DOCSLIB.ORG

Via Issuelab

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Via Issuelab ROCKEFELLER ARCHIVE CENTER RESEARCH REPO RTS Politics of the Past: Archaeology, Nationalism, and Diplomacy in Afghanistan, 1919–2001 by J. Eva Meharry University of Cambridge © 2020 by J. Eva Meharry Abstract This research report provides edited excerpts from my PhD thesis, “Politics of the Past: Archaeology, Nationalism and Diplomacy in Afghanistan, 1919–2001,” submitted to the Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge. The aim of the thesis was to assess the relationship between nationalist agendas and the discipline of archaeology in Afghanistan from 1919 to 2001. The material collected from the Rockefeller Archive Center (RAC) contributed to Chapter 5 of the thesis, which focused on the political period 1946–1978 in Afghanistan, when Afghan leaders began to open the country to international archaeological teams. At the RAC, I was particularly interested in uncovering material pertaining to a travelling exhibition of artefacts from the National Museum of Afghanistan, which opened at Asia House in New York City in 1966. The following segments also draw on archival material from the JFK Library in Boston, Massachusetts and the National Archives in Delhi, India. The material collected from the RAC helped demonstrate how Afghan leaders used archaeology to build diplomatic relations with key allies, including Japan and the United States, during the 1960s. 2 RAC RESEARCH REPORTS Overview Afghanistan was one of many states across the Asian continent that were swept up in the broad wave of nationalism and pan-Islamic movements following the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire after World War One. Gaining independence from British imperial control in 1919, 1 Afghan political leaders stridently endeavored to forge a nation among an ethnically, linguistically, and religiously divided people, while also attempting to assert that nation-state against British influence in the new world order. Archaeology proved to be one means of promoting these political agendas. Afghan leaders turned to foreign archaeologists to develop Afghanistan’s archaeological discipline by signing a diplomatic cultural agreement with France in the 1920s and further agreements with strategic allies from the 1950s onwards, including India, Italy, Japan, and the U.S. The country’s archaeological sites and collections housed at the National Museum of Afghanistan in the capital of Kabul served as potent national symbols that helped bolster national pride and assert territorial boundaries against foreign influence and intervention. Consequently, successive twentieth-century political leaders embraced archaeology and the National Museum as symbols of the Afghan nation, which they propagated through state-sponsored material to national and international communities. Decade of Democracy (1960s) In 1963, King Zaher Shah forced Prime Minister Daoud into early retirement, ending the “Decade of Daoud.” In its place rose the so-called “Decade of Democracy,” an era of hastened social reform in the 1960s. During this period, King Zaher Shah oversaw the promulgation of the 1964 Constitution, which was known as the “birth of democracy in Afghanistan.” The constitution was intended to lead the country into a period of greater governmental accountability and citizen participation in order to build national pride and unity.2 The document was drafted by a Constitutional Advisory Commission composed of 26 members, drawn from a range of economic, political, religious, and social life, and 3 unprecedently included two women.3 The constitution granted greater rights to political parties and minority groups while barring royalty from holding political positions. 4 This reform allowed the Communist People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) to form in 1965, which had been hitherto suppressed under Daoud’s tight grip; its establishment would have profound political ramifications in the decades ahead.5 Yet for many Afghans, the 1964 Constitution “signaled the end of authoritarian rule and established the framework for a parliamentary democracy,” as well as inaugurated an era of greater inclusiveness.6 International Travelling Exhibitions and Diplomatic Relations While the museum collections were being promoted at home with support from UNESCO, Afghanistan’s prized antiquities were also drawing crowds abroad. Temporary exhibitions were employed to showcase in other countries Afghanistan’s rich heritage and national independence and promote cultural exchange. As a report on the National Museum of Afghanistan noted, international exhibitions “have often taken place on the occasion of the Independence Day.”7 Following World War Two, the National Museum Director Ahmad Ali Kohzad organized several small exhibitions abroad: in 1946 in Calcutta for the Conference of Asiatic Countries and in 1956 at the Cultural Festival of African and Asian Countries in Cairo. 