Evidence for Roman Intelligence Services along the Eastern Adriatic Coast Jurica TRIPLAT Acquiring and passing on strategically important services were fully developed, namely the speculatores information has always been of great importance to and the frumentarii, who are well attested both in the state leadership as a way of securing political literary sources and epigraphical evidence. goals and maintaining state security. Early forms of Eleven epigraphical monuments mentioning specu- intelligence gathering and transmission were develo- latores and frumentarii have so far been found in the ped primarily to aid war efforts but also being equally Roman province of Dalmatia. With an additional stele important in decision-making and implementation found in Parentium in Istria (Regio X Venetia et Histria), of laws and directives. Conquering a certain territory these twelve monuments also represent the total num- must have required military, geographical, economical, ber of attested speculatores and frumentarii on the cartographical and similar information about that territory of Croatia. The aim of this paper is to provide territory and its population. Following the territorial relevant information about speculatores and frumenta- expansions of early empires, there was a need for rii, their importance in Roman provincial administration an effective way of acquiring and transmitting the and the variety of assignments they were given, and intelligence which concerned the political situation lastly, to compare and supplement that data with the in neighbouring states as well as in regions. Because examples from Dalmatia and Istria. of that, the first intelligence services came into being as a means of securing and passing on those vital Castra peregrina pieces of information. The earliest forms of intelligence systems and services were employed in Egypt, and by Ammianus Marcellinus mentions castra peregrina quae the second millennium BCE, the Babylonian kingdom sunt in Monte Caelio (Amm. XVI, 12.66), a “foreigners’ and later Assyrian empire had developed and built camp” situated on mount Caelius. Archaeological exca- military roads, courier and intelligence services, and vations at the beginning of the 20th century confirmed fire signalling over long distances.1 Persian rulers that buildings had indeed existed, and were probably further improved these models, as Xenophon and built in the time of Emperor Trajan, or even earlier.3 Herodotus describe with great admiration. From their As the name suggests, the “foreigners’ camp” was a works, we learn about Persian roads and swift couriers garrison camp for soldiers and officers sent from the who passed on messages from one to another, similar provinces to Rome on an official assignment.4 These to a relay race (Xen. Cyrop. VIII, 6.1–18; Hdt. Hist. V, soldiers were called milites peregrini because they all 52; VII, 98). Besides courier services and good roads, came from provinces, thus differentiating between Xenophon also describes the so-called “king‘s eyes” them and milites urbani, which were stationed in the and “king‘s ears” who reported back to the emperor city of Rome itself.5 Considering the importance of (Xen. Cyrop. VIII, 2.10). establishing a fast and trustworthy communication In Rome, similar services were developed rather late, network between Rome and the provinces, as well as at the end of the Republican period, mainly because between Rome and its legions, the existence of such the idea of a permanent, well-organized service of this a central place, which could accommodate all arriving nature was foreign to principles of city-state govern- soldiers, is not surprising. The largest military body ment common to classical Greece and Republican garrisoned there were frumentarii, although there Rome.2 However, by the late first century CE two such were a variety of others too, for example, centuriones 454 deputati, centuriones supernumerarii, centuriones and there seems to have been two of them – one for frumentarii, singulares, beneficiarii, and lastly, specu- civic affairs and one for military affairs.18 Speculatores latores, which seems to have been the second largest were primarily couriers carrying messages between detachment garrisoned here during their stay in Rome.6 Rome and the province they were stationed in, but The supposed number of frumentarii stationed in cas- could have had other assignments as well, such as tra peregrina varies from 200 to 400 depending on the police work, executions or sharing some duties with author.7 It is also worth noting that, based on epigra- the beneficiarii.19 Beneficiarii did the most versatile phical evidence found during the excavations, it would jobs and were by far the most numerous.20 They would appear that every legion had one or more frumenta- normally spend most of their time in stationes, i.e. rius.8 The recruitment of these soldiers was most likely smaller stations built close to mines, military camps, carried out by the provincial governor since they were major roads, rivers etc.21 Cornicularii, commentarien- part of his staff.9 G. Cupcea suggests that about three ses, speculatores and beneficiarii consularis were all frumentarii were recruited in every legion and sent to principales, meaning they were on double pay, by rank the provincial capital to be seconded to the staffs of below the centurion, and were exempt from standard provincial governors, and out of these three, two were legionary duties and exertion. Frumentarii were also sent to castra peregrina in Rome.10 While in Rome, principales, their duties ranging from conveying impor- they formed the numerus frumentariorum with its own tant messages, making arrests and escorting prisoners centurions and a commander.11 Furthermore, as will to acting as a “secret service”, occasionally doing be shown later, it was not unusual that they were also “dirty work” which accompanied it.22 Any soldier having engaged in special missions issued by the emperor one of these ranks, if he proved himself worthy, could during their stay in Rome. Their close connection to the advance to the next higher rank, i.e. frumentarius to emperor can be seen on many inscriptions where they speculator, speculator to commentariensis, and com- are described as frumentarii Augusti.12 Upon the com- mentariensis to cornicularius. If a soldier did advance pletion of assignments bestowed on them in Rome, through the ranks during his service, it would not have frumentarii and other milites peregrini would have been unusual for the inscription on his stele to have returned to their legion or provincial capital where they stated both ranks, as in the case of Tiberius Claudius would have continued to operate within a provincial Ianuarius from Salona (fig. 1). Tiberius was speculator office (officium consularis).13 Castra peregrina also legionis XIIII Gemina (stationed on the river Danube served as a central place for dispatching these soldiers at Carnuntum), detached to the provincial office in into provinces without a permanent legionary garrison Salona, where sometime during his 13 years of service (provinciae inermes) such as Dalmatia.14 he advanced to the rank of commentariensis consu- laris. Besides advancing through principales ranks, a Officium consularis soldier could advance to the rank of centurion while still retaining the same principalis rank. The inscription The administration of imperial provinces was entrusted on the funerary stele of Titus Varronius Maro may to legates who governed the province with the help elucidate this. Titus was frumentarius legionis III of their office (officium consularis). In senatorial pro- Cyrenaica who performed the duties of a frumentarius vinces, a certain number of apparitores (civil servants for 11 years, and just after that became a centurio whose salary was paid from the public treasury) was frumentarius. assigned to the appointed governor (usually former Besides principales there were also immunes, i.e. legi- praetor or consul), where they would help with the onaries who were also exempt from standard legionary administrative work. In imperial provinces, however, duties and exertion, but were on smaller pay than legates pro praetore had to find another source of principales and worked as assistants, craftsmen, han- literate men to aid them in governing the province, dymen and similar. There were many tasks and issues and they did so by recruiting some of the legionaries. that these men who formed the provincial office had A veteran centurion (princeps preatorii) with his to attend to23: ensuring the stability of the province deputy (optio praetorii) was in charge of managing the by preventing possible revolts, resolving issues and headquarters (praetorium) of a provincial governor.15 disagreements with the local population, implementa- The number of legionaries that were assigned to an tion of criminal law and Roman law in general, police officium usually consisted of a smaller number of duties, guard duties, patrolling and much more. It has cornicularii, a smaller number of commentarienses, been suggested that an office could consist of a high 10 or more speculatores and a higher number of number of officials, from 100–150 men in provinces beneficiarii consularis.16 Cornicularius was the highest- with one stationary legion, 200–300 in provinces with ranking official responsible for the overall work of the two legions, and even more if there were more legions officium.17 Commentariensis was in charge of archives, present.24 managing public documents,