile economice ale ara Româneasc ú Satul în Moldova medieval i, 1998. 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(1982): ù ă tiin Ġă ă , 1973. si Enciclopedic (Wallachia during the fourteenth (Wallachia the fourteenth during and rile peninsuleibalcanicerile din sec. Al Ġ ific ă Ġ iile utu” ă si Enciclopedic (The village in medieval 10 (1985):33-54. (The diplomatic activity of activity diplomatic (The Cambridge: Cambridge Cambridge: Cambridge ú i filologie i ă , 1967. 1966): 85-107. Romanoslavica ă ă , 1987. la mijlocul 12.1 (1911): ă trân” trân” (The Academia 227 CEU eTD Collection ______. “Pravila dela din Govora 1640” (The Govora Law codefrom 1646) ______. Les novelles de Leon le sage dans lespays roumains” Gu Gutkind, Erwin A. Gurevich, Aaron. “Oral and Written Culture of the Middle Ages: Two ‘peasant visions’ of the “Le______. livre dejugementde l’empereurdes sources byzantines Compilation Justinien. ______. L’Eclogue desIasuriens 359- lespaysroumains” Balkan 9.2(1968): dans Studies ______. “Dreptul ______. “Dreptul inbizantin ______. “Dreptul bizantin in ______. “Le______. Byzantine droit enRoumanie” in Malaxos luiManuil “Nomocanonul Gheorghe. Gront, Grodziski St. “Le devoirs et les“LeGrodziskinoblesse devoirs et droits dela politique St. polonaise.” Grigoras, Nicolae. “Logof Gr ______and Maria Magdalena ______andMariaSzékely. Magdalena ______. “Un c ______. Gorovei, ______. “Clanuri,familii, autorit ă Ġ u, Olimpia. privitoare“Note la scrisul înlimbaromân mad de Istorie 6.5 (1967): 717-29. 47. U.S.S.R Ages Late Twelfth to the Early Thirteenth Century” In en versions slaveetroumaine” 374. Revista de Istorie inlaw theRomanian Law from The Moldavian principalities. code 1646) Prrincipalities) Romanian the cu prilejul împliniriia 70 de ani In Principalities) Romanian in the Malaxos Manuil Historica 123-73.(1946): 231. 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RevistaArhivelor Analele Universit Floarea darurilor Charters andtheUseof Written WordinMedievalSociety. ăĠ Ġ ului românesc: perioadaveche au odat ù tiin ă tuirii unor condici de documente privind propriet privind documente de condici unor tuirii Ġ ă ific Ġ Revue historiqueSud-esteuropéenne creatoare alestatului românesc . Leiden: Brill, 2002. aromânilor pîn ă 2(1971):237-55. femeile la noi” (What books ourwomen femeile (Whatbooks were previously la noi” ă ă 3.1(1960):278-81. si Enciclopedic ăĠ rintelefilologiei latino-române,” (Luca Stroici: the father 1.3(1907): 129-45. ii Bucure Studii delingvistic Literacy, Education andManuscript Transmission Literacy, Revista arhivelor Bulletin delaSectionHistorique Bulletin ú (Women’s life in V past). life the Romanian (Women’s ti, Istorie Paris: 1930. ă la1688 (Studies on the Romanian Middle Age) Romanian Middle on (Studies the ă , 1984. ă Journal of the SocietyJournal of of Archivists tre domnie domnie a ‘M tre (The history Romanian of 18.2(1969):129-47. (Romanian religious history up to ú ă 60.4 (1983):390-401. 60.4 ăQă i filologie The Journal of Legal History of The Journal stirii Dragomirna” (Slavonic Dragomirna” stirii (Commercial routes as Bucharest: Ministeriul de Ministeriul Bucharest: 11 (1934). ă . Edited by Grigore rturisirii martorilor rturisirii ăĠ al Academiei al ile biserice Turnhout: Past and ă lenii 229 ú 5 ti CEU eTD Collection Lehr, I. “Comer Legenda, Denisa. “Copi Denisa. Legenda, ______. “Despre piatra demormânta comitelui Lauren Layton, Robert. “Functionalslavo- et serbe bulgaire, ladiplomatique dans byzantines Mihail.“Influences Lacaris, and Historical ExplanationsKleinschmidt, Harald. for VillageKing, Charles. Social Organization England,” in Anglo-Saxon in Late Word Written the and Government “Royal Simon. Keynes, /ă]ă Kern, Fritz. in Word,” Written the and Society Lay Saxon “Anglo Susan. Kelly, ______. “Editarea c “Editarea ______. ______. “Începuturile scrisului în p SigismundJakó, RaduManolescu. and XV-XVII i Valakhii v Moldavii pismennosti slavianskoi istorii “Iz Alexandr. Jacimirskij, rescu, Emil. "Nicodim de Tismana Tismana de "Nicodim Emil. rescu, Materiale deistoriemedie. centuries) seventeenth the of half first and sixteenth the during activities jum prima intelectual.” (The scribes of the Romanian manuscripts from the seventeenth century) Studii deistoriea Transilvaniei. seventeenth the from manuscripts Romanian the of scribes (The intelectual.” (1957): 109-27.