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ON THE FRINGES OF THE SHRINKING EMPIRE EMPIRE SHRINKING THE OF FRINGES THE ON THE HISTRIA BYZANTINE IN AND SOCIETY MILITARIZATION OF ADMINISTRATION OF MILITARIZATION MA Thesis in Medieval Studies Medieval in Thesis MA Central European University European Central Vedran Bileta Vedran May 20 May Budapest

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CEU eTD Collection ii

CEU eTD Collection

Central University, in European Budapest, partial offulfillment the ON FRING THE THE MILITARIZATION OF ADMINISTRATION OF MILITARIZATION THE Thesis submitted to the Department Studies, of Medieval to Department the Thesis submitted Accepted in conformance with the standards of the CEU of the standards with the in conformance Accepted AND SOCIETY IN BYZANTINE HISTRIA BYZANTINE IN AND SOCIETY ______of the Master of Arts degree in Studies degree of Medieval Arts Master of the Chair, Examination Committee Examination Chair, ES OF THE SHRINKING EMPIRE SHRINKING THE OF ES Thesis Superviso Bileta Vedran Examiner ( by

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requirements

CEU eTD Collection

May 20 May Examiner Budapest 10 iv

CEU eTD Collection

Central University, in European Budapest, partial offulfillment the requirements ON THE FRINGES OF THE SHRINKING EMPIRE SHRINKING THE OF FRINGES THE ON THE MILITARIZATION OF ADMINISTRATION OF MILITARIZATION THE Thesis submitted to the Department Studies, of Medieval to Department the Thesis submitted Accepted in conformance with the standards of standards with the in conformance Accepted AND SOCIETY IN BYZANTINE HISTRIA BYZANTINE IN AND SOCIETY ______of the Master of Arts degree in Studies degree of Medieval Arts Master of the External Examiner External n Bileta Vedra Budapest ( May 20 May Croatia by

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the CEU the

CEU eTD Collection

Central University, in European Budapest, partial offulfillment the requirements ON THE FRINGES OF THE SHRINKING EMPIRE SHRINKING THE OF FRINGES THE ON THE MILITARIZATION OF ADMINISTRATION OF MILITARIZATION THE Accepted in conformance with the standards of the CEU of the standards with the in conformance Accepted Thesis submi Thesis AND SOCIETY IN BYZANTINE HISTRIA BYZANTINE IN AND SOCIETY ______of the Master of Arts degree in Studies degree of Medieval Arts Master of the tted to the Department Studies, of Medieval to Department the tted ______External Supervisor Bileta Vedran Supervisor Budapest ( May 20 May Croatia by

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CEU eTD Collection Budapest degree. anfor academic education of higher institution any formin to other this been submitted infringes on any person’sinstitution’s or copy thesis andof part the no of work others, made of the use was illegitimate and unidentified no that declare I andbibliography. notes in credited properly as information external such based work, own my exclusively is thesis present the that herewith undersigned, the I,

, 25 , May

2010 Your Name Your

,

candidate for the MA degree in Medieval Studies declare declare Studies inMedieval MA degree the for candidate vii right. I also declare that no part of the thesis has has thesis of the part no that declare also I right.

______Signature

on my research and only only and research my on

CEU eTD Collection place. goes thanks that to addition In love. with back look always will I whom to and part we once miss surely will I who year, this met I friends new the all my colleagues, to goes thanks Special well asAnnabella Pal. t at professors other the all thank to like would I addition In years. academic two inthose attended I courses whose professors all those to my gratitude express a In Menze Niels and Volker are am I thanmore grateful advices valuable peopleThe greatly and two who thisto for work contributed and whose patience, support made it encouragement possible. is dedicated This thesis ddition, I am very grateful to Judith Rasson for correcting the thesis the correcting for Rasson Judith to grateful very am I ddition,

as well

to my friends from home who encouraged me to apply to CEU in the first inCEU me applyfirst the to encouraged to home from mywho friends to

to my parents, Davor and Suzana, whose loving support and lovingsupport and whose Suzana, Davor my to parents, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS viii

he Medieval Department as he Medieval Department .

Also, I would I Also, like to .

, special special CEU eTD Collection Acknowledgments I. II. III. C Appendix ……………………………………………………………………………… Bibliography

onclusions

From the center – to periphery the From center the Introduction On the e the On a Caput A theIstria from Fall of the Western Empire Roman Justinian’sto Reconques The Militarized Landscape of Roman and Byzantine Histria Living ain Militarized Society dministrative dministrative The Development and transformation of the landscape of Roman Histria Roman of landscape the of transformation and Development The Protecting the the Protecting The The – Potentates Local order old the of end The A geographical of topography castrization Histria The The ...... Histria Byzantine in army professional a there Was

r e ole a of the volution of tendencies of toward a volution

driae dge of’s Justinian as …………………………………………………………………………… 83 ……………………………………………………………………………

a …………………………………………………………………………..

b

– order b h The geographical setting of the Istrian Peninsula orders of eart of the the of eart rmy in the the in rmy

zone zone the rise the

………………………………………………………… 46 Roman and Byzantine Histria Byzantine and Roman –

Restauratio Imperii c

e of the the of astrizatio f mpire mpire rontier

The The m Contents – ilitary ilitary s Claustra Iuliarum Alpium ociety n ix utonomy in in utonomy Political and and Political

of the the of

e …………………………………… ……………………………………… 62 lite

………………………………………… ……… ………………………… 52 Hi

stria …………………… 31 ……………………………10 ……………………… 77 ………………

...... 70 ...... ………………… . …… 22 t

27 37 13 1 80 82 9

CEU eTD Collection ZRVI ZRVI Zborni PS 797 II, CJC, petitione Vigilii, pro Pragmatica Sanctio PLRE Prosopography the Later of et Italicarum MGH Monumenta Germeniae Historica, LP Le Liber Pontificalis HL Historia Diaconus Langobardorum Paulus. CJC Corpus Iuris Civilis CDI Diplomatico Istriano Codice.

1886- Waitz, MGH, SRL, 12 Adriatico, (reprint) 1986. Martindale and Cambridge, Morris, J. I, II Cambridge, 1971. 1979 1957. k Radova Vizantološkog Institut Vizantološkog Radova k

, saec. VI saec. , LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS , II. Codex Iustinianus , texte, introduction. Ed. L. Duchesne, 3 vols. Paris vols. 3 Duchesne, L. Ed. introduction. texte, , - - 187. IX. Hannover, 1878. Hannover, IX.

Ed. Pietro Kandler Pietro Ed. x

Scriptores rerum Langobardicarum , ed. ed. Kruegerž P. , . Ed. L. Ed. Bethmann. and G.

, Ed. A. H. M J M H. A. , Ed. .

Trieste: Lloyd Lloyd : - 802.

ones, J. R R J. ones,

CEU eTD Collection vi

CEU eTD Collection 1 fortsofnetwork andfortified , onhilltops or settlementssituated bymilitary ruled by the The large governed herecognize wouldnot century, eight the his time to environs. through travel could citizen Roman century first a If verylandscape. the also but society, and its administration only passed Histria , of Byzantine rest the Like lands. their protect to but empire, the name of in the not fighting imperial , fragmented the over ruled who aristocracy, 751, the senatorialhadl class power civil and military between separation neat by a characterized and class, senatorial ledbyby RomanLate society, powerful Instillinhabited a was peninsula 554the entire incognita scholarly this However Italy. Medieval of history inthe darkest as regarded usually are coronation ’s most of inby act and this emperor crowned Charlemagne was In 800, . of the existence the ceasing , occupied restauratio imperii it se emed Justinian’s dream that observer a ofa contemporary To peninsula. the over rule Byzantine reinstating effectively thus Italy, in forces imperial the to opposition serious last the over victory overwhelming an won commander Byzantine the 544 of Autumn the In unit, Countyunit, I will use of ; important to note here that for the entire Roman and during and Roman entire the for that here note to important the present one, and during the Byzantine period is often mentioned in documents as predominantly describe events and patterns characteristic for Histria, although Venetia will Venetia although for Histria, characteristic patterns and events describe predominantly larger administrative called unit

To avoid confusion between modern Istria, which presentat denotes Istrian the peninsula, or a modern political One of these lands was Histria, a small province situated in North the situated asmall province Histria, lands was these One of and victory Narses’ between passed have that centuries half and The two was a matter of time. Less than two centuries later, in 751, the Lombards the in751, later, centuries two than Less of time. matter a was

Venetia et Histria a historical term

ong disappeared, being replaced by a landed military military landed by a being replaced disappeared, ong Introduction is a period ch is aperiod

and openlowland settlements were replaced witha Italy was forever lost forlost Byzantium. forever Italy was – . As. I am limited by the number of the pages, the thesis will Histria. Historical Histria encompassed larger territory than 1

a

thorough

the early Byzantine period Histria was part of a aracterized by a dramatic transformation. transformation. by adramatic aracterized

metamorphosis that changed not not changed that metamorphosis provincia Histria

also be mentioned. also

ern Adriatic. . It. is also . By By .

1

CEU eTD Collection after its reincorporation to the Justinianic empire, with the Lombard invasion in 568. in invasion Lombard the with empire, Justinianic the to reincorporation its after mi the century; fourth the to be traced can Empire army. of the commander supreme a time same the in is state the of head the and blure, is civil and military between s political military aprivileged of by creation followed the élite, military a inhands of the and authority is power privatisationof inevitable almost the result One needs. military the to subdued are resources available all society, a such In society. of encompasslevels all that aspects interrelated manyinvolves it conditions, extraordinary Due the war. for preparation is active the resources economical and technological human, militaryin s conflict a castrization society: the of development the characterized that concepts examinetwo needto I this it remain what extent andto warfare, constant years of hundred much how and how answer to is thesis main The . with connections strong maintain to continued and character antine Byz its particular possessed still Histrian society conquest, Frankish eve the of the At century. eighth the of end the at conquest Frankish the to up 751, in Ravenna of fall the warfare. constant experienced which imperial periphery, the fortress, besieged a was now conflicts, once that province The decay. into falling parts large with walls, their within treated re had cities Classical while generals, Militarization u However,

and and militarization nlike rest of the Exarchate, Histria remained a part of the empire even after after even empire of the a part remained Histria Exarchate, of the nlike rest

ituation of increased insecurity, usually on the frontier. Mobilization of of Mobilization frontier. the on usually insecurity, increased of ituation is the process by which a society organizes itself in preparation for for in itself preparation organizes asociety is by which process the .

had been a part of the imperial heartland, far away from from far away heartland, imperial of the been apart had Although the origins of the militarization in the Roman Roman the in militarization the of origins the Although altered altered Histria Byzantine of society was the 2

litarization process in Histria started only only started inHistria process litarization ed “Byzantine.” To answer answer To “Byzantine.” ed tructure. tructure. The difference The difference aim of this this of aim

by two two by

CEU eTD Collection and Regional Perspectives.” Byzantine and Modern Greek Perspectives.” Studies 14 (1994):Regional 60 and -80. General cc.): (III-VII Coast of Adriatic] the (: Suić, Golden Marketing), 2003, 358. M. also See concept. historical 5 4 3 2 overview ashort also is There patterns. establishsettlement to also but in thesis, the described done was Histria of area geographical the survey of The short framework. historical and geographical the deals with chapter first why the reason based network, positioned astrategically into imperial borders vulnerable along were elsewhere the deployed – military presence a lacktheof and danger andpresent face constant In of the (Lat. fortified where they built hilltops, secure more moved to spontaneously invalleys and villages the fifth century late below, lords, feudal of fortresses and castles with the became dotted of kingdoms feudal the when Incastellamento is difference. crucial one there However, settlements. hilltop fortified and forts of by creation the characterized are processes castrization. 1991). Normans:the in Ninth andthe Tenth Centuries Tuscan AppeninesinMiddle the Ages Histria is not mentioned. historical process, nobody denoted the other process (castriza Castrization in Istria in Castrization Levak Maurizio Levak, see Histria, in process castrization the of overview Civilizations] Italy, c. 400-1000

B. Kuntić Makvić,Kuntić“PopulacijaB. kontinuitet smjenicivilizacija”i pri [PopulationContinuity andthe at For similar process happening in the East see: A Villa to : to Villa Transformation the of Hodges, the Roman countryside R, in Frankovich, R. see debate For For more about incastellamento about more For

beginninginninth the century. However it is difficult to research those developments out of context. That is the is the That of context. out developments those research is to it difficult However by say to better accompanied, or followed, was militarization of The process stretching from the sixth to the eighth century, although its origin can be noted noted be can origin its although century, eighth the to sixth the from stretching Etničnost i povijest ed., E.i Heršak, (Zagreb:Etničnost NakladaJesenski Turk, i 1999), 83; Forgeneral a 2

Castrization (: Duckworth, 2003), 13- . ], ], 5

unpublished PhD dissertation Zagreb, This 2009. work established During times of increased insecurity people abandoned the cities and and cities the abandoned people insecurity increased of Duringtimes

is a process often process a is

ed prehistoric abandon of settlements.locations the on usually ),

in Italy for the north, see C. Wickham, TheMountains andthe . The Wickham, C. see north, the for Italy in Antički grad na istočnoj obali Jadrana obali istočnoj na grad Antički (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998); for th 4

Castrization . Dunn . 26. Note that although

on the defense the on 3

refers to a planned process started from above, from above, started aplannedprocess to refers indentified with incastellamento with indentified . “ The transition from

tion). Sadly, although the book deals with Italy, Italy, with deals book the although Sadly, tion). , (Philadelphia: University ofPennsylvania Press,

to aid the reader in locating the places places the locating in aid reader to the however, was a process initiated from from initiated was aprocess however, - in - depth. The Process of of Process u[The Istri Kastrizacija incastellimento –

see e south, [An antique City onthe Eastern the the polis

castra to to kastron B. M. Kreutz, Kreutz, M. B.

were organized organized were ismentioned as a castrization 3 in the the in

Both these these Both the troops the troops Balkans Turn of of Turn in the the in

Before Before

as a as CEU eTD Collection were largely the were ofuntilstudiesand administrative the the development thesocial Exarchate detailed 1960s, of result, a As Italy. Medieval of development historical in the element Byzantine the ignored Constantinople. in government central the and Ravenna to ties province’s the examines also it background; social and origins their military org predominantly – urban change. on raids pat settlement the and process Byzantino of of the process background the explain to order in given is period Roman the from conditions the of overview short A militarization. of process the of consequence a was which landscape province. of the occupation Frankish and Lombard the of question the and Histria in settlement Slavic a emphasized, are problems particular Two empire. entire in the happening of events picture broader a infit events these that maynote one Yet, Histria. of Byzantine area the for importance great had that events military on mainly based presented, is sequences historical a number of historicalframework, establish the to invasion. order Lombard In such field, the to of the of the , with an elaboration ofimportant problems related castrization oncerned, for a long time the scholars have largely largely have scholars the alongtime for isAs far literature concerned, as secondary society Roman Late of the transformation the deals with chapter The third fortified of Histria’s creation the andanalyses introduces chapter The second - Lombard conflicts and the Avaro and the conflicts Lombard anization of the province, the status that the military had in the provincial society, society, in provincial hadmilitary the the that status the province, of the anization . Rural and frontier defenses are fully considered, particularly in the context of in context the particularly fully considered, are defenses frontier Rural and.

domain of Byzantine such as Charles Diehl or social historians as as the question of the territorial extension of Byzantine Histria after the the after Histria Byzantine of extension territorial the of question the as increasingly militarized aincreasinglymilitarized to

terns, I will try to determine the influence of of influence the determine to try will I terns, - Slavicinvasion. By studying the origin the of 4

society. It also addresses questions of of questions addresses also It society.

–

CEU eTD Collection 9 8 7 6 in Exarchate. the developments andadministrative social the to regional contributions about and Italy, Byzantine about works interdisciplinary of appearance by the marked been has historiography decades, last the For Exarchate. the for furtherhandbook about studies became summarized the and studies His work allprevious élite military Exarchate’s of the b complemented local the élite influence that and the andindependencein of the Exarchate 1969. wor the been has Italy Byzantine of neglect in the A exception notable government. of type acolonial as an alien, Exarchate the regarded they probably that and peninsula the of areas Lombard homeexamining at more felt on may One twentieth. the of half second the and century of Ravenna. Exarchate of the somefor elements as used authorities be they still can and study, thi for a framework created works Hartmann’s and Diehl’s weaknesses, these localmilitary the of in emergence the which reflected was power, economic and local political of realities the in portraying less convincing were both scholars ever, How commander. supreme a as the of creation the with associated militarization general Hartmann.Ludo Exarcha AD 554-800. University Press, 2009). Also it is important to mention a second volume Storia of thedell'Italia History Cosentino, ofRavenna, Bizantina Salvatore Storia di published, recently AD 300- VIII secolo). Hartmann,

Andre Guillou, Régionalismeet indépendance dans l'Emp ire byzantin Guillou, auVIIe siècle (1969).Andre Thomas S. Brown, Gentlemen andOfficers: Imperial Administration Brown, and S. Aristocratic Power Byzantine in Italy Thomas Enrico, Zanini. Zanini. Enrico, Etudes sur Etudesl'administration byzantine dansl'exarchat Ravenne de Diehl, Charles te, as Brown used besides written sources, archeological research, numismatics, inscriptions and seals. and inscriptions numismatics, research, archeological sources, written besides used Brown as te, It is difficult to explain why there was such a gap between the end of the nineteenth nineteenth of the end between the agap was such there why explain to isIt difficult 800. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der byzantinischen Vertwaltung in Italien

1998; : Edipuglia, (Rome: British School at Rome, 1984). This study can be seen as a milestone in research of (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006). However there is only one general overviewByzantine of Italy, Le Italie bizantine: y Thomas Brown who, in his seminal study, analyzed the social development development social the analyzed study, seminal his in who, Brown y Thomas 6

Both their works concentrated on the administration and postulated a postulated and administration the on concentrated works their Both

Niels Christie, territorio, insediamenti ed economia nella provincia bizantina d'Italia (VI - , making a considerable use of the interdisciplinary approach. interdisciplinary the of use considerable makinga , k of Andre Guillou, who published a study on regionalism study publishedonregionalism aAndre who k of Guillou,

had onits autonomyfrom Constantinople. His work was From Constantine Charlemagne:to Archeology An Italy, of 7

He argued for the uniqueness Imperial of Italy, 5

9

ly assume that Italian scholars have have scholars Italian that assume ly

(VI XI sec-XI

(Leipzig, 1889). olo), (: Bononia Bononia (Bologna: olo), (Paris, 1888); Ludo

s new field of of field new s élite . Despite

8

CEU eTD Collection militare dell’esarcato”. militare “L’organizazione organization military on work a and “L’esarcato,” Exarchate the of history of the overview 11 10 contain tw Ravenna in written of sources a number used I In addition, war. Gothic the to related those particularly detail, ininconsiderable events Italy mentioned empireof the only part eastern letters.contains Of historiographical in historians works, and the writing the thesis. my of writing the in help great of was [ o history entire the in significant Marušić. Branko made by was archeology in Byzantine abreakthrough Also, history. administrative legal and a Ferluga century twentieth ofhalf the second the During inresearch. used be still can ideas the of some obsolete become have works those Udina. Gio like history, administrative on mainly concentrated – Histria Byzantine of history includes which Istria, of history medieval the about work monumental Benussi’s Bernardo is f The between them. gaps large quite often and sources of primary scarcity the is topic this deal with to tries who every researcher for mainproblem The history. Istrian objec of number the to Due Histria. on written works seminal of lack is the that for reasons the of One Histria. Byzantine of militarization the my thesis: of topic the for useful quite (Roma, 1924). (1897). Giovanni de Vergotinni, Lineamenti storici della costituzione politica dell’Istria durante il Medio evo ], a still unpublished still a in], Istria of Castrization The Process PhD dissertation. This work alone

The number of contributions by th ofcontributions number The Bernardo Benussi tive and subjective reasons, the early are the least researched period in period researched least Ages the early are the Middle reasons, subjective and tive 10 , II, Dall'età II, bizantina, all'età ottoniana The sources which are used are grouped in three grouped are used are which The sources deal with they ByzantineAlthough Italyin general, all the aforementioned works are

o important articles related to the history of the Exarchate, both written by Although, in comparison with recent developments in Byzantine historiography, historiography, Byzantine in developments recent with comparison in Although,

, 11 Nel medio Pagine evo. storiaistriana di However, the most recent contribution, and probably one of the most most the of one probably and contribution, recent most the However,

ose three scholars is vast. It is throrughly analyzed in following chapters. Nel medio evo medio Nel Kastrizacija u Istri Istri u Kastrizacija Levak’s Maurizio is Histria, f Byzantine , ed. A.Carile, (Venezia: Marsilio 1991). capital This Ed, work

. by . wasHe followed a number who of scholars 6

nd Margetić made important contributions in in contributions important made Margetić nd (Trieste: Tipografia Adriatica, 2004), 3 categories. The first is a group that that is agroup first The categories. vanni de Vergotinni and Ramiro vanniRamiro Vergotinni and de J adran Ferluga, A general irst important work work important irst rd

reprint reprint

,

CEU eTD Collection preserved a number of sources, which are lost. are now which of sources, a number preserved Historica 16 15 14 13 12 imperial courtfrom the downoffices thousand listingseveral empires, to andwestern eastern Dignitatum ) Avars, Lombards, (, state Byzantine of the enemies various portraying focus, ethnographic army. provincial Byzantine during the reign of emperor of the aspects different for akey , source as serves local the about sixth late in situation the describe letters of number th about information valuable contain which peninsula, issues. ecclesiastical and economic, political, subjects: range of a wide with dealing correspondence the include focused is thesis on. collectionbiographies of whichincludes of invaluable information my onthe period is Liber Pontificalis the source main the century, eight particularly d an seventh the For Histria. to related are references few them among empire, the and Lombards the between the West. Historia Langobardorum particularly of the church of Ravenna. of church the of particularly politics, imperialecclesiastical and to related sources of earlier acollection includes byAgnellus whichin 840s, biographies also Ravenna, of composed the the prelates of Historica, Ep. II. (Berlin, 1887 (Berlin, II. Ep. Historica,

Mauricius, Mauricius, Agnellus, Liber Pontificalis Ecclesiae Ravennatis, ed. 1886 (Paris, vols 3 Duchesne, L. ed. Pontificalis, Le Liber Gregorii Magni, Registrum Epistolarum, ed. P. Ewald an Diaconus Paulus, Historia Langobardorum The second , Scriptores rerum Langobardicarum et Italicarum

Maurice’s Strategikon which details the administrative organization of the the of organization administrative the details is which invaluable source an .

magistri militum group Of particular interest are letters mentioning Avaro mentioning letters are interest Of particular 13

Liber Pontificalis Liber Ecclesiae Ravennatisthe used also I -1889). Notitia Notitia fifth The century islegal acts. of aselection of sources 16

The eleventh book is of particular importance, itisbecause has book importance, The an ofeleventh particular

, ed. G. T. Dennis (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1984).

, a military manual written written manual military a The Strategikon such, , as Gulfaris.

of the Deacon includes material on the relations relations the material on includes Deacon of Paul the 14

, ed. L.Bethman and G. Waitz, in Monumenta in Germaniae Waitz, G. and L.Bethman ed. , Letters of popes, particularly of Gregor particularly of of popes, Letters

7

d L.M. Hartmann, 2vols, Monumenta Germaniae in -1957). . Saec. VI Saec. . - century Histria, and contain information information contain and Histria, century e of that period. period. that of army e Byzantine

-IX (Hannoverae, 1878) In workhis Paul - Slavic attacks on the the on attacks Slavic y- (590 I , a series of series a , 604) 15 , a ,

A 12

CEU eTD Collection 1986). Codice Diplomatico Istriano Kandler, Pietro in be found can that version edited the (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971), I (Cambridge: Cambridge University P Scarabeo, 2000); ProsopographyLate theRoman of Empire Seeck, (Berlin, 1876). 20 19 18 17 804. in ) modern (in River Rižana the to the i empire Byzantine the in and Exarchate the in developments administrative socio the for also but Histria, Byzantine for is important not only It be possible. not would thesis this which without Histria, from originating document is one there However, gene in Italy Byzantine – fillgaps is the it to possible of Ravenna, Exarchate of the a part was Histria as However, Histria. Byzantine to related sentence a only sometimes, s of scarcity documentary the to due mostly ahistorian, for task is adifficult rule Byzantine during inHistria of society The reconstruction third a form Proso empire. Justinianic the into incorporation its after administration . level provincial the arises from the process. They give an invaluable vi invaluable give an They process. fromarises the Romano traditional the and Frankish local éli the where of Histria, province conquered recently the in situation difficult the regulate to Pippin king and Charlemagne of authority imperial by the military ed, Berlin 1929).

The text of Pragmatica sanctio The original document from 804 is lost, however the text is preserved in number of transcripts. Here I will use Prosopografiadell'Italia bizantina Notitia dignitatum:Notitia accedunt Notitia urbis Constantinopo litanae Laterculiet provinciarum Placitum Risani

Bizantina Italia dell’ pografia As this is an interdisciplinary thesis, I also used prosopographical sources: sources: prosopographical used also I thesis, interdisciplinary an is this As élite group , which is the focus if this thesis. thesis. if this focus the is which , . The uniqueness of this document lies in the comparison between the Frankish Frankish between the liesin comparison the document this uniqueness of The .

of sources. of , a document that describes a that adocument , 17

ral. The The

can befound in Corpus Iuris Civilis Pragmatic Sanction - Byzantine system and the vast amount of information which which information of amount vast the and system Byzantine

, ed., Salvat and and ore Cosentino, I(Bologna:Lo Scarabeo, 1996), II(Torino: Lo Prosopography the Roman of Late Empire 8 ources which contain only few references or, or, few references only contain which ources

20 of 554isof onlyinto our provincialinsight , ed. A. H. M. Jones, J.R Martindale and J. Morris, I J. Morris, and A. Martindale H. J.R M. Jones, , ed. placitum

ew on the transformation of the provincial On this occasion imperial missi On occasion this partially

, Codex IustinianusII,

(assembly), which was held c held was which (assembly), te 18

lamented the abuses of the abuses of the the lamented – by related to using data , I, I, 111, 54, -115 (Trieste, ress, 1974).ress, , ed. P. Krueger ed. P. , (10th n general. This is is n general. This , ed. and, tr. Otto

were sent sent were . 19

They They lose lose -

CEU eTD Collection It is a lowland area with a few low hills. This territory encompasses the most fertile lands of of lands fertile most the encompasses territory This hills. low few a with area lowland is a It as castra Byzantine reused later many of w fortresses, hilltop of construction the for sites ideal as times prehistoric soils. arable for imperme of consist they Istria; calledGrey tracts mountainous flisch lower the are These geomorphologically. danger. region aboundsin caves, infor of time the population refuges served temporary as which the defence, natural ideal beingthe Besides fortresses. of by achain invaders, reinforced the to entrance the barred that zone a defensive create to administrations Byzantine and Roman favoura Their side. mainland the from peninsula mountain ranges, Učka in the northwest and Ćićarija in the the in Ćićarija and northwest the in Učka ranges, mountain by two is dominated It Istria. White as known also is surfaces limestone nude karst and areas. completelyinto different three be can divided peninsula the structure, geomorphologic and geological the Accordingto peninsula. Adriatic largest o part largest the made up Sea, Adriatic of the northwest the on situated Peninsula, Istrian The region. inAdriatic the politics inimperial role important an playing empire, of the integral part an it was rule Byzantine duringthe However, Sloven Croatia, : by three is today shared Histria of ancient The area Caput Adriae The limestone terrace along the coastline, covered with red earth, is called Red Istria. Istria. Red called is earth, red with covered coastline, the along terrace limestone The - South - north and northern hilly The

west of White Istria stretches an area that is considerably richer richer is considerably that area an stretches White Istria of west –

The geographical of setting Histria Rolling hills overlook the fields and valleys and their peaks were used from used were peaks andfields their valleys the and hills overlook Rolling able marl, clay, and sandstone, which are better substrates than limestone limestone than substrates better which are sandstone, and clay, marl, able I.