8 By the 1960s, Afghanistan had signed friendship treaties with eighteen countries to promote cultural relations.9 As part of this agenda, the National Museum’s collections travelled to Italy, Japan, and the U.S.10 These locations were all key states with which Afghanistan sought to build stronger foreign relations. While Italy was one of the first European states to sign a treaty with Afghanistan in the 1920s, Japan and the U.S. took longer to develop diplomatic relations. However, they proved to be valuable allies as Afghanistan opened further on the world stage in the mid-twentieth century.11 4 RAC RESEARCH REPORTS Afghan-Japanese Relations Afghanistan and Japan shared close diplomatic ties, signing a treaty of friendship in 1930 and establishing legations in 1933–1934. In Seraj ul-Akhbar, a government-sponsored newspaper in Afghanistan dated 1911–1919, its founder Mahmud Tarzi described Japan as an alternative model of progress to Western ones, notable for maintaining its customs and monarchy.12 In Afghan schools, children were taught, incorrectly, that Afghanistan and Japan gained independence at the same time, and should be viewed as a model of progress, as well as the countries shared historical link to Buddhism along the “Silk Road.” The “Young Afghans,” a progressive movement modelled on the “Young Turks,” had been encouraged by Japan’s victory in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, which saw the defeat of imperial power by a small Asiatic one. 13 As foreign secretary, Mahmud Tarzi had attempted to forge diplomatic relations with Japan in the 1920s, but the Japanese delayed diplomatic engagement following advice from the British.14 Tarzi also personally translated a five-volume account of the Russo-Japanese War.15 Diplomatic relations with Japan stopped in 1946, as one of the defeated Axis powers, but resumed in 1955. In 1959, the Afghan Prime Minister Mohammed Daoud Khan visited Japan. King Zaher Shah and Queen Humaira visited Japan in 1969, and the Japanese Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko made a reciprocal visit in 1971, visiting Aï Khanum, Bamiyan, Kabul, Kunduz and other sites. 16 Impressed by their visit to Bamiyan, the Empress penned a poem: There at Bamiyan Under a moon faintly red The great stone Buddhas, Their sacred faces shattered, Are still awesomely standing.17 In 1963, collections from the National Museum of Afghanistan travelled to Tokyo for a ten-day exhibition, drawing over 80,000 visitors, before travelling to Osaka and Nagoya.18 The new Director of the National Museum, Ahmad Ali Motamedi, who accompanied the exhibition, “stated that Japanese newspapers expressed 5 their admiration for the profound thinking, resourcefulness and skill with which the exhibited arts were created.” 19 The Japanese people were particularly impressed by the relics from Bamiyan, just as their empress had been, in part owing to Japan’s shared Buddhist heritage with Afghanistan. The newspaper article continued, A piece from the wall of Bamiyan’s statue on which two birds are painted, for instance, received the name of beauty. This piece was highly admired in the cultural circles of Japan and recognized as probably the most valuable piece of Afghanistan’s ancient arts in the exhibition.20 The article also reflected on the importance of cultural relations between the two nations and anticipated further exchange to come: “The uniqueness of the exhibition was reflected in the fact that the collections could provide new inspiration for archaeologists and historians interested in the study of Afghanistan’s culture, and other ancient civilizations of the Middle East.”21 The exhibition also resulted in an unintended type of cultural exchange: the National Museum director married a Japanese woman, Haruko Tsuchiya, who subsequently published a book on the National Museum in Japanese.22 Afghan-U.S. Relations Spurred by competition with the Soviet Union during the Cold War, the U.S. expanded economic aid, along with cultural and educational activities in the 1950s–1960s. 23 In 1958, the Afghan Prime Minister Daoud Khan and U.S. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles signed a cultural exchange agreement on behalf of their respective nations, leading to numerous exchanges over the next two decades.24 The following year, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower paid a brief visit to King Zaher Shah in Kabul, discussing concerns over the Cold War, U.S. mediation in Afghanistan’s relations with Pakistan and Iran, and development aid.25 6 RAC RESEARCH REPORTS King Zaher Shah and Queen Humaira made an official visit to the U.S. in September 1963, the first visit by an Afghan monarch, and were received by President John F. Kennedy. As a diplomatic
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Qutb Minar: Religion and Power in 13Th-Century India Professor Munis Faruqui (Department of South and Southeast Asian Studies, UC Berkeley)
