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INDEX

abacus, described, 48 Baudelaire, Charles, 105 abacus principle, 49 Berkeley, George, 150 Aegeus (king of Athens), 178 Bernoulli, Johann, 68 Aesop’s fables, 181 Binet, Jacques, 59–60 Agrippa, Cornelius, 159 Birkhoff, David, 90 Ahmes (Egyptian scribe), 150–151 Brousseau, Alfred, 55 Alcuin, 27, 28 Brunelleschi, Filippo, 136 Alcuin’s River-Crossing Puzzle, 27–45 calculus, 68, 149–150 answers and explanations, Cantor, Georg, 116–120 198–204 Cardano, Girolamo, 32, 109–110 explorations, 43–44 cardinal numbers, infinity, 118 mathematical annotations, 33–42 Carroll, Lewis, 44, 189 puzzle, 28–33 Cartesian plane, 183 reflections, 42–43 Cayley, Arthur, 90 algebra Charlemagne (Holy Roman geometry and, 78–79 Emperor), 27, 28 matrix, 67 Chartres Cathedral (France), 180 algorithms, Lo Shu Magic Square, chiaroscuro effect, 135 168–171, 174–175 Chrysippus of Soli, 144 ambiguous figures, Loyd’s Get Off combination, combinatorics, 41–42 the Earth Puzzle, 135, 139 combinatorics analytic geometry, Cretan Labyrinth, Alcuin’s River-Crossing Puzzle, 183 35–42 Appel, Kenneth, 90, 93, 98, 99–100 mathematics, 27–28 Archimedes, 152–153 problems in, 44 Ariadne, 178 commutativity property, 14 Aristotle, 141–142 complex number, number types, arithmetical series, 61. See also series 60 Augustine, Saint, 115 composite numbers axioms, Euclidian methods, 89 Euclidian method, 92–93 Ayer, A. J., 85 mathematics, 54 computer proofs, 90, 93 Ball, W. W. Rouse, 3, 130 contradiction Barwise, Jon, 147–148 methods of proof, 98 base, exponents, 110 paradox, 147

243 bindex.qxd 7/2/04 1:31 PM Page 244

244 Index

coordinate geometry, Cretan Euler, Leonhard, 35, 59, 67, 68, 69, 71, Labyrinth, 181–186 72, 74, 76, 165, 167, 179 Cretan Labyrinth, 177–190 Euler’s Königsberg Bridges Puzzle, answers and explanations, 67–84 233–236 answers and explanations, explorations, 187–190 213–215 mathematical annotations, explorations, 81–84 181–187 mathematical annotations, 71–80 puzzle, 178–181 puzzle, 68–71 reflections, 187 reflections, 80–81 “cut-and-slide” trick, Loyd’s Get Off Euler’s Thirty-Six Officers Puzzle, 67 the Earth Puzzle, 126–130 even numbers, 4n2, 96 even vertex, networks, 69–70 Daedalus, 177 exponents “Dark Ages,” 47 Lucas’s Towers of Hanoi Puzzle, decimal system, advantages of, 48–49 108–113 deductive reasoning terms of, 18–19 Euclidian method, 90 methods of proof, 98 Fibonacci, Leonardo, 50 problem-solving, 9–10, 21–22 Fibonacci number, 53, 55, 155–156 De Morgan, Augustus, 86, 89, 90 Fibonacci sequence, 55–63, 105, 132, dependent variable, 152 172 Descartes, René, 78, 183 Fibonacci’s Rabbit Puzzle, 47–66 Devlin, Keith, 1 answers and explanations, “diabolic” square, 166 205–213 Dirac, Paul, 59 explorations, 64–65 dissection, Loyd’s Get Off the Earth mathematical annotations, 55–63 Puzzle, 130–133, 137–139 puzzle, 50–55 division, exponents, 108–109 reflections, 63 Dudeney, Henry E., 33 Fifteen Puzzle (Loyd), 79–80, 125, 126 Dürer, Albrecht, 136, 165–166 Four-Color Problem. See Guthrie’s Four-Color Problem Epimenides, 142, 143, 148 4n2, even numbers, 96 Epimenides’ Liar Paradox, 141–157 fractions answers and explanations, Euclidian method, 96–99 225–230 number types, 60 explorations, 154–156 simplified, 96 mathematical annotations, Franklin, Benjamin, 8, 166–167 143–153 Franklin, Philip, 90 puzzle, 142–143 Frege, Gottlob, 144 reflections, 153 function, term of, 152 equation, defined, 3 Escher, Maurits Cornelis, 137 Galileo Galilei, 116 Etchemendy, John, 147–148 games, popularity of, 105–106 Euclid, 89, 91, 92, 96–97, 115 Gardner, Martin, 3 Euclidian method, 89, 90–100 Gauss, Karl Friedrich, 61 bindex.qxd 7/2/04 1:31 PM Page 245