(1957): în legatur istorice historical and archeological problems it raises). it problems archeological and historical 259-77. Tismana and his inplace theearly Romanian cultures). Northern Europe” Northern roumaine” Attitudes inthe Meddieval World. (Cambridge: Cambridge University 1990). Press, in 723. University Press, 1990). Europe, Early Medieval 115-126.(1965): edited atSibiu the sixteenth during century) 7.1-4 (1956):81-102.7.1-4 of of writing laymenin among Medieval Transylvania) the Middlethe Editura Academiei, Ages).Bucharest: 1971. 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Anuarul Institutului deIstorieAnuarul Cluj ă ú Studii înEvulMediu ti în secolul al XVII-lea-profilul al secolul în ti Ġ iu Studii ú i câteva arheologiceprobleme ú i cercet ed. Rosamond McKitterick Rosamond ed. ă Romanoslavica Romanoslavica tate a secolului XVI-lea si ú i cercetari deIstorie. The Uses of Literacy in of The Uses ă (Latin during writing ri deistoria artei ă 1.4 (1995): 703- 1.4 (1995): ”(The beginning ă " (Nicodim of (Nicodim " 11 (1965): 13 (1966): Studii. 112. Cluj 1-2 230 ú 8 i CEU eTD Collection Matei D. Mircea Matei Marinescu, Florin. “Valorificarea documentelor române ______. “O ______. “Cea mai veche culegere de extrase religioase traduse înlimba “Cea român traduse ______. culegeredeextrase religioase maiveche Mare ______. “Scrierea______. latin Manolescu, Radu. inthe in Europe Development Economic of Inequality the of Problem M “The Malowist, Maleon, Bogdan-Petru “Statutul fiscal al clerului de mir ortodox în Moldova medieval înMoldova ortodox mir de clerului al fiscal “Statutul Bogdan-Petru Maleon, “A influien Macurek, Josef. Maag, Karin, ed. “The______. Language of Rus’ in 11 the Lunt, Horace. “The Beginnings of Written Slavic.” In Wales” inLateMedieval Literacy of “The Impact Llinos Beverly. Smith, Learning.” “Literacy and E. Robert Lerner, Lehr, Lia. “OrganizareaLehr, Lia. administrativ ú Alexandru. 1963. 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Celtic Societies Medieval 1974. Ages Middle Revista de istorie (The administrative 1650) organization from Wallachian the of towns 1501 to ă tate a sec. al XV-lea” (To what extent the Moldavian documents from from the documents Moldavian the what extent asec.al (To XV-lea” tate ú tire din 1543 despre scierearomâneasc 1543despre din tire 21.1(1968): 3-21 The Reformation in Eastern andCentralThe Reformation Europe. Filigranele hârtieiîntebuin Comer . Ed. Richard. Ed. Boston L 165-235. DeMolen, : Houghton MifflinCompany, Contribu 92-3.(1956): 57-75. ă Ġ ul ù înMoldova tiin Ġ ú at actul moldovene documentele ceh at actul de cancelarie Ġ ğă cu, ii arheologice la istoria ora ii arheologicela ăĠ Ġ ific rii Române ii “AlexandruCuza” Ioan Ia , ed. Huw Pryce, ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ed. by MaleonBogdan-Petru Alexandru-Florinand Platon. ă 26 (1989) 499-509. , 1965. ă aora ú i ğ ú ara Româneasc ti In One Thousand Years Thousand the In One Europe in : Western LimbaRomân ú elor din din elor Ġ th ú ate in ate i Moldovei cuBra i century.” Slavic Review Confesiune ğă ă ğ ú cu alfabet latin?” (A testimony from latin?” (A cualfabet testimony ti de la Muntele Athos” (The study of rile Române în sec. XVI. rile Româneînsec. LimbaRomân ara Româneasc Revista Arhivelor Anuarul Institutului deIstorie si ă Harvard Studies Ukrainian în Evul înEvul in (Latin Mediu” writing ă ú i, 2004. 29.1/29.3 (1980): 239-45.29.1/29.3 (1980): ú ului Suceava ú 23 (1963) : 212-19. 23(1963): i cultur ú ovul (secolele XIV –XVI). (secolele XIV ovul Aldershot: Scholar Press, Aldershot: ă ă 28.5(1979):545-9. ă în 1501-1650” anii în Evul Mediu:In înEvul 9.2 (1966):67-82. 