    The Making of a Modern Myth Qutb Minar: Religion and Power in 13th-Century India Professor Munis Faruqui (Department of South and Southeast Asian Studies, UC Berkeley) I. Introduction India is the world’s largest democracy, and has the world’s second largest population of Muslims. Over the last few decades, deep religious divisions have appeared between the Hindu majority and the Muslim minority, who comprise 12–15 percent of the population. Extremists in either community have stoked violent religious conflict in ways that will be discussed shortly. Most of the violence in recent history has occurred in the form of pogroms. Most of the victims are Muslims. There are at least two critical threads that link contemporary anti-Muslim violence: first, a rising tide of Hindu nationalism. Second, much of the violence has been continuously stoked by rhetoricians’ use of an exaggerated and distorted history of endless conflict between these two groups—especially during the period when Muslim political authorities dominated northern India (c. 1200–1750). According to Hindu nationalists, the experience under the Muslims was oppressive, the Muslim rulers tyrannical, Hindu temples were destroyed, and so on. So the current anti- Muslim pogroms are payback, as the more extreme elements among the Hindu nationalists openly assert: attacking Muslims today is thus justified for what happened 500, 600, or 700 years ago. Like many groups elsewhere in the world, Hindu nationalists invoke history. Irish Republicanism invokes battles that happened in 1690 and so on. Groups in the Balkans are another example: Serbs, Croats, and Bosniacs have their own histories, and the 1389 battle of Kosovo becomes a central rallying cry for Serbian nationalism.
    [Show full text]
  • Freedom Or Theocracy?: Constitutionalism in Afghanistan and Iraq Hannibal Travis
    Northwestern Journal of International Human Rights Volume 3 | Issue 1 Article 4 Spring 2005 Freedom or Theocracy?: Constitutionalism in Afghanistan and Iraq Hannibal Travis Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/njihr Recommended Citation Hannibal Travis, Freedom or Theocracy?: Constitutionalism in Afghanistan and Iraq, 3 Nw. J. Int'l Hum. Rts. 1 (2005). http://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/njihr/vol3/iss1/4 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by Northwestern University School of Law Scholarly Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Northwestern Journal of International Human Rights by an authorized administrator of Northwestern University School of Law Scholarly Commons. Copyright 2005 Northwestern University School of Law Volume 3 (Spring 2005) Northwestern University Journal of International Human Rights FREEDOM OR THEOCRACY?: CONSTITUTIONALISM IN AFGHANISTAN AND IRAQ By Hannibal Travis* “Afghans are victims of the games superpowers once played: their war was once our war, and collectively we bear responsibility.”1 “In the approved version of the [Afghan] constitution, Article 3 was amended to read, ‘In Afghanistan, no law can be contrary to the beliefs and provisions of the sacred religion of Islam.’ … This very significant clause basically gives the official and nonofficial religious leaders in Afghanistan sway over every action that they might deem contrary to their beliefs, which by extension and within the Afghan cultural context, could be regarded as
    [Show full text]
  • Selected Works of Chokan Valikhanov Selected Works of Chokan Valikhanov
    SELECTED WORKS OF CHOKAN VALIKHANOV CHOKAN OF WORKS SELECTED SELECTED WORKS OF CHOKAN VALIKHANOV Pioneering Ethnographer and Historian of the Great Steppe When Chokan Valikhanov died of tuberculosis in 1865, aged only 29, the Russian academician Nikolai Veselovsky described his short life as ‘a meteor flashing across the field of oriental studies’. Set against his remarkable output of official reports, articles and research into the history, culture and ethnology of Central Asia, and more important, his Kazakh people, it remains an entirely appropriate accolade. Born in 1835 into a wealthy and powerful Kazakh clan, he was one of the first ‘people of the steppe’ to receive a Russian education and military training. Soon after graduating from Siberian Cadet Corps at Omsk, he was taking part in reconnaissance missions deep into regions of Central Asia that had seldom been visited by outsiders. His famous mission to Kashgar in Chinese Turkestan, which began in June 1858 and lasted for more than a year, saw him in disguise as a Tashkent mer- chant, risking his life to gather vital information not just on current events, but also on the ethnic make-up, geography, flora and fauna of this unknown region. Journeys to Kuldzha, to Issyk-Kol and to other remote and unmapped places quickly established his reputation, even though he al- ways remained inorodets – an outsider to the Russian establishment. Nonetheless, he was elected to membership of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society and spent time in St Petersburg, where he was given a private audience by the Tsar. Wherever he went he made his mark, striking up strong and lasting friendships with the likes of the great Russian explorer and geographer Pyotr Petrovich Semyonov-Tian-Shansky and the writer Fyodor Dostoyevsky.