Index 245

gematria, 172 Hooper, William, 126 general case, deductive reasoning, 90 Hovanec, Helene, 17–18 geometric series, 61 Huxley, Aldous, 47 geometry algebra and, 78–79 impossibility, Euler’s Königsberg Cretan Labyrinth, 181–187, 190 Bridges Puzzle, 77–80, 84 dissection puzzles, 132–133 impossible figure, 135–136 Euclidian method, 90–91 independent variable, 152 Get Off the Earth Puzzle. See Loyd’s inductive reasoning Get Off the Earth Puzzle methods of proof, 98 GIMPS (Great Internet Mersenne problem-solving, 9, 11–15, 22–23 Prime Search Project), 116 infinite series, mathematics, 53 Girard, Albert, 55 infinity, prime numbers, 116–120, 123 Gödel, Kurt, 146–147, 148 insight thinking, problem-solving, 9, Goldbach’s Conjecture, 148 15–20, 23 Golden Ratio, 55, 56, 60, 63 integers graph, defined, 71 defined, 96 graph theory, Euler’s Königsberg number types, 60 Bridges Puzzle, 69, 71–80, 81–84 irrational numbers, number types, 60 Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search Project (GIMPS), 116 Jocasta (queen of Thebes), 6 Great Labyrinth (ancient Egypt), 180 Josephus Puzzle, 34–35, 42 Great Sphinx (Giza, Egypt), Jourdain, P. E. B., 143 described, 5 Guthrie, Francis, 86 Kallikan, Ibn, 113–115, 121–122 Guthrie, Frederick, 86 Kempe, Arthur Bray, 90 Guthrie’s Four-Color Problem, 85–103 Kierkegaard, Søren, 67 answers and explanations, Kirkman, Thomas Penyngton, 35 215–219 Kirkman’s School Girl Puzzle, 35, 42, explorations, 100–102 43, 200 map making, 85–86 Klein, Felix, 73 mathematical annotations, 90–100 Klein bottle, 73–74 puzzle, 86–90 Koestler, Arthur, 159 reflections, 100 Königsberg Bridges Puzzle. See Euler’s Königsberg Bridges Haken, Wolfgang, 90, 93, 98, 99–100 Puzzle Hamilton, William Rowan, 72 Hamiltonian circuit, 72 labyrinth, 177–178. See also Cretan Hampton Court (London, England), Labyrinth 180 Laius (king of Thebes), 6 Heawood, Percy John, 90 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 42, 149, Heraclitus, 153 150 Hesse, Hermann, 120–121 Leonardo da Vinci, 63 Hindu-Arabic system, 49–50, 63 Liar Paradox. See Epimenides’ Liar Hiram (biblical king), 8 Paradox Hoggart, Vern Emil, 55 limits, paradox, 149–153, 155–156 bindex.qxd 7/2/04 1:31 PM Page 246

246 Index

logic Cretan Labyrinth, 181–187 concept of, 153 Epimenides’ Liar Paradox, propositions, 144 143–153 puzzles, 154–155 Euler’s Königsberg Bridges Lo Shu Magic Square, 159–175 Puzzle, 71–80 answers and explanations, explained, 3 230–233 Fibonacci’s Rabbit Puzzle, 55–63 explorations, 173–175 Guthrie’s Four-Color Problem, mathematical annotations, 90–100 164–171 Lo Shu Magic Square, 164–171 puzzle, 160–164 Loyd’s Get Off the Earth Puzzle, reflections, 171–173 130–133 Loubère, Simon de la, 169 Lucas’s Towers of Hanoi Puzzle, Loyd, Sam, 33, 79–80, 125, 130 113–120 Loyd’s Fifteen Puzzle, 79–80, 125, 126 Riddle of the Sphinx, 9–15 Loyd’s Get Off the Earth Puzzle, matrix 125–140 algebra, 67 answers and explanations, 223–225 Kirkman’s School Girl Puzzle, 35 explorations, 137–139 mazes, 179. See also Cretan Labyrinth mathematical annotations, Mersenne, Marin, 116 130–133 Mersenne primes, Kallikan’s puzzle, optical illusions, 134–137 116, 121–122 puzzle, 126–130 metalanguage, 145–146 reflections, 137 Mézirac, Claude-Gaspar Bachet de, Lucas, Edouard Anatole, 55, 105, 106, 18–20 113 Michelangelo, 63 Lucas sequence, 55 mime charade, 9 Lucas’s Towers of Hanoi Puzzle, Minos (king of Crete), 177, 178 105–123 Minotaur, 177 answers and explanations, Möbius, Augustus, 72, 86 219–223 Möbius strip, 72–73 explorations, 121–123 Moschopoulos, Emanuel, 159 mathematical annotations, 113–120 Müller, Johannes, 134 puzzle, 108–113 Müller-Lyer Illusion, 134–135 reflections, 120–121 multiplication, exponents, 108 series concept, 106–108 Navajo people, 180 “magical” number patterns, 165–167 negative numbers, 60 Magic Square. See Lo Shu Magic networks, Euler’s Königsberg Square Bridges Puzzle, 69–71, 81–84 magic square constant, 160–161 Newton, Isaac, 149, 150 map making, Guthrie’s Four-Color Nickel, Laura, 116 Problem, 85–86 Noll, Curt Landon, 116 mathematical annotations nonplanar graph, defined, 71 Alcuin’s River-Crossing Puzzle, n2(n2 + 1) formula, 162 33–42 numbers, types of, 60 bindex.qxd 7/2/04 1:31 PM Page 247