From Byzantines to the Franks Byzantines From .

eastern part peni of the part eastern 9

f the Byzantine province of Histria. It is the the is It Histria. of province Byzantine f the ble strategic position was used by both the the both by used was position strategic ble

nsula, due to its scarce vegetation vegetation its scarce to due nsula,

north, which protects which north,

ia, and Italy. ia, andItaly. hich were hich were

the the CEU eTD Collection Tergeste. Tergeste. Italy under the emperor Octavian in the first century AD as the part X of Regio AD century part asinfirst the the Augustus Octavian emperor the Italy under incorporat was Histria of region the view, of point administrative From the Histria Byzantineand From the center to the periphery – lagoon. Venetian from the Histria divided territory Lombard From on, there near Grado. ofBay Panzano, the to Adriatic coastline follows and the on west the from Tergeste extends that area lowland borde eastern the Raša wasas used position, strategic its Because Bay. Raša into empties and Polje Čepićko in rises it long, km 23 is River Raša The (). near Novigrad Sea Adriatic the into it andempties Pinguentum), (ancient long km 53 is It peninsula. the on river deepest the and longest the is River Mirna The rivers. Raša and Mirna the are region inthe flows water surface significant most Brijuni stands archipelago the to south. in islands. Exceptfor a series abound not does coast western the coast, eastern the Unlike Ravenna. to Constantinople from ofsmall islets along the coastharbor and military ports as used they were period Byzantine from Poreč to , and Roman the Through mouths. river and onlybays, deep small bays, the shallow fairly many with developed well is coast The islands. as remained heights limestone soluble less isolated sinks; sediment Thedissolves. remaining most rock of makes the up that carbonate calcium the territ the peninsula, the The resources. water useful has peninsula Istrian layers, flisch impermeable to Thanks when created are landforms Karst (limestone). is karst the on coast Istrian of the Most Besides the peninsula, for most of the Byzantine period Histria was comprised of the of the comprised was Histria period most Byzantine for of the peninsula, the Besides

ory of ancient agri the politicaland administrative border of the Roman

of all three Romancolonies, Pola, Parentium, and 10

r of Histria until the seventh century. century. seventh the until Histria of r s, situated on the seaway seaway the on situated s, ,

it rises near Buzet near Buzet it rises ed Roman into

then then CEU eTD Collection see Chapter Two. Two. Chapter see establishment of the Praetentura Italiae 101-109, 126- Istrian peninsula remained Byzantine. old of part mainland ininvasion ProvinciaVenetiarum 568. Lombard Italy of et Histriae 24 23 22 21 letter Gregoryoffrom written 595, Petro I to a is hypothesis a such for evidence of pieces the of One in Pola. center a with Histria, called altogether were coast the on possessions Byzantine the while Iulii, in center the with province. oldthe reinstated Pragmatica Sanctio the but rule, Ostrogothic during time short a for broken fifth century. Raša until the at remained province of the border eastern the is that opinion The prevailing inAquileia. its center with X Regio reform, administrative of 's as part thi late the until unchanged remained division administrative Augustan The of Histria. border became eastern the which and Raša River, the X Regio in inclusion With government in Rimsko Starac, vladanje A. see u Histriji more, For iLiburniji ones. administrative with overlap not military administration were separated, and the border of the military (in this case the Praetentura) did Arheološki vestnik 2004), 3 Nel medio evo. Pagine di Benussi, storia istriana century. second the during Istria] Universityof Zagreb, 2009, 10- to related questions [Some dissertation, PhD Istria], process in castrization [The Istrom” Istri” u “Kastrizacija Levak, 53 M. (1982): Alsosee s -82; vezi u pitanja “Neka Margetić, (1980): 386-389;

For the source see in in see source the For Ferluga, About reinstatement of the oldRoman province, see J. Ferluga, in “L’Istria tra Giustiniano e Carlo Magno”, n border of Histria with province of see J. Medini, “Provincia Liburnia,” Diadora Liburnia,” “Provincia Medini, J. see Liburnia of province with Histria of border on more For rd Great changes happened to the borders, and even with the term Histria, followingth Histria, term andwith the even borders, the to changes happened Great

reprint., 56- extended from the Oglio River in the west to the foothills of the on the north north Alps the on the of foothills the to in west the River Oglio from the extended L'esarcato 131, 152-155.131, These scholars have argued that the moving ofborder eastwards was a result of the 43 (1992): 175 a and Liburnia] , 361., , which was an administrative unit without its own governmental body. body. governmental own its without unit administrative an was which , 63; A. Degrassi, Degrassi, A. 63; Regio X, Regio , Ep., V, 56. V, Ep., , MGH Venetia

11. Some historians have argued that the border was moved further east earlier, 22

-176.

Histria became a core land of the empi the landof a core became Histria

came under Lombard rule, while coastal Venetia and the whole whole the and Venetia coastal while rule, Lombard under came

Vol. 2, (: Arheološki muzej Istre, 2000), 39, 67. About the Praetentura

Il confine nord confine- Il . However,. as Levak out, during points period the Roman the

23

21 called Venetia, Venetia, was called part Lombard the seems that It

The a The 11 orientale

dministrative unity of Venetia et Histria of unity dministrative

et Providentio episcopis. de Histria

became the province Venetia etbecame province Histria the dell’ Italia romana (Trieste: TipografiaAdriatica,

re. The territory of the the of territory The re. was broken in two; the the two; in broken was

(Bern: AG. Verlag, 1954), rd century, when, when, century, rd of Justinian again again Justinian of

Živa Antika Antika Živa

, [Roman [Roman , 24 civil and

Peter

was was

32 32 9, 9, e

CEU eTD Collection ed. A.Carile, (Venezia: Marsilio Ed, 1991), 381. 29 28 27 26 25 ment the Among century. seventh peninsula. and Istrian of the Grado around frommainly territory comprised territory the encompassed led by dux the of Venetia, the founded lagoon Venetian the of cities government, Byzantine against rebellion the Venetiarum Heraclianain 628. the Istrian peninsula. possib it made and navy, a have not did Lombards the as safe, was communication Maritime effectively. attacks Lombard resist to necessary was which of Venetia, part in coastal the center strong of a absence the probably Histriae of rule the was under Allterritory the Byzantine of control. Byzantine still under which were term Mauricethe used emperor it seems that Thus in Grado. seat his had who Severus, , towards letter behavior Gregorytheto aggressive papal Maurice about complains fr I emperor 591, om in a Also, asfar . as extended border western Histria’s century, end sixth the ofat the writings. Diaconus’ Paul from seen be can as Altinum, of the was 149. Ho

More will be said about the significance of the inscription in Chapter Three. Chapter in inscription of the significance the about be said will More His position will be further elaborated in Chapter Three. 26. III,HL, Ferluga, “L'organizazione militare dell'esarcato,” in Storia in di Ravenna dell'esarcato,” militare “L'organizazione Ferluga, Heracliana was established and named in honor of the victory of emperor against the Persians. Persians. the against Heraclius emperor of victory of the honor in named and established was Heracliana wever, Brown argued that the city was founded at much later date, see in Brown, Gentlemen and Officers, Officers, and Gentlemen Brown, in see date, later at much founded was city the that argued Brown wever,

I striensum provincium striensum The eastern border of Histria also experienced significant changes during the early early the changes during significant experienced also of Histria border The eastern of after establishment the restored was Venetia of province the that isIt possible was possessions Byzantine the of all of unity administrative the for reason The episcopi Istriensum provinciarum 29

.

28

If not in the , then certainly this division happened inhappened 726- division then inthis certainly the 630s, not If 27

Anfrominscription 639, mentions dated , the magister . 26

to refer to the remains of the old province of of province old of the remains the refer to to

on, Byzantine Histria Histria Byzantine From then on, future doge. the of ,

le to maintain the connection with Pola and other cities on on cities other and Pola with connection maintainthe le to

. Among the mentioned is the patriarch of of patriarch mentionedisbishops the Among the . 12

ioned in the Placitum Risani the in ioned , II, Dall'età bizantina all'età ottoniana

25 Venetia et Histria,

This suggests that suggests This 727, when, after after when, 727,

one finds one

tum militum , CEU eTD Collection Ravenna,” Ravenna,” 30 Franks. the rec Justinian the from province the over rule Byzantine of years hundred two of overview ashort willgive I Here war. years the of first in rule Byzantine under coming in conflict, rolethe important an played region the of operations, theater a primary no it was Although operations. war by affected Justinian’s not was Histria say that to mistake Histria. touched barely Italy ruined ultimately that reconquista Justinianic Hi brief Ostrogothic period the During centuries. sixth and fifth the of period troublesome the during Italy Northern the of fateit of rest the spared position geographical favourable The Italy. asof apart lands Roman On the edgeImperii of Justinian’s Restauratio takeover by the 788. Franks around Histria’s until situation the was this and Ćićarija, and Učka of ranges mountain the to again, s Byzantine into Slavs the of integration the With peninsula. Istrian the on cities coastal the around territory the Tergeste, to Grado from extending the to border Byzantine “real” the moved century, seventh the during settlement Slav However, Učka. of range mountain the to Raša from border the moved Byzantines the Thus, valley. the defens easily on border Avaro the effectively counter to and insecurity, increased of In leftRaša astate on River. the bankof situated atown Alvona,

For an overview of the in the , see A. Carile, “Il bellum Gothicum da Isonzo a cities on the coast. the cities on As said above, from the reign of Augustus, Histri Augustus, of reign the from above, said As strip acoastal besides indicated, “Histria” term the antiquity of end the at Thus, Antichita Altoadriatiche

ible mountain range, rather than leave it on the river flowing through through flowing river the on it leave than rather range, mountain ible stria still enjoyed considerable prosperity. Even the wars of the the of wars the Even prosperity. considerable enjoyed still stria

13 (1978): 147-193.

- Slavic attacks, it was logical for the defenders to position the the position to defenders the for logical was it attacks, Slavic

13

a was included in the imperial core inimperial core included a was the ociety the border was moved was border the ociety onquista to itsfall to 30

But it wouldbe a But t CEU eTD Collection Nel medio evo, 3- evo, (1932): 9; and B. medio Benussi, Nel 34 33 32 31 his as Histria choose but , in disembark not did time, This Italy. to Belisarius could use in later operations. Histria. , majorityhisleavingto key guard insmall of troops garrisons points to Venetia and Tarvisium (Trevis near himself, defeated of Italy. troops out leadership, pushing army,newimperial started in the Ostrogoth the reorganizedunder 540, offensiv the of stage next the for themselves preparing were who troops the of reorganization the for point assembly the became region the and Italy, northern in militaryfor operations base idealadvance an Histria imperial rule. it to returning Histria, conquered Byzantines the when time the been have must this thus coast, Adriatic the along moving were Ravenna. to line supply the cutting way this in River, the of bank left the Illyricum effort. for war the resources contribute supply and Ravenna in subjects Histria to Ostrogoth the to order an issued Italy, Southern pretorium of praefectus letter by is the which shown rule, Gothic under remained Histria years, byl Italy Liburnia, towards Dalmatia advancing and general, Constantius, attacked the Gothicin possessions in Illyricum and 535occupied Nelmedio evo Benussi, B. Benussi, Benussi, Procopius, II, 28; Ravegnani, I Bizantini e la guerra , (Rome: Jouvence, 2004), 175. Procopius, 28, II, wasThis later elaborated byUdina, R. “Il Placito de Ris

Byzantine war effort from complete collapse, Justinian once again sent sent again once Justinian collapse, from complete effort war save Byzantine the To of Ravenna conquest the Constantinopleafter to recall Belisarius’ following However, magister militum the Vitalian, 539, in Ravenna besiege to moved Belisarius When his in forces, ofpart landed with a major Byzantine Sicily While Belisarius the 34 ctive of occupying occupying of ctive obje with the troops, his Venetia with move to to orders received ,

Nelmedio evo

This proved to be a clever decision, as it gave Byzantium a vital foothold which it it which foothold vital a itByzantium gave as decision, be aclever to This proved , who, in 536/37, following the fall the grain following the in who, of 536/37, Cassiodorus, , 4.

. See the source text in Cassiodorus, Variae Cassiodorus, in text source the See . e. e.

4.

31

14

33

Th e intact economy and infrastructure made infrastructure and economy intact e and. In that year and for the next two two next the for and year that In and. , XII, 22, 24. ano,”

o), withdrewwith the - Archeografo Triestino producing of regions of producing 32 His troops

per per 45 CEU eTD Collection temporis posuit componendoin temporis esercitu.. (1981), 25 Schlacht bei Busta den Gallorum, Ende Juni/Anfang Juli 552,” Gothicum 38 37 36 35 Italy. of whole the over control imperial establishing and gallorum, Busta near army Ostrogoth the defeating side, Byzantine the to war Gothic the fullitself. suppo Given the Ravenna to then and Venetia, to forward moved it reorganization, after where, Histria, then to and Dalmatia to first land, via moved army Narses’ of majority the so sea, by soldiers these all the campaign, Italian of the largest the was his army Since afterwho, assemblinglarge a numbering army perhaps 20000 soldiers, for departed Italy. to eunuch Narses, the Germanus’ troops over control gave Justinian commanders, competent of death With the died. ill and fellhe Italy, to his departure to just prior but arrival. commander's the awaiting inHistria, gathered soldi Italian expeditionaryforces. According Procopius,to Germanus was so popular among the yearIn the 550Justinian’sGermanus appointed cousinas was commander exp unsuccessful Belisarius’ Following for on thanmore dragged adecade. war that the Italy stop to and capital. the to herecalled was again defeat t not could Belisarius from Constantinople backing adequate fleet. a with Ravenna movedtowards army - re and reorganization after from where, inPola, landed Belisarius 544 In Italy. Southern in positions forefront the than Ravenna to closer operations, of base primary 25 000 seemen, in J. Haldon, The

For account an about Battle of Tagina and its influences the in , seeH. Roisl, N. “ und die Procopius, BG, III, 12. W. Treadgold, Procopius, Procopius, ers, that, hearing the news of his appointment, the survivors of the Italian campaign campaign Italian the of survivors the appointment, his of news the hearing that, ers, However, it was obvious that only total victory over the would bring peace bring peace would the Ostrogoths victory over total only it obvious was that However, , 171 -50. BG

-172. , III, 10 III,, Byzantium and its Army andits Byzantium edition, the central government decided to undertake more energetic action. action. energetic more undertake to decided government central the edition,

Da Salona solvit cum universa Classe Belisarius, Polamet applicuit; ubi aliquantum rt of the court in Constantinople, Narses finally turned the tide of of tide the turned finally Narses Constantinople, in court the of rt Byzantine Wars

See in Carile, Carile, in See classe. universa cum delatus vero .Ravennam

(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995), 61; Haldon speaks about , (Charleston, :History Press, 2008), 35. 35 15

But although an outstanding general, without without general, outstanding an although But 38 Jahrbuch der Österreich der Jahrbuch

36

Germanus assembled a great army, army, agreat assembled Germanus imperial fleet could not transport transport not could fleet imperial he and Ostrogoths, in 549 supply, the Byzantine Byzantine the supply,

ischen Byzantinistik

one of his most hismost of one - in - chief of the Il bellum 30 37

CEU eTD Collection 40 39 - re to was able fleet Byzantine the retreated, army Lombard when the However, Tergeste. of city the sacked and destroyed they where ex Histria of population the decades following During empire. Byzantine the of periphery the on outpost border and zone awar became in Histria BC, 177 province of the conquest oc Italy, Northern into broke and border, imperial the penetrated Lombards of tribe a year 568, In the troubles. first the experienced Histria empire, the into its reincorporation after soon However, administrativ about said be will More Ravenna. of those parallel could that imperial majestic by embellished were administration was reformed by theintroduction cities of the Histria’s Pragmatica Sanctio. defenders. However, after the election of their of election the after However, defenders. Byzantine the to respite needed much gave and advance Lombard haltedthe briefly followed, isin mentioned atown the that by replaced Neapolis, same the Probably founded newa and namedit in honor of the reigning they emperor where Capris, IIof -- island the to fled population nearby the incursions, Lombard further of defeated them, the Lombar the them, defeated Ravenna of by exarch led the forces the After countryside. the plundering and sacking Histria, dux leadershipUnder Ewin, the of tridentus preaficit, qui post praedas et incendia facta pacem annumin unum, magnam pecuniam regi deluterunt. evo medio Nel Benussi, in See mentioned.

Benussi, Benussi, The Byzantine reoccupation can be proved by an inscription in which the Byzantine emperor Justin II is perienced the horrors of war at first hand. at horrors of war the perienced In 569 a detachment of the main Lombard army moved towards northern Histria, Histria, northern movedtowards main army Lombard of the a detachment In 569 itslast Histria enjoyedGoldenAge. empire, The Justinianic of the As a part The long of , which was captured in 572, and the period of anarchy that in and of572, anarchy that the period captured whichlong was The Pavia, of siege cupying Aquileia and Forum Iulii (Cividale). For the first time since the Roman Roman the since time first the For (Cividale). Iulii Forum and Aquileia cupying ad Histriam rex III, adHL, 26: Histriam 14; Nel medio evo,

happened at ancienthappened Emonia, at which further south, was and abandoned ds withdrew, taking themlarge with sums of .

e and social changes of that period in the next chapter. chapter. next the in period that of changes social and e , 10. ,

of Trento, in the year 588 the Lombard army burst into into burst army Lombard the 588 year the in Trento, of

ta 16

ke the city and restore its . its ke restore city and the new king, the Lombards renewed the offensive. offensive. the Lombards renewed the king, new

Plea of Rižana as Nova. Nova. as of Civitas Rižana Plea

exercitum misit, cui ecercitui dux 40

Justinopolis. Justinopolis. 39

In fear

CEU eTD Collection Orthodox Byzantium Whittow, M. see Balkans, the in offensive the of Universityrenewal For 219 Press, 2009), -220. Approaches (500 -600),” in The Cambridge History of the Peristil Evidence] Archeological the of “Slavensko in more See Pola. ecclesiae coniungi festinantes ad beautum Petrum apost magna me laetitia relevatum esse cognoscite, qoud latores praesentium de Capritana insula unitati sanctae L’esarcato 44 43 42 41 Histria. This time, attacked Lombards, the with allied AvarsSlavs and the year 602, c presented empire the to back Italy and Balkans restore castra inpositions following the West Maurice’s victory Persia over in 590. in was act Histria could army exarchate’s the that reason enemy. the defeated and intervened army exarchate’s the that means which Slavs, Ravenna. trigg which cities, coastal Histria’s they endangered that is possible Avaro joint the cent sixth Avaro first the of place and date exact determine the to difficult is Although territory. imperial Sla by and Avars was exploited which ina vacuumPannonia, area created had into Italy descent Lombard in Histria. appeared territory. I into incursions Slav about Salona of bishop to writes pope the year, 15; 15;

, IV, 12. For Maurice’s plans in the West and and West the in plans Maurice’s For 12. IV, HL, , Ep.MGH IX, B. Marušić, Marušić, B. aui rud bu te etuto o te aiia n rea ad h fl o Nscim stae clo situated , of fall the and Orsera, in the of destruction the about argued Marušić , Ep. X, 154. Pope wrote in 600 that the Slavs perHistriae aditum Slavs iam ad Italiethe coeperunt.that 600 in wrote Gregory Pope 154. X, Ep. , MGH , leaving main, undefended. the Maurice’s routes aggressive policy the with aimto - Slavic incursions into Histria, it seems that the invasion happened at the end of the the of end the at happened invasion the that seems it Histria, into incursions Slavic However, after the Lombard pressure relented, a new and more dangerous enemy enemy dangerous more anew and relented, pressure Lombard the after However, However, the incursion of 599 was only a prelude to those that followed. The next followed.next The those that to a prelude incursion only 599was the of However, 44 , 360. 41 ury, somewhere along the border area in the northern part of Histria. In the year 599, year In599, the of inHistria. area part northern the border alongthe somewhere ury,

It can help locals, beIt supposed that from without their withdrew Ravenna, to In a letter, pope Gregory congratulated exarch for his victory over the the over victory hisfor Callinicus exarch Gregory congratulated pope letter, In a Istra u ranom srednjem vijeku srednjem ranom u Istra

154: 154: - Slavic forces invaded Histria, Slavic invaded forces Histria,

(Berkley Gregorius Callinico Exarcho Italiae. Inter haec quod mihi Sclavis de victorias nuntiastis, -avarski napadi Istruna u svjetlu arheološke [Avaro građe,” -Los Angeles: Universityof Press, California 1996), 266.

vs, whovs, after the conquest of Sirmiuminburst into 582, the

69. For the intervention of the exarch see Ferluga, Ferluga, see exarch of the intervention the (1957): For 68-69. 2

[The

Early (Pula: Istria] Medieval Arheološki 1960), muzej Istre, divisio imperii 17 as is recorded in the letters of . It Gregory I. of pope inletters the recorded is as olum principem ab excellentia vestra trasmissi sunt. trasmissi vestra abexcellentia principem olum

between his sons, see J. Moorhead, “Western “Western Moorhead, J. see sons, his between lear danger to his enemies. Thus, in in Thus, enemies. his to lear danger

the strengthening of Byzantine Byzantine of strengthening the ,

ed. J. Shepard (New Shepard J. ed. 43

ered a response from from a response ered taly through Histria’s Histria’s through taly

-Slavic Attacks Light in The Making of

York: Oxford 42

se to to se The The

CEU eTD Collection 48 47 46 45 (640 IV John pope that letter the is this to Relevant - north zone the in and Pinguentum of environs the in rivers Mirna and in area peninsula of the the ern part north the of residents became apermanent Slavs the before Frankish conquest the that that becan assumed lea Avaro of the defeat crushing the after ended alliance their caninthat assumed be It Histria. of aSlav attack record written d neglect of the by explained was destroyed. Nesactium year same when the this was defenders. the on war of the beginning since defeat the worst the perhaps inflicting continued. was broken and attacks the the truce emperor, Slavs. and Avars the with peace guaranteed tribute large his a during reign seems that It Persians. of the attack under which was front, eastern endangered the to troops western transfer to for made possible The truce (602 Phocas successor Maurice’s . inw caused Maurice 602, of emperor death attack. the repelled eventually although they heavy defeat, a suffered forces Byzantine that at present day the tradition does not exist anymore. exist not does tradition the day present at that seems it However, soldiers. of dead by corpses covered battle against Slavs in the distant past. Apparently, the battle was so bloody that slopes of the mountain were century, a tradition e interesting here to note a reference from Benussi. In canthe be assumed time that invaders when encountered he wroteprofessional army. his However, book, the place the of battle late is not mentioned. nineteenth It is podunavski Avaro Byzant Phocas' between relation about study excellent Slaves attack assumed that entire peninsula was devastated. The Lombards attacked the north ignibus et rapinis vastarunt

For more about destruction of Nesactium see Chapter Two. Haldon, HL, IV, 24, , IV, 25, Paul Deacon wrote that that wrote Deacon Paul 25, IV, HL, vingmastersAvar their and settlingin territory. Byzantine Although it cannot be said with certainty when exactly the Slavs settled in Histria, it it Histria, in settled Slavs the exactly when certainty with said be cannot it Although In 611, after devastatingIn after Lombard’s 611, the ByzantiumSeventhcentury the in ed from the East. Thus, the Byzantine defenders were opposing not one, but two enemy armies. two enemy but one, not opposing were defenders Byzantine the Thus, East. the from ed Sclavi Histriam, interfecis militibus, lacrimabiliter depredati sunt. mentioned Paul As - -Slavic Tribes]Avaro ZRVI Danubian the and Phocas [Emperor Slaveni,” xisted among the local population living in the foothills of Učka Mountain about a great a aboutMountainUčka offoothills the inpopulation livinglocal the amongxisted . Although. he did not mention places, byexamination of the term - Slav forces in the siege of Constantinople in 612, with the Slavs Slavs the with 612, in Constantinople of siege the in forces Slav

efenses Phocas’ reign.year during The 611is last also the Langobardi cum Avaribus and Sclavis Histrorum fine

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 43-45; also see the 46 -

610) signed with the truce the Lombardsin 603. 18 However, after Heraclius (610 Heraclius after However,

arming in relations between Byzantines and and Byzantines between in relations arming between the sources of the Rižana, Dragonja, Dragonja, Rižana, of the sources the between ium and Avars and Slavs: F. Barišić, “Car Foka i i Foka “Car Barišić, F. Slavs: and Avars and ium

- 642) sent to Martin his abbot envoy to sent 642) to as , Avars and Slavs attacked Histria again, again, Histria attacked andAvars Slavs , 48

The intensity of destruction can be be can destruction of intensity The

western border, while Avars and Avars while border, -western east of the Raša. Raša. ofeast the -

641) became the became the 641) 4 (1956): 73- s ingressi universa 47

militibus Probably Probably , it can be be can it ,

universa universa 45 86.

The The

, it ,

CEU eTD Collection Byzantine army see Ferluga, L’ 52 51 50 49 the 751, in conquest Lombard the for on relied scholars many that evidence the Ferluga, to According schola many that question the is This not? or Histria of conquest Lombard a Was there conquest. Lombard the of problem itself. and city the of Tergeste surroundings the province, the of territory vulnerable most the defending of aim with the Histria, in Northern created district in numerus the Tergestinus included probably Theyfinds. were archeological m in the of part became Slavs a ended, inHistria hostility the As Slavs. the to leaving rest the cities, coastal the castra the holding on mainly concentrated and region, entire the hold not could Histria withou that assumed safely be can it Thus, Italy. in pressure increasing andLombard in east, Arab the later, attacks and, is time of Persian This the empire. whole the in but Italy, in only not Byzantines, for time difficult a was century seventh hal first the that remember may One pope. the case, this in help, for power higher a addressed they so money, enough gather able to not was government local Byzantine the with th only identified be can “pagans” these Christians, were Lombards the and years earlier thirty . the of relics the also but pagans, ran to Dalmatia and Histria 788 when it was conquered by Such Franks. idea is suppo stronghad autonomy 751 after (Ferluga, (Lineamenti Histriathat stayed the Byzantine under until787, withrule the brief Lombard interlude around 751 774and Untersuchungenthat argued , Benussi argued Histria that wasevo 774Lombard, till then medio Byzantine (Nel

Ferluga, Ferluga, numerus Tergestinus numerus the about more For There are different opinions about Lombard Rule over Histria, following the fall of the exarchate in 751. e Slavs. Moreover, personal papal involvement in the ransom of captives suggests that in that personal suggests captives involvement ransom of Moreover, papal the e Slavs. Having seen the extent of Slavic influence in Histria, it is important to address the the address to isitimportant in Histria, influence of Slavic extent the Havingseen Chronicum Salernitanum L'Istria , 37)., According to Ferluga the Lombard occupation is u

181- 182,His opinion is also sharedby (NekaMargetić, pitanja, 8). Histria was Byzantine until 787; On the other Vergottini,hand supported the idea organizazione som not only the prisoners who had fallen into the hands of the the of hands the into fallen had who prisoners the only not som rs have tried to clarify, but no one has given a definite answer. definite a given has one no but clarify, to tried have rs

ilitary organization of the region, which can be seen in in seen be can which region, of the ilitary organization , is, a forgery. l’Istria see chapters Two and three. For the Slavs as the element in the the in element the as Slavs the For three. Two and chapters see , 382. 49 , , 181). argued that Histria stayed the Byzantineunder untilrule

As Avaro 19

Neka pitanja, 10). pitanja, byrted Margetić(Neka 52

The other important evidence for Lombard Lombard evidencefor important The other - Slavic alliance had broken down almost almost down broken had alliance Slavic ncertain, however, the “Byzantine” Histria t external t help, local in forces the 50

, 107);, L. Hartmann,

, a military military a , number of f of the the of f

and and 51

CEU eTD Collection analysis, see Margetić, Neka pitanja, 8 pitanja, Neka Margetić, see analysis, punishment see H. Krahwinkler, Friaul im Frühmittelalter. (Wien - debuisset tradere excellentiae sublimi vestrae Histriense territorium ipsum predicti Greci quamque de ipsis Histriensibus, (Mauriciieius episcopi) oculos eruerunt, propontes ei, ut quasi 55 54 53 pro parties, of Histria society the was time probably this By divided Histria. in on two intervention military for Charlemagne to papalfrom request the be seen can situation of the seriousness The arrival. aFrankish for prepareterritory the to wanted who spy as Charlemagne’s bishop élit local the Probably initiative. own their on but order, emperor’s punishment. Byzantine typical a blinded, and locals by the was captured he Histria,where to was sent who Maurice, bishop e his of treatment brutal the about complains pope the it, In 776. dated Charlemagne, to di as exarchate troops with Venetian perhaps reinforced forces local by in undertaken lost 774, the of reconquest Byzantine later the explain also may This Tergeste. andperhaps Grado around e repelled they that supposed be can Slavic Avaro joint including forces the all hostile localrepelled in forces decades that previous argued above,of part the province. Although this question remain will takingin open, account which as was, Grado, around territory like the only apart, or of Histria all occupied Lombards Lombards. with a war started . his 771/772. itto In the archbishop about misdeeds complainsthe to pope done byLombards to occupati Langobardi saevissimi ipsi

Papal response: response: Papal CDI MGH, , I, 45, 95: 45, I, , - Lombard attack in 602 and the strength of the network the of strength the and 602 in attack Lombard Further evidence for a Byzantine presence in Histria is the letter from pope I I Hadrian from pope letter the is inHistria presence aByzantine for evidence Further Ep III Ep on of Histriais on of letter ofof the archbishop John, Grado, theto pope Stephen dated III, - 53 Byzantine and pro and Byzantine , 713,, 20

The pope replied that help was on the way, help Charlema of thinking onthe that was replied The pope d not exist at that time and help from the capital would have been improbable. improbable. beenhave would from existhelp capital time at and the that not d Neffandissimi Graeci, qui ibidem praedictoin territorio r ,MGH Ep III, 714, 21iam prope ,est ut arrogantiam ferocitatem deiciat Quod perfida Langobardorum sanctae nostrae ecclesiae invaserunt haereditam e pro iussione regis sui

- 54 Frankish. Frankish. 55 -10.