    [Show full text]
  • Conflict in Afghanistan I
    Conflict in Afghanistan I 92 Number 880 December 2010 Volume Volume 92 Number 880 December 2010 Volume 92 Number 880 December 2010 Part 1: Socio-political and humanitarian environment Interview with Dr Sima Samar Chairperson of the Afghan Independent Human Rights Commission Afghanistan: an historical and geographical appraisal William Maley Dynamic interplay between religion and armed conflict in Afghanistan Ken Guest Transnational Islamic networks Imtiaz Gul Impunity and insurgency: a deadly combination in Afghanistan Norah Niland The right to counsel as a safeguard of justice in Afghanistan: the contribution of the International Legal Foundation Jennifer Smith, Natalie Rea, and Shabir Ahmad Kamawal State-building in Afghanistan: a case showing the limits? Lucy Morgan Edwards The future of Afghanistan: an Afghan responsibility Conflict I in Afghanistan Taiba Rahim Humanitarian debate: Law, policy, action www.icrc.org/eng/review Conflict in Cambridge Journals Online For further information about this journal please go to the journal web site at: ISSN 1816-3831 http://www.journals.cambridge.org/irc Afghanistan I Editorial Team Editor-in-Chief: Vincent Bernard The Review is printed in English and is Editorial assistant: Michael Siegrist published four times a year, in March, Publication assistant: June, September and December. Claire Franc Abbas Annual selections of articles are also International Review of the Red Cross published on a regional level in Arabic, Aim and scope 19, Avenue de la Paix Chinese, French, Russian and Spanish. The International Review of the Red Cross is a periodical CH - 1202 Geneva, Switzerland published by the ICRC. Its aim is to promote reflection on t +41 22 734 60 01 Published in association with humanitarian law, policy and action in armed conflict and f +41 22 733 20 57 Cambridge University Press.
    [Show full text]
  • The Kingdom of Afghanistan: a Historical Sketch George Passman Tate
    University of Nebraska Omaha DigitalCommons@UNO Books in English Digitized Books 1-1-1911 The kingdom of Afghanistan: a historical sketch George Passman Tate Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/afghanuno Part of the History Commons, and the International and Area Studies Commons Recommended Citation Tate, George Passman The kingdom of Afghanistan: a historical sketch, with an introductory note by Sir Henry Mortimer Durand. Bombay: "Times of India" Offices, 1911. 224 p., maps This Monograph is brought to you for free and open access by the Digitized Books at DigitalCommons@UNO. It has been accepted for inclusion in Books in English by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@UNO. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Tate, G,P. The kfn&ean sf Af&mistan, DATE DUE I Mil 7 (7'8 DEDICATED, BY PERMISSION, HIS EXCELLENCY BARON HARDINGE OF PENSHURST. VICEROY AND GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF INDIA, .a- . (/. BY m HIS OBEDIENT, SERVANT THE AUTHOR. il.IEmtev 01 the Asiniic Society, Be?zg-nl, S?~rueyof I~din. dafhor of 'I Seisinqz : A Menzoir on the FJisio~y,Topo~rcrphj~, A7zliquiiies, (112d Peo$Ie of the Cozi?zt~y''; The F/.o?zlic7,.~ of Baluchisia'nn : Travels on ihe Border.? of Pe~szk n?zd Akhnnistnn " ; " ICalnf : A lMe??zoir on t7ze Cozl7~try and Fnrrzily of the Ahntadsai Khn7zs of Iinlnt" ; 4 ec. \ViTkI AN INrPR<dl>kJCTOl2Y NO'FE PRINTED BY BENNETT COLEMAN & Co., Xc. PUBLISHED AT THE " TIMES OF INDIA" OFFTCES, BOMBAY & C.1LCUTT-4, LONDON AGENCY : gg, SI-IOE LANE, E.C.