9.2 (Archeological Studii. Revista ă ú . din . din secolul ti în adoua ti (The water (The Literacy in . Studii. ă 12/13 ” (The ú ov). 231 CEU eTD Collection Murgescu, Bogdan. ______. “Organizarea m ______. Munteanu V.Vasile “Organizarea m “Organizarea V.Vasile Munteanu Mundal, Else and Jonas Welendorf, eds. In Byzantium.” Medieval inEarly “Writing Margaret. Mullet, PierreMonnet, “Pouvoir communal et communication lespolitique dans villesdeL’Empire à ______and Anna______and Adamska,ed. ______. Mostert, Marco, ed. Marco, Mostert, In etenMoldavie” etla fiscaliteValachie en d’Etats “Les assemblées Damaschin. Mioc, McKitterick, Rosamond. McKitterick, Mih Schools” Twelfth-Century inthe Authority and Literacy “Orality, C.J. Mews, ______“Nachalopis’mennosti na Rusi archeologicheskim po dannym” (Thebeginning of Medyntseva,A.A. Gramotnost’v Drevnei Rusi. Popamiatnikam epigrafiki pervoi poloviny ______, ed. Horia. Dan Mazilu, ______. “Probleme______. decultur ă il ă history). Bucharest: Teora,1999. Bucharest: history). Institutions from the Byzantine Empire) Byzantine the from Institutions 1600) (Organization of monastic the Monastic institutions Romanian to the compared Monastic Institutions from the Byzantine Empire) Byzantine the from Institutions Monastic (pân Copenhagen: Univerity Copenhagen,of 2008. Medieval Europe la fin du Moyen Âge” Europe. Brepols, 2008, Ages Anciens PaysAnciens etassemblées d’Etats Editura Academiei, 1968. 2001. (1990): 475-500.(1990): Nauka,1983. Moscow: slavyanskikhs’ezdslavistov,etnografiya Ifl’klor narodov:IXmezhdunarodnyy writing in thirteenth century).Moscow: 2000. RussiaXIII veka (Literacy in early Moscow. Epigraphic sources from firstthe half theof on theUniversity Press, 1992. base ofUniversity Press, 1989. archeological istorie Veche. sources). In (Considerations about urban(Considerations about inculture Moldavia) medieval , George, ed. , George, “Forgery and Trust” In ă , Ed. Petra Schulte, Marco Mostert and Irene van Renswoude, 37-59. Turnhout: Schulte,and 37-59. Mostert Petra Marco Renswoude, Irenevan , Ed. la 1600)” (Organization of the Romanian monastic institutions the ofthe Romanian monastic la1600)”(Organization to compared Turnhout: Brepols, 2004. The Uses of Literacy in Early Medieval Europe. inEarlyMedieval The UsesofLiteracy New Approaches to MedievalComumunication O istorie a blestemului O istorie 533-544. (1965): 16.3 Ioan Bogdan. Scrierialese Istorie rom , 156-85.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. The CarolingiansandtheWrittenWord. ăQă Francia stirilor române Strategies ofWriting.StudiesonText andTrustMiddle inthe ă â or neasc The Development of Literate Mentalities of in EastCentralThe Development ăQă 31.1 (2004): 121-139.31.1 (2004): ă seneasc ă stirilor române stirilor -istorie universal Oral Art Forms and their PassageintoWriting. Oral ArtFormsandtheir , 93-140. Bruxelles: 1969. (A history of Bucharest:Polirom, history course). the (A of ú StudiiTeologic ă ti în comparati înMoldova medieval . (Ioan Bogdan Selected works). Bucharest: works). BogdanSelected . (Ioan ú StudiiTeologic ti ti în compara ă Ġ . ie cubizantine (pân cele (Romanian history-universal e 3-4(1984):169-232. The Uses of Literacy inEarly The Usesof . Turnhout: Brepols,. Turnhout: 1999. Cambridge: Cambridge Cambridge:Cambridge Studii Ġ ie bizantine cu cele e 1-2 (1984):14-92. ă (sec.XIV-XVI)” Istoriya, kul’tura, ú i Cercet Exemplaria 86-97. ă ri de ă 232 la 2 CEU eTD Collection ______. "Drumul la al Neagrcomercial Poloniei Marea ______. “Din nou despre diploma bârl diploma ______. “Dinnoudespre ______.“Comunele medievale în Române”Prinicipatele (Medieval villages in the Panaitescu, Petre P. Petre Panaitescu, John. Oxenham, Oaks Papers inDumbarton Byzantium” Aristocracy on the “Observations G. Ostrogorsky, J. Walter Ong, inOlteanu,“Pravilalaizvoarelor lumina bizantino-slave” (1620-21) Govora P. de (The ______, and “Oral Stock Written Bryan inandTradition theMiddleAges” Olteanu, Olson DavidR. and eds. Nansy Torrance, Oikonomides, Nicolas “Mount Athos: Levels of Literacy” Nussbacher, Gernot. “TipNussbacher,Gernot. Nicolescu, Corina. Nicolescu, Nedkvitne, Arnved. Neam Nasturel, Petre. “Leg Petre. Nasturel, ______. “„Phanariots” and „P Ġ u, Vasile, Elena Neam Elena Vasile, u, from from 1134) social Romanian Principalities) In Principalities) Romanian lands). Bucharest: Imprimeria Statului, 1930. Kegan Paul, 1980. (1971): 1-32.