However, from available sources it cannot be concluded if if concluded be it cannot sources from available However, The Byzantines described in the letter were not acting on actingon not were letter in the described The Byzantines

ven that last one, with Lombards conquering the lands lands the conquering Lombards with one, last that ven .

20

Köln Köln – Weimar, 1992)144

esidebant Histriense...zelo ducti tam of

. For blinding as a Byzantine Byzantine a as blinding For . castra e

saw the unfortunate unfortunate saw the

on the peninsula,it -145. gne, who had had who gne,

. For through through For . nvoy, nvoy,

- CEU eTD Collection 56 an to in came end. rule years Histria of Byzantine hundred anti Venice, of From example the inHistria. resistance occupation. military by than rather table” negotiating that battle during Franks and Byzantines the between hostility open Histriae dux the that mentions wife, his to letter a in Charlemagne, when 791, in Frankish was Histria certaint with say can One known. not is Franks the to province the of fall the of date

CDI, I, 47, 101: Ill. Dux de Histria, ut dictum est nobis, ibidem bene fecit cum suis hominibus - Byzantine coup, it can be assumed that the pro the that itbe can assumed coup, Byzantine the Franks, after their victory over the Byzantines in Italy, obtained Histria “on the the “on Histria obtained Italy, in Byzantines the over victory their after Franks, the exact the Histria, medieval late and antique early to related events many other As with

distinguished himselfdistinguished in battle Avars.against the

21

where the Franks tried an unsuccessful unsuccessful an tried Franks where the - Frankish faction won, and almost two two almost and won, faction Frankish

There are no sources mentioning mentioning sources no are There 56

The year 788 The for , so it seems - 789 was a time of of time a 789 was .

y that CEU eTD Collection

iad Jri, Kniutt triaj u sr” Te otniy f eec Cntuto i Istria], in ConstructionAntiqua Defence of Continuity [The Istri” u utvrđivanja “Kontinuitet Jurkić, Girardi 60 59 58 57 builtnot destroyed onexistingsites.forts prehistoricinthe Instead, hill with clashes the penin the formingtheir agri respective coloniessurrounding centuriated, was the (Trieste). Tergeste and (Poreč) of aRoman status prestigious the achieved had all which peninsula, of the coast western the . of process the with simultaneously conducted empire, the into incorporation its upon established been hadgenerally region in each network urban the and life, economic and empire; they administration. inimperial asRoman the well period, as ofstructure society the Mediterranean during civitas the city, the Haldon argues, The development and transformation of the landscape of Roman Histria region,” For more about the centurization ofentire Venetia et Histria provincial setting,” Journal of Roman Archaeology setting,” provincial Government], Starac, “Unutrašnjost Histrije u vremenu Rimske vlasti” [The Interior ofHistria at the time of Roman Matijašić, Istrian History in Roman Times], Izdanja HAD 1998), 49-50; V. Girardi

J. Haldon, Haldon, J. The centurization R. Matijaši R. More onprocess ofRomanization

6 The arrival of the Romans meant a change in Histria’s landscape. The new cities were were cities new The landscape. inHistria’s achange meant Romans the of The arrival 1 in Histria of conquest the Following As cities. of empire an it was that was Empire Roman the of features main the of One Antichita Altoadriatiche II byAugustus theof time (2000): 12-13. Gospodarstvo antičke Istre antičke Gospodarstvo sula stillinhabitedby indigenous population. the . The Militarized Landscape of Romanand Byzan Byzantium ć, “L’Istria tra l’antichita clasica e la tarda antichita,” antichita,” tarda la e clasica l’antichita tra “L’Istria ć, Histria Archeologica 26 (1995): 58-106. were power bases of the imperial taxation system, cent system, basesimperial taxation of the power were 58 57

process in Roman Histria Roman in process The cities acted as the interface between central and local authorities in the local authorities and central interface between as the acted The cities

(Gloucestershire: Tempus, 2005), 141. -Jurkić,“Prilog sintezuza povijestiIstreu rimskodoba” [Contribution Synthesisto a of

28 (1986): 143-156. Fo

59 [The Economy o Economy [The in generalin Mattingly, J. D. in Roman: Expressing “Being Identity a in : Colonia Pietas Iulia Pola (Pula), Colonia Iulia Parentium Parentium Iulia Colonia Pola (Pula), Iulia Pietas Colonia :

According to the traditionalRoman custom, the territory or

- is wellis explainedR.Matijašić, in

a polis 11, No. 1 (1987): 65-80.

, occupied a central role in socioeco the role a central , occupied 22

17 (2004), 5 77 BC, the Romans established three cities on on cities three established Romans the BC, 77 f Roman Istria] (Pula: Zavičajna naklada “Žakan Juri“, Juri“, “Žakan naklada Zavičajna (Pula: Istria] Roman f

r more about the non the about more r

see L. Bosio, “La centurazione romana della X X della romana centurazione “La Bosio, L. see 60 Arheološki Vestnik 26. For Romanization in Histria see R. R. see Histria in Romanization For -26.

Romanized population see A. A. see population -Romanized Gospodarstvo Antičke Istre GospodarstvoAntičke ers of political, religious, religious, political, of ers , leaving the interior of interior of leaving the , tine Histria tine 48 (1997): 203

218; V.-218; nomic nomic Histria

47. 47. CEU eTD Collection be: “Cordoba, you being more fertile than the olive oil region of Venafro and a and from ofVenafro region oil olive the than fertile more being you “Cordoba, be: Costantini. the following verses: “ southern Istria Antiquity],in (Pula: Arheološki muzej Istre, 2008). podmorskamore, arheologija južne Istre uantici empire. For more about the ports and maritime connections ofHistria see Ida were built. For more about Nesactium see V. Girardi Jurkić, “History of the research on Nesactium and its its and Nesactium on research the Nesactium of “History Jurkić, Girardi V. see archaeological and historical Nesactium significance,” about Histria Antiqua more For built. were sixth the In necropolis. a large and two , forum, a large were important most the Although it did not have the status of colonia 64 63 62 61 by wealthy the erected arch, triumphal decorated aluxuriously are prominent most The of the architecture monumental p oil olive from mainly experiencingprospered, itsAge. Golden Histria century second and first the during empire, of the heart in the Secure inhabitants. festivals. religious life. of city center as the forum large anda theaters, baths, aqueducts, temples, as such amenities empire, in the cities all to common identity architectural and aesthetic a specifically exceptioncarried Romanin urban They planning. no were of Histria cities the Roman Empire, cities of Asthe other the coast. Adriatic e eastern th along waterway vital a protect to also but hinterland, the only not control to AD. re later sites, were in favorable located of places, these valleys. the Some moved to population andthe obsolete, fortifications existing made the region the of pacification The Rome. of might military the to resistance of futility the of example an as ns in rui left were Romans

A vastA number of amphorae found in shipwrecks along the Istrian coast attest the significanceHistria of for the occupied, among which the most important was Nesactium, rebuilt in the first century century first inthe rebuilt was Nesactium, important most the which among occupied, Valerius Martialis, native of Cordoba During the Roman Empire Pola was home to many important Roman families like the: Sergi, Crassi, Flavi, M. M. Roberti, “Urbanistica romana di Trieste ede di Trieste romana “Urbanistica Roberti, M. M. 61 Histria The city acted as the place of public display, sumptuous imperial processions, and and imperial processions, sumptuous placeas the of display, public acted The city

Being included in imperial co imperial in included Being coastline the on set colonies, planned regular were Histria inRoman centers new The

- Cenide , book Epigrams XII. , In .” Kulturno-povijesni spomenici Istre 7 (Pula: Arheološki Muzej Istre, 1998). , the Emperor Vespasianus’ mistress, was also from Pola from was also mistress, , Vespasianus’ the Emperor

Uncto Corduba laetior Venafro Histra nec minus absolute testa. roduction.

63

, The its prosperity inhabitantsof is best visible in the

Nesactium had all the amenities typical ofRoman a city, ofwhich who lived the in 1st century AD, celebrated Istrian olive oil with relands brought significant benefits to Histria’s , particularly in Pola, the center of Roman Histria. Roman of center the inPola, particularly , 62

[A peninsula immersed in sea, the underwater archeologyof

Its wealth, immortalized by Roman poets, derived derived by poets, Roman immortalized wealth, Its 23 featuring a number of p a number featuring

ll’Istria,”

4 K Mhvlć R Matijašić, R. Mihovilić, K. 15-24;2 (1996):

Antichita Altoadriatiche 28(1986): 190. .

, Koncani Uhač, Uhač, Koncani s perfect as the oil () ublic monuments and and monuments ublic

” The translation would would translation ” The century two basilicas basilicas two century Poluotok uronjen u 64

CEU eTD Collection Opscvla Archeologica, Rusticae Archeologica, onthe Brijuni Islands], Opscvla dell’Istria particularly the on Verige baybuilt by th zbornik and [Architectural 77-106,(1983): and Mlakar, Š. “Arhitektonsko Continuityof Roman Rustic Villas in Western Istria from Antiquity to Byzantine Period] Historica Histria “Građevinski kontinuitet rimskihgospodarskih vilau zapadnoj od antikedoIstri bizantskog do Archaeologica posjedi “Carski Starac, A. in more See Humagum. lands in ager Polensis 67 66 65 locallevel. on more the although economy, ofa renewal the caused t from manyimage ofsinceinfluenced arrived probably the demographicregion, refugees a positive decreased. and p Mediterranean other Aquileia. and , , as such Italy, cities of Northern other of fortification caused which century fourth and life. of itself. family imperial the of property the being them of some peninsula, Istrian the luxury of number aconsiderable century, peninsula. Apennine of the coast Adriatic on cities largest two the Ravenna, Aquilea and to eastern the and from route trade the on theaters. completed during of the rule the Flavian emperors, and large and , two decurion nell'alto Adriatico,” Antichita altoadriatiche tarda antichitala Italian administrat Italian nel calmiere dioclezianeo,” dioclezianeo,” calmiere nel

For more on trade between Histria and the imperial h imperial the and Histria between trade on more For The western coast ofHistria became particularly attractive for Roman senators after its incorporation into For more about the urban structure of both cities see M. M. Roberti, Urbanistica romana di Trieste e Roberti, M. M. see cities both of structure urban the about more For - dynasty. See more V. in Begović and I. Schrunk, “

he endangered northern provinces trying to find a safe haven in Histria. The arrival of of arrival The Histria. in haven safe a find to trying provinces northern endangered he 15 The turbulent late antique period was reflected in Histria’s inhabitants and their ways and ways their inhabitants inHistria’s was reflected antique late period The turbulent impor actingas flourished, also Tergeste and cities, Parentium two The other The cities of Histria were not affected by affected not were Histria of cities The , 185-200.

al family of Sergii, an amphitheatre seating 20,000, the final phase of which was was finalthe of which seating phase 20,000, an amphitheatre of Sergii, family al -16 (2002): 13-43. The most splendid of those facilities were imperial villas on the Brijuni islands, 18, No. 1 (1994): 1- 210. For relations between Histria and Aquilea see S. Panciera, “Porti e commerci e commerci “Porti Panciera, S. see Aquilea and Histria between relations For 209-210. ,

ive territory. At the beginning of the Compositional Features ofRoman Rustic Villas and Leisure Mansions in Istria], Jadranski

and the Brijuni islands. By the period of the rovinces; however, during the third century the continental trade with with trade continental the century third the during however, rovinces; Being situated on the sea, the region preserved good connections with with connections good preserved region the sea, the on situated Being Antichita Altoadriatiche

14. For a general overview ofRoman villas in Histria see V. Girardi Jurkić. 67

2 (1972): 103; Biscardi,A. “Il porto A di Increased insecurity on the imperial border, however, however, border, imperial the on insecurity Increased -kompozicijskeznačajke rimskih vila rustika ljetnikovacai Istre” villae rusticae

29, No. 1 (1987): 169- 24 interland see Matijašić, Matijašić, see interland e wealthy Laecani family, who were closely tied to tied closely were who family, Laecani e wealthy 23-24, No. 1(2000): 425-439.

u Histriji”u [Imperial lands in Histria], Opvscvla

the deteriorating situation of thelate third Villae rusticae

were builtwere the imperial patrimonyconsisted mainly of 65 181. ,

imperial lands spread all the way to to way the all spread lands imperial During the first and second second and first the During

L’Istria tra l’antichitaL’Istriatra classica e

along the western coast of coast western the along na Brijunskom na otočju” [Villae

quileiaei noli marittimi ba” [The Building Building [The ba” 66

tant ports ports tant

the the

4 CEU eTD Collection Levak, See . and Constantine between war civil the of period the to dated hoards coin in be seen can This Jadrana 71 70 69 68 number walling of gates, narrowing upor existing is ones. It possible that thisis the time by red amplified was city of the security the side.Also, outer layer the on extra in adding they an strengthened width, so them existing Augustean protection, reliable as walls probably mot of time, period short ina relatively built were walls the that demonstrates construction reinforcement, and completion of the Pula town walls. incursionand pl newof a possible fear The Polaitself. to but Histria, northern of settlements only to not threat a potential posed seems that It cities. coastal of the towers. by strengthened in some complexes, the around built were walls High perimeter fortified. be to started villas, like rustic countryside, in the places residential stiffened, border the on populatio seen as a beginning of the process of the militarization of the landscape. of the militarization of the process of the seen as abeginning and Ćićarija mountains and mountains Ćićarija and discovered on the eastern side of Učka, near Lovran. Among the interesting finds is a large water cistern, which which cistern, water large a is finds impliesinteresting thatthe the complexAmong wasLovran. permanently near inhabited, Učka, probablyof duringside the fifth and sixtheastern centuries. the Remainson discovered mjesta življenja od prapovijesti do srednjeg vijeka Archeological Reports, 2007), 119 2007), Reports, Archeological complex is D. Komšo and M. Blečić, “The Secret Cave Hidden in the Cliffs,” Cliffs,” the in Hidden Cave Secret “The Theories and Methods of Rockshelter R Blečić, M. and Komšo D. is complex cave the about research recent most The entrance. cave the of vicinity the in found were fort antique late Ages] Middle

Š. Mlakar, Mlakar, Š. It is possible th A number of third A number o mr aot h friiain f lsia cte i Hsra se . Suić, M. see Histria, in cities Classical of fortification the about more For Kastrizacija , 356 , The events of the late fifth century also had a considerable im hada considerable also fifthlate century of the The events the that evidence is There changed. situation the century fourth late the From n moved to caves in case of danger, but only for a short time. ashort for only but of cavesin danger, case movedto n -362. Antička Antička , Histria, antiqua ivated by potential danger. The citizens of Pola probably did not consider the the consider not probably did of Pola The citizens danger. ivatedby potential at these developments were influenced more by internal conflicts than a direct barbarian threat. threat. barbarian direct a than conflicts internal by more influenced were developments these at

, 51 - Pula

to fifth -55.

[Antique Pula] (Pula: Arheološki muzej Istre, 1978), 12.

Trieste K Trieste

69 century artifacts, including coin hoards, have been found in the caves in the Učka Učka the in caves the in found been have hoards, coin including artifacts, -century

The transformation of villas to fortified settlements can be be can settlements fortified villas to country of The transformation 11 (2003): 41-54.11 Particularly interestin -123.

ras. See more in Levak, Kastrizacija, 54 Kastrizacija, Levak, in more See ras.

Attila’s invasion of Italy and destruction of Aquileia in 452 452 in Aquileia of destruction and Italy of invasion ’s esearch undering by barbarian tribes is reflected in the extension, extension, in the reflected is tribes barbarian by undering ,

ed. ”

[The caves of Istria of caves [The

M. Kornfeld, S. Vasilev, and L. Miotti (Oxford: British 25

71

The significant use of spolia The significant --Living Places from Prehistory to the g is a relatively large cave complex complex cave large a relatively g is 57 and D. Komšo, “Pećine Istre “Pećine Komšo, D. and -57 nik ga n itčo obali istočnoj na grad Antički On Shelter’s Ledge: Histories, Histories, Ledge: Shelter’s On

pact on the development on development the pact 68 70

Because the situation situation Because the

places additionally additionally places ucing the ucing the in their their in

of a of a - CEU eTD Collection 97, anatči tjsk u oeu 97 gdn” O te disc Opvscvla Archeologica the [On godine” 1997. Poreču u tijesaka kasnoantičkih 76 75 74 73 72 expressly laws Roman ancient The . by caused mentality Roman in change fifth the early to found walls, dated Nesactium within are also the plants wine production oil or Parentium. and Pola of walls city the within found been have which presses production capacity. This of a reduction empire of the caused parts other to of exports decrease the Also, city walls. movedinside the plants production danger, of times ruralization.In of process signs the of Like culture. antique traditional to Christianity promoted newideals andnew social andmoral values, all of which were opposed use. of out fallen had buildings monumental secular and shrunk had areas urban the centuries, in other reinforced walls the were exampleof Pola, the whenbuiltitsline Pola second defense, byfortifying of inside the hilltop the city. amphitheater lost their purposes and were replaced by churches as new foci of urban life. offoci urban new as by churches replaced and were lost purposes their amphitheater 2006), 94- gravestonesfromthenecropolistaken situated outsideMarušić, B.walls.More in the Antiquity The City In in the City,” Late Ancient of the End “The Liebeschuetz, (London: Longman, W. 1997), 17-18; 72 Kastrizacija; Pula Companion to the Age of Justinianof Age, the Companionto : Oxford University Press, 2001), 369-400. Decline and Fallof the Roman City Liebeschuetz, J.H.W.G city, antique late the on work seminal the

R. Matijašić,R. N. Christie, From Constantine Christie, N. to Charlemagne: An Archeology of Italy For more about the transformation of late antique city see D. Nicholas, The Growth of the Medieval City , which included remains of remains included which spolia, the of by some be demonstrated can construction in urgency The

For oil press findings see R. Matijašić Matijašić R. see findings press oil For 214-215. 73

[Late Antique and Byzantine 1967),Pula]Arheološki[Lateand Suić,(Pula:Antique 5; muzejIstre, century.

the like the open bespaces public the maintained, expensive to Too

, In such circumstances the townscape also changed. During the fourth and fifth fifth and fourth the During changed. also townscape the circumstances such In

98, 107 6.; S. T. Loseby, “Mediterranean Cities,” In The Cambridge In Cities,” ed. J. Rich (London: Routledge, “Mediterranean 1992), Loseby, T. S. 4-6.;

-73. L' Istria tra l'antichita classica e la tarda antichita 203-218, and , 76 11, 214 -11,

The moving of production within city walls may also be explained by a be explained mayalso citywalls moving within production of The

281. For wine presses, see Levak, Kastrizacija, 74. Kastrizacija, Levak, see presses, 31 (2007): wine For 265-281. -217.

is particularly visible in the remains of late antique oil and wine wine and oil antique late of remains the in visible particularly is

ed. P. ed. other cities of th cities of other

Rousseau (London: Blackwell Publishing, 2009), 139-

opdrto nik Istre antičke Gospodarstvo 26

e late empire, the cities of Histria showed showed of Histria cities the empire, late e overy of late antique presses in Poreč in 1997], 1997], in Poreč in presses antique late of overy

cities of Histria. Histria. of cities , AD 300 , , 212 , 213; Matijašić, “O nalazu nalazu “O Matijašić, -213; Gospodarstvo antičke Istre antičkeGospodarstvo -800 (Aldershot: Ashgate, Antički 354;grad, Levak, Kasnoanti

75

Remains of the forum 72 čka i bizantska i čka 156. Also see Also see 156.

Following

and the the and

(New (New 74 ,

CEU eTD Collection 78 77 back to repelled their were Marcomanni the 170 territory,but not before theyhad devastated In it. beyond lands agricultural rich the devastating 166, in the crossed and legions enough. f those and legions, three only probably men, many take not He did Parthians. pursue the his against war to in order DanubeRhone eastwards and Romano rule. Byzantine system Histriaof during of influenced the defensive defensive the development also system safety the guaranteed things, other among which, Italy, of system defensive Roman late the on excursus of heart the empire -- the Protecting castrization of the result agri their on appeared other after centuries for superiority maintain this them to classified as“urban”. Their role as political and commercial centers of the region larg a fill to continued Histria of cities the condition de wall). city pomerium the within territory the on plants production building forbade century basilica of Parentium on a northern part of the decumanus, transforming it into two blind streets.

A. R. Birley, Marcusrelius: Au A Biography Birley, R. A. Levak, Kastrizacija, 76. The author also argues that a change of mentality caused the construction of the fifth of the construction the caused mentality of change a that argues also author The 76. Kastrizacija, Levak, - urbanization, but merely a transformation of the character of urban life. Even in a shrunken shrunken a in Even life. urban of character the of transformation a merely but urbanization, The foundation of the system can be traced to the late second the to be traced can system the of foundation The Before moving on to the problem of castrization reflect not may buildings of uses changing or abandonment the that stated be must It 78 - Parthian conflict, when emperor Marcus Marcus (161 Aurelius when emperor conflict, Parthian

77 of the cities of Histria, ensuring them the level of prosperity described above. The The above. described level of prosperity them the ensuring Histria, of cities of the Various Germanic tribes, notably the Marcomanni, exploited the absence of the the of absence the exploited Marcomanni, the notably tribes, Germanic Various

pro cess. cess.

Claustra Alpium Iuliarum (New York:Routledge, 1987), 123. 27

rom widely separated regions, but it was it was but regions, separated widely rom e number of functions which can be only be only functions can which of e number , it is important to give a short short a give to important is it , - 180) moved180) from troops the

century, the time of the

(the sacred line sacred of (the enabled

as a a as the the - CEU eTD Collection 81 80 79 inNorthern cities vulnerable the t protec to and imperial defences bolster further to However, frontier. the to closer and thus Alps, the to closer situated Milano, newly refortified Rome to from moved was capital the its supervision, facilitate To solution. permanent as a of Italy pro the for system defense reorganizea to necessary it made half, second the especially area, wider systemincluded not only the territory of the old Praetentura before be stopped to had enemy the ev The fortifications. existing the maintain to continued administration Roman the 175, in disbandment its after problem, system. with Pannonia connected which one the was important most the Amongthem Italy. central to on and Valley Po the to leading passes andforts, towers, lookouts byit whichcouldmonitor and, ifnecessary, close the natural cons administration Roman the area, mountainous and hilly the of benefits the Using Alps. eastern the through leading routes important protecting Praetentura et Alpium Italiae the was solution Italian cities. largest of the one Aquileia, countryside and plundering around northern () Italy, the destroying Opiterguim Press, 2007), 564-565. the in Italy Fourth Fifthand and Centuries AD,” in The Transition Pannonia of Lateto Antiquity Defence the Po: the to Danube the “From Christie, N. Danube. middle the along one followed by period a of recovery. of the second century. But after the establishment of Claustra Alpium Iuliarium, the stagnation was quickly rustic villas show degree a of stagnation productionin and the ha

The extension of the defences to the cities reflects the state’ the reflects cities the to defences the of extension The Levak, Kastrizacija, The Marcomanii raid of the 170swhich devastated Northern Italy also affectedHistria. The remains of many The deterioration of the situation on the imperial borders during the fourth century, century, fourth the during borders imperial the on situation the of deterioration The Praetentura Italiae et the Alpium Although Ital strengthening of necessity the indicated raid The Marcomanni

basically including all the provinces surrounding Italy to the north and east. east. and north the to Italy surrounding provinces the all including basically

28.

ents of the 170s made it clear to the Romans that in the future infuture Romans the itthe that clearmade to 170s of the ents they reached the gates of Italy. gates the reached they 79

Aquileia, presumably the center of the defense defense of the center the presumably Aquileia, 28

, a created with the task of with of task created the , military district a s own admission of the

bitation of buildings the during the second half was onlyan ad hoc solution to the tructed a number of large and small small and large of a number tructed , ed. A. Poulter (Oxfor , but was extended to a much a was but , extended to 80

Thus, the new defense defense new the Thus, y’s defenses. The

d: Oxfordd: University fragility, particularly tection tection

81

CEU eTD Collection pretender , thus becoming a sole emperor. 394. Ad in The Pirum and emperor of part eastern of empire, Theodosius the Riv the western defeated the I, Cold of battle the was recorded event important most The invasions. Kastrizacija Levak, see interpretation recent most 85 84 Slovenia], ofClaustra Alpium Iuliarum Research Archeological [Recent vSloveniji” utrdb “ Alpine Julian the signals from Poetovio (Ptuj), acity on the Pannonian border, to Aquilea. For more about strategies of defense on thisin strategy. is estimated It that only were two hours needed for the transfer of smoke (day) an station may havebeen situated on the site. 83 82 Tractus circa Italiae Alpes possible. forces enemy trapped of andelimination encirclement made line, which supply invaders reorganize After regrouping, and regroup. the defenders could close cutting the pass, the barrier walls prevented the enemy’sfast advance, giving defenders the ti The multiple and towers. camps, military forts, fortified towns, walls, barrier comprised The system threat. by potential endangered ina territory itgradually, evolved but command, in north. with Tergeste the Polain south the connected which , inAquileia. acommander under directly s entire of the centre organizational the maybeen have coast, the on situated Tergeste, Italy. with inPannonia imperial centers which connected road strategic the on situated defensive chain Italy. northeastern into passes mountain the guarding Friuli), del (Cividale Iulii Forum and (Trieste) Emon (Rijeka), Tarsatica from spanning ( chain defensive Alpine Julian or Alpine the was This defense. in on but line defense, a on based not built, was cordon defensive military a Italy, Area], Area],

The Roman name probably originates from the Greek word word Greek the from originates probably Pirum Ad name Roman The J. Šašel, “K zgodovini Julijsko “K zgodovini Šašel, J. Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Ironically, these fortifications mostly demonstrated their usefulness during civil struggles rather than

Situla It appears that Histria, or at least the northern part, were included in the Julian Alpine Alpine Julian inthe included were part, northern the least at or Histria, that appears It The The It isimportant to note that the Claustra 85 Arheološki vestnik

14/15 (1974): 256-257.

Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Claustra Alpium . The center of the Histria’s section of section Histria’s of the The center . limes Petru, “Novejše arheološke raziskave Claustra Alpium Iuliarumin kasnoantičnih raziskave arheološke “Novejše Petru, P. see ” , 1971),, 100. For the v Ljubljani muzej Narodni (: Šašel J. ed. Fontes, I, ,

23 (1972): 357. , a wider defensive screen that reached from the to the the to from Liguria reached the that screen awider, defensive alpskega obrambnega področja” [On the History of the Julian the ofHistory the področja” obrambnega[On -alpskega

Reconnaissance and the early warning system played significant parts parts significant played system warning early the and Reconnaissance

itself was part of a l a of part was itself , 84 46.

a (Ljubljana), Ad Pirum (Hrušica) Pirum Ad (Ljubljana), a

Moreover, Tergeste was an important city the on important was an Tergeste Moreover,

29

was not created by imperial directive or or directive imperial by created not was Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Claustra Alpium arger defensive system called the called system the defensive arger for fire, which indicates that asignaling er ( er Claustra Alpium Iuliarum Claustra Alpium Fluvius Frigidus and Late Antique Forts in

me necessary to to necessary me 83 ) between Castra Castra between )

was Tergeste, Tergeste, was Alpine Defense Defense -Alpine

to Tergeste Tergeste to d fire (night) ystem, ystem, - depth depth ), 82

CEU eTD Collection but with no indication that it continued into the fifth. For invasion. Also, the excavations at Ad Pirum show the presence of a military garrison during the fourth century, Altoadriatiche Giulia): elementi comuni e peculiarità regionali in un'epoca di transizione (IV 89 88 87 86 land. by Italy to advance Narses’ preventing in - still about information last The forces. invading to barrier aformidable t presen to continued and reign, Claustrathe Iuliarium it Alpium seems that However, intruders. the to obstacle no providing alongof coast Histria, the or withintowns Venetia inchecked this corridor. not were forces Alaric’s that implies which invasion, Visigothic the prior to just came disbanding Its military capabilities. Empire’s Western the of weakening the of because partly like barbarians of groups large of migration the prevent not it could increased pressure smaller onthe ItalianitAlthoughchain. defensive stopped barbarian raids, Danubian the Iuliarum Alpium command. his under men Italiae the of command the under was system The entire attack. mainland from Italy northern protecting Sea, Adriatic (London: Loeb Classical Library, 1928), 333-336. Charlemagne mobile

For a detailed description see Procopius, Procopius, see description detailed a For Tractus is mentioned only in the The reason for their withdrawal can beexplained by inadequate supply. Small, static units could block a Possenti,E. “I siti fortificati dell'Italia alpina nord invasion force, but not for a long time without mobile rearward support. Christie, From However, neither the Tractus Italiae circa Alpes the neither However, functioningfragments of thesystem comesfrom Procopius, whomentions its role , 325-326.,

56 (2004): 126. N. Christie, 566, limes , could prevent the increasing number of barbarian raids into Italy. The fall The Italy. into raids barbarian of number increasing the prevent could ,

in 380 and the subsequent collapse of the northern border caused an causednorthern collapseborder and the an in the subsequent of 380 86 87

litary units withdrew to the large fortified fortified large the to withdrew units military that possible is It

Notitia Dignitatum , who, ac History of the Wars of the History Notitia Dignitatum cording to some estimates, had around 20,000 armed cording armed some had 20,000 around estimates, to

30 -orienta , , meaning that it broke down just prior to the Visigothic 89

more see N. Christie, From the Danube to the Po, 566. Po, the to Danube the From Christie, N. see more

le (Trentino Alto Adige, , Friuli Venezia Venezia Friuli Veneto, Adige, Alto (Trentino le (Gothic War IV),(Gothic War book ed. VIII, H. B. Dewing

XXXIV. , nor its eastern branch, the the branch, eastern its nor , was renewed during the Ostrogothic

a Hun incursion in 452, incursionina Hun 452, -VIII secolo),” Antichita Constantine to Claustra Claustra

of of 88

CEU eTD Collection Eufrasius at Poreč at Eufrasius Pola Paleocristiana,” in Ravenna basilica in Parentium see A. Terry,H. Maguire, Dynamic Splendor 91 90 own. their on left were that possessions western its of safety the assure res With onslaught. Persian a in containing difficulties great had armies field imperial East, the in while attacks, Slav and Avar by ravaged was hinterland Balkan Byzantine the time, which the uni broke century, sixth late inthe Italy of territory the into incursion Lombard unchecked almost an Parentium. and them of prominent most the countryside, their and cities in coastal built the small churches and large of number considerable from the seen be This can bypassed Italy itsfineforRavenna, and oil wine. being praised of as known was Kingdom Italy, included of in Ostrogoth now the region, the the At time of Cassiodorus, of Histria. on impact development the considerable no had Italy. Northern of rest fate of the from the regionthe spared system defensive Alpine in Julian the inclusion mount by the side mainland from the well protected of Histria, province Byzantine, later and Roman, of part the largest Histria Istra i Bizant [Istria and Byzantium], Matica Hrvatska – Hrvatska Matica Byzantium], and [Istria i Bizant Istra Rega Both basilicas were commissioned by the archibishop ofRavenna Maximianus, a native from Histria. For Matijašić, 22,Matijašić, , XII, Variae ources stretched thin, the central government of the post of the government central the thin, stretched ources rding

The The the formed peninsula Istrian the as known mass land the Two, Chapter the in stated As as border zone – zone border as The fall of the and the subsequent Ostrogothic administratio Ostrogothic subsequent the and Empire Roman Western the of fall The

the Byzantine building in Histria see B. Marušić, Kasnoantička i bizantska Pula; M. Vicelja Matijašić, Matijašić, Vicelja M. Pula; bizantska i Kasnoantička Marušić, B. see Histria in building Byzantine the term insecurity for Histria started after Justinian’s death, with with death, Justinian’s after started Histria for insecurity longbeginning--term of 91

Histria, Histria,

(Philadelphia: (Philadelphia:

ty of the ancient , Venetia et Histria province, Roman ancient the of ty which, during Justinian’s reign, experienced its last Indian summer. last summer. Indian itsreign, Justinian’s experienced which, during L’Istria tra l’antichita clasica e la tarda antichita the castrizationthe of th Universityof Pennsylvania Press ain ranges of Ćićarija and Učka. Such natural protection and and protection natural Such Učka. and Ćićarija of ranges ain

-la croce, la spade, la vella 31 ogranak u Rijeci: Rijeka, 2007).

e province 90

that ruined ruined that war Gothic Even destructive the

, ed. A. Augenti ed. A. , (Milano: Skira, 2007), 81 -85. , 2007). For basilica in Pola, see see Pola, in basilica For 2007). ,

the huge imperial basilicas of Pola basilicas of Pola imperial huge the

: - The Wall Mos Justinianic unable Empire was to , 216 , -217.

aics in the Cathedral of

in 569. At the same At the same in 569. “Ravenna e “Ravenna n CEU eTD Collection 93 92 the stimulate to failure their supplies, military and state with favoured were century sixth the of centers While Byzantine localthe population. permeated insecurity agrowing of sense that of Histria. landscape of the in transformation aradical resulting further be will which populace. general the to government of from agents society, of elements the all of militarization in the resulting Histria, of territory elements, was perhaps unavoidable,but it removed an for localthe population. centers p fortified and fortresses of network a with peninsula, Istrian the of whole the through north local population. t soldiers allocate not could Lombards, the with fighting constant in embroiled exarchate, The forces. naval or roads fortified regional and sub makeshift After a linefor the defenders. supply provide Lombard a secure counter advances and to to frontiers new up drawing of necessity the was strategy Byzantine sixth century later in the A. factor includingkey Histria later sixth century, late during founded were of Italy Exarchate empire. Byzantine the drawn Edipuglia, 1998), 117. laces covering the entire territory, which could resist enemy attack and serve as refuge as refuge and serve enemy attack resist could which territory, entire the laces covering

Christie, E. Zan E.

along along The permanent Lombard threat and inability of adequate imperial retaliation meant meant imperial retaliation adequate ofinability and threat Lombard The permanent military imbued with inlife which was everyday organization, Such of system a the from extended gradually system defense the century sixth the of end the by Thus, was inItaly line new the defensive frontier, Alpine of the in longerpossession No ini, ini, From Constantine to Charlemagne, limes Le Italie Bizantine: Territorio, insiedimenti ed economia nella provincia bizantina d'Italia

created along Po River collapsed in 59 the River collapsed alongPo created

regional defence based around more restricted territorial units linked by by linked units territorial restricted more around based defence --regional

elaborated in Chapter Three. It also caused widespread fortification, fortification, It also inwidespread caused Three. Chapter elaborated 92 and northern Adriatic coast, with Histria becoming the very border of border very the becoming with Histria coast, Adriatic northern and

To assure at least some protection, the Exarchate of Africa and Africa and of Exarchate the least protection, some at Toassure

93

o defendo Histria,leaving its defensein thehands of the Life in this permanent war zone created a new society, society, a new created zone war permanent inLifethis

41.

32

y possibility of feeling safe within the the within safe feeling of y possibility 0s, this gave way to the strategy of (Bari: CEU eTD Collection bizantine 94 province was aided on two mainfronts, firstthe and by theterritory presence surrounding the of themountain ranges of Učka of centres ecclesiastical and administrative as importance in continued lies their The reason attacks. Slav during which was abandoned as Nesactium, withfew such a exceptions period, on hilltops promontories, or the Roman of network citie castra new of number a although First, Histria. Byzantine to distinctive are features However, . and Ravenna), around territory a only meaning (here Exarchate ruins. promontories islands,hilltops, or on usually constructed the sites of hill prehistoric abandon itself entrenched within walls. The Roman settlementsin the valleys found were permanentlysociety and everywhere laid fortifications century sixth the of end the by and intensified of process agri in defunct the created were that refuges upland to population of the flight in the insecurity resulted permanent of anda state settlements, lowland of collapse the b landarea the of decrease the words, In other routes. sea on only rely agri cities’ of coastal reduction big “too became cities the so epidemics, frequent and Lombards by the caused collapse military and the economic to inhabitants decreased due number urban of the surge Justinian, under population t (and a reduced and levels supply, inadequate of poverty, inherent reflect might economy

For more about model of castrum of model about more For ” for their reduced population to defend. The depopulation of the countryside caused a a caused countryside the of depopulation defend. The to population reduced their for ” 94

, 117-118., Castrization Once the pierced the Once

ed and replaced by fortified towns or fortresses (Lat. castra (Lat. fortresses or fortifiedtowns by replaced and ed castrization

hus reduced demand). Without an adequate economic base after the initial initial the base after economic an adequate Without demand). hus reduced

can be seen in other regions of Byzantine Italy suc Italy Byzantine of regions other in seen be can .

frontiers continued to leak, the process of refuge fortification fortification of refuge leak, process the to continued frontiers

and overall insecurity of land communications forced cities to to cities forced land communications insecurity of overall and

for afortified settlement in the Byzantine Italy seeZanini, Le Italie ir role as the residences of the local military élite military local of the residences the ir as role 33

s remained largely intact through this this intact through largelyremaineds ) built on the more secure secure more the on built ) elonging to the town, town, the to elonging , thus beginning the beginning thus the , h as Venetia, the hthe as Venetia, appeared appeared . The The . some some - fort fort CEU eTD Collection 95 peninsula the of interior the into deep penetrating Slavs the With invasion. enemy for routes potential became now trade, for important were times peaceful in which Ćićarija, and Učka across routes The of Histria. border eastern the on appeared Slavs and Avars border, northern - - Parentium Tergeste) and (Pola [Pula], relatively - of castrization: as result which arose urbanism, Byzantine of types three the and province, of the fortification increased from the seen be This can and late The towns. minor into developed others while posts garrison small merely were Some diverse. were characters Their with Rome. use communication maritime to forced and isolated also Histria as was which Liguria, Byzantine in only perhaps find be could situation similar A Constantinople. and Ravenna with contacts ports maintained and and goods, of towns supplies r regula enabled fortified where itself, coast the by second and north, the on Ćičarija and

which developed in the sixth and seventh seventh and sixth the in new Byzantine towns and settlements developed which dislocated and desertedlate Classical the completely during diedout towns that shrunken For more on Byzantine Liguria see Christie, FromConstantine Charlemagne to Christie, see Liguria Byzantine on more For

change. change. (Castrum). Ravenna to Constantinople from route sailing the along islands Adriatic the of cas the general, In The situation deteriorated further in the seventh century. Besides the Lombards on the onthe Lombards Besides century. the furtherin seventh situation the The deteriorated Bagnolium [Boljun], or a number of J of number a or [Boljun], Bagnolium centuries (Duo Castra [], CastrumVallis [Bale], Montona [], Cissa?); (Nesactium, reasons various for century seventh early or sixth urban centres with continuity froma Classical foundation and

well preserved monumental structures from the sixth and seventh century century seventh and sixth the from structures monumental preserved well

tra - - sixth

founded during Byzantine rule were situated in the hinterland. inhinterland. the situated were rule Byzantine during founded century landscape of Histria bore strong whiff of insecurity insecurity whiff of strong bore of Histria landscape century

34

ustinian’s fortifications that dotted the peaks peaks the dotted that fortifications ustinian’s

95

, 372- 379.

CEU eTD Collection insiedative tra Tardoantico e Medioevo,” Antichita e Medioevo,” Altoadriatiche Tardoantico tra insiedative 97 96 castra main the of forces available if the positions inland the aiding threat, of in times units mobile empire. pe of the coast western the on cities major casein the this region, of the core the towards undisturbed andprogress much least at away links exposed. or cut or relations al mutu beingseriouslyhavetactical compromised riskedfunctionality and their would castra the in within force penetrated enemy the once is that clear It withdrawal. particul in side, the thorn major be a would resistance its continued for plans, invader’s in an error block physically. the road omit to Nonetheless, capture of a site such wouldhave been a grave to fails thus and Mirna the of bank right the on lies impregnablehill, occupying an almost although which, Montona, as such a site for case the is This invader. an to bar these sitesMost occupiedhillshigh and dominated thus or overlooked did but routes, physically not strategicat which points had the task of hinderi established was places and fortified towers, forts, achainof so mainland, from the attacking defense on but defense, junctions. and passes, road importance, strategic of sites They controlled area. the for of population the and as aplace of refuge local the for commander, as accommodation The system. into defensive the incorporated were offered they advantages the and exploited fully w and Dinamiche Istriani. d’altura borgi “I Miclaus, L. see Also 10; Pula, bizantska i Kasnoantička Marušić, G. Schmiedt, “Le fortificazioni altomedievali in Italia viste dall'aereo,” castra

ith no help from Constantinople and Ravenna, the natural situation of the castra the of situation natural the Ravenna, and Constantinople from help no ith were insufficient. insufficient. were Like the then the Like If the primary defense line were breached, the enemy could not achieve momentum achievemomentum not enemy could the line breached, were If defense primary the arly as regards the disrupting of communications, and the hindering of easy easy of hindering the and communications, of disrupting the regards as arly The maritime bases supplied not only regular provisions and materials but also

were used for various purposes, militaryforwere various used for purposes, storing control, agric - defunct defunct ninsula, the principal ports on the waterway of great importance for the the for importance great of waterway the on ports principal the ninsula, - If these cities had been conquered maritime communication between between maritime communication conquered been had cities If these in - depth. Claustra Iuliarum Alpium

96

The barbarians could penetrate the peninsula only by only peninsula the penetrate could barbarians The 35

ng and preventing the entry of the enemy. enemy. the of entry the preventing and ng 97

56(2004): 226-227 , this was not a not was , this Settimane di Studio

system based on a line line a on based system ultural products, ultural products, 15 (1968): 929-60.

network, their their network,

was was

CEU eTD Collection 99 98 Italy. in southern II cont which force professional strong was this It discipline. Roman traditional preserved that army professional a but force, irregular amakeshift not militia was local the Four, in Chapter the seen be As will Sl defeated and intervened personally Callinicus exarch when 599, in happened this that seems It help. their with invaders the out drive then and himself, exarch by the led arrive, could army of body main the until fortifications their the whole Histria. Onlyif thesituation got out of control would localf magister the militum,commander, increased. of grew, the threat so would for themanpower from requirement neighbouringhave militia local of number the doubt Without bases. distant more from hments detac the for waiting castra. major ( Tergeste as such city a on either based districts, military smaller for whole state. the importance of matter a cities these of Thismade survival the cut. been have would Ravenna and Constantinople

,MGH Ep. IX, 154. Christie,

available within each district was sufficient for small for sufficient was district each within available tribunus a If Liguria of case the From From Constantine to Charlemagne

98

These enabled rapid deployment of troops when troops without danger of threatened, These enabled deployment rapid ributed troops in 668 to counter the rebellion provoked by the murder of by the provoked the counter rebellion in ributed 668to troops

was unable to deal effectively with the problem, the provincial provincial the problem, with the deal to effectively was unable

would gather the armed forces of neighboring offorces neighboring thewould armed gather it se it , 372. ems likely that Byzantine Histria was divided into into divided was Histria Byzantine that likely ems

36

av invaders Histria.incursioninto av an during - scale disturbances, but as the size size as the but disturbances, scale numerus orces retreat behind behind retreat orces

Tergestinus) on or castra

or of 99

CEU eTD Collection 100 Pinguentum. to close Brč, Zajčji and Mlun Veliki Mejica, between extending arc century. seventh the to dated found, north. from the approaches guarding fortresses Byzantine (Buzet), Pinguentum (Boljun), Bagnolium im locals The most for inrefuges increasedinsecurity. times of as served probably outposts, military being besides them, of Some peninsula. the of system density oflocal population, which implies that they could be a part of thenorthern defensive when castra sure these not itis While in area. the found been has fortifications RomanByzantine and late of of ruins number towers. of reconnaissance network by the allconnected and rivers, ports, roads, communication, castra peninsula, entire the across distributed towns century seventh, the particularly and sixth, the of system depth in ofLombard occupationFriuliand Venetia ofmost 568- the after lands imperial denote to up was drawn border a Probably century. sixth the before “ Histria’s when Exactly enemies. strong not two but one in opposed forces Histria Byzantine the Exarchate, of the rest unlike because, bu Lombards, on The Geographical Topography of Castrization 1995), 13 u ranom srednjem vijeku overviewgeneral of other necropolises gravesites be and Marušić, foundin can stoljeća u Istri” [The Eighth and Seventh Century Necropolis in Istria],

101

Unutrašnjost Histrije u vremenu Rimske vlasti Rimske u Histrije vremenu Unutrašnjost Starac, A. 97; Kastrizacija, Levak, For necropolises in northern Histria, parti

Near Pinguentum, the largest Byzantine necropolis in Histria – inHistria necropolis Byzantine largest the Pinguentum, Near only not bordered Histria Byzantine the century seventh bythe that noted be must It T .

he massifs of Učka and Ćićarija formed the first line of the Byzantine defense. A A defense. Byzantine the of line first the formed Ćićarija and Učka of massifs he t with Slavs and Avars, too, after 590. This put Histria in a unique situation situation in unique Histriaa after This 590. Avars, put too, with and Slavs t [Istria and Northern Adriatic the in early ages middle ] (Pula: Arheološki muzej Istre,

101

cularly cularly A number of other cemeteries other of number A were founded, their number is disproportional t limes

and Castrum Rotium (Roč), all of them important important them of all (Roč), Rotium Castrum and 37 that of Brežac see B. Marušić, “Nekropole VII. i VIII. VIII. i VII. “Nekropole Marušić, B. see Brežac of that e existed e existed hav cannot it but unknown, is arose ”

which controlled principal routes which controlled of principal routes

569. As mentioned, As the defence569. Arheološki vestnik portant

comprised forts and fortified Istra i sjevernojadranskii prostorIstra , 87

castra have been found in an an in found been have -98. Brežac Brežac

28

in this area were were in area this (1967): 333- -- has been has been Marušić Marušić . A 347. A o the the o - in 100 -

CEU eTD Collection 103 13 Istre, 1995), prostor uranom srednjem vijeku 102 system. fortification Histria’s central ( Pedena and (Motovun), Montona Castra), (Duo Dvigrad settlements, fortified of three is evidence There places. settled permanently became they time with but inbeginning, the centers as refuge acted probably re antique late made the This less preserved. or more were elements fortification the centuries, for abandoned been had places these although that, is son rea important, more The second, in Antiquity. Late fortifiedsettlements build freeno to place was simply there Age.Thus, Iron inhabited in prehistory, had which ledalmost to every hill being inhabited in the Bronze or was peninsula was twofold. The densely forts hill of revitalization the for The reason gradually inhabited abandoned AgeIron hill fort ruins, thereby fortified creating settlements. Sla - square both Byzantine are arrowheads in (the mixture weaponry Byzantine numerus of limit southern the probably (Brka Montona near sites two are there Pinguentum behind hypothesis: this broadly confirms of cemeteries these river. Mirna the along route internal principal the defended who guard frontier might These character. in Byzantine prevalently is (interestingly, part largest the forming with weapons goods, grave of association also and construction t of barbarisation a show They century. eighth and sixth attributed themto the“Romano - in be found can gravesites and necropolises other of overview general A A. Tagliaferri, “Il Friuli e l'Istria nell'alto medievo,” Antichita Altoadriatiche - less resource and much easier process fortification vic winged vic South of the protective mountain fortress chain, in central Histria, the population population the Histria, central in chain, fortress mountain protective the of South .

- spathae ala types). č) and a further site that guards a road and river point near Buje, marking marking Buje, near point river and road a guards that site further a and č)

are quite rare, but arrowheads are common); the decoration, however, however, decoration, the common); are arrowheads but rare, quite are

[Istria and Northern Adriatic the early in ages middle ] (Pula: Arheološki muzej

- Slavic Pićan). This enclosed circle of strongholds was thebasis of

Tergestinus - barbarian” population, dating them between the late late between the them dating population, barbarian” 38

. 103

be the graves of a barbarized Byzantine Byzantine abarbarized be graves of the

The finds demonstrate anotable Slavo findsThe demonstrate consuming. The new settlements settlements new The consuming. he Romanic tombs in both both in tombs he Romanic Marušić, Marušić,

2 (1972): 290. Istra i sjevernojadranski i Istra 102

sectioned and and sectioned

The location location The -

CEU eTD Collection on the Eastern Border of Pola’s Ager], Jadranski zbornik 107 106 105 earliest date for the establishment of the settlement. 104 Byzantine the during period. importance greater had Gočan that suggests smaller, considerably century. (arrowheads) fifth late itin andwasthe founded ruinsthat suggest church of cemetery large a Finds of weapons towers. rectangular by eight strengthened walls of in remains the seen be can of Histria defense for site of this The significance mainstreet. with one settlement (Oprtalj). Portulense andCastrum Montona Valley were fertile Mirna importa other Two commodity. was arare town of the vicinity inimmediate the located aspring thus, sources; Ravenna. acce it gave bay of vicinity important century. fifth the of earlie ,the St. of church of the remains by the attested is This valley. innearby the settled population the for place arefuge as century the fortified hilltop settlement situated in theheartland of the Istrian pen late antique and Byzantine Istria in light of archeological evidence], evidence], of archeological light in Istria Byzantine and antique late present ruins of Duo Castra are actually the ruins of Mons Castellum. t was situated Duo Castra Opposite Dvigrad/Duecastelli, Malaguti, P. Riavez, “Nuovi dati archeologici dallo scavo della chiesa Marušić, di Santa Sofia e dell’insiedamento 128; di (1964): Arheološki pregled 6 srednjovjekovna sakralna arhitektura” [Dvograd, St. Sophia, Rovinj, – Pula

Matijašić, Matijašić, Levak, Kastrizacija, 72. Marušić, “Suton antike na istočnoj granici pulskog agera” [The Waning of Antiquity Antiquity of Waning [The agera” pulskog granici istočnoj na antike “Suton Marušić, 72. Kastrizacija, Levak, B. Marušić,problemisvjetlu“NekiarheološkihkasnoantičkebizantskeB.[Some Istreizvora”problemsu i of Because itis improbab ager ager 107 South of Duo Castra was castrum Castra of Duo South One of themost prominent examples of castrizationin Histria was Duo Castra, a 106 105

of Parentium and Pola. The Duo Castra was probably founded during the fifth fifth the during founded was probably Castra Duo The Pola. and Parentium of via Flavia

Gospodarstvoantičke Istre oprn Gčns hrh ih h cmtr cuc i Doata wih is which Duocastra, in church cemetery the with church Gočan’s Comparing

The southern and western part of the Istrian peninsula lacks surface water water surface lacks peninsula Istrian of the part western and The southern Antichita Altoadriatiche nt towns that were built on hills overlooking the trade routes through the the through routes trade the overlooking hills on built were that towns nt , which connected the north and south of the peninsula; the immediate immediate the peninsula; the of south and north the connected which , 104 le that the church could have been built before the walls, this can be taken as the the as be taken can this walls, the before built been have could church the that le

A favorable strategic position gave Duo Castra control over the the over control Castra Duo gave position strategic favorable A he Byzantine fort of Mons Parentin, for which there are almost no data. The

ss to the and thus to the cities of Aquileia and and Aquileia of cities the to thus and Sea Adriatic the ss to , 432; Levak, Kastrizacija, 70 Kastrizacija, Levak, 432; ,

erpl VI i II sojć u Istri u stoljeća VIII. i VII. Nekropole 55 (2003): 133-134. The name Duo Castra means two towns.

Caltanium (Stari Gočan). It is a compact type of of type compact a is It Gočan). (Stari Caltanium

39 e i B Mršć Dord S. oia Rvn, Pula Rovinj, Sofija, Sv. “Dvograd, Marušić B. in See st phase of which was dated to the second half half second the to dated was which of phase st

15- 16 (2002): 49- nski zbornik 9 zbornik (1976):Jadranski 343.

-71.

76.

Medieval Sacral Architecture], Architecture], Sacral Medieval insula, at the border of of border the at insula, , 49; P. G. Bro

giolo, C. C. giolo, - CEU eTD Collection whole peninsula was covered by fortresses, Levak, Kastrizacija Levak, fortresses, by covered was peninsula whole is not enough archeological data to prove He it. further points out that such a system would be unnecessary if the Antički 37. grad , number of other scholars. See in L. Margetić, “Neka pitanja u vezi s Istrom” Istrom” Girardi s Jurkić, vezi u pitanja “Neka Jadranu Margetić, L. in See Margetić, scholars. other of number 110 Starac, A. in more See Histria. of part became Flanona and both towns had the same status and all the privileges as all other cities in Italy. By the Byzantine period,and thus of Alvona Italy, but theywere part ofLiburnia, which itselfwas of part the p 109 108 it, the and to close large oil Roman a found works, ruinsof havethe archeologists (Barbariga), Cissana Punta ancient of place the On Castrum Vallis. to close situated is locality important to agerthe Polensis accessthe point via Flavia the controlling hill a on built Vallis, Castrum was of Kle and towers the Caltanium, Castrum Vallis, Castrum including Polensis inhabitedand countryside densely Polensis of ager was comprised hills. It scattered few a with terrain flat relatively end sixththe of centu at the several times devastated port. military Byzantine important an (), Flanona to approaches the It controlled in north. the within Tarsatica south the Nesactium (Vizace) overlooke also but area, the in town important most the only not was (Rijeka). with Tarsatica border the towards north, the lay to were (Kastav) Castra and Bagnolium while (Plomin), Flanona (La Alvona walls, by encircled towns fortified also were there Caltanium Castrum of east the To imperial period. early the during populated sparsely relatively territory hilly B. Matušić, It is important to note here that during the Roman period both Alvona and Flanona were not part ofHistria, For limes that defended defended that limes For Compared with the rest, the southern part of the Istrian peninsula consisted of of consisted peninsula Istrian the of part southern the rest, the with Compared The cas [Byzantium on the Adriatic], (Zagreb: Zavod za hrvatsku povijest Filozofskogfakulteta, 1992), V. 55; , a complete defensive system of guardhouses and fortified settlements was built, built, was fortifiedsettlements and of guardhouses system defensive acomplete , Histrica et Adria Neki problemi Kontinuitetutvrđivanja Istri u

trization novac and Straža. and novac tica

process increased settlement along the western coast of the peninsula, peninsula, of the coast western the along settlement increased process , 343,, 346. Al ager Polensis , (Trieste:, Unione degli Italiani dell’ Istria e Fiume), 153; I. Goldstein,

108

Alvona, a Roman Roman a Alvona,

so see V. Girardi Jurkić, Kontinuitet utvrđivanjau Istri of Pola. A hypothesis exists that inof A agerhypothesis protect Pola. that exists to order

see Marušić, Marušić, see er er Anoth Histria. of city major the to road the guarding , 15. 14-15. , 110

Besides Pola, themost important settlement there M. LevakM. argues system, againstsuch explaining that there 40

Mons Parentinus Mons Neki problemi Rimsko vladanje u Histriji i Liburniji ry during the first wave of Slav attacks. wave attacks. ry first ofthe Slav during , 98 , -99.