    [Show full text]
  • Nation Building Process in Afghanistan Ziaulhaq Rashidi1, Dr
    Saudi Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Abbreviated Key Title: Saudi J Humanities Soc Sci ISSN 2415-6256 (Print) | ISSN 2415-6248 (Online) Scholars Middle East Publishers, Dubai, United Arab Emirates Journal homepage: http://scholarsmepub.com/sjhss/ Original Research Article Nation Building Process in Afghanistan Ziaulhaq Rashidi1, Dr. Gülay Uğur Göksel2 1M.A Student of Political Science and International Relations Program 2Assistant Professor, Istanbul Aydin University, Istanbul, Turkey *Corresponding author: Ziaulhaq Rashidi | Received: 04.04.2019 | Accepted: 13.04.2019 | Published: 30.04.2019 DOI:10.21276/sjhss.2019.4.4.9 Abstract In recent times, a number of countries faced major cracks and divisions (religious, ethnical and geographical) with less than a decade war/instability but with regards to over four decades of wars and instabilities, the united and indivisible Afghanistan face researchers and social scientists with valid questions that what is the reason behind this unity and where to seek the roots of Afghan national unity, despite some minor problems and ethnic cracks cannot be ignored?. Most of the available studies on nation building process or Afghan nationalism have covered the nation building efforts from early 20th century and very limited works are available (mostly local narratives) had touched upon the nation building efforts prior to the 20th. This study goes beyond and examine major struggles aimed nation building along with the modernization of state in Afghanistan starting from late 19th century. Reforms predominantly the language (Afghani/Pashtu) and role of shared medium of communication will be deliberated. In addition, we will talk how the formation of strong centralized government empowered the state to initiate social harmony though the demographic and geographic oriented (north-south) resettlement programs in 1880s and how does it contributed to the nation building process.
    [Show full text]
  • No. 8843 UNION of SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS, UNITED KINGDOM of GREAT BRITAIN and NORTHERN IRELAND, UMTED STATES of AMERICA
    No. 8843 UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS, UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND, UMTED STATES OF AMERICA, AFGHANISTAN, ARGENTINA, etc. Treaty on principles governing the activities of States in the exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies. Opened for signature at Moscow, London and Washington, on 27 January 1967 Official texts: English, Russian, French, Spanish and Chinese. Registered by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United States of America on 30 November 1967. UNION DES RÉPUBLIQUES SOCIALISTES SOVIÉTIQUES, ROYAUME-UNI DE GRANDE-BRETAGNE ET D'IRLANDE DU NORD, ÉTATS-UNIS D'AMÉRIQUE, AFGHANISTAN, ARGENTINE, etc. Traité sur les principes régissant les activités des États en matière d'exploration et d'utilisation de l'espace extra atmosphérique, y compris la lune et les autres corps célestes. Ouvert à la signature à Moscou, Londres et Washington, le 27 janvier 1967 Textes officiels anglais, russe, français, espagnol et chinois. Enregistré par V Union des Républiques socialistes soviétiques, le Royaume- Uni de Grande-Bretagne et d'Irlande du Nord et les États-Unis d'Amérique le 30 novembre 1967. 206 United Nations — Treaty Series 1967 No. 8843. TREATY1 ON PRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE ACTIVITIES OF STATES IN THE EXPLORATION AND USE OF OUTER SPACE, INCLUDING THE MOON AND OTHER CELESTIAL BODIES. OPENED FOR SIGNATURE AT MOSCOW, LONDON AND WASH INGTON, ON 27 JANUARY 1967 The States Parties to this Treaty, Inspired
    [Show full text]
  • Country Coding Units