Index 247

numeration, numerology and, Ptolemy I (king of Egypt), 89 171–173 puzzle numerology, numeration and, defined, 1 171–173 origin of word, 17 Riddle of the Sphinx, 6–9 odd vertex, networks, 69–70 Pythagoras, 42–43, 63, 94, 173 Oedipus, 6–7, 9 Pythagoreans, Cretan Labyrinth, optical illusions, Loyd’s Get Off the 186–187 Earth Puzzle, 134–137, 139 Pythagorean theorem, 42–43 Ortega y Gasset, José, 177 Cretan Labyrinth, 182 Four-Color Problem, 99–100 paradox, Zeno of Elea, 141–142 triangles, 42–43, 94–95 Pascal, Blaise, 57–58 Pythagorean triples, Cretan Pascal’s triangle, 57–58 Labyrinth, 187 Pasiphae, 177 Peirce, Charles S., 100 quantum mechanics, 59 Penrose, L. S., 136 Penrose, Roger, 136 Rabbit Puzzle. See Fibonacci’s Rabbit perfect numbers, Kallikan’s puzzle, Puzzle 114–116 radical number, number types, 60 permutations, combinatorics, 37–41 rational numbers, number types, 60 perspective drawing, 136 real number, number types, 60 planar graph, defined, 71 rearrangement puzzles, 137–139 points, Euler’s Königsberg Bridges reductio ad absurdum Puzzle, 69 Euclidian method, 91 Polybus (king of Corinth), 6 methods of proof, 98 polygons, formula development for, Reutersvärd, Oscar, 136 11–15 Rhind, A. Henry, 150 postulates, Euclidian methods, 89 Rhind Papyrus, 150–151 power. See exponents Riddle of the Sphinx, 5–25 prime numbers answers and explanations, Euclidian method, 92 191–198 infinity, 116–120, 123 explorations, 21–23 mathematics, 54–55 mathematical annotations, 9–15 Mersenne primes, 116 puzzle, 6–9 printing press, 8 reflections, 20 probability theory, 58 riddles, popularity of, 8–9 problem-solving, methods and River-Crossing Puzzle (Alcuin). See strategies in, 9–20 Alcuin’s River-Crossing Puzzle proofs Roman numerals, 47–49 computer, 90 root, exponents, 110 Euclidian methods, 89, 90 Russell, Bertrand, 144 methods of, 98 theorems, 11 Samson (biblical figure), 7 propositions, logic, 144 Sanders, Richard (Benjamin Protagoras, 142 Franklin), 8 bindex.qxd 7/2/04 1:31 PM Page 248

248 Index

Sargon II (king of Babylon), 172 Towers of Hanoi Puzzle. See Lucas’s School Girl Puzzle (Kirkman), 35, 42, Towers of Hanoi Puzzle 43, 200 transfinite number self-referentiality, paradox, 144, 147 infinity, 119 sequence, Fibonacci sequence, 55–63 number types, 60 serendipity, 63 transversal, Euclidian method, 91 series triangles Lo Shu Magic Square, 172 Cretan Labyrinth, 186–187 Lucas’s Towers of Hanoi Puzzle, Euclidian method, 90–91, 93 106–108 Pythagorean theorem, 42–43, mathematics, 53 94–95 sequences and, 60–63 triangular numbers, 186 set theory, 117 trisection, geometry, 78–79 simplified fractions, 96 Twain, Mark, 5 Simson, Robert, 55 Smullyan, Raymond, 3, 146 undecidability, Epimenides’ Liar Socrates, 125, 142 Paradox, 144–148 Solomon (biblical king), 8 unicursal Eulerian graph, 179 Sophists, 141–142 Sophocles, 7 Versailles Palace (France), 181 See Sphinx. Riddle of the Sphinx vertices, Euler’s Königsberg Bridges Spider and the Fly Puzzle, 182 Puzzle, 69 square numbers, 186 Voltaire, 8 syllogism, Aristotle, 142 Sylvester II (pope of Rome), 49 Walpole, Horace, 63 systems analysis, Josephus Puzzle, 35 weight puzzles, 18–20 Whitehead, Alfred North, 145 Tarski, Alfred, 145 Wilde, Oscar, 141 Tartaglia, Niccolò Fontana, 32–33, 43, Wilson, Robin, 90 199 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 144–145 terms, mathematics, 53 Woltman, George, 116 Theano, 186 Thebes, 6–7 theorem, proofs, 11 Yu the Great (emperor of China), Theseus, 178 160 Thirty-Six Officers Puzzle (Euler), 67 topology, Euler’s Königsberg Bridges Zeno of Elea, 91, 141–142, 149, 150 Puzzle, 71–80 Zöllner, Johann, 134, 225