109

, 343. His idea has been accepted by a by accepted been has idea His 343. ,

. The settlement was situated on on situated was settlement The . Both Alvona and Flanona were were Flanona and Alvona Both , Mons Marianus (Mutvoran), (Mutvoran), Marianus Mons ,

founded in the first century, century, first the in founded rovince of Dalmatia. However, However, Dalmatia. of rovince Živa Antika Antika Živa d the road connecting connecting d road the , 9 32 (1982): 80; , 76; M. Suić , the fertile fertile the , -20. bin) and bin) and Bizant na

, CEU eTD Collection Levak, Kastrizacija, 83 otocimana Rabu [Late Antique forts Krku” islands i on the Izdanja Krk], ofRab HAD and Pag], 113 112 111 s early the during Balkans the through land after the route whichimportant of the collapse infrastructure powerful proved a created successors immediate his Justinianand coast, Adriatic along eastern the forts ships the of could use these construction ports the By for shelter and provisions. to o btain the because safer and easier became islands the between and coast the along sailing coves, coast. Adriatic eastern the islands the along on forts Constantinople. and Ravenna capitals, two the connecting and route and safest the fastest the providing imperial government, the for importance important logisticalbase for Ravenna. Controlov an remained Histria Flanona. and Castrum, Pola, Brijuni Grado, for is as attested of Histria, coast the on stations had Classe, basedat fleet, The Byzantine in area. the navy situated strong power. and wealth imperial of source the Mediterranean, entire the over re Empire Byzantine Justinian’s when period the was This centuries. seventh and sixth the during Tergeste and Parentium, Pola, of colonies Roman on agri the peninsula, of the coast western the on was built villages. medieval close Also, evenlater. or sixth century late until the military complex, in a perhaps as size, reduced installationin although that theuse, was spearheads)suggest two metal (including weapons h works, oil the from finds The walls. antique late of remains

K. Regan,K. “Utvrda Sv. Jurja uCaskoj otoku na [The Pagu” Fortress George of Caska in on the island of L'Adriatico Carile, A. in eta Bizantina Maruši B. Prilozi Instituta za Besides having a fleet, to protect this vital navigation route Justinian route protect navigation vitalthis to fleet, having a Besides settlements fortified of number great a interior, in the fortifications developing Besides ć, ć, - built settlements were builtin c Neki problemi

-85.

148; Z. Brusić, “Kasnoantička utvrđenja utvrđenja “Kasnoantička Brusić, Z. arheologiju uZagrebu, 19, No. 1(2002): 141-148;

, 340

eventh century. In many cases the forts on the islands had had islands the on forts the cases many In century. eventh , Atti del Convegno, Ravenna 7 -8 lose proximity – proximity lose 41

113 er the Adriatic Sea was of the utmost utmost of the was Adriatic Sea er the

Since all these forts had ports in had ports nearby forts Since all these - established established

the actual prototypes of classical of classical prototypes actual the that had belonged to the former former the to belonged had that 9 giugno 2001, 463 andmade pottery, and some some and pottery, andmade , dominion dominion thalassokratia, 112

built a number of of number a built B - yzantium had a a had yzantium -464. a 13 (1989): 114.

111

CEU eTD Collection Premantura cape of Kamenjak], Prilozi Instituta za arheologiju of Kamenjak], u cape Zagrebu, 24, No.1Premantura (Srpanj 2008), 221 - 118 117 116 115 114 vitbases protecting the Justinian’sforts, developing awayfrom Classical urban centers, which also acted asnaval walls. populated densely was so settlement the suggests that Castrum ByzantineItsposition outside period. to be dated canmaterialcentury buildings. a three uninvestigated of other The ruins rema the and cistern a Insideare gate. northeastern is largest the Ravenna. to from Pola way ships the on for trade stopover a as base and fleet a serve as to seaboard, Adriat eastern of the safety the guarantee was to purpose wall. Its astrong with fortified was settlement existing the when century, sixth the during probably role military a on took i be can perhaps and villa the century second the During BC. century first the in aRoman Bay, inValmadona island of the coast western the on century, Brijun island Veli of the on situated castrum, sea zone. large surrounding entire the control p southernmost signals. smoke firevia or made was communication visual with which mainland, on the counterparts e. entranc southwestern to close space empty the on walls city the outside church century

B. Marušić, Ka Levak, Christie, Levak, Matijaš 118 The new fortified towns on the west coast used the defensive screen comprised of of comprised screen defensive the used coast west the on fortifiedtowns new The Byzantine is the fort Byzantine Justinianic a of example important most the Probably 114

Kastrizacija, 86.

117 ć Jš enm Ksrl n peatrkm t Kmna [nte Lo a Ksrl n the on Kastril at Look [Another Kamenjak rtu premanturskom na Kastrilu o jednom Još ić,

From Consatntine to Charlemagne Anumber offorts is attested in Histria. One of them,Kastril, was situated on the strizacija, 62 strizacija,

The fortress had a rectangular layout, with four gates piercing the wall, of which of which wall, piercing gates the withfour layout, hadThea rectangular fortress Kasnoantička i oint of the peninsula, lying in an excellent position from which one could from one could position which in excellent lying an ofoint the peninsula, fabrica a with ndentified -

63; Schmiedt, LeFortificazioni al sea route. Those towns are all mentioned in the seventh century century seventh the in mentioned all are towns Those route. sea al

bizantska Pula

, 6. Marušić also suggested the existence of another, smaller, sixth , 311. that there was no place for the church within the the within church the for place was no there that

115 42 listed in the Notitia Dignitatum the in listed , the external bulwark of Pola. During the first first the During Pola. of bulwark external the ,

, 929 , -960. - naved basilica featuring fifth featuring navedbasilica

was converted into a dye works, adyeinto works, converted was ins of a probable villa and insvilla a and probable of villa rustica

. 116

The Castrum Castrum The -

was built built was to sixth 228.

ic ic - -

CEU eTD Collection 122 121 Civici musei di storia ed arte a Trieste, 13, No. 2 (1983- 120 later. or antiquity late during founded were settlements other that assume century Tabula Peutingeriana mentions o Silbio, Siparis, Humago, Neapolis, Ursaria, Ruginio, Albona, Phanas, Lauriana and Tarsaticum. The fourth 119 were Siparis of ts inhabitan the that shows survey Archeological defend. to easy was which castrum was near Humagum situated Allegedly Byzantium. under stature in grew and antiquity late in centres mainland undefended -- century. eighth the in a political the becoming rule, Byzantine province. the to military the maintaining of burden the shift to tried government central the onwards fr himself,from since hesupported which the vicinity the town, of magisterthe militum , military Byzantine the that fact in the seen be brok were hinterland, Balkan Byzantine in also but hinterland, Adriatic the in routes after grew was built. a new it and became when cathedral a bishopric thefrom villa first arustic of site century, butit achieved town status around the sixth century to south. the from Tergeste extending coastline the covered (Novigrad) Justinopolis ager their within Parentium, and Pola of cities coastal the of fringes the on developed (Vrsar) Cosmographia fortified towns in Histria, where the church is usually set in the approac found be in the can settlement church topography. of Neapolis’ The church placement unique is situated the for on the westernmost explanation the part However, of the promontory, Castrum. is place comparable

Humagum, Siparis, Piranon and CaprisHumagum, -- and Piranon Siparis, Levak, Levak, See R. Matijašić,R.“Alcuneconsiderazioni sec.” VI insediamento sulledial formeIII Istria dal rusticoin It is interesting to note that the cathedral was built outside the walls, a unique feat if compared with other en, causing the all traffic to be rerouted to the Adriatic seaway. Neapolis’ importance can can importance Neapolis’ seaway. Adriatic the to be rerouted to all traffic the en, causing Antička svjedočanstva Cosmographia,Antička , 326 -336; The settlements are mentioned in order, Capris, Piranon, hable only by sea and, thus, the most secure place outside the city walls. walls. city the outside place secure most the thus, and, by sea only hable North of Neapolis, following the Via Flavia, the presence of four island sites is notable notable is sites island four of presence the Flavia, Via the following Neapolis, of North the on originated town The was Neapolis. important most the towns, ofOf these all Kastrizacija, Kastrizacija, 122

Neapolis is one of the rare towns of Histria that achieved its apex after the end of of end the after apex its achieved that Histria of towns rare the of one is Neapolis (), Piranon (), Isola, Siparis, Humagum () and Neapolis written by the Anonymus Ravennatis. Anonymus the by written 90.

nly Silbio, Alvona, and Flanona besides three colonies; it is safe to

Siparis. Like Humagum, Siparis was built on an island, island, an on built was Siparis Humagum, Like Siparis. nd ecclesiastical center of Istria during Frankish rule rule Frankish during of Istria center ndecclesiastical 43 ed ed replac four All Isola. add can which one to 1984): 237-238.

119

city’s square. central Perhaps the only

Ruginium (Rovinj) and Ursaria Ursaria and (Rovinj) Ruginium 121

The significance of the town town the of significance The om the late seventh century century seventh late the om

120

, , had his lands in Atti d ei ei . - CEU eTD Collection Iustinopolim vocaverunt Caprariam insulam secedunt, et domos construunt, et in gloriam catholici principis fundatum oppidum 127 126 125 124 123 strategic hilltops andg points, important guardin builtfortified promontories, on settlements the cut Lombards the after Constantinople and Ravenna between tion the communica only secure which became maritime route, the fortifying further of trend to widespread the bethen related Italy. in arrival settlement Roman the that inferred be can it which from Capris, Ravennatis’ with identifiable century, fifth the from settlement of traces found honor. emperor’s the in Justinopolis it naming estab island, a nearby to Lombards from the fled mainlandarea the can Duringemperor bein seen too. the reign- Histria, Justin(565 of II times insec ofurity. increased findmainland,inhabitantsimplieson the theirisland tried which to onthe that refuge during situated were villages smaller and villas rustic of number A fifth century. from the probably ce tenth the in mentioned first is Isola Although peninsula. a becoming century, thirteenth the in mainland the with joined was which preserved remains which are the of isthmus, on the of weapons. parts equipment, fishing artifacts, ceramic mill, oil an finds: numerous by confirmed is This soldiers. and artisans, peasants, 83; Matijašić. Alcune Alcune Matijašić. 82-83; kontinuitet rimskih gospodarskih vila u zapadn

J. Šašel, “KopJ. Šašel, Levak, Kastrizacija, 92. 90 Katrizacija, Levak, B. Marušić, Marušić, B. Foundation of Justinopolis: tempo Huius via Annia By the seventh century century seventh the By new a of giving ancient tradition of the Echoes island an on built originally settlement a implies, name the as Isola, was north Further . ei rbei anatče bznse Istre bizantske i kasnoantičke problemi Neki

er,” er,” 127 Kopermed Rimomin Benetkami

The construction of the fortress on the highest point of the island would would island the of point highest the on fortress the of construction The , Šašel, “Koper,” “Koper,” Šašel, , -91. considerazioni sulle forme di insediamento rustico in Istria, 236.

125

the landscape of Histria had been transformed by a number of of number by a transformed been had Histria of landscape the

Arheološki vestnik 25(1976): 451. re Ystrorum gens, barbarorum invasionibus graviter afflicta, in oj Istri od antike do bizantskog doba” Histria Historicadoba” bizantskog do antike od Istri oj

(1989): 5-8. 44

123

126 To protect the settlement, a tower wasbuilt ntury, the settlement must be much older, older, much be must settlement the ntury,

was fortified in the wake of the Lombards’ Lombards’ of the in wake the fortified was to the height of five meters. five of height the to

(1976): 338- Recent archeological excavations have have excavations archeological Recent

- founded city the name of the ruling 4; . iad Jri “Građevinski Jurkić Girardi V. 340;

lishing a city there and and a city there lishing 578), the inhabitants of inhabitantsof 578), the

124

4 (1983): CEU eTD Collection Southern Istria], Opvscula archaeologica 23 Faveria and of Mutila 11, (Liv., the 41, 7) in Lightof Topography location the of [The Istre” južne topografije 129 event. 128 of that process, countryside, during sparsly populated bu the Roman period, the revitalizated actually warfare permanent and insecurity of great state by a characterized hill Roman of Histria. landcape from disappeared history Elder, by the Pliny mentioned all Cissa, and enigmatic the Faveria, the Mutila, time when settlements. other of a number to end an put also which Histria, into peri the anduring end to came it probably that demonstrates Cosmographia isitin mention The last of the exist settlement. as anto urban ceased Nesactium At beginning the destroyed. were others prosper, to continued cities Castrum. Brijuni of exception notable the with only disappeared, earlier landroutes. and maritime principal or major towns the to approaches city of the late seventh century was more like a great village, than a classical city of classical village,than a like great more a was seventh century late the city of Alth changes. significant experienced However, they too on coast. the beingsituated survived,

Traces of fire on the basilica’s walls and walled entrances to the city could be used as evidence for such an such for evidence as used be could city the to entrances walled and walls basilica’s the on fire of Traces o mr aot uia n Fvra e Mtjšć “metj uie Fvrj (i. 4, 1 7 u svjetlu u 7) 11, 41, (Liv., Faverije i Mutile “Smještaj Matijašić. see Faveria and Mutila about more For forts, defended harbours, island castra island harbours, defended forts, ough strong walls saved the city from its demise, within the wall city had shrunk. The The shrunk. had city wall the within demise, its from city the saved walls strong ough

Marušić, Marušić,

T ew settlements form evolved form settlements new hand, other the On period. imperial castrization of castrization he process Slavensko-avarskinapadaji svijetluu povijesne građe ;it is absent from thelist of Histrian citiesin the the the militarization It can be best described as a two a as described best be can It . 129

.

resulted in a number of developments that had changed the the changed had that developments of number a in resulted -24 (2000),93- 102. Thus, castrization process although although process castrization Thus, refuges. , 45

- way movement. The old city centers, centers, city old The movement. way , 63 , -70. Also see Levak, Kastrizacija, 116. od of Avaro of od ilding foundation for another 128 of the seventh century, century, seventh the of Roman Roman Placitum Risani

While some Classical Classical some While This is probably also also probably is This

- in th in Slavic incursions villae e countyside, e countyside,

recorded recorded . This This .

the the

CEU eTD Collection society of its Roman inhabitants. Roman its of society in and nor ’s, later 476, major Theodoric’s,Italy overcaused rule a Empire Roman Western the of fall the Neither West. the in provinces other struck had which invasions 130 alone. Histria Byzantine to endemic andwere thisonly region in developed that be examined will elements Some from the past. institutions many Roman retaining newinstitutions and developing that, inits struggle to survive, the Histrian so demonstrate will I to try chapter, In this Histria. Byzantine zone, border in Italian the society local life the of had the on one, defensive primarily war, that changes social particular analyze and urity, insec increased and warfare continuous this of effects destructive the examine I chapter, insecurity In of amilitary period this domination. seventh andinaugurated centuries pe imperial late the in army the of role the of growing and centuries fifth and fourth the of turmoil the despite having an society organized political the Roman unit, civilian, remained predominantly of heartland Mediterranean in the situation the However, war. for , geared warrior by astrong dominated was society their because and state centralized a of absence the of because business everyday familiar. find may century twentieth order old the of end The Byzantium and thepre Burns, York: (New Shepard

J. Moorhead, “Western Approaches 500 Approaches “Western Moorhead, J. The Ostrogoths, (Indianapolis: Ostrogoths, The Indiana UniversityPress, 1984). For the relation between Justinianic W It is known thatea

ar and the threat of war dominated the early medieval world to an extent which the the which an extent to world medieval early the dominated of war threat the and ar riod. However, in both Italy and the East, the devastating wars of the sixth and and sixth the of wars devastating the East, the and Italy both in However, riod.

Oxford University Press, 2009), 200. For more about the Ostrogothic rule Italyin S. see T. -war Ostrogoth kingdom see W. Pohl III. Living in a Militarized Society

- sixth rly

the Roman Empire was more complex. As a consequence of of As consequence a complex. more was Empire Roman the

130

century Italy, andwith it, Histria, remainedlittle affected by the Life in Ostrogoth Italy continued as in the empire’s heyday, with with heyday, empire’s the in as continued Italy Ostrogoth in Life -600,” in In the Germanic societies of Europe, conflict was was conflict Europe, of societies Germanic the In The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire 46

ciety showed remarkable resilience both in both resilience remarkable ciety showed , “Justinian and the Barbarian Kingdoms,” in Kingdoms,” Barbarian the and “Justinian ,

break in the urban civilian in civilian thebreak urban

,

ed. J. J. ed. The The CEU eTD Collection (1992): 176. Arheološki Magno”, e Carlo vestnik 43 Giustiniano tra Marsilio “L’Istria Ed, 1991), 354; Also Ferluga, see 1919), 12- shattered by the Gothic wars that broke out in 536 and last and 536 in out broke that wars Gothic the by shattered certainly was it existed, prosperity Whatever court. Ostrogoth the at position special a maintain remained under ownership of Ravennate L’Istria church Ferluga, see Also until18. the medieval period. Imperial Administration in the Seventh Century,” E in The 134 133 132 131 456-462. CambridgeCompanionAge Justinian of the to of amount considerable a acquired which Ravenna, of church givenor Justinian the church. or owners particularly favored soldiers to returned the first their to system. Byzantine extending Italy, validityof the Civilis Iuris Corpus Sanctio occupation of Italy and bring back the “old To order.” ieve ach that, Justinianissued the inevitable. Justinian’swasmadechanges idea tothehad Gothsduring the all reverse that their their newkingdom, their but Germanicmeant origins thatsome changes in the system political were i institutions Roman preserved part great in Ostrogoths The out. carried be reform administrative mopping of end the and victory, Byzantine th of reorganization administrative the However, years. hundred two than more for stayed it where control, Byzantine firm under Procopius, , Justinian’s the Ostrogoths closely cooperatingwith Roman their subjects. Notonly also but Cassiodorus, population. prosperitymay be seen a temporary as recovery,which was not necessarilyextended the to whole supposed this of much Brown, Thomas to According foundations. fragile on rested regime Gothic

(Rome: British School at Rome at School T. S. British Brown, (Rome: andOfficers Gentlemen Procopius, Procopius, J. Ferluga, “L’esarcato,” in in “L’esarcato,” Ferluga, J. For extensive possessions of Ravennate church in Histria see T. S. Brown, “The Church of Ravenna and the 133 The The As Iin chapter, pointedout the first in inopening 539, theofHistria stageswar, came the

in 554. 13.

132

It also regulated thedistribution of confiscated Ostrogothic which lands, wereeither

Pragmatica Sanctio (Persian War Wars II), (Persian the book of H.B. ed. V, Dewing(London:History Loeb Class

Theeconomy autarkic mainly favored thelandowning senatorial

, 176., Storia diStoria Ravenna

praised good a Theodericking. as

- twenty of consisted These lands, centred around Pola, known as the of St. Apollinaris, Apollinaris, of St. feud the as known Pola, around centred lands, These ehad wait province decades. almost to for two Only the after ,

- ed. M. Maas (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), , II, Dall'età bizantina II, all'età, ottoniana up operations against remaining enemy forces, could an an could forces, enemy remaining against operations up 47

nglishHistorical Review six chapters regulatedsix that of the administration ed for eighteen successive years. successive eighteen for ed

land in Histria during his rule. his during Histria in land

and the Novellae the and , 1984), 5-6.

131

However,of the prosperity the

94, No.94, 1979),17 370(Jan., -

élite , ed. A.Carile, (Venezia: (Venezia: A.Carile, ed. ,

to the Italian legal

who continued to to continued who ical Library,

Pragmatica

134

n

CEU eTD Collection civilian authority, the prefectAntiochus. reestablished of Italy, to themilitary supreme commander and Narses, tohighest the Bologna: Bononia University Press, 2008),, 20-21; Ferluga, University Bononia Bologna: Africae praefectura the into included were this procedure remained customary even into the period of recognized military dominance. specifying casesinvolving that civiliansjudges.civil be should tried by government. governmentof sixth toAlthough absolutelycivil rule. the sphere of influence. However, it wouldwrong be think to the that endof theGothic markedwar return back the senatorial senatorial the back separationcivilmilitarywas betweenand powers preserved. earlyin the years of Byzantinegovernmentwas stillinhandsof the civil Roman 141 140 139 L’Istria, 176. 138 Acta Histriae Ravennate,” dell’esarcato 137 136 135 remaining separate administrative units. as reorganized almost the same state theywere as in 476. Gentlemen and Officers , 8 Officers whenever theywanted inorder to settlematters relatedto their possessions. dealswith this problem, allowing senators to travel freely to Constantinopleor from the capital to Italy reinforce the senatorialclass, thus retaini (VI praefecto per Italiam the under placed been has Sicily Benussi, Benussi, PS c. 23 c. PS The The For separation of government Histria in see Ravegnani, “L’Istria Bizantina: Le Istituzioni militari confineai -VIII secolo)”, Medievali Reti PS, c. 23, CJC Brown argued that civil government continued to coexist with military atleast until 600. SeeBrown, Pragmatica Sanctio In fact, the division between civil and military authority may be seen in only one clause clause one only in seen be may authority military and civil between division the fact, In

The The The The -9. Nel medio e medio Nel , III,, 802.CJC

Pragmatica Sanctio

Pr agmatica Sanctio praefecturae Italia , III, 802, III, pro reparandis, possessionibus , CJC c. 23, . PS, élite , 9. , - vo century Italy, it can it Italy, century

, 29. ,

. The imperial government wanted to rebuild large senatorial estates and to estatesimperiallargewanted government The rebuild . to senatorial to and ut civiliterut inter secausas audient. was addressed was addressed

6 (2005), 7; Ferluga, L’Istria

left the administrativedivisionmunicipal and constitution Roman in of 554was nominally addressed both to authorities innewly the . Its capital was still set in Ravenna, with Sicily, , and and Sardinia, Sicily, with Ravenna, in set still was capital Its .

III, 802. Also see Borri, “Duces e magistri militum nell’ Italia esarcale esarcale Italia nell’ militum emagistri “Duces Borri, see Also 802. III, 7 (1998): 77. a Narsi viro ill. Praepositoa Narsisacri cubicula ill. viro e Antonio viro magnifico , controlled directly from Constantinople Pragmatica doesnotmuch Sanctio saymilitary about the ng the old order. The last chapter of the the of chapter last The order. old the ng . 139

See in Cosentino, S. Cosentino, Storia dell’ Italia Cosentino, bizantina S. Cosentino, in See not be taken blueprint a as forexclusively an civil

Ideally, this would mean that both both that mean would this Ideally, 135

136

48 Histria was reincorporated with Italy, which was

According to this document, most administration administration most document, this to According L’esarcato , Ferluga, L’esarcato, 356 L’esarcato, Ferluga, ,

, 176. For the interpretation, seeBrown, Gentlemen an 137

, 354; Ferluga, L’Istria It was important for Justinian to win win to Justinian for important was It 140 138

However,itknown is th ,

whileSardinia and Corsica

357; Also see Ferluga, Ferluga, Alsosee -357; Pragmatica Sanctio menhad their own , 175 -176. , while, the

141

at at A d , CEU eTD Collection prefecture, which was intended to be the most powerful office in Byzantine Italy. civ of sphere the into intrusion further to led needs military increasing civil functions were taken over by bishops, whowereovercivilwere backed byJustinian. bybishops, functions taken treasury. imperial empty the and disasters natural by hamperedonlyeconomic notbadwas local theandof conditions, bybut Thus, Italy political recovery 146 History Bury, B. J. cause. their eighth century, when local elites, military aristocracy, bishops and elected militum the magister 145 University of California Press, 2005), 222-224. 144 Companionof the to AgeJustinian 143 142 several provincial governorswho combinedmilitary both and civil functions. breakdown of thecivil/military distinction in the East, similar situation also applied inother areas of Justinianicempire. Recent studieshave pointed out the as happened in Italy, but to efficiently fight brigands in and internal revolts in Egypt. reason for the reorganization of provincial administrationover civil military and matters was the in province. notEmpire Jones, Roman to Later reinforce defe (Baltimore: John Hopkins UniversityEmpire Roman Press, Later The 1986 Jones, M H. see A. East, the in reorganization administrative about more For ravaged by the plague, which decimated its popu its decimated which plague, the by ravaged was empire the addition, In basis. urban its destroyed and economy Italian the ruined having years, bitter twenty almost for raged war The ideal. from far was war Gothic the after Italy in situation the aim reinstatelawsof Roman ideals the and the The Empire. more than the reality ofgovernment, w magnates. fact is that stated iudices that

Brown, Brown, the during probably Exarchate, of the period to the be related can it because This clause importance is of great For the Justinianic plague see P. Holden “Mediterranean Plague in the Age of Justinian ,” In ,” Justinian of Age the in Plague “Mediterranean Holden P. see plague Justinianic the For Diehl, Diehl, Between 535 and 539 Justinian made a number of changes in the organization of the provinces, with with provinces, of the organization the in changes of a number made Justinian 539 and 535 Between -- to restore the old Roman system -- system Roman old the restore to Brownhas shown theofficials pressures civil facing example bytakingtheof the praetorian

Thus, I willThus, in the laws presented the argue that Moreover, theMoreover, judicial civilwere powers increasing

Etudes assuming civil and military authority, predominantly in Minor, but also in and . 145 Gentlemen andOfficers theywerenot appointed bythe central administration by but bishopslocal and the

Also, the army was less open to intrusions on its rights than its civil counterpart and and counterpart civil its than rights its on intrusions to open less was army the Also, , 84-85., Also see Rapp, Holy C. Bishops in the , i.e.,governors,, should provincialevery appointed province, in the be striking but , I -II, 282 , , 10

ed. M. Maas (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 134 2006), Press, University ed. (New M. Cambridge Maas York: 12. Also for development of the prefecture see Diehl, Etudes Diehl, see prefecture of the development for Also -12. -283, Ferluga, L’Istria hich was trying not only to restore a territory, but also to to also but territory, a restore to only not trying was hich

but itbut could only function under ideal conditions. How

), 280-281.), the dux Also 539, in 49

lation, in other words, decreasing manpower. decreasing words, other in lation,

Pragmatica Sanctio ,176. Pragmatica Sanctio where from 535to 539Justinian appointed ly threatenedly bygreatlandowners; many

il officials. officials. il 350. According to Jones, the the Jones, to According 347-350. ,

nse against external enemies, enemies, external against nse Aegypti received jurisdiction (Berkeley and Los Angeles: Los Angeles: and (Berkeley 144 142 represented aspiration an was createdwith a clear

Justinian’s legislation legislation Justinian’s

146

, who worked for for worked who ,

The Cambridge In accordance accordance In , 157 , -161. -167. , vol. I I vol. , ever, ever,

143

CEU eTD Collection against Lombards. PLRE, Lombards. against 568 in Narses evo Maurentiusillustris vir 150 149 148 147 power. military and civil both holding century, sixth the during praetorian as served also officials early the development as The numberof 550’s. branch thewas civil a mili stalled of that fact bya over taxation. However, his inabilityin paying and provisioning thewas army subjectof complaints as with government of Narses andhis commanders.

full control should be assumedmilitary by commanders such as the exarch or magister militum spot to assume full and authority, once Italy constant came under enemy was pressure it inevitable that obstacles. As Italy was entering into a state of crisi late Roman period, could not regain the importance which Justinian attributed to them by the the by them to attributed Justinian which importance the regain not could period, Roman late Justinian’s was led by civil functionaries( province The Histria. Byzantine early of case the in elaborated further be will problem This provinces. militares were self were general result of the country’s impoverishment, and praefectura Italiae Sanctio counteroffensive Narseschangedinwhen finaly 554, conquered and the plan, Italy, it was planned to bein However proclaimed 540. Ravennain the unexpected Ostrogothic

The evidencefor the existence of curia can be found inDiehl, an inscription from Trieste from 571, which I Bizantini mentions in Italia Ravegnani, G. The most important of them are , 30. , Pragmatica, Sanctio the prefectof Italyheld 147

populace, while the military authorities controlled the local army and auxiliary forces. forces. auxiliary and army local the controlled authorities military the while populace, One may One

Asin the rest of Italy, during first decadesof Byzantine rule the cities and townsof Histria couldnot carried be out itwas as intended toold be. The institutions remainedineffective a as The inefficiencyof civil power at the highest levelwas reflected in the local situationin the ). Etudes -

governed, ruled bythe curia 149 These examples of joint power reveal the ’s weakness. There were also external external also were There weakness. prefect’s the reveal power joint of examples These Pragmatica Sanctio

and he is recorded as building fortifications, conducting negotiations and carrying war operations The civil functionaries wereinvested bycivil administration and by jurisdictionover the , 5. ,

assume that Pragmatica Sanctiowas devisedduring initial Belisarius’ blitzkrieg

Benussi, Benussi, , where vir illustris

III 797, Nelmedio evo , II, 5. 5. II, HL,

, (Bologna, Societa editrice il Mulino, 2004), 62- praefect of 554, clearly separated from that ofmilitary officials ( iudices provinciae . 150

, 29. Ferluga, 29., indicates decurion. See in Diehl, Etudes Diehl, in See decurion. indicates

Longinus who assumed supreme control over Italy after recall of recall after Italy over control supreme assumed who However, the of power 148

50 theexclusive of power issuing laws andhad control

L'Istria s, it wass, logical for the most capable man on the ), whose authority was, in accordance with with accordance in was, authority whose ), , 176.

remainedeffectively under themilitary

curia les , , already insignificant in the 68. , 113 , Nel medio medio Nel Benussi, ; P ragmatica .

iudices iudices

tary tary and and CEU eTD Collection floods, pestilences, and possible climaticinstabilities. st army imperial the of weakness the in reflected was that manpower of shortage severe a caused which East, the in Persians of invasion simultaneous the by improved not was situation The Italy. southern in and Byzant few a of exception the with territory, Italian the of most Andhardinvasionwhichofhad Lombard recover. in loss to fought resulted so the the Justinian ofinternal which and political s religious crises seriously underminedimperial the authority serie Worsewas yet come.Beside to clear and Lombard the present next in threat, the decade Italy saw a without supportoflocals, the Byzantinegovernment could not stop the Lombard invasion in 568. And century. eighth early until last would which gap a opening Constantinople, and Rome between relations worsened seriously that Chapters Three population, still affected bywar. The resistance and rebellion foundexpression its in the Schismof money thecivil administration increased whichin the , turn caused deep resentment am empirenot couldpay thenecessary for army, protectionof the province.necessary To collect the decades ruinedecono Italianmy emptied and Withoutimperial treasury. the adequate funding the two almost for out dragged that war the However quickly. conquered was Italy if work perhaps theempire inside, from and would the army it that fromexternal protect enemies. Suchmay approach church the that willhelp toorder, stabilize Roman old restore would which administration civil strong emperor; they had to give place to the rising military élite military rising the to place give to had they emperor; fill the ful rolegiven to men by the these allow not did situation political the Italy, of rest in the as 152 151 independence whonominatefromgovernor, nor neitherhim. thedepose provincial could the defensorin city, civilhighestof the authority the civitatisr powe the increase to tried Pragmatica Perhaps. Sanctio to assureof loyaltyimpoverished local population, Justinian particularly the fifth and sixth centuries?,” centuries?,” sixth and fifth the Margetić, “Italia bizantina ed Istria nel sec. VI,” in VI,” sec. nel Istria ed bizantina “Italia Margetić, in See empire. the of benefits about than class his about more cared defensor that seems it However, 31.