    INSTITUTE Country Coding Units v11.1 - March 2021 Copyright © University of Gothenburg, V-Dem Institute All rights reserved Suggested citation: Coppedge, Michael, John Gerring, Carl Henrik Knutsen, Staffan I. Lindberg, Jan Teorell, and Lisa Gastaldi. 2021. ”V-Dem Country Coding Units v11.1” Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) Project. Funders: We are very grateful for our funders’ support over the years, which has made this ven- ture possible. To learn more about our funders, please visit: https://www.v-dem.net/en/about/ funders/ For questions: [email protected] 1 Contents Suggested citation: . .1 1 Notes 7 1.1 ”Country” . .7 2 Africa 9 2.1 Central Africa . .9 2.1.1 Cameroon (108) . .9 2.1.2 Central African Republic (71) . .9 2.1.3 Chad (109) . .9 2.1.4 Democratic Republic of the Congo (111) . .9 2.1.5 Equatorial Guinea (160) . .9 2.1.6 Gabon (116) . .9 2.1.7 Republic of the Congo (112) . 10 2.1.8 Sao Tome and Principe (196) . 10 2.2 East/Horn of Africa . 10 2.2.1 Burundi (69) . 10 2.2.2 Comoros (153) . 10 2.2.3 Djibouti (113) . 10 2.2.4 Eritrea (115) . 10 2.2.5 Ethiopia (38) . 10 2.2.6 Kenya (40) . 11 2.2.7 Malawi (87) . 11 2.2.8 Mauritius (180) . 11 2.2.9 Rwanda (129) . 11 2.2.10 Seychelles (199) . 11 2.2.11 Somalia (130) . 11 2.2.12 Somaliland (139) . 11 2.2.13 South Sudan (32) . 11 2.2.14 Sudan (33) .
    [Show full text]
  • Great Game to 9/11
    Air Force Engaging the World Great Game to 9/11 A Concise History of Afghanistan’s International Relations Michael R. Rouland COVER Aerial view of a village in Farah Province, Afghanistan. Photo (2009) by MSst. Tracy L. DeMarco, USAF. Department of Defense. Great Game to 9/11 A Concise History of Afghanistan’s International Relations Michael R. Rouland Washington, D.C. 2014 ENGAGING THE WORLD The ENGAGING THE WORLD series focuses on U.S. involvement around the globe, primarily in the post-Cold War period. It includes peacekeeping and humanitarian missions as well as Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom—all missions in which the U.S. Air Force has been integrally involved. It will also document developments within the Air Force and the Department of Defense. GREAT GAME TO 9/11 GREAT GAME TO 9/11 was initially begun as an introduction for a larger work on U.S./coalition involvement in Afghanistan. It provides essential information for an understanding of how this isolated country has, over centuries, become a battleground for world powers. Although an overview, this study draws on primary- source material to present a detailed examination of U.S.-Afghan relations prior to Operation Enduring Freedom. Opinions, conclusions, and recommendations expressed or implied within are solely those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of the U.S. Air Force, the Department of Defense, or the U.S. government. Cleared for public release. Contents INTRODUCTION The Razor’s Edge 1 ONE Origins of the Afghan State, the Great Game, and Afghan Nationalism 5 TWO Stasis and Modernization 15 THREE Early Relations with the United States 27 FOUR Afghanistan’s Soviet Shift and the U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • For Thé Government of the Kingdom of Afghanistan: Pour Le Gouvernement Du Royaume D'afghanistan
    72______United Nations — Treaty Series • Nations Unies — Recueil des Traités_____1977 For thé Government of the Kingdom of Afghanistan: Pour le Gouvernement du Royaume d'Afghanistan : For thé Government of the People's Republic of Albania: Pour le Gouvernement de la République populaire d'Albanie : For thé Government of the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria: Pour le Gouvernement de la République algérienne démocratique et populaire For thé Government of the Argentine Republic: Pour le Gouvernement de la République Argentine : For thé Government of the Commonwealth of Australia: Pour le Gouvernement du Commonwealth d'Australie : For the Government of the Republic of Austria: Pour le Gouvernement de la République d'Autriche For thé Government of the State of Bahrain: Pour le Gouvernement de l'Etat de Bahrein : For thé Government of Barbados: Pour le Gouvernement de la Barbade Vbl. 1050, 1-15824 1977_____United Nations — Tlreaty Séries • Nations Unies — Recueil des Thùtés______73 For thé Government of the Kingdom of Belgium: Pour le Gouvernement du Royaume de Belgique : Sous réserve de ratification1 [J. VAN DEN BOSCH]2'3 For thé Government of the Kingdom of Bhutan: Pour le Gouvernement du Royaume du Bhoutan : For thé Government of the Republic of Bolivia: Pour le Gouvernement de la République de Bolivie For thé Government of the Republic of Botswana: Pour le Gouvernement de la République du Botswana For thé Government of the Federative Republic of Brazil: Pour le Gouvernement de la République federative du Brésil Subject to ratification4 [SÉRGIO CORRÊA DA COSTA]5 For thé Government of the People's Republic of Bulgaria: Pour le Gouvernement de la République populaire de Bulgarie Subject to ratification4 [A.