(1971): Romanoslavica LawGovora Code(1620-1621)and the Byzantine Slavonic and influence) Istorie Medie History 1982. (The funerary inscriptions of Ia of inscriptions funerary (The University Press, 1991. 167-178.(1988): (1991): 73-7.(1991): (Romanian mentioned books printed in a land partition charter). XIV-lea alXVIII-lea. Catalog fourteenth to the eighteenth centuries) Bucharest: Muzeul Bucharest: Art to theeighteenth fourteenth centuries) de Brepols, 2004. Junimea, 1980. XVII the fifteenth century). (The relations of the Romanian Principalities with Mount Athos up to the middle of in Central andEasternEurope. Romanian Principalities and 196-205.In the Ottoman Empire,” ù tefan. “Inscrip tefan. (The medieval town Baia between fourteenth and seventeenth centuries). Iassy: centuries). seventeenth and fourteenth between Baia town medieval (The ă , 16.1 (1984): 1-206. 16.1(1984): ed.StefanGorovei al.S. et Editura Bucharest: Academiei, 1994. Orality and Literacy. The technologizing of the Word. technologizing of Literacy.Orality and The Literacy. Writing,reading andsocial organisation. Miniatura Romanoslavica The Social Consequences of Literacy inMedievalScandinavia. The SocialConsequences of , 1(1956):367-70. ă &ăOă turile turile 29 (1991):105-21. Ġ ia de demormîntpe piatra de lam tori poloniîn ă ğă rituri rituri române Ġ Mitropolia Olteniei ú u, and Simion Cheptea. Simion and u, rilor Române cu Athosul pân Athosul cu Române rilor i Ornamentul c ă mânteni.” Religion mânteni.”Religion and Ethnicity in Shaping in Identities the 13 (1966):85-91. Interpret (The miniatures (The miniatures Wallachian of themanuscripts from the Cluj-Napoca: Cluj University 1995. Press, Ġ co Monastery Suceava). of Monastery co Ġă ă ú dean ti ti men rile române ă ăUĠ Literacy andOrality. ri Române ă ii manuscrise din 10 (1958): 735-758. din 1134” (Again about the Birladthe charter (Againdin about 1134” Ġ ionate într-un actde partaj din 1585” Ora (Polish travellers in the Romanian in the travellers (Polish ú ă ú ti. Studiideistorieeconomic în evul mediu" înevul (The Polish trade- ul medieval Baiaînsecolele XIV- ă la mijlocul veacului alXV-lea” veacului lamijlocul ăQă Dumbarton Oaks Dumbarton Papers stirea lui lui stirea Ia ğă Cambridge: Cambridge Cambridge: London: Routledge and Routledge London: Studii rile Române,secolele al ă Limba Român Etnicity andReligion London: Routledge, . 1964. Ġ co din co din Suceava” ú i Materiale de i Materiale New Literary Turnhout: ă 40.1-2 ú ă 233 42 i CEU eTD Collection Pâslariuc, Virgil. Pâslariuc, Pârvan, Vasile. Pârvan, In theLaity” of Literacy “The B. Malcolm Parkes ______. ______.“O Papacostea, Victor. “Originile înv “Originile Victor. Papacostea, ______.“Rela ______. ______. ______. “Începuturile ______. a comerciale politicii Papacostea, Papacostea, municipal______. “Celvechi mai act Moldova”din from urban (Theearliest document ______. ______. ______. “Les______. origines del’imprimerie enlangue Sud-est roumaine” Revue desEtudes ______. “Începuturile dreptului scris în limba beginningromâna” (The law of written in the Moldavia during sixteenth the Chishincentury). lea secolul alXVI- Hungary). Hambledon Press, 1991. Communication, PresentationandDissemination ofMedievalTexts civilization).Bucharest: Editura Eminescu,1983. Romanoslavica Târgovi at school Slavonic (A Basarab” high education inhigh Wallachia)education (1982): 607-38.(1982): relations of relations of Moldavia the reign during the Great) Stephen of states). Bucharest: Editura Academiei, Editura Bucharest: states). 1980. Middle Ages:critical Bucharest:Corint,approaches). 