He could be deposed only by the prefect of Italy and later by the exarch. More in Benussi, Nelmedio evo Benussi, in More exarch. by the later and Italy of prefect the by only be deposed could He For climatic changes and their influence on political and mil and political on influence their and changes climatic For ationedin This Italy. demographicwas further crisis accentuated bysuccessive famines, the points, principal three on Italy of reconquest the of program ambitious his based Justinian Byzantina Australiensia

Histrica et Adriatica,

so, the circle was closed. Unable to pay the army, and and army, the pay to Unable closed. was circle the so, 51 10 (1996): 270-284.

152

. ineoutposts situated alongAdriatic the coast

itary events, see J. Koder, “Climatic changes in changes “Climatic Koder, J. see events, itary 106.

151 , giving him him giving ,

However, However, ong local local ong , 30- , CEU eTD Collection Local potentates – potentates Local government and all of Byzantine including Italy, became Histria military a zone. constantenemy pressure, the an 154 surviveduntil the mid 153 changes. anumber of socialadministrative led and to These circumstances new society. militarized by being a replaced good, for haddisappeared old order civil the century, seventh functione in and society way the in changes administration significant caused danger present and of clear state andnew permanent This Lombards. with the truces of several Neapolis. or as isin seen case ofnewthe Iustinopolis towns, establishing promontories, and hilltops secure more the flee to to population the caused threat Lombard the Histria Lomb the and empire the between frontiers the on especially settlements, of of anumber disappearance the shows record archeological the but Lombards, by atrocities in describing exaggerate certainly particular insecurity, by chronic marked still itswere end following years fifteen the pacification, the despite and war, Gothic destructive the of consequences by the affected still was Italy inItaly. process militarization element. military the to subordinated quickly were and place second into passed authorities commanders grew significantly over thenext decades, enlarging sphere their of The action. civil As consequence,sourcesof and supplies, a the leaders. authorit recruits, costofweakening was army the survival ofwith tiescentral government the dependenceon and local t of preservation

Brown, Brown, Diehl, Diehl,

A h In state such a emergency, of theobjective primaryof the central government became the As noted above,

Etudes Gentlemen andOfficers igh level of insecurity persisted through the seventh century despite the conclusion conclusion the despite century seventh the through persisted insecurity of level igh , 2., However, it seems the that institution of the praefect ard kingdom.ard hewhich provinces its remained in from possessionenemy falling into The hands. The The , 9 andOfficers Gentlemen Brown, see in more, For century. seventh ofdle the rise military the of the Lombard invasionthe Lombard cruci 568was of 154 , 40.

cient civil constitutionwas gradually transformedinto military a

As I argued when talking about castrizationAs argued when I about talking

ly in areas of Northern Italy. The contemporary accounts accounts contemporary The Italy. of Northern lyinareas élite 52

al for the development of the the of development the for al , althoughwith, diminished power y and importance of military , in Byzantine Byzantine in , -10. d. By the By the d. 153

Under CEU eTD Collection 159 158 157 the Great, see in Brown, Gentlemen and Officers 156 was later taken by Ostro 155 to as aresponse areas intimes various at different introduced was probably militarization The term started to constitute a thema and endangered, isolated provinces, Italian invasion, Lombard the after that have argued never succeeded actually government civil the that demonstrate years, successive through powers both held who generals, of number A conflict. the of end the after well continued war Gothic the during it missed imperial this above, the by attested society civil predominantly the and centuries eighth and seventh the of society military developed fully the between directive. adhoc even perhaps uneven, agradualmore and in Italy was Byzantine supremepower of the militarythe takeover year 584. the around Maurice, emperor of reign the the during whichhappened creation Exarchate, of the to exclusively this development view attributed The traditional Italy. to Byzantine the peculiar feature Roman and Byzantine traditions,” However this opinion is now obsolete. and Officers 135.

Brown, Brown, evo medio Nel Benussi, see of Histria, case In Brown argued that the separation between two powers, civil and military, still existed at the time of Gregory Diehl was the first who attributed militarization with introduction of the exarch: Etudes Brown strongly argued against the concept of the exarchate constituted as a a as constituted exarchate of the concept the against argued strongly Brown

thema Another problem is that of Italy being the first Byzantine thema Byzantine first the being Italy of that is problem Another misleds have problems that two are There Historians generally see the militarization of the administrat the of militarization the see generally Historians Gentlemen and 156 , 47; The tradit The 47; ,

or any office characteristic for the thematic system in Italy or any of its any regions. of in or Italy system thematic the for any characteristic office or

in re in gorski, - establishing itself. , 48 Officers ional view is represented by Diehl, Etudes by Diehl, represented view is ional History of Byzantine State 69. , . Settimane di studio del centro Italiano di studi sull’alto medioevo 158

155

53, 151. Also see S. Cosentino, Storia dell’ Italia bizantina Cosentino, S. see Also 151. -53, , process than a result of a centrally imposed imperial imperial imposed of acentrally result a than process , mporary conte mentioning evidence the no is there However,

rightly Brown as However, s initial aim, and the dominance the military exercised exercised military the dominance the and aim, initial s

, 32;Vergottini,, Lineamenti , 54. Also see from the same author: “The interplay betw interplay “The author: same the from see Also 54. , 53 Pragmatica Sanctio

cholars. The first is an apparent contrast contrast isfirst The apparent an cholars.

, , 19; and Hartmann, Untersuchungen , 30 pointed out, and fullyI agree, out, pointed 31 argued for Histria as a theme. atheme. as Histria for argued -31 of 554. As I pointed out out As pointed I of 554. thema ion andsociety asa Gentlemen Gentlemen Brown, see , . 157 , 17-18., This opinion

Some scholars Some scholars , 141 ,

(1988): 34, -145. , 9.

een een 159

CEU eTD Collection authority evenHistria inhappenedlargein theend part beforecentury.of the sixth militaryof handsgatheringin the helphow ofdemonstrate the power Great ofThe Gregory letters the was from the of rest Byzantine Italy following the conquest Lombard of the greater of part Venet L’Istria 162 161 160 and apolitical into organized inItaly, possessions Byzantine govern remaining the to emperor by the entrusted authority military highest the was exarch The exarch. as contemporaries, his who residedgovernor in This Ravenna. offi Exarch Constantinople. t rather arose as theyproblems examined in detail. detail. in examined magister militum Mauricius riosus glo was authority local The origin. by Armenian was who Isaac, exarch was Italy Byzantine vice excellentissimo exarcho Patricio exarcho excellentissimo wasHeraclio built thechurch perpetuo , Augusto mentions whichdated during t 639, found Torcello,in that to exarchate. nascent the of regions other regi military first the became Histria isolated, Venetiarum residentem. Venetiarum

Benussi Interplay Brown, see militarization, the of introduction gradual For A. Pertusi, A. Pertusi, “L’isc A. Pertusi, Pertusi, A. - regent on earth. In year 639, emperoryear earth.639, In highest Heracliusempire;on regentstill authority thein ruled the , 178. For full text, see Fig

As other provinces of Byzantine Italy, Histria was subordinated to the military military the to subordinated was Histria Italy, Byzantine of provinces other As And The hierarchy of Exarchate’s Italy can be seen clearly in the epigraphic inscription that was was that inscription epigraphic the in clearly seen be can Italy Exarchate’s of hierarchy The , Nel medio evo noofempire province thefound exposed itself toenemy so detached the Histria, it as as 160

, 33; Vergottini, Lineamenti 162

On th On , , residing that at timein Torcello. This provincial hierarchywill be

rizione Torcellana a tempi di Eraclio,”

e apex of the hierarchy was the emperor in Constantinople, God’s God’s Constantinople, in emperor the was hierarchy the of e apex by by bene meritum Mauricium gloriosum magistromilitum gloriosum meritumbene Mauricium Provincie han as part of a general directive issued from from issued han asof directive part ageneral on in Italy and probably served as a model for organizing organizing for model a as served probably and Italy in on cial is known to historians, though not always to to always not though historians, to known is cial , 31. , 54

ex iussione pio et devote domno nostro Issacio et Issacio devote pio domno iussione nostro ex

, 127 , he reign of he reign -160. ZRVI

339, Ferluga, Ferluga, 8, (1964), 317-339, Imperante Domino Nostro Imperante Domino Nostro 161

Endangered and ia. ia. CEU eTD Collection in this thesis I am using the term exarchate term the I using am thesis this in Byzantium Gentlemen andOfficers the opinion of its commander co assume could he wanted, he 169 168 167 militum 4; Ravegnani, L’Istria bizantina, 76. For traditional view see Dieh 166 beletter a sentfound in can by Pope IIto Pelagius deaconGregory, his 165 provincia Italiae was chancellery by imperial used term The official power. direct had exarch the where Ravenna, around first mention of exarchatus 164 163 magistri militum ov precedence took automatically authority his province, inthe orders. exarch’s the oppose to position a dang reinforce the , commanderofprotested, garrison Roman knowing thatthewas army Lombard vast was competence Gothi novo. historiography. in recent been disputed has idea this However, Italy. and Africa s of exarchate the creating West, the in position Byzantine the strengthen to wanted who Maurice, Exarchate the when determine un administrative L’esarcato, L’esarcato, L'esarcato Ferluga, see Italiae, population. For exercitus more about from mix of eastern, Lombard and local troops, butby the seventh centurywas it recruited mainlyfrom local l98; Ferluga, L’esarcato GentlemenBrown, and in See Officers585. in exarch first became him is vague. Also see Ferluga, L’Istria Prosopografia see dell’Italia bizantina , I,, 55, about However,evidence the information available bout a Ep. II,Firsttime, 441. MGH ismentioned by Diehl, II, Pelagii see source

Diehl, Diehl, The term An official with the title of exarchus The The This interpretation is justified Brown, in Gentlemenand Officers The most detailed description of exarch’s powers can be found Diehl,in Etudes More on military office of the exarch, see Ravegnani, L’Istria Ravegnani, see exarch, the of office military on More erously near the city. However, even if moving of troops could mean fall of Rome, he was not in 165 c wars, held by Belisarius and Narses. and by held Belisarius c wars, exercitus Italiae As commander As

Etudes , 298 , His position was actually a continuation of that of the the of that of continuation a actually was position His

exarchatus -302. , 68 . About. first mention of exarchatus 164 . Thus, in 599, when exarch Callinicus headed northwards to fight the Slavs Slavs the fight to northwards headed Callinicus exarch when 599, in Thus, . -

it known as the exarchate. the as it known 72. Also see Borri, Duces e magistri militum, 14

ex ex acreation not it was but institution, new a was exarch of office The , or, exarchate, as the political and administrative unit is usually called, is misleading. The 53. For territor 48-53. , L’Istria 356-357., Alsosee Ferluga, was the main army in unit exarchate,with center at Ravenna. Initiallywas composed . 167

- in the sources comes fro comes sources the in in

Henot only controlled theimperial army stationedin Italy, also, but when - chief of of chief . mmand mmand 168

was founded. The foundation is usually attributed to emperor to attributed is foundation usually founded. The was

When exarchWhenmove decided to troops from to Rome

is mentioned for the first time in 584. The reference to exarchus to reference The 584. in time first the for mentioned is , 178; Ravegnani, 178; , L’Istria bizantina 78., It is probable that the Italian army, the the army, Italian the . ial extent of the exarchate, see M. Whittow, Orthodox of TheMaking

in loco in 169

In a similar way, way, similar a In m dates only after 751. Thereafter it is used onlyfor the area , see Diehl, Etudes Diehl, see , 166 over every single provincial contingent, regardlessof 163 55

The scarcity of sources makes it difficult to to it difficult makes sources of scarcity The , 178; Ravegnani, L’Istria bizantina exercitus Italiae when the exarch moved with the army army the with moved exarch the when , 362., 49, Cosentino, Cosentino, Cosentino, Cosentino, 48-49, , - , 48 , 15. , 17. However, 17. , forthe sake of simplicity, , 137; Ferluga, Storia 137; , Cosentino, 76; ,

apocrisarius

l, l, 50. Also-50. Duces seeBorri, e magistri Etudes er that of the local duces of the that er Etudes , 17-18. , , the exarch’s military military exarch’s the , , 17. For prosopographical prosopographical For 17. ,

in Constantinople. For the , 157 ,

-167 and Brown, , 78. ,

Storia 136,,

of the the of Decius Decius

or or CEU eTD Collection PIB PIB Cosentino, S. see Callinicus i palace make alliances. o situation can be seen in exarch’s personal intervention. f themselves See in Ferluga, 173 Constantinopolitan court. 172 171 170 ex restricted resources lackof the policy, in Italy. power Byzantine retaining for time that at importance crucial of was which loyalty, his also assured court of title high the held he where Constantinople, magister the as militum such officers lower appointed and collection, managedtax matters, civil and military all over authority had the to power considerable delegated administration central the his position, facilitate To localleader. a than viceroy rebelli the to prior that 727, before they elected their duces of rebellion the during Also Sicily. in rebellion the crush to Campania and Histria from troops murder of emperor the happenedafter The same exercitusover command Histriae he assumed Histria, attacking 145. For For storiche), 144-145. 608) patriarch of Grado, Severus, and the bishops of Tergeste and Parentium. and Tergeste of bishops the and Severus, Grado, of patriarch in 698.in bizantina Istriaed nel sec. 104 VI, fficers.

Brown, Gentlemen and Officers, 151. Also s , Ep.MGH I It seems that even during the reign of Justinian the bishopsofHistria and the local population alienated Both exarchs who were active in Histria, Smaragdus, and Callinicus held the title of patricius of title the held Callinicus and Smaragdus, Histria, in active were who exarchs Both personally intervened in Histria in 5 in Histria in intervened personally

n Constantinoplen during ofreign .emperor For Smaragdus see PLRE However, as the imperial power decreased, the exarch’s position weakened. In foreign foreign In weakened. position exarch’s the decreased, imperial power as the However, in court the with connections close maintain him to helped origin Greek His asmore colonial the exarch acted the from Constantinople, directly Beingappointed 171

rom Constantinople, opposing the Condemnation of the Three Chapters. The seriousness of the The The I, 40, Margetić, Venuta degli Slavi in Istria, in

exarch had the right to sign an armistice, but he could not sign a peace agreement or or agreement peace a sign not could he but armistice, an sign to right the had exarch exercitus Histriae exercitus

on they had been following the exarch on campaign. campaign. on exarch the following been had they on Exarch Smaragdus, can be indentified with a of the same name who built a built who name same of the patrician a with be indentified can Smaragdus, Exarch exarch. As the only representative of the emperorin Italy the exarch exarch the Italy emperorin the of representative only the As exarch. Thus, duringThus, the schism, religious exarch Smaragdus I, 259. -105. The schism l

, see Ravegnani, L’Istria bizantina Ravegnani, see , , the exercitus the , . ee Ferluga, L’organizazione ee Ferluga, He was the one who nominated, promoted, and sacked sacked and promoted, nominated, who one the was He 88, bringing88, the prisoners to including Ravenna, the arch’s maneuvers, forcing him to forcinghim renounce maneuvers, to an arch’s asted for almost a century, ending at the Synod of Aquileia Aquileia of Synod at the ending a century, almost for asted 56

Histricaet Adriatica rejected the exarch’s orders. This implies implies This orders. exarch’s the rejected Constans II, when exarch Gregorius led led Gregorius exarch when II, Constans . 172

Hi , 383. L’esarcato 84, Ferluga; L’Istria Ferluga; 77-84, , s close ties with the imperial imperial the with ties close s 173 , defeating the intruders. the defeating ,

(Rovigno: Centro di richerché , 360; L. Margetić, Margetić, L. 360; , III, 1164 III, - (585 , 178. 589, 602 589, -1166. For

at the the at Italia 170 -

CEU eTD Collection Magister militum 179 178 177 176 175 Press, 2009), 436-437. (680-876),” in 174 duces the both Originally emperor. ( exarch the by appointed as known officer military high a by governed its power. reassert to tried empire the when particularly tendencies, rise of separatist exarch militia. local and authority local the on rely to them causing provinces, border the in continued campaign. military the only during localbondwith aristocracy could he so years, ten than more veryfew ruled ashort time, for appointed was usually The exarch autonomy. for tendencies increase the time at began to who that aristocracy, tary mili local the himfrom it alienated since of weakness, source a became origin Eastern his responsibilities, by administrative replaced was commander military as a his duty Once sixth century. evi no is there why explains possessions. remaining empire’s the preserve to aimed which in Constantinople, court by the advocated strategy defensive of the favor in Lombards, the against policy aggressive di studio del centro Italiano di studi sull’alto medioevo militum, Duces e magistri Borri, See synonymous. became they did century, eighth and seventh the between later, Hartmann, Untersuchungen, 56-57. Borri argued that, at least initially, the two titles were distinct

LP, Brown, VI (secc. Bizantini dei guerra di eteorie occidente in guerre militari, “Ordinamenti Pertusi, A. Brown, About the signing of treatywith the Lombards in 680 and its implications, see S. T. Brown, “Byzantine Italy Brown,

I, 404. For interpretation see A. Carile, Presenza ate’s feelings of solidarity against a heretical enemy. This de facto autonomy led to the ledto autonomy facto This de enemy. heretical a against solidarity of feelings ate’s 176 The administrative changes were reflected on the local theon reflected were changes The administrative Although 6-7. Gentlemen andOfficers Interplay

Gentlemen andOfficers

Moreover, the treaty and the Lombard conversion to Catholicism weakened the the weakened Catholicism to conversion Lombard the and treaty the Moreover, The Cambridge History of theTheCambridgeHistory Byzantine Empire of , 135-

the empire’s treaty of 680 decreased Lombard pressure, sporadic incursions incursions sporadic Lombard pressure, 680decreased of treaty empire’s the

136.

ordinatio exarchi dence of reinforcements sent from the East after the end of the the after endthe of from East sent the of reinforcements dence , 52.

, 53 , argued the the two titles synonymous; Also see Diehl, 141

and and magistri militum magistri )

57 179 53 (2006), 638- , 110 ,

, however, probably with permission of the the of permission with probably however, , -111. magister militum ,

ed. J. Shepar J. ed.

644.

were ge were

d (New Oxford York: University level. Each province was level. was province Each 175 nerals serving on active active on serving nerals

or or

dux . 178 X),” -X),”

They were were They and that only only that and 177 Settimane Settimane

174

This This 143; -143; CEU eTD Collection is is closewith connections theexarch in Ravenna and thecentral government. The only notable exception magistri militum 184 183 563, Ferluga, L’Istria militum (magister 182 181 Italy. For more about officer’s appointment, see Ravegnani, I Bizantini e la guerra, 77. appointed by byemperor the militum, 5; Ferluga, L’organizazione 180 magistri militum mention that Great the Gregory militum th with was complete. local commanders military of the authority supreme the century seventh t besidesmilitary duty, administration. provincial in involvement their to led ability military and high status their both and troops garrison of heads the at inareas settled Lombard the it that and became clear time progressed As military operations. they conducted where area the over authority heldtemporary they campaigns ( Constantine, Basil, Stephanos, and ano and Stephanos, Basil, Constantine, the by shown is as Franks militum also over the civil administration o administrationalso civil over the element with the civil one. In the new circumstances, he not only had authority over the military, but military ofwasfusionByzantine thehisfirst further days accentuated bythe conquest, and power wealthy landholders. magister militum Codice Diplomatico Istriano Kandler, P. For sources mentioning the magistri militum Brown, Brown, Brown, For more about magistrum militum, see: Brown, Gentlemen elast decades of sixth the century, Histria began to formmilitary a districtled magister a by

The The mentioned,of ByzantineAslike under Italy, pressure, the already rest Lombard beginning continuedexercise to untilin supreme power Histria the takeover of the province bythe who represented interests of the empire in the region. This can be seen in the letters of of letters the in seen be can This region. the in empire the of interests represented who Gentlemen andOfficers Gentlemen andofficers magister militum magister militum vacantes

Masta of Histria were predominantlyof Greekorigin. This suggests that theymaintaine

, 178., Gulfari, who, judging by his name, was of Lombard origin. Lombard of was name, his by judging who, Gulfari, 183 lone) militum Ep.93 IX, and (magister

Thenamesmentionedin other unlike the suggestthat, sources provinces, the

hey took over numerous civil matters including court cases. By the late late the By cases. court including matters civil numerous over hey took sacra epistula

was the supreme commander of themilitary in vince the pro from the , 53. , , 52. Placitum Risani

, 384., During the late period, Roman

f the entire province of Histria. His residence was in Pola, then a thenwas Pola, of His in entireHistria. a residence province f the

, I, 54. I, , . Such a custom Such a . probablycontinued the during Byzantine rule ov ther Basil, all of themeighth ). 180

see see

During the initialDuring the ofinvasion period the Lombard . This valuable ninth valuable This . 58 , V, militum , MGH Ep. 46( magister

one, and Gulfari. and one, Mastal Basil, 181

danger did not abate, these commanders abate, commanders these diddanger not

Gulfaris), for more on Gulfari, see PLRE see Gulfari, on more for Gulfaris), 56, Borri, Duces e magistri magistri e Duces Borri, 53-56, , and Officers

As the civil administration collapsed, collapsed, administration civil the As - magistri militum - century century century document mentions

184 magistri militum

Basilius) Ep. V, 47 V, Ep. Basilius) 182

and and

The The duce magistri

s were were s and and III, er er d CEU eTD Collection exarchate in the 751, possible after that the rebellion against Constantinoplein 727, and particular administrator of the magister militum the of administrator assistant was fulfilled by the cancelarius 189 sufficienter tempus reddunt oleo amplius quam centum modia, vino magis quam duocentum, alnona seu castaneas Fiscumhabet publicum, ubi commanet, intus e magister militum 12 solidi Manc 188 187 186 185 he governed. that area over the power real exercisedthe who commander military local unit commander. of the adjutant the was he that indicates century province. the of capital and city major is also the only civitas

, protected the privilegesof the cities assembly. Moreover, he had general supervisionof the collection ofhe taxes; extraordinary fixed andhewas the one whom to subjects couldexpresstheir complaints, particularly the at provincial wereconsiderable notif limitless. He appointed officials,lower controlled localthe admin up the central officeof the provincial bureocracy. number of scribones Pola can be seen from the speech of the speech the from be seen can Pola Missos Dominorum nostrorum, aliquoaut placito cum Magistro Militum Graecorum habere. The omnium Primas Polensis dixit: quando Patriarcha in nostram Civitatem veniebat, et si opportunum erat propter. Histria had in his service an “ an service his in had Histria by a primicerius a by

R. Udina, “Il placito del Risano,” Archeografo Triestino Risano,” del 4519. (1952), placito “Il Udina, R. CDI Hartmann, Ferluga, Benussi, Benussi, , I, 54, Cancellarius 54, I, Civitatis, mancosos duodecim, faciunt simulmancosos qui in B According the to y the eighth century, the effective military power was decentralized, and it was the it was the and was decentralized, power military effective the y century, eighth the

L'Aministrazione Nel medio evo 157. Also see Brown, Brown, see Untersuchungen Also 61,, 156-157. osi that should be paid not by the city, but by cancellarius 's estate, situated in vicinityof Neapolis. This is confirmed in next passage: Civitate Innova . 186

The r The mentioned in the tribute list: de civitate Polensi solidi Mancosi sexaginata. , numerarii of Histria started to be elected from the ranks of of ranks the from elected be to started magister militum Histria of , 34. Ravegnani, Ravegnani, 34. , eference to a a to eference Placitum bizantinaDalmazia in ,

scholastici , to facilitate the exercise to, offunction, facilitate his the magister the militum

Polensis Primas ” of adiutores of ” primicerius ’s estates. 185 L’Istria biza L’Istria

t t foras Civitatem amplius quam duos centum colonos, perbonum The powers that Constantinople and Ravenna gave to him him to gave Ravenna and Constantinople that powers The

, and chartulari and , and respected their customs. customs. their and respected , a military official who was at the same time t time same the at was who official military a , , (Venezia, 1978), 54- 188 189 59

the the ntina

seventh the of papyri Egyptian in found is that , a hierarchically organized group of officials led led officials of group organized hierarchically a ,

Also in his inAlso the retinue placitum , For source 79. Kandler, see Gentlemen and Officers , smalla army of functionaries whomade . Among 172capitanei. 57.

suggests that this manywas paid from

187

The function of personal personal of function The magister militum , 59. , ly after the fall of the of the fall the ly after

CDI he spoke first. Pola spoke first. he . The. mention of , I, 112: I, ,

importance of importance the local local the istration, istration,

Primus had a a had It is is It

he he of of

CEU eTD Collection his protection and worked in his service, in war and in peace, taking name of excusati of name taking peace, in and war in service, his in worked and protection his gr of abstulit. L’Is Ravegnani, 195 194 193 192 191 190 collection. the managed administrativeduties.gained hadmatters;over judicialpowerand he He alladministrative authority the century seventh late the by and communities, their over had they that influence the strengthen As aristocracy.. exarch. commanded. they which tribuni however, date, early of anumerus commander tribunus of that hierarchy, provincial landholders ( bishops, and great potentates, hereditary in selected families. controlled the surrounding area. safety, guarding for thewalls, and the for constructionofnecessary defensive He structures. also Nel medio evo Alto Adriatico fra VII e IX s , 55. ForOfficers the situation in Histria, see Udina, Il Placitodi Risano

For nomination by the exarch see Ferluga, L'organizazione Ferluga, see exarch by the nomination For Benussi, Numerus Tergestinus P For more about the administrative function of the tribunus ofthe function administrative the about more For CDI tria tribunus S, c. 12,, CJC II, 802. For general situation in the exarchate, see Diehl, Etudes anting immunity from military requirements and taxes to five or more of free men who relied on on relied who men free of more or five to taxes and requirements military from immunity anting ,180; Ferluga, L’organizazione , I, 54, 113 Graecorum 54, I, , tempore omnis Tribunus habebat excusatos quinque, amplius, etet ipsos nobis

This was further elaborated in An equally dynamic development is evident in the case of the next rank in the the in rank next the of case the in evident is development dynamic equally An Tribunus As thegradually province became 193

Nelmedio evo However, as the exarchate weakened, tribuni weakened, exarchate as the However, L’Istria bizantina , 37. 37. ,

became the most powerful person in community powerful urban each most person became the ,MGH Ep II, 31, VIII, 18., Brown, Gentlemen and Officers, 59.

a military commander of the city or or city the of commander military a : Udina, : , 89. Ferluga, L’Istria Ferluga, 89. , ecolo 194 , a military abetween numbering, men. unit 200and 400 192 , 31. Also see Cosentino, Cosentino, see Also 31. , Il PlacitoIl del Risano ,113;Margetić. 190 of Histria exercised political authority in the cities and fortresses fortresses and in cities the authority political exercised of Histria From the the From

Like magister the militum The

, 383.