    [Show full text]
  • Conference Reader
    This is project is co-funded by the European Refugee Fund and the Austrian Federal Ministry of the Interior Conference Reader Conference on asylum related questions regarding Afghanistan Vienna, 31.03/01.04.2011 Conference Reader Conference on asylum related questions regarding Afghanistan Vienna, 31.03/01.04.2011 Acknowledgements The publication of this conference reader has been financially supported by the European Refugee Fund and the Austrian Federal Ministry of Interior. The articles compiled in this reader represent a selection of contributions prepared for the c onference on asylum related questions regarding Afghanistan, held between March 31 and April 1, 2011 in Vienna. The publication has been jointly edited by ICMPD and the County of Origin Information Unit of the Austrian Federal Asylum Office. Disclaimer The views expressed in the Conference Reader are those of the authors only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union, its Member States, the Austrian Federal Ministry of the Interior or those of ICMPD. Contents Part 1. Afghanistan: Background Information ........................ 5 Historical Development of Afghanistan ......................................... 7 The security situation in Afghanistan ........................................... 19 Quantitative overview of asylum seekers from Afghanistan in European countries ........................................................................ 25 Part 2. Afghanistan: Refugee Protection ................................ 35 Groups at risk - Employees of the
    [Show full text]
  • Comparing Camels in Afghanistan and Australia: Industry and Nationalism During the Long Nineteenth Century
    Comparing camels in Afghanistan and Australia: Industry and nationalism during the Long Nineteenth Century Shah Mahmoud Hanifi [James Madison University, Virginia, USA] Abstract: This paper compares the roles of camels and their handlers in state building projects in Afghanistan and Australia during the global ascendance of industrial production. Beginning in the mid-1880s the Afghan state-sponsored industrial project known as the mashin khana or Kabul workshops had significant consequences for camel-based commercial transport in and between Afghanistan and colonial India. Primary effects include the carriage of new commodities, new forms of financing and taxation, re- routing, and markedly increased state surveillance over camel caravans. In Australia the trans-continental railway and telegraph, and other projects involving intra-continental exploration and mining, generated a series of in-migrations of Afghan camels and cameleers between the 1830s and 1890s. The port of Adelaide was the urban center most affected by Afghan camels and cameleers, and a set of new interior markets and settlements originate from these in-migrations. The contributions of Afghan camels and their handlers to state-building projects in nineteenth-century Afghanistan and Australia highlight their vital roles in helping to establish industrial enterprises, and the equally important point that once operational these industrial projects became agents in the economic marginalization of camels and the social stigmatization of the human labour associated with them. __________________________________________________________________ Introduction: camels, political economy and national identities The movement of camels through the Hindu Kush mountain passes was greatly transformed beginning in 1893. That year the Durrani Amir of Kabul Abd al-Rahman signed an agreement with the British Indian colonial official Sir Henry Mortimer Durand acknowledging there would be formal demarcation of the border between their respective vastly unequal powers, one being a patron and the other a client.
    [Show full text]