1988. statului înEvulMediuromânesc: Studiicritice Moldavian states (fourteenth to sixteenth centuries) Road and State).” In XVI) Drum Drum XVI) Middle Ages:Political realities and spiritual issues). Bucharest: Corint, 2001. Moldavia) Academiei, 1964. peasant community in Wallachia feudalism).the andMoldavia: Bucharest: Editura and the origin printingof shopsin Wallachia). Editura Bucharest: Academiei, 1939. Européennes 6.1(1968): 23-37. Romanian language) Academiei, 1994. istorie economic In Ages). Middle the BlackSeaduring the to road Constituirea statelorfeudaleromâne Ob Geneza statuluiîn Evul Mediuromânesc Octoihul luiMacarie Mircea celB ù Civiliza erban ú ú tea coal Ġ Politica lui iile interna Raporturile politice dintremareaboierime Bucharest: ImprimeriaBucharest: Statului,1905. Revista de Istorie Revista . EvulMediuromânesc:Realit ă ĠăUă Ġ delimb ie româneasc ú i stat” (The birth of commercial activities of the Wallachian and Wallachian the of activities commercial of birth (The i stat” 5(1962):183-94. neasc ă ú ă trîn (The political (Thepolitical between relations in noblemenandgrand princedom Ġ ionale ale în Moldovei vremea lui ù Studii i social (Mircea the Old). Ed. Gheorghe Laz ă tefan celMarecu Ungaria tefan ú ă în ú i originile tipografiei în i originiletipografiei i cultur , 7.4 , 7.4 (1954): 215-228. ăĠă ğ ú ă 10-12.9(1923). ara Româneasc Studii. Revista de Istorie ă mîntului superior în superior mîntului , i civiliza ed. Stefan S. Gorovei et al. Bucharest: Editura ă slavoneasc ğă ú Ġ ti ăĠ Scribes, andReaders.Studiesinthe Scripts ie balcanic ú rii rii Române (The foundation of the Romanian feudal (Bucharest: Corint, (Bucharest: 1999),220. te during the time of Matei Matei Basarab). of time the during te i politice ú ă (The birth(The of the state in the Romanian ă ă i Moldova. Orînduireai Moldova.feudal u: Pontos, 2005 Pontos, u: la Târgovi ğ (Stephen's the Great policy toward policy theGreat (Stephen's ğ ara Româneasc ara Româneasc Interpret 14.5 (1961): 1139-69. ú ú ú i curente spirituale i i domnieîn ă ù ti ti tefan cel tefan Mare” (Theforeign ă ú (Romanian and Balcanic and (Romanian r. Bucharest :Corint, 2000. i XIV- Moldovei (secolele Revista deIstorie ú ă te înte lui timpul Matei ri române ă ă ğ . ” (The origins of origins ” (The (Macarie Octoih ara Moldoveiîn ara . London: The ú ti. Studiide (Romanian Geneza 35.5-6 ă (The 234 CEU eTD Collection 5ă ______. “Publicarea izvoarelor dreptului românesc scris din 5ă Rosseti,Alexandru.“Les plusanciennes traductions roumaines de livres religieux” Rady, Martin. Racovi Pryce, Huw, ed. Pryce, Huw, Potra, George. “Contribu siècles)” (XIVe-Xve Moyen-Age dubas société en Pologne et “Écriture E. Potkovski, Pung Porcescu, Scarlat. “Activit Scarlat. Porcescu, ______. “Începuturile industriei de hârtie în Moldova” (The beginning of hârtiepaper production beginning înMoldova” (The of industriei ______. “Începuturile de documentePopovich,“Importante privind Val. începuturile industriei hârtie dinMoldova”de Popescu Vâlcea, G. Vâlcea, Popescu Pop-Atanasov, G.I. Velev, and M.Jakimovska-Toši Velev, and G.I. Pop-Atanasov, Poncea, Traian Valentin. Traian Poncea, Peretz, Ion. Peretz, Gloucester. of Earldom R.B. Patterson, dulescu, Maria. “Un manuscris slavonesc al lui Radu din M din Radu lui al slavonesc manuscris “Un Maria. dulescu, dulescu, Andrei. ă , Gheorghe, “De ce lipsesc uricele pentru unele cancelaria din perioade pentru “De celipsescuricele , Gheorghe, Ġă manuscriptbelonging to Radufrom M ù law1825) written up andMoldavian of la sources to Wallachian the 1825” (The 1961. Dacoromania the Polish suzerainty Moldavia). Polishover suzerainty the Romanian archives). Sucevei, Poloniae Historica Moldavia?), of chancery bythe periods certain issued during not arecharters (Why Moldovei?” Press, 1998. activities at Neam activities at in Moldavia) Arhivelor (Documents related beginningto the of paper production in Moldavia) book from 1595-1606). Bucharest: Meridiane, 1984. anii 1595-1606) 1997. Makedonija Bucure Biblioteca Editura Bucharest: century). sixteenth to the fourteenth from the (Secolele X-XIV) Editura Academiei, 1972. of Gloucester toA.D.1217. tiin , Constantin. "Începuturile suzeranit "Începuturile , Constantin. Ġ Istoria dreptului rom ific alAcademieiific Române Nobility, Land and ServiceNobility, Landand inMedieval Hungary. ú tilor, 1999. tilor, 5.6 (1962):477-506. 