Guillou, ir role of being local military commanders helped them to

Placitum . In the purely military sense, this rank denoted a a denoted rank this sense, military purely the In . , 183. , 183. La presenza bizantina, 416. bizantina, presenza La Neka pitanja Neka more and more militarized, the tribunus the militarized, more and more primates , 21,, Ravegnani mentions a number of 500 soldiers. around

60

it can be seen that every tribunus that be seen can it

, 384. castrum , 413- - Storia

in Histria, see Diehl, ), ), and inthat way such title a the became

414.

came to be sel came to dell’Italia bizantina , , the , ; 18.; Carile, La Presenza bizantina nell’

tribuni

tribunus

were appointed by appointed were the Gentlemen and and Brown, 141; , Gentlemen Etudes

was responsible for its ected from the local from the ected , 152- , ,

114 . had the privilege 195

191 -

153; Ferluga,153; 116. Benussi,

From an an From acquired CEU eTD Collection

200 199 198 in See society. the in 197 418. theirhad own lands. For further explanation see Ferluga, L’Istria 196 tribunus in was He usually commander. army. in hierarch the ranks the represented terms these that mayOne assume vicarii military. During the seventh century power from the passed defensores the officers Lower original the of families in the hereditary became it landholders; substantial by the appropriated been from the Evidence aristocracy. their loyal service. The term term The service. loyal their for or a campaign had soldiers themselves during distinguished who to reward a couldbe also in found exarch’s be could only the palace guard since first, mean the would case this Inof the Histria is palace of the guard. member other the land. numerus Tergestinus the term miles term the magister militum

Diehl, Diehl, For the further interpretation of the militaryUdina, ranks, see Brown, Gentlemen andOfficers The identification of miles with citizen may show how the processof the militarization became implemented The The

196 199 ,

capitanei

As the exarch’s authority weakened, tribuni weakened, authority exarch’s As the Asmilitary the dangergradually increased all politicalpower in Histria was takenover by the and and It is possible that during the eighth century the term numerus term the century eighth the during that possible is It Etudes .

tribuni Il Placito di Risano di Placito Il

The domesticus term 200 l

ociservatores , soldiers, for citizens. for soldiers, ,

Unlike thefirst two, the term lociservator , 12

lamented that Frankish dux took their lands. This would mean that prior to Frankish rule theypriorwould ruleFrankish Frankish lamented to that mean lands. This duxtook that their . . 198 By that time, the numerus - 16; Ferluga, L’organizazione Ferluga,

, it, haddenoting ownedwhere termlived the becomethe soldiers and the They assisted the magister militum the assisted They , 19. Also see Ferluga, L’Istria Ferluga, see Also 19. , , officials who, officialswith together, the tribunii L’esarcato

can have two meanings; one means adjutant to a higher official, official, a higher to adjutant means meanings; one two have can Placitum 197 charge of castra charge , 385.,

signifies the deputy of a tribunus a deputy of signifies the

became more tha more became , 384- - eighth in that shows 61 385.

, 190; Ravegnani, L’Istria bizantina palacein Ravenna. The rank of domesticus

subordinate to the city governed by the by the governed city the to subordinate ingoverning the provincial cities and castra

, , 183. Also see La Guillou, presenza bizantina started to be appointed by be appointed to started

n military a unit, seen as in the case of had a more general application. It had a more application. general century Histria the office had had office the Histria century

became synonym a city, for and , were all subordinate to the the to subordinate all were ,

to the hands of domestici of hands the to y of the Byzantine Byzantine the y of , 59.

or other military military other or

, 81. ,

the local local the , . ,

CEU eTD Collection indicated military offices, but a dignity. See Ferluga, L’Istria Ferluga, See adignity. but offices, military indicated lociservatori 201 and important held hean military; of the member hadas a asoldier function that crucial Army RoleThe of the solidarity. and unity of sense a them gave It Italy. southern or Sicily in possessions Byzantine as local élite not only distinguished that feature a was hierarchy arrival the to up lasting exarchate, fall the of survived élite militum t it, In hierarchy. own military local the in East, the attacks of the result as vanished empire the of presence the as However, Ravenna. of exarch the ntative, represe its to all powers by giving province in distant the empire the preserveof control to administrative unit,but alsoin thorough transformation of thelocal society. Itsmain aim was droungarious assuch turmarch terms Greek the for found be can evidence no Sicily, and Italy survi terminology the Histria, of case the In exarchate. the of period entire through century sixth the of terminology mea it Histria of incase but clergy, or officials, civil lower several any of to applied deputy, mean could

Itattested is at the

started to elect their own leaders from their own ranks. In Histria such a hierarchy ahierarchy such In Histria ranks. from own leaders their elect own their to started In an empire beset by enemies the role of the army was central. In addition to the the to addition In central. was army the of role the enemies by beset empire an In Lom the seen As the retained Italy Byzantine empire, of the rest the unlike here that note can One . As the autonomy of the provinces increased provinces of the As autonomy . the .

CDI , which appeared after Greek became official language of the army. of the language became official Greek after which appeared , nt a lieutenant who was subordinate to the tribunus the to subordinate was who lieutenant a nt , I, 54, Placitum Risani ved well into the period of Frankish domination. Frankish of period the into well ved Placitum Risani

he exarch became a stranger, an a stranger, became he exarch in Frontierin Society bard invasion resulted not only in creation of a new political and and political in anew of creation not only resulted invasion bard

. However,. it is possible that by the late eighth century they did not , where all the titles are mentioned, tribuni mentioned, are titles the all where ,

62

, 183., élite

during the early eight century eight early the during

wasleft onits own, and developedits d

of Franks. Thus, this “fossilized” “fossilized” this Thus, Franks. of his place was take his place

from the rest of the empire, such such empire, of the rest from the .

201

, Besides southern southern Besides domestic n by ,

moirarch , the local local the ,

magister magister i , vicari

or or i, i, CEU eTD Collection 204 203 Considerations on Century,” in Seventh the in Change SeventhSocial Century,” 202 milites soldiers, ordinary the However, soldier. ordinary an exercisedby power than the whichfar was greater power, particularly political level of power, a exercised officers commanding The just rank. not category, social a distinct whole denoted as a military profession the Italy inByzantine that maynote One aristocracy. military new supreme power. force, whichin reinforced turn their prestigeand authority and gradually gained them - apre to rise officers military could the clergy, the onwards: century seventh the from society local of division threefold in resulted class of senatorial The disappearance military. in of the hands the power administrative destruction caused local of this society. on impact the and leadership exercise social to came military centuries. eighth d an seventh the through occurring was helpedgreatly by existing Roman military institutions, forwhich were adapted events centuries.This transformation for two enemy pressure the contained successfully and security type of élite ledby was aparticular society a such seen above As needs. military to geared society a by creating only survive could and warfare problemfaced of the continuous which in Italy, Byzantine important particularly society. of conception inByzantine place the respected

Haldon, Byzantium in the Seventh Century, 399. B For interpretation of the soldier’s status and in “Ideology the Haldon, J. seventh see society Byzantine century

rown, military, and the civilian population. Only by cooperation between these three groups between groups three these bycooperation Only military, civilianpopulation. and the The scarcity of written sources makes it almost impossible to estimate the size of this this of size estimate the to impossible it almost makes sources written of The scarcity itthe and with associated institutions civil and aristocracy senatorial the of The eclipse Gentlemen andOfficers 204

by the war and constant enemy threat resulted in the concentration of of in concentration the resulted enemy threat constant and war by the , 82.

eminent social monopoly position achieving onarmed the Klio 68 Klio

, a milit a , 63 143. Also see Haldon, “Some “Some Haldon, see Berlin, Also (1986): 139-143.

203 ary aristocracy, who provided a form of form of provideda who ary aristocracy, Byzantinische Forchungen 10 (1985):95-96.

Here I will discuss when and how the the how and when discuss will I Here , also had high status within the within the status high had also , 202

The The role of the army was was army ofrole the

CEU eTD Collection University 60; Press, 1995), armies stationed in the Justinianic empire numbered 154 000 men. 154 numbered empire Justinianic the in stationed armies Gothic war the imperial army Italy, in exercitus Italiae , numbered no more than 15 000. For comparison, all field homines capitanei Frankish of actions investigate when Thus, assets. political holding their in and 210 209 208 207 206 205 from the evidence élite number of militia many period that through However, too. decreased of soldiers number the shrunk, had territory as Exarchate’s assume that hardly more be than ina few commanders a si small, was also troops these leading of officers number the that concluded men. 000 than more of 25 no consisted that of Narses, war, Gothic con here. discussion the furthering inbe useful military into will general the related observations ar as they society, localized mo became Italy Byzantine of society the as meaning different a assuming century, eighth the by degenerated duoset Istriensium, tunc eligimus de singulis Civitatibus, seu Castellis homines capitaneos numero centum septuaginta Theo canbe assumed that as imperial it influ Thus, 380. L'organizazione, Ferluga, in See army. imperial into incorporated not were they however, militia, imperi

This was particularly stressed by Pertusi, Ordinamenti militari by Pertusi, stressed particularly was This This interpretationjustified is Brown, in Brown, The local militia is attested as early as the Gothic war. Procopius mentioned CDI The numbersmentioned inthe text aretaken from Treadgold, quered Italy with a force numbering less than 15 000, and the greatest army fighting in the the in fighting army greatest the and 000, 15 than less numbering force a with Italy quered doro, Leone, Stauratio, Stephano, Laurentio Episcopis, et reliquis Primatibus, Populovel Provinciae

that led those forces should be then counted in the hundreds. the in counted then be should forces those led that al army to defend the citywalls. Similarly, in Milan, Belisarius created the special units from the local , I, 54, I, 54, , 113, … in ;The officials mentioned here were re The The Belisarius standards. modern by small were in Italy fighting armies field Byzantine .

Gentlemen andOfficers élite ’s minority’s numbersin compensated by was dominatio their

could be recruited in countryside. the be recruited could , all of them landholders of a certain milit certain a of landholders them of all , e frequently recorded as holding considerable amounts of land. of amounts considerable holding as recorded frequently e Placitum Risani

loco qui dicitur Riziano, ibique adunatis venerabili Viro Fortunato Patriarcha, atque

Haldon, 108. Also see Cosentino, Storia dell’Italia bizantina Cosentino, see Also , 63, 101-108.

ence weakened in Italy, the importance of local militia increased. militia of local importance the Italy, in weakened ence Byzantium Seventh the in Century dux

shows that even on the eve of the Frankish conquest, the the conquest, Frankish the of eve the on even that shows Gentlemen and Officers castra

John, the people of Histria were represented by 172 by 172 represented were Histria people of the John, ferenced as the the as ferenced

and cities had its own lo own its had cities and 64 numerus

missi , 681-682. . . Thisprimates could mean that this title had

of 200 to 400 men. 200to of , 64. , Byzant were dispatched by Charlemagne to to Charlemagne by dispatched were 208

The total number of the military military of the number The total ium and its Army andits ium , 251-252argued, followingthat the

209 ary standing. ary

militia

cal forces ( forces cal 206

in Rome that helped the helped that Rome in From this it can be be can it this From 207

n in landholding landholding n in (Stanford: Stanford Stanford (Stanford: nce there could could there nce

It is logical to to logical is It militia , 266-269., 210

Also, the the Also,

205 ), and a a and ),

Some Some

re re CEU eTD Collection miles Grado, which mentions the 571 from inscription an by attested be can this r fo Evidence fronts. other to or regions other to sent or disbanded was army imperial the of majority the after Italy in remained who soldiers L’Adriatico in eta bizantinaL’Adriatico eta in numerus Tarvisianus to belonging both Stephanus, of decoration. There are also inscriptions recording dona 215 214 213 212 211 Euphemia. St. of church built newly the in floor mosaic a for donation background, because soldiers mentioned in inscriptions were wealthy enough maketo a were oflocal origin. Tarvisianus numerus the while prisoners, Persian of comprised also Got the in fight Italy to to sent were who of war prisoners Persian of comprised unit cavalry military shareits of easterners. attracted Ravenna, to in proximity close situated century. sixth late during least the at exarchate, of the lived the on territory who origin eastern of officials emperor. the by given be could that dignities highest the of one patricius, of helda dignity The exarchs courts. Byzantine the at Ea from the sent origin, Greek of predominantly were militum magister or exarch andgenerals, leadinggovernors above that was argued It easteners. militum and cities from the collected was still tax

Ravegnani, Ravegnani, Ferluga, Brown, CDI These soldiers are: Laurent

ofPersoiustinani, Johaness, and belonging to numerus Cadisianus , I, 54, 112: Isti solidi tempore Grecorum Pallatioin cos portabat Besides the High command, there was also a considerable number of soldiers or or soldiers of number aconsiderable also was there command, High the Besides It is likely that Histria, being initially unaffected by the war and with with and war the by unaffected initially being Histria, that likely is It

hic war. An eastern origin can be determined for the numerus Cadisianus the for determined be can origin An eastern hic war. In initial years of the Byzantine rule over Italy the élite the Italy over rule Byzantine the years of initial In t to Constantinople. to t sen was money the where from Pola, in Gentlemen andOfficers L’organizazione Soldati Theymainly settledin Ravenna, working in the administration or themilitary. , 82; Ferluga, L’Istria 214 , 472 , , 380. Also see Ravegnani, L’Istria bizantina Ravegnani, see Also 380. ,

, son of Domnus, belonging to numerus Tarvisanus to belonging ofDomnus, son ius, numerus equitum Persoiustianorum.numerus equitum Inscriptions can also be used as an evidence for their socia for their an evidence as be used also Inscriptions can -474. , 68

69; -69;

Interplay , 177.

castra , 134. . For. more about use of inscriptions, see A. Carile, 65

, and stored in the palatium the in stored and , tions ofprimicerius tions

213 . Here the palatium the Here . together with his wife Severina, 25 tiles , 31. , st, usually enjoying high status high usually status st, enjoying

As the name says, this was a a was this says, name the As

211 was still made mainly of of mainly made still was

and and

215 , 25floor tiles; Johannes,

Those were mainly the the mainly were Those numerus Tergestinus numerus

Zimarcus and soldier soldier and Zimarcus refer to the treasury. its coastal towns towns coastal its

magister magister the of - 579, found 579, in , probably probably , 212

l

CEU eTD Collection ent of soldiers. of successor,help smaller Tiberius contingent a II, sent financial and scarce best. at The onlyemperor who sent substantial reinforcements to Italy was Justin II, whilehis thenew were invasion,ard capital, Lomb requestedwas however, from troops the the aid received international, 2008). 219 218 L’organizazione Alsosee Ferluga, Italy. 217 216 position. significant held never they army, the in served they if however, century, seventh early the in starting settlement Slav of evidence is archeological clear there Two, in Chapter the Asmentioned Histria. over rule m glorious of title the with rewarded was in599, side Byzantine the aLombard Ulfari, probably Gulfari, aforementioned the birth. by Germans were 14 than less no I, Gregory of death the and Italy 26 the Of officers. Byzantino of extent inimperialforces. major the element madea up renegades Lombard inItaly568, of invasion Lombard the after but , of the defeat the following decreased that element served barbarians renegades. Lombard recruit to started government Byzantine ranks the the Tiberius II. Stephanus, alower official from the schola holdmuch the large hardly could which force armed small rather a with exarch the left This Italy. of defense the for troops armyoccupiedin or inBalkans, the East the central governmentcouldnot provide additional

Ferluga, Ferluga, Ferluga, Ferluga, Brown, Brown, For most recent work about Slavs Histria in seeLevak, M. vojvode Slaveni Ivana This was not the first time that Byzantines turned to the barbarians. A large number of of number large A barbarians. the to turned Byzantines first the time that not This was In barbarians. were exarchate early of insociety element important Another

,70. Narses disbanded most of his Lombard auxiliaries after the vi the after auxiliaries Lombard ofhis most disbanded Narses ,70. andOfficers Gentlemen L'organizazione - imperial dependence on these soldiers of fortune during the initial years of the the of years initial the during fortune of soldiers these on dependence imperial L’organizazione Lombard conflict can be seen by examining the origin of the highest provincial provincial highest the of origin the examining by seen be can conflict Lombard

r Lombard army. in Justinian’s army as mercenaries. There was a significant barbarian barbarian significant a was There mercenaries. as army Justinian’s in duces , 383., , 380. A late seventh A late 380. ,

and and

magistri militum 219 , 383; Ferluga

To compensate for the loss of easterners and to replenish replenish andto loss of easterners the for compensate To of Armaturae, the imperial guard, probablysent to Italybyemperor -century inscription from t , L’Istria , 66

recorded between the Lombard appearanc Lombard between the recorded , 176. dux

of who, after crossing to he church in Portogruaro mentions agister militum 218 216

One of them was One of was them

With most of the the of most With (Zagreb:Leykam (Zagreb:Leykam

response to to response

and the and the 217 ctory in in ctory

e in e in The The CEU eTD Collection 721. Also see Also 719-721. tribunus ab the of office wives and families andowned landon the territory belonging to the numerus on occurred promotions exarchate; the by held still territories find a person who knew Greek. knew who person a find 224 223 222 221 220 emperor. the of formalapproval with aristocracy, – officer provincial and population, local the with assimilated Constantinople. to return to rather inRavenna, live to continued West, in the fortunes their acquired exarchs down. breaking was order old the when career military a by given opportunity realizedthe aristocrats ambitious These army. the joined landholders of great number military posts. lesser localmen to appoint began to administration exarchate’s territory. imperial shrinking the with decreased recruitment numberdiminished servingof barbarians inarmy the Torcellana a tempi Eraclio, di 315-339. predominantly Latin be to came aristocracy leading the as entourage his and exarch the of isolation linguistic the illustrates Agnel 687) had problems finding local a who scribe knewGreek, and the only person thathe found was anecdote fromAgnellus can serve an example. as The story goes that theexarch Theodore II (677 -

Agnellus, Brown, Gentlemen and Officers, 51, 136. The exarch Isaac, who was of Armenian origin, was buried in Ravenna together with his family. PLRE Brown, A good example here is that of magister that is militum here example good A - speaking, it is safe to assume in that border a province Histria it such as would difficult be to lus’ great lus’ e highest highest e th too, Ravenna, with but Constantinople, with only not weakened, ties the As that seems It By th By Gentlemen and Liber pontificalis e seventh century no new reinforcements had been sent from the East. East. the from sent been had reinforcements new no century seventh e - great

LP, 221

I, 328.I, - - speaking.

grandfather, Iohannicus. Even Agnellus’ though storymay beexaggeration, an it antiquo tempore by the late seventh century, easterners in the territory of the exarchate had had exarchate the of territory the in easterners century, seventh late the by magister militum , 68, 169 68, , Officers

Ecclesiae Ravennatis 222 223

Thus, if Ravenna, the Ravenna, if Thus, . An inscription from Jesolo shows that

-170. The military elite ofHistria said that their ancestors held the

Latin had predominantLatin languageof becomethe the

started to be appointed from the ranks of local local of ranks from the be appointed to started , 120. 67

Maurice, whoowned the land, A. Pertusi,

Localmilitary units remained stationedin the

exarchate’smetropolis, was predominantly

as the resources required for their their for required resources as the

the spot; the soldiers livedwith their

To compensate the loss, the the loss, the compensate To tribunus . 224

Antoninus was buried

Some 220 L’iscrizone

Also, the the Also, élite Also, a Also,

of the the of . An .

III, CEU eTD Collection entering theclass of the privileged, the honorum ordo the military officials wh officials military the - life an aristocratic wealth or like class, senatorial the for only previously reserved status, of social anumber of criteria over terms show of these The use in general. for aristocracy the used in Ravenna or Rome, an originallyspecific military termsuch as tribunus meliorem honorem habere de Tribuno, ambulabat ad , quod ordinabat illum Ypato. 227 226 225 Presenza Carile, A. see Also (Venezia). Iesolo di inedita epigrafe together with his wife, some Agnella, during time the seventh century. Antoninus Sartori, F. tribunus una in magister militum following rank military highest the Histria, Byzantine In enjoyed. had class senatorial the only militar the of superiority the showed clearly which privilege, was this It capital. the from rank of consular ne - pre social of degree higher as such others while offices, of se the From aristocracy. military local of this status high denote the to was used of terms A range wide society? military élite that status was what exact the But aristocracy. senatorial ofcircle the stepfor ableupward individuals scope on th to hecould travel theand to imperialcourt get the dignityof court. However, itwas the awardofdignities kept that themilitary élite giving additional indicating any power,

w leading class laid claim to high birth and the term nobilis term the and birth high to claim laid class leading w Guillou, Brown, CDI , I, 54, I, 113: , The It is likely that in Ravenna, as in Histria, commanders were still keen to obtain codicils codicils obtain to keen still were commanders in Histria, as in Ravenna, that likely is It greater a created army, the particular in administration, the of function The practical Gentlemen andOfficers La presenza bizantina y aristocracy the general over giving population, which them status previously

was that of was that capitanei o became landowners had made their titles hereditary. made titles had their landowners became o venth century onwards, the term iudices term the onwards, century venth eminence. , 418-419.

, 62. tribunus. tribunus. lamented how their lost the privilege tobe chosen as style. As their importance in society rose, by the eighth century century eighth bythe rose, society in importance their As style.

only a grade of ancient nobility, imagined by the Byzantine Byzantine the by imagined nobility, ancient of grade a only If a man exercising the duty of tribunus of duty the exercising man a If 225

Soon after establishing their position in society, the the society, in position their establishing after Soon

or or 68 primates

ehierarchical social pyramid, than the closed . 227 , 114-

This titlewas purely without honorary, were more general terms denoting a a denoting terms general more were 115.

started to be used. In Histria, as as In be Histria, used. to started

sthat the

or or

reflected the the reflected consulus

tied to Constantinople by élite

or or hypatos: was wealthy enough, enough, wealthy was

from the emperor, emperor, the from

dux

226 was able to take to able was élite

started to be be to started et qui volebatqui et ’s holding

held in

CEU eTD Collection made there. made were that decisions on influence of degree some had he that meant have may which assemblies, during thewho person held the honor of hypatos 230 229 Brown, 228 late the imperial the in exarchate the of role diminished only. militum conferring and status defining the individual’s placethe in imperialhierarchy. nterests in the province. province. the in interests imperial protect hand, the title of the individual could function only closed in Byzantine society, sowas it beneficial for him to conferring the dignity to individual, the court increased prestige of individual that in the society. Onthe other procedebat. ordinabat illum Ypato.Tunc ille qui Imperialis erat Ypatus, in omni loco secundum. ilIum Magistrum militum exarchs, exarchs, gloriosus ofdegenerated tostatus provincialcommander. the Thehappened with same titl the the sixth century still denoted commander a of praesental tribunus the than place better a have would provincial aristocra provincial some of influence the increasing cash, for bought be could which dignity minor a into transformed been had it century eighth the by empire, Roman the in offices important most the of one denoting

empire. the from Histria dignities such as would follow

Ferluga, Ferluga, For interpretation seeBenussi, Nelmedio evo CDI 230 , I, 54, 113: .. 54, I, , Gentlemen and Officers This widespread diffusion of the formerly highest in Italy titles highest formerly of the diffusion This widespread The dignity of of dignity The The example of the of the example The .

seventh century the focus of the Byzantine government in Italy shifted from the north north the from shifted Italy in government Byzantine the of focus the century seventh magistri militum

, and and , Only Only

L'esarcato From this passage itis clear how the dignitysystem worked, all through the eighth By century. 229

their their colleagues from Venice, southernDalmatia, Italy or Sicily in obtaining other So, for example, if the tribunus the if example, for So, magnificus the title of patricius of title the

protospatharius t. Other offices were also debased. The high office of of office high The debased. also were offices Other t. , 358., et quiet volebat meliorem honore hypatos

, , once reserved for senatorial senatorial for reserved once , duces , 53 hypatos

is the only such honor attested in Histria. Provincialonlyinhonor attested thesuchofficials Histria. is probably -

60, 205 and and , however,, the Frankishoccupation, around forever 788, detached

or tribuni

-208; Brown, Interplay

pre consulus

of Pola, the most prominent city in Histria. Histria. in city prominent most the Pola, of served its high status, being confined to the exarch the being exarch to confined its status, high served , 37;, Vergottini, Lineamenti had the privilegeof sitting next to the magister militum . For. instance, Gulfari held the title

of Parentium got (or bought) the dignity of hypatos of dignity the bought) (or got Parentium of 69 shows how the value of dignities had sunk. Once

m habere Tribuno, de ambulabat ad Imperium, quod realpolitik élite , 136. , but by but date, this being attributed to

. armies, by the eighth century had had century eighth the by armies,

One should not forget that d that forget not should One , 35;, Ferluga, L’Istria magister militum 228 may be may

In the case o case the In gloriosus magister gloriosus magister

a reflection of of a reflection , 180. Also see see Also 180. , es es , which , in f Histria, Histria, f illustris uring uring , he he , ,

CEU eTD Collection To explain To p this of prestige. matter a became titles meaning original their indicated necessary not 233 232 231 by supposedly written Strategikon government. central the the fifth, and mobility, army of extent the fourth, supply, and methods of support the third, tactics, and army organization second, of recruitment, methods enemy? l much of a assault the in surviving succeeded manpower, and local resources on mainly survival. very its for fighting w the sixth century, late during the Moreover, information. few scarce are give and conflicts of accounts and province of the organization military the with legislation dealing no is There Histria? armyin Byzantine a professional there Was examples given the appropriate, more benot could fishinbigtitles:“beingsmaller ponds.” a smaller and as used himself settled in Sicily. Rome than north further reached never that II Constans emperor of expedition military exampleis the A good Hellenized. heavily became which Italy, Sicilysouthern to and - ell

Ferluga, Ferluga, Brown, 130. Ferluga, see expedition, II of Constans siginificance On the documented imperial army that had won the Gothic war transformed into an army an army into transformed war Gothic had the won imperial that army documented For Histria there are two principal sources that can help to illuminate this issue, the the issue, this illuminate to help can that sources principal two are there Histria For the first, features: several by examining determined be can army of the The status It is difficultfor a L'organizazione militare dell'esarcato, 379. and and

Placitum Risani

emperor Maurice, explains the Byzantine military organization in the inthe organization military Byzantine the explains Maurice, emperor

231

historian to assess the position of the army in Byzantine Histria. Histria. Byzantine in army the of position the assess to historian Also, by the eighth century the military titles such as tribunus as such titles military the century eighth the by Also,

233

, a late sixth a , Strategikon The . The question is how the provincial defense force based based force defense provincial the how is question The 70

only .