5.6 1.1(1958): 227-33. Literacy inMedievalCelticSocieties. (Scriptorial centres in medieval Macedonia). Skopje: Filosofski fakultet, Filosofski Skopje: Macedonia). medieval in centres (Scriptorial Cartea Româneasc Studii de istorie medievala Un manuscris alvoievoduluiIeremia Movil Analele Universit 7 (1988):7-12. (A manuscriptof Moldavianthe prince Ieremia The Movila: Gospel Ġ (The birth of (The birth city of medieval the Romanian outside Carpathian-region ii la istoricul arhivelor române Ġ 39 (1979): 47-100. 39(1979): Geneza ora Monastery during the fifteenth century) fifteenth during the Monastery ăĠ Revista Arhivelor i culturale lam i culturale â n Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973.. (The history of the Romanian Legal System). Bucharest: ù ăĠ tiin ă The charters and Scribes of the EarlsandCountesses The charters of and Scribes deînv ii Al.I.Cuza ii Al.I.Cuza ú Ġă ului medieval românescului medieval însp IstorieFilosofie ăQă ăĠ Revista istoric ă 1(1944):1-29. ii polone asupra Moldovei" (The beginnings of beginnings Moldovei"(The ii polone asupra nice ăĠă ú stirea Neam stirea i ú tura. 1646 tiinte auxiliare ú ti) ù t. Sociale ü Romanoslavica . ú Skriptorski centrivosrednovekovna Cambridge: Cambridge University ti” (Contributions to the study of the 1. 3-4 (1948-9): 211-24. (1948-9): 1.3-4 ă ğ Ġ român în secolul al XV-lea” (Cultural al XV-lea” însecolul . Bucharest Academiei,. : Editura ara Româneasc 1-2 (1955):87-110. London:Palgrave, 2000. ă ă nice 1(1999),12-20. . (Tetraevangheliarul dintre ă ú 10 (1940):237-332. Mitropolia Moldovei ti (1572)” (A Slavonic (A (1572)” ti 13 (1966):357-365. Ġ iul extracarpatic ăú i Moldova pana Buletinul Revista ğă Acta 235 rii ú i CEU eTD Collection Smochin siècles.” XIVe-XVe aux enBohême populaires des coushes “L’alphabétisation F. Šmahel, médiévale In l’ÉglisePologne en et urbaines “Leschancelleries Krzysztof. Skupienski, Simonescu, Dan. “Un mare editor Simedrea, Tit. “Tetraevanghelul vistiernicului vistiernicului Mateia “Tetraevanghelul Simedrea, Tit. ù feudal ______. “Constituirea cancelariei statului moldovenesc” ù Sheehan, M.M. “English wills” Cole. andMichael Sylvia Scribner, van Renswoude, andIrene Mostert Marco Schulte, Petra, Samsonovicz, Henryk and Antoni M Sachelarie, Ovidiu and Nicolae Stoicescu. Nicolae and Ovidiu Sachelarie, Ruzescu, I. “Un Ruzescu,pu I. text Rezus, Petru. “ Rezus, Petru. Susan. Reynolds, 5ă imanschi, Leon. “Cele mai vechi sigilii domne sigilii vechi mai “Cele Leon. imanschi, imanschi, Leon and Georgeta Ignat “Constituirea cancelariei statului feudal statului “Constituirea cancelariei Ignat imanschi, Leonand Georgeta dvan, Lauren dvan, Geremek,Warsaw 189-204. :Zaklad Narodovy, 1978. Cultura elitarna kultura masowa wPolsce póznego 2000. diplomatique urbaineenEuropeauMoyenAge 53-61.(1969): les roumains au XIVe siècle.” and printer from the sixteenth century: Coresi) century: from sixteenth the and printer 203. Mateia treasurer to belonging book 141-158. seals) noblemen Istorie siArheologieA.D. Xenopol de Istoriesi ArheologieA.D. Xenopol chancery) state Moldavian the of foundation moldovenesc”(The in East-Central Europe” In Europe” in East-Central University Press, 1981. in Ages. Text andTrust the Middle Cambridge University 1985. Press, Editura Acedemiei, 1988. (Feudal institutionsfrom Principalities. Romanian the Adictionary). Bucharest: Academiei, 1965. 