. However in the provincial society such society such in provincial However the . L'esarcato henomenon , 364-365.

strength of the ties it had with with had it ties the of strength 232 Brown used a expression used Brown , - century military manual manual military century for which I think that it for which that think I

; the emperor emperor ; the arger arger

did did

of of CEU eTD Collection Dennis, Dennis, 93-108. 235 234 the barbarians, of hiring and the recruitment voluntary applied, were of recruitment methods in seems that t It raiseits army. own to needed exarchate problemmobility of be willaddressedlater. I through moved forces an as position their with consistent is Italy inByzantine soldiers the of position privileged and wealth The aristocracy. military of the th on puts treatise this TheStrategikon emphasis . and bow, shield, equippedlance, sword, mentionedinthe same a with the weapons were soldiers that records which I, Martin by Pope letter is a however, source, important One weap burying of tradition the ended Christianity enemies. their suggesting that the Byzantines stillmaintained a high standard of training. demande which theatre, Italian the for developed army the of up line the it describes Also, manpower. of lack achronic for compensate to Byzantines by the introduced anovelty warfare, use of guerilla the advocates and fighting, modes of exploited, sho that weaknesses enemy discusses It Italy. in conditions actual the on based employed against the principal enemies -- init victory Gothic had the won that tactics change the imperialhadto army the pressure Lombard constant the survive against to order In Italy. to applied also which indetail, empire

On the letter of , and its application to Byzantine cavalry, see Brown, Gentlemen and officers Strategikon

Maurice’s Strategikon As noted above, after the imperial above,As the noted after defend supplyitself to soldiers up, of dried the of that about than army imperial the of armament about known is less much Sadly, Strategikon the things, other Among s, XI, XI, s, for4, drill for Italy, Slav For 5. VI, interpretation for see 3, T. G. XI, Lombards the on , taly suggests that the army still consisted mainly of cavalry. The The cavalry. of mainly consisted still army the that suggests taly , 119-120.

élite Lombards, Avars, and Slavs -- Slavs and Avars, Lombards, 71

cavalry. discusses in detail tactics that should be be should that tactics in detail discusses e cavalry seems apt, especially in the ranks in ranks especially the apt, seems e cavalry 235

- seventh he Also, the mobility by which local local which by mobility the Also, ons in the graves of soldiers. soldiers. of graves inthe ons d a great deal of precise drill, drill, precise deal of a great d century exarchate two two exarchate century 234 and appears to be be to appears and

uld be war. war. - ,

CEU eTD Collection here, servis facit noshoste in ambulare,libertos nostros abstulit advenas hostesponimus. 241 240 239 militum’ magister 238 237 668 2, vol. , Empire Roman Later Jones, Byzantine Army c. 550 236 (accession emperor the from gifts occasional to right the taxation, from immunity partial as such diffic without not was this that seems it but pay, their receive to Ravenna to emissaries their send to had commanders provincial the spot, on pay received administration. Byzantine of problem chronic a been have to this seemsbut regularly, arrive always not did pay The counterparts. eastern their with equal militum seve and sixth inlate the good relatively were conditions Soldier’s status. a special enjoyed soldiers it. on working men 200 than more with Neapolis, around The attractive. service military made privilege this that indicate in could 591, earliest the landat Th necessary. was recruitment forced method, athird that it unlikely make of soldiers status privileged the men.freeby battle accompanied to going The tribuni situation. similar rule. Byzantine of period first the only during latter tribuni As argued Pola was center of the Byzantine Histria, but it maybe possible that Neapolis had a role of the For more about obtaining the pay see Borri, Duces e magistri Borri, see pay militum the obtaining about more For Ravegnani, Jones, CDI For methods of recruitment i liberos homines Placitum Risani , the military commanders. military the , , 54, 113:, I, In addition to the pay, soldiers had a number of privileges that kept them at their posts, posts, their kept them at that privileges of number hada soldiers pay, the to In addition -- morale army’s the retain To , received annual annual received , Later Roman Empire Roman Later nth century. nth donatives Soldati e prosperous position of soldiers in Ravenna, where they are recorded as owning as owning recorded are where they in Ravenna, soldiers position of e prosperous s temporary seat, as he had his lands around the town. F Tribunatos nob , are soldiers, as the people who lamented to the missi the to lamented who people the as soldiers, are , , 104- -950. study A onthe originsof Stratiotika ktemata (Vienna,. 1979), 20- ) and from their commanders. Living at the fron the at Living commanders. their from and ) 239

records that the magister the militum that records 115.

The high commanders in Byzantine Italy, exarchs, duce exarchs, Italy, Byzantine in commanders high The , vol 2, 678 2, vol , stipendium

n the Byzantine army, seeHaldon,

presen is abstulit;liberos homines nonnos habere permittit, sed tantum cum nostris -669. -679; Also see Pertusi, Ordinamenti militari t at the plea held near Rižana mentioned that they were they were that mentioned near plea Rižana the held at t

from the emperor, which, at least formally, made them them made formally, least at which, emperor, the from

crucial for survival of the society under siege -- siege under society the of survival for crucial 237

- well disciplined, for need The 72

236

Histria can be assumed to have had a had have to be assumed can Histria 238

of Histria owned substan

, 14. , ulties. erluga, erluga, Recruitment and Conscription in the 240

Unlike ordinary milites had beenhad to prior arrival Frankish 241 L’Istria

tier, they had a special hada special they tier, 663-664 , The free men mentioned mentioned men free The

180. trained troops and troops trained

s and and s 8, Also se Alsose 8, tial land land tial magistri magistri , who who , the the CEU eTD Collection 246 245 244 243 242 rationsis since and supplies, compulsory there of a record of the purchase in grain 686. wit soldiers provide still could authority military local the century and soldiers. could offer substantialleast opportunities until At to the the seventh end of sources of payment. hadother amagister militum case, was the tribuni of the allowances amongthe inthe ceased pay cash that is possible It Lateran palace by a Roman garrison from and troops surroundingin strongholds 638. verylife. his and Maurice his cost ca could delay its however, resumed, still Pay landholdings. from income considerable Thismade possible soldiers. landto by giving replaced were payments part keep su of the able to theybecause were presumably system, havethis appear to preferred troops the paid and in were cash, equipment booty. any share to of benefit marriage, abuse, and rent, and this gave soldiers a major incentive towards the vigorous vigorous the towards incentive major a soldiers and gave this rent, and abuse, marriage, mil by only be obtained to need not did land This lands. their of rents the from produce and live could soldiers century seventh the century basis, if not in money, then in nature, providing an additional pay. Also seeHaldon, Byzantium in sevenththe local military authorities still could maintain traditional Roman policyo troops? provincial for banker a being Grado of patriarch with stored there, which implied that pope was some was of sort time banker.to Was time perhapsthere from sent similara situation emperor in pay that the that them by assuring palace the into break to troops the incited

M. Whittow, TheMaking of Orthodox Byzantium Brown, Maurice LP Liber Pontificalis Liber , I, 366. I, , The purchase of demonstrates grain that although a large number of soldiers posses did the land, , 231 , These examples show that the military had complete control over the administration administration the over control complete hadmilitary the that show examples These cash the worsened, situation the as century, eighth and seventh late the During Gentlemen andOfficers , IX, 3. For 3. Strategikon, IX, , -232.

, I,, 23 Particularly interesting is the information tha , 87, Haldon, 23,67, -68. Recruitment

interpretation see in Brown, Gentlemen and Officers 242

’s control over his soldiers was not weakened because he still still he because weakened not was soldiers his over control ’s In the early seventh century the allowances for supplies and and supplies for allowances the century seventh early the In of Histria mentioned in the Placitum Risani the in mentioned Histria of itary service, but could also be acquired by inheritance, byinheritance, be could acquired but also service, itary , 69 244 m for themselves. for m 73

-

Also, the lack of pay caused the sack of the sackof the the lack caused the ofAlso, pay 72.

late seventh century, as it is not recorded recorded not isit as century, seventh late

243 f soldiers their supplying on regular t their leader, chartularius leader, their t

use unrest. The delay in pay pay in delay The unrest. use h atleast a portion of their , 86. ,

. Even if this this if Even . 245

Maurice, Maurice,

Histria, 246

By By CEU eTD Collection 249 248 247 import an played they that and period Byzantine the of end the until mobile remained Histria Lombards. from the capital troops 733, of in units in 668, murdered Syracuse Constans was Wheninvaders. II emperor Slav he defeated C exarch of case the mentioned was already It exception. no was Histria Italy and over dominance of Byzantine period highfor degree mobility of and Evidence discipline. professionalism befound the can through differentiated sharply and military organization of tradition Roman strong the defence of their own properties and communities. from the exarch and emperor. emperor. exarch and from the them alienated but class, provincial military the among ties strengthened that identity strong a developed They possessions. own their preserve to but Constantinople, in government the of possessions the preserve to fought longer no century eighth and seventh late the of army exarchate’s the words, In other of warfare. course the changed and basis ideological army’s n this did However, hierarchy. andtheir recruitment intheir both local character increasingly an assumed stationed at theresources emperor’s disposal,seventh duringin the century troops the Italy Cons with ties which weakened factors fromirregular troops of Lombards, Avars or Slavs. exercitus Histriae of exercitus existence

Brown, Brown, Brown, HL, 5 exercitus Italiae ant role in the exercitus Italie the in role ant Mobility is another piece of evidence wh evidence piece of another is Mobility Besides constant hostile pressure and religious schism, interruption of pay was one of interruptionBesides hostileschism, constant of was of and religious one pay pressure ,12, ,12, Gentlemen andOfficers Gentlemen andOfficers Milites aliiperHistriam, aliiper partesCampaniae, Africae, Sardiniae, from Venetia, and supposedly Histria, too, marched to Ravenna to recover the recover the Ravenna to marched to too, Histria, andfromsupposedly Venetia,

ot leadot ato breakdown of discipline and cohesion, althoughit weakened rushed from Campania and Histria to suppressfromHistriaCampania the rebellion.rushed and to , 180,, 249 , 91. Empire Roman Later Jones, , 88;

allinicus who in 599 personally led the army in Histria, where where Histria, in army the led personally in 599 who allinicus These cases demonstrate that the armed forces of Byzantine offorces armed Byzantine the that demonstrate These cases

.

tantinople. With the gradual reduction of the financial financial the of reduction gradual With the tantinople. 74

ich shows that the exarchical army retained a a retained army exarchical the that shows ich 247

The soldier’s privileged status preserved preserved status privileged soldier’s The , Vol. 2, 678 2, , Vol. -679.

Ferluga supposed the exercitus Italiae 248

Also in Also

CEU eTD Collection prior prior goingto crush to t magister of the militum seat Pola was the period exarchate. of the into function even its likely and continued war, Gothic alr have to known is which Pola, was this Histria 251 250 government. central loyaltythe to encourage to as asymbol standard the to attached was importance argu has Brown army. Byzantine the in position important an held still bearers numeri Histrian ofbearers the T incense. Graecorum, magister militum official, Byzantine high a with meet Pola to to came Histria, of metropolitan Placitum Risani the from evidence on Based entry. ceremonial his during escort his as acted and city the from distance some dignitary met the local leaders garrison of the the high official, a visit by a mayfrom Histria, involvedhave been in Justinian the coup against in II 695. exercitus Italiae from the A detachment Constantinople. with strengthen ties made to were attempts Various exercitus Italiae the for point gathering principal The war. to going Dumbarton Oaks Research Library Collection), and 47. internal diaspora of the Byzantine Empire

Ferluga, Ferluga, McCormick, “The Imperial Edge: Italo The army also played an important role in the official ceremonies. On the occasion of of occasion the On ceremonies. in official role the important playedan The also army character. much professional its of retained army the indications that other are There before point acentralat rallying assembled local strongholds of the The garrisons

was still peformed in peformed still was L'organizazione hese standards should be identified as military banners militarybe as banners ( hese identified should standards he was welcomed in adventusan he was welcomed

, McCormick has shown that during the eighth century the imperial ritual of of ritual imperial the century eighth the during that shown has McCormick ,

served at the imperial palace in 687, andfrom and troops Ravenna, in possibly 687, imperial palace the at served , 383., he rebellion of 668. of rebellion he

, and itis possible that Histriae the exercitus . Furthermore, from the Strategikon Furthermore, .

Byzantine provincial society. provincial Byzantine -Byzanti , ed. Helene Ahrweler and Angeliki E. Laiou (Washington, D.C: D.C: (Washington, Laiou E. Angeliki and Ahrweler Helene ed. ,

ne ne identity, Movement and Integration,” in

75

ceremony featuring standards, candelabra, and and candelabra, standards, featuring ceremony eady served as an assembly point during the the during point assembly an as served eady 251

If the patriarch of Grado, the Grado, of If patriarch the it can be seen that these flag flag it bethese can seen that ), paraded byflag signa),

was Ravenna.

assembled there ed that great great that ed Studies on the the Studies on 250

For For CEU eTD Collection armies had even some success, like when they forced the Lombard patriarch of Aquilea to move his seat to to Cormons, or when seat they his defeated move king to Liutprand’s army 739. Aquilea in of HL patriarch Lombard the forced they when like success, some even had armies men, having similar experiences as milites as experiences similar having men, duces thewas, even beginning army at ofeighta the century, of solidarity. of soldier 256 255 254 253 252 century. re a maintain to Byzantines the helped army professional and disciplined highly a reinforcements, and of resources shortage army.achronic despite Thus, fortunate most the and people, clergy, the the ordination concerning the prompt to d an edict popes he of addresse when this recognized IV Constantine strength. army reinforced that solidarity the up build helped distinctiveness individual. an than body rather corporate a commemorates that seal Byzantine of a ta exerchitus adiu deus Italiae inscription the carries which seal Latin a is composed oflandowners who onlyfought part amere stratum social to haddegenerated army provincial the view that the refute superiors from commands to andresponsiveness military procedures, to adherence their mobility, their recruitment, voluntary their with together This, discipline. and traditions own its with political andsocial power, but as evidence that theysti

Zaccos, Zaccos, Jones, Li Brown, The Exarchate fell in fell Exarchate The ber Diurnus

and and s who proved their ability in the field, being rewarded with an office. This caused strong sense sense strong caused This office. an with rewarded being field, the in ability their proved who s Perhaps the most dramatic example of the cohesiveness of the imperial forces in Italy inItaly forces imperial the of cohesiveness the of example dramatic most the Perhaps florentissimo to atque felicissimo romano exercitu references numerous Rome, In of expression an as simply seen be not should units army local of activities These 256 Later Roman Empire Roman Later Gentlemen andOfficers Verglery, Byzantine Lead Seals, I, (Basle, 1972) magistri militum

254 silient and insilient remaining aggressivelate as as posture their the eighth possessions

, , 115. More about the status of the army Hartmann, in Untersuchungen

751, after almost twocenturies of under constant being Lombard pressure. Byzantine , being, soldiers themselves, did not havedifficulty to attain the of trust their , 386, Ravegani, 83 PIB, 83 73, f344, Haldon, Byzantium, 180 Ravegani, 386, , , 93.

that theycommanded. 76 -

time.

basic componentof theis society. true It that 252

, V ll constituted a distinct imperial body body imperial a distinct constituted ll I,54, 51,56. 253

Many of them were ordinary ordinary were them of Many

, 66-67. , . This is a rare case case arare is This .

, show that that show , 255

Such Such CEU eTD Collection of Byzantine admini Byzantine of ineightkeystoneduchyducats. Thus, of the century vanishedof frontin became the autonomy rising 257 Italy. southern the in primarily focusing forces with Byzantine Exarchate, the endthe of marked in Ravenna 751 duces local of election This Leo led murderIII. to of exarch emperor Paul the and of policy iconoclastic opposed rapidly. crumbled acceptance this threats, serious repel to unable it proved and irksome, became intervention emp the once But independence. local andlife itthreaten didlongnot as as continued local of solidarity and positions Lombar the from threat constant The enemy. common the against solidarity defensive of feelings Exarchate’s whenever it suited in them, as thecaseof obtaining dignities from the capital. élite se early It iseasy not describe to relationship betweenexarchate the and theempire. Duringlate the sixth and The Evolution of Autonomy Tendencies in Histria For more about rebellion see Haldon, see Ideology and Social change rebellion about more For Italy. in base secure more from empire of the enemies the opposing effectively of more in hope perhaps emperor, H with more connected be seen should 619 in of exarch rebellion unsucesfull way the same the In of power. a retaking religious. population. Theof scopemost w revolts activity. separatist with connected not were they happened they when and rare, quite

The revolt of chartularius of revolt The . They. enjoyed powerful a and privileged position, andwere prepared to use central machinery venth centuries, being under imperial umbrella waslocal imperial generallyventhmilitary centuries, the beingfor under umbrella favorable The first “real” case of separatism occurred in the revolt of 726 revolt inthe occurred separatism of “real” case first The The to revolts appear be lessexpression the of individual than themovement of whole the 257 Paradoxically, it was the empire’s treaty with the Lombards in 680 that weakened weakened that in680 Lombards with the treaty empire’s the it was Paradoxically, ds and the inability of the central government to intervene strengthened the the strengthened intervene to government central the of inability the and ds

strative systemin Italy, with duces eraclius’ defeats against Persians, which encouraged exarch to proclaim himself as as himself proclaim to exarch encouraged which Persians, against defeats eraclius’ .

Maurice 640 in can be interpreted more like unsatisfaction for delayed pay, than as The both powers held by the exarch,The held powers the both civil,particularlymilitary but one by

élite s. The local élite The s. as limited, and the primary motives were either fiscal or or fiscal either were motives primary and the limited, as 77

taking the political leadership. , 178 , ’s passive acceptance of the empire empire the of acceptance ’s passive -179; Ferluga, L'esarcato - 727, when exarchate exarchate when 727, Thus, Thus, rebellions were were rebellions , 362 The fall of of fall The -363.

ire’s CEU eTD Collection that this tribute was collected by imperial envoys, who visited Histria only for that occasion. that for only Histria visited who envoys, imperial by collected was tribute this that had had Charlemagnewillhelpnot them,is it better them for to die, thanlivein to conditions. such de de centum capita ovium, q. habebat, unum. duces of local appointment in resulted rebellion the as case, be the cannot to the end of the document document of the end the to (exenia) for the emperor and personally deliver it to him to it deliver personally and emperor the for (exenia) mentioned as a mean of pay. This coin is recognized as amancus as recognized is coin This of pay. amean as mentioned 263 262 261 260 259 militum magister by led the still was Histria century eighth the the that see Placitum could one Risani Histrian troops may participate in the 726’ rebellion as a part of Venetiarum exercita. 258 Histria. over rule Frankish of years initial the during 804, in assembly for evidence empire. the loyal to remained Histria that it seems period, Byzantine late the during autonomy a considerable having Although was Histria. Adriatic northern on possession nobis mori, quam vivere. faciebamus, et veniat Missus de Populo una mecum, et ofl'erat ipsos exenios ad Dominum Imperatorem. ties w may suggest Byzantine rule.From their c military local that conditions good the to references of I will limitmyself toexamples that describe relation between Histria and Constantino Byzantine system theone. to feudal However, to analyzenew allofwill them necessary, a thesis so be glories, thelocal times, when instead being humiliated they were honoured with imperial dignities. Recalling their past friendly relations only. relations friendly

Another evidence can help to date events mentioned in Placitum. In Placitum. in mentioned events date to help can evidence Another Mi propter si semel erat, necesse in anno, Graecorum colligebamus Tempore CDI, CDI quote Latin PR, CDI Different idea is supported by HeFerluga. that argues if unity et Histria of Venetia was broken, not the a hundred or more sheep would eachwould sheep more or hundred a ith the emperor. the ith , 54, , , 54, 1, 54, 114. nobis, Si succurrit Dominus Carolus , possumus evadere:sinautem melius est Besides Venice, which formed its own duchy in remai only duchy 726, formedits own Besides Venice, which of ties with Constantinople with ties of A confirmation

1, 114, Colligamus exenia ad Dominum Imperatorcm sicut tempore Graecorum

not only thatHistria during their lifewas under Byzantine also rule,but it indicates the

élite

loyalty can be found in in found be can loyalty

263 to links striking their described

259

It is mentioned d that a omplaints one can clearly see the transformationof theold Romano striking statementmay be fo

contribute a contribute Placitum Risani 78 uring the Byzantine rule

is mentioned by capitanei by mentioned is the centre of power, power, of centre the

one . élite 260

, a Byzantine derivate from the arab manqush, It seems tribute a seems emperor. as sheep It the to

Also, und, a statement of the the of statement a und,

, adocum , antiquo tempore, during antiquo the the in had the tribute list solidi mancosi

, including the the including , once inyear a th ent recording the provincial provincial the recording ent links thatsuggestmore than local elite local -s Placitum Risani

remember sos Imperiales: sos dux Myopinion is tha

e of Venice; and from from and of Venice;

ple. ning Byzantine Byzantine ning landowners who landowners who capitanei

collected gifts

ing are are .

good old 261

262 258

that if st is full Close Close

t this rong This This The The - CEU eTD Collection this this period. See, Ferluga, 183. to be dated can Placitum in described events the Thus, century. seventh late during only use in came was which elites disappeared from records Franks the to Histria gave Franks, and Byzantium between 812, in Aachen of peace elite by 780’s reachedits apex. charge for being being for charge Maurice bishop the remember may One Fra and Byzantines both to ally Histriannobility achieved desirable being considerablea power, It is possible that following Adriatic. fall the of Ravenna,over the control for Franks and Byzantium d first The events. political contemporary the local élite Moreover, from the

were restored.find happened? Whymust this on To look one the solution, a the take a Frankisha spy. Comparing this evidence with from

Placitum .

Maybe theyeven planne

it can be seen at that the endof the assembly, the privileges of ; fromfirst the chapter; whowas blindedlocals by a under ecade ninth of the centurywastime a of betweenwar the 79

However, the the However, state. own their establish d to Placitum , it seems that Histrian Histrian that seems it , and by that date date that by and , nks. nks.

CEU eTD Collection link with emperor in Constantinople. This was done on different ways. As I argued in the the in argued I As ways. different on done was This Constantinople. in emperor with link travel maritime communication which early.so province in the matters administrative the control over took local elite the why was areason own their preserve to more fighting ethos; military by Lombard, Slav and forces, Avar pen entire saw the which of as castrization, process later started to search for shelter onhilltops islands, or leaving lowland settlements. This resulted the developed aristocracy military local why reason the was this Probably 599. in episode Callinicus’ Histria after to exarch for coming record no is and there rare, also were whic Venetia, conquering of majormainlandhadcommunication568 thesevered Lombards part route at itself found Histria century sixth late the during (Cividale), Iulii Forum in capital Lombard Beingchanged to close everything. in568 Lombards of arrival the However, of Italy. with rest the incontrast sharp conflicts, military significant no were there invasion Lombard Until anomaly. an as more acted thesis the in prove to tried I As Lombard invasion Lombard early caused senseinsecurity, of period. permanent population so

further strengthened further The matter that I found very interesting during my research is maintaining of stro of maintaining is research my during interesting very found I that matter The Opposed siege. under itself found society Histrian century seventh early the During .

Also, as seenfrom the thesis, those soldiers developed some kind of solidarity, h isolatedh Histriafrom the rest of Imperial Italy. Theinterventions of the exarch .

ople Constantin and Italy with

their group.

,

althou In In devastation. and plunders line suffering fire, of first the Conclusions the local military elite

gh it was p was it gh It must be supposed that province must beIt supposedmaintained that regula 80

, as Pola was the city closest Ravena to by lands than for the Exarchate. Probably this this Probably Exarchate. the for than lands art exarchate, of the art

insula walled and fortified. and walled insula a certain certain a developed probably

the the provincia

autonomy from from autonomy

Histria ng ng r

CEU eTD Collection period. turbulent that in changes the of understanding better the to contribution administra which was inmentioned close connection, that found the thingHowever, I andfor quitepuzzling, whichmore that r strengthen ties. ways to efficient most of one was of diginities conferring the chapter, second Athough I know that thereis much say to about transformation ofsociety and

do hope that the present analysis may be seen as a a as seen be may analysis present the that hope do I Histria, Byzantine in tion maintained even after fall exarchate. of the after even maintained Placitum Risani 81

, between Constantinople and Histria, Histria, and Constantinople between , esearch is necessary is is necessary is esearch

CEU eTD Collection 264 Figures Appendix

B. Marušić, Kasnoantička i Bizantska Pula, Bizantska i Kasnoantička Marušić, B.

1.

Fig. 1Map of Byzantine Histria

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193. Histria 6(2000): antiqua 9- 190.

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Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Byzantinistik

15 (1968): 860- 15 (1968): Holy Bishops Late in Antiquity: The Nature Christian of Leadership anAge in 148.

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VIII secolo),” secolo),” VIII owth the of Medieval City. London: Longman, 1997. 7 (1998): 77- [Antique Pula]Arheološki Pula: muzej 1978. Istre,

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lia ed. Shepard. J. New York: OUP, 2009. 927. . Milan:. Il 2004. Mulino, - kompozicijske značajke rimskih vila rustika i ljetnikovaca ljetnikovaca i rustika vila rimskih značajke kompozicijske

l'Italia alpina nord alpina l'Italia 84. . London: Routledge, 1992. Antichita AltoadriaticheAntichita 200.

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23 (1972): 343-

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CEU eTD Collection HandbookThe Oxford of DictionaryThe Oxford of Byzantium Cambridge University 2008. Press, York: New Whitby. Michael and Perkins Ward Bryan Cameron, Averil Ed. The Cambridge Anci The Mark. ofMaking Byzantium 600 Whittow, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998. Wickham 2007 Marina. Matijašić. Vicelja Archeografo Triestino Risano,” de Placito “Il Ramiro. Udina, Treadgold, Warren.Byzantium andits Army Treadgold, York The Cambridge the History of Byzantine Empire c. 500— Dynamic Splendor Maguire. Henry and Ann Terry, medievo,” nell'alto 273- l'Istria e Friuli “Il Amelio. Tagliaferri, bizantina d'Italia (VI Le Italie bizantine Enrico. Zanini, Julian Jaroslav. Šašel, Histria Archeologica 26(1995): 58 Government], Roman of time “Unutrašnjost______. Istre muzej 2000. Arheološki Pula: 10/II, i katalozi Monografije Liburnija, II, Liburnia] ______. Opvscvla Archaeologica in Histria], lands [Imperial Histriji” u posjedi “Carski Alka. Starac,

Eufrasius at Poreč at Eufrasius 18, 1 No. (1994): 133 Press, 1996. 1995. , Chris. TheMountains andthe City. The Tuscan Appenines the in Middle Ages.

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: territorio, insediamenti ed economia nella provincia Oxford: OUP, 1991. Oxford: OUP, Kazhdan. Ed. . - alpskega obrambnega področja” [On the History of the the of History the [On področja” obrambnega alpskega

14/15 (1974): 255- . . Ed. Elizabeth 2008. Oxford: Jeffreys. OUP,

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1025. , [Roman government in Histria and and Histria in government [Roman ,

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