0ăQă Mitropolia Moldovei Moldovei Mitropolia Clarendon Press, 1984. Alexandru Ioan AlexandruCuza, 2004. Ioan Wallachian towns up to the end of the sixteenth century). Iassy:Universitatea ă , N. “Le Procheiros Nomos” de l’empereur Basile (867-89) et son son aplications chez et Basile (867-89) Nomos” del’empereur “Le Procheiros , N. stirea Putna.” stirea Ġ iu. ù colile de la de colile M Ora Kingdoms and CommunitiesinWestern Europe 900-1300. ú Ġ Anuarul Institutului de A.D.Xenopol Istorie siArheologie Anuarul Institutului in dedrept vechi “Pravila întocmitcunoscut românesc ele din In OmagiuluiAlexandru Rosetti la70deani ú i Sucevei Journal of Medieval HistoryJournal ofMedieval ğ ara Româneasc ăQă ú i tipograf din secolul al XVI-lea: Coresi” (A grand editor ҥ BalkanStudies East CentralEuropeinTransition czak, “Feudalism and Capitalism: an alliance of changes stirea Putna” (The schools from Monastery) from Putna schools (The Putna” stirea 42.7-8(1966):511-22. The Psychology ofLiteracy. The Psychology 10 (1973): 123-51. Turnhout: Brepols, 2008. ú ) Institu 9 (1972): 107-33. Biserica Ortodox Biserica ă pân ú ti ti Ġ ii feudaledin 9.1 (1968): 167-208. ú ă i boiere ú , ed.W. Prevenier. Leuven-Apeldoom: lasfâr . Manuscript din . Manuscript Gospel 1535” (The Studii Studii 14(1988):3-12. Strategies Studiesof ofWriting. ú ú ti” (The earliest princely and princely earliest (The ti” ú ă itul secoluluial XVI-lea i cercet Român Ğ ğă redniowiecza. AnuarulInstitutuluide Cambridge: Cambridge Cambridge: rile Române. Dic ă ă AnuarulInstitutului ri de bibliologie , 6-23. Cambridge: , 6-23. . Bucarest: Editura . 7.3-4 (1978): 179- (1978): 7.3-4 ă deLucaci la Edited by 17(1980): Oxford: (The Ġ ionar 236 La 11 In CEU eTD Collection Székely, Maria Magdalena. Székely, ______. ù ______.“Organizarea statala in vremea domniei lui Mircea cel Mare” (The organisation of Mare”lui organisation Mirceacel (The invremea domniei statala ______.“Organizarea ______.“Listamarilor dreg ______. Stoicescu, Nicolae Stoicescu, ______. Stock, Brian. Stock, ______. ______. Stahl, Henri H. Stahl, Henri eds. Pauline,T. Nelson and JaneMartindale, Janet Stafford, Spufford, M. “First Steps in Literacy.” ______. “Coexisten ______. “Comer Spinei, Victor. Spinei, Socolan, Aurel. trempel, Gabriel. “Biblioteci de manuscrise medievale române medievale manuscrise de “Biblioteci Gabriel. trempel, manuscripts up 1800) Vol.to Bucharest:Editura 1. Academiei, 1959. Petru Rare Petru 20.5 (1986): 30-32. centuries). eighteenth to (sixteenth manuscripts medieval (Romanian 625-42. the state during the reign of Mircea the Old). Mircea the of during reign the state the 401-25. 1384-1711) Editura Bucharest: Moldavia). and Wallachia from officials state high about dictionary (A Bucharest: 1968. XIV-XVII) in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries. in theEleventhand Pennsilvania Press,1990. the Romanian Village Communities). Vols 1-3. Bucharest: Cartea Româneasc Social History). Editura Bucharest: Cambridge University 1980. Press, Communial totheCapitalist Modeof Production intheDanube Region. Manchester: Mancester University 2001. Press, University Mancester Manchester: 157-176. during andfourteenth the thirteenth centuries) with ethnic ethnicXIII-XIV” communities (Coexistence ofthe Moldavian group other the birth of the towns in South Eastern Moldavia) Napoca: Dacia, 1983. Napoca: (Circulation of the old Romanian books in books (Circulation Maramure Romanian of old the Copi The implicationsWrittenInterpretationLiteracy Language andthe of . Models of Controverse social deistorie Contribu Dic Listening for the Text. On the Uses of the Past. Uses of theText.On Listening for Moldavia inthe11 ù Ġ ú ionar almarilor dreg tiin ti demanuscrise române (Princely counsel and high state officials from Wallachia and Moldavia). and Wallachia from officials state high and counsel (Princely Circula ú . Sfatul domnesc . Sfatul Traditional RomanianVillageCommunities: Thetransitionfromthe ) Iassy: Universit Editura Ġ ul ul Ġ Anuarul Institutului de Istorie si Arheologie “A.D. Xenopol” Anuarul InstitutuluideIstorie siArheologie“A.D. Ġ ific ii lastudiulsatelor dev Ġ ú a popula i geneza ora ă , 1971. Ġ ia c Sfetnicii luiPetru Rare Sfetnicii ă ăUĠ tori moldoveni tori (1384-1711)”(High state Moldavian officials: Ġ iei locale Moldovadin cugrupurile etnice însec.alogene ii vechiromâne th -14 ú ú i mariidreg elor înelor Moldovei (Trade andSud-Estul (sec XIII-XIV)” ă th Social History tori din Centuries. ă ú româneasc ti pân ù iin ăĠ ă Princeton: Princeton Princeton:University Princeton Press,1983. lma ii “Alexandru IoanCuza, 2002. Ġ ğ ific ă ara Româneasc ara ă la1800 ú tori din Bucharest: Editura Academiei,1986. e române ú ă ti pîn , 1969. 4(1979):407-35. ă ú . Acta moldaviaeMeridionalis (The high state dignitaries of dignitarieshigh of state (The prince Studii. Revista deIstorieStudii. (Controversial issues about Romanian Analele Brailei ă (Scribes of the medieval Romanian medieval the of (Scribes ğ la1850înjude ara Româneasc ú ti (Contributions to the study of study the to (Contributions Law, LaityandSolidarities. ăú ú Philadelphia: University Philadelphia:of University county county until 1850). Cluj- i Moldova: sec. XIV- XVII XIV- i Moldova:sec. ú 1.1 (1993): 171-236. ti (s. XVI-XVIII)” (s. ti ăú MagazinIstoric Ġ i Moldova(sec ul Maramure 39.7(1986): Cambridge: 8(1971): 2 (1980): ă , 1998. 237 ú CEU eTD Collection Queller, Donald E. “Thirteenth-Century Diplomatic Envoys: Diplomatic “Thirteenth-Century E. Donald Queller, Zugrav, I. ““CandZugrav, fost laR I. am Wunsch, Thomas andAndrzej Janeczek, eds. neighbours” its and England Anglo-Saxon in literacy of uses “The C.P. Wormald, Ward, Jennifer C.“Noblewomen,Family, andIdentity in Medieval Later In Europe” Tikhomirov, Mikhail.“Gorodskaya pis’mennosti’ v drevnei Rusi XI-XIII vv. (Urban literacy ______. TheOldestManuscript.” Illuminated Moldavian Turdeanu, Emil. György. István Tóth, Voiculescu, Mircea. “O Mircea. invita Voiculescu, Turner, Ralph V. “The Miles Literatus in Twelph-and Thirteenth-Century England: How Rare ______. “Les lettres lettres ______. “Lesslaves enMoldavie:moin dumonastere le Gabriel (1427- duNeamtu ______. Thompson, Francis J. Francis Thompson, ______. “The nature of the Reception of Byzantine in of in Culture ______. “TheChristian Russia nature the Reception the of ğ Tama “Testamentele:abordare preliminara” A (Wills: o ______. approach) preliminary ighiliu, Iolanda. ú , Corneliu. “Cancelaria în timpul lui Mircea cel Batran” (State chancery under the reign chancery the under (State Batran” cel luiMircea în timpul “Cancelaria , Corneliu. Speculum (1967): 306-8.(1967): the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries) XVII si XVIII” (From the times I was studying at R and Segregationin Red Ruthenia, 1350-1600. Transactionsthe of Royal Historical Society, Duggan.Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2000. and NobilityinMedievalEurope:Concepts, Origins,Transformations literatury centuries) thirteenth the to eleventh the from Russia Old in XVII (Societies and mentalities in Wallachia and Moldavia). Bucharest: Paideia, 1998. five centuries ago). five centuries Review Budapest: Central Budapest: Central European University, 2000. a Phenomenon?” a 1447).” 1947 Roumaines Gandensia Culture” Russian for Implications Its and Centuries Thirteenth to Tenth Old) the of Mircea Variorum, 1999. de IstorieSociala La littérature bulgare au dans XIV-siècle etsadiffusion les pays romanins. 29 (1951): 456-69. 29(1951): Revue desétudesslaves Études des littérature roumaineÉtudes des etd’écritslittérature slaves etgrecs desPrincpautés 9 (1953):52-66. 35 (1960):196-213. . Brill: Leiden, 1985. Societate 5 (1978):107-39. The reception of Byzantine Culture MediaevalRussia. receptionByzantine in The of Literacy WrittenLiteracy and CultureinEarly Modern Central Europe. The American HistoricalReview The American 2-3(1997-1998):25-31. Historica Magazin istoric ú i mentalitateîn ăGăXĠ Ġ ie lanunt i învde 3 (1974):111-20. 27 (1951): 267-278. 27(1951): ă de acum cinci veacuri” (A wedding invitation invitation of (A de veacuri” wedding acum cinci 25(1991)84-85. ăĠ am carte…” am Însemn carte…” ğ On theFrontier ofLatin Europe: Integration ara Româneasc Mitropolia Moldovei si Sucevei Mitropolia 27(1977):95-114. Warsaw: n.p., 2004. 83.4 (1978): 928-945. ăGăXĠ Nuncii Slavonic andEastEuropean ú ă ă i: Notes on two books from ri dou ri pe Trudy otdeladrevnerusskoi et i Moldova, Procuratores ă c ăUĠ Secolele XV- . Ed.Anne J. i secolele din Aldershot: ” 43. 3-4 Slavica Revista Nobles Paris: 238