1 10 Conservation in the Monteverde zone: contributions of conservation organizations — Update 2018

Leslie J. Burlingame ([email protected])

CONTENTS PAGE 10.1 Socio-Economic Developments in the Monteverde Zone 1 10.2 The Quakers and Bosqueterno, SA (BESA) 5 10.3 The Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve (MCFP) 5 10.4 The Monteverde Conservation League and the Children's Eternal 8 Rainforest (MCL/CER) 10.5 The Santa Elena Cloud Forest Reserve (SECFR) 10 10.6 New Conservation/Sustainability Organizations 11 10.7 Environmental Education and Sustainability at the University/College 20 Level Primarily for Students from North America 10.8 Environmental Education in the Primary and Secondary Schools 25 10.9 Conclusion: Lessons from Monteverde and Topics for Future Research 27 Key to Acronyms 32 Sources 33

The Monteverde conservation organizations 250,000 tourists visit each year (J. Welch, F. documented in 2000 have matured and evolved, Burgos, pers. comm.). This rapid growth put joined by additional organizations that developed pressure on local institutions and resources and in new niches. Their primary focus has moved increased socio-economic problems. Years of beyond talking about sustainability to practicing effort led to the emergence of a local district it, though there is not yet consensus on how to government in 2003; it works with local define sustainability and what measures to take organizations and the provincial and national (Burlingame 2000, Gora 2013). governments to provide services, improve More publications and theses/dissertations infrastructure, and confront environmental related to the chapter topic are now available, but problems (Ewing 2007). Cooperating with local most sources are still "grey literature," though conservation organizations, it created much has been posted on the Internet. I have commissions to deal with the area's solid waste carried out interviews in annual two-week visits (COMIRES) in 2010, water problems to Monteverde, with frequent follow-up e-mail (CEGIREH) in 2014, climate change contacts. Updates to essays that were at the end (CORCLIMA) in 2016 (see section 10.6), and of the chapter are included in the text below as Environmental Education (CEAM) in 2003 (see (essay). section 10.8). The area sustained major damage 10.1 Socio-Economic Developments in the from Tropical Storm Nate in 2017; roads and Monteverde Zone bridges were washed out, electricity, phone A. General Developments service, and water lines were cut. The local Population in the Monteverde zone has government and organizations, individuals, and increased since 2000 to about 6500; an estimated the national government came together in

2 remarkable ways to help people and restore comm.). In 2010, they added a restaurant that services. Radio Zona Alta Medios, the local radio serves "typical" Costa Rican food. They face two station, was a major means of communication, main challenges: recruiting younger members broadcasting and posting live videos on its and competing with more than a half dozen other Internet and Facebook sites for those who still art and craft stores that have grown up, many run had working cell phones; the MCFP offered their by former CASEM members (P. Jiménez, pers. radios for emergency communications (Cobb comm.). CASEM has added monthly training 2017; MVI Newsletter 10/20/17; radiozona workshops to improve the skills of its members. alta.com; R. Guindon, pers. comm.). Three By 2017, CASEM had a website Monteverde researchers have analyzed the (casemcoop.com), on-line blog (casem impact of Nate on the landscape, habitat coop.blogspot.com), and Facebook page restoration, and the community, all of which (Casemcoop RL) that give the history of showed resilience in the wake of the severe storm CASEM, illustrated biographies of the members, damage (Hamilton, Chinchilla and Zuñiga 2018). photos of crafts the members have created, and The Coope Santa Elena, which dominated so links to videos about CASEM (P. Jiménez, pers. many aspects of life in Monteverde from the comm.). 1970s to the 1990s, faced bankruptcy in 2001. It Finca La Bella's (essay) trusteeship was closed or sold its credit union, grocery store, "transferred to the Institute in 2003 when there hardware, and agricultural supply store; private was concern that the bank might take it when [the businesses replaced these entities (Guindon, et al. Coope] ... could not pay their debt" (K. 2001, McCandless 2008). Coope Santa Elena VanDusen, pers. comm.). In 2013, continued as a coffee co-op until 2014, when it representatives from La Bella, MVI, the San Luis was dissolved. Some growers kept producing Development Association, and the Monteverde coffee on their own. A group of families (Union Monthly [Quaker] Meeting agreed to transfer Varsan, established 1990) developed their own land ownership to the farmers of La Bella but to coffee processing and exporting system for coffee place ecological easements on certain forested grown sustainably on their farm, Life areas in the name of the Asociación Finca La Monteverde. The farm also became an Bella. Finally in 2017, after complicated land title educational center (in 2008), teaching about 1000 issues, MVI turned the Finca over to the national and international students each year Association; the Tropical Science Center agreed about sustainable farming. The trademark to be the partner organization responsible for registration for the original Café Monteverde guaranteeing the conservation of the forested logo (with the quetzal and the coffee branch) had areas (Cresson 2013, MVI Annual Report 2018). lapsed, so the corporation was able to register it El Buen Amigo (essay) was a second for themselves under the new brand of "Café de experimental co-op located in San Luis (update Monteverde," and open a Coffee Center in by E. Vargas): Monteverde (G. Vargas, pers. comm.; "…Around 2004 the remaining five families cafédemonteverde.com). Two Coope-affiliated stopped individually managing the dairy organizations survived in altered form: Comité de operation of the farm. ... They sold the 10+ ha of Artesanías Santa Elena-Monteverde (CASEM) pastureland that had been bought through the and Finca La Bella. work and effort of the ... members of the group CASEM (essay), like La Campesinita and other support (MCL). ... With the sale (essay), has empowered women and opened income, the families were able to buy or construct educational and economic opportunities for them another home in San Luis (two families moved to since the 1980s (Stocker 2013). It became a another community). The original farm (131 ha) completely independent cooperative in 2001 was not sold; it continued to be a property under (Cooperativa de Comercialización de Artesanías the care of one of the Leitón brothers and his de Santa Elena de Monteverde or CASEMCOOP family. I still see many reasons to think that this R.L.). They currently have more than 70 active project had a positive impact on the lives of the members producing handmade crafts featuring participants. When I talk with the young people, local plants and animals (N. Gómez, pers. now adults, that were the small children during

3 the BA farm years I can clearly see how they were quarter each on just one type of tour (P. Belmar, proud of themselves and empowered to pursue pers. comm.). different or new life projects." There are more than 20 larger hotels and B. Growth of Tourism many smaller types of lodging, including inns, Tourism has grown rapidly in Costa Rica pensions, cabins, and even one small hotel with since the 1990s. The government's Costa Rican rooms built up in trees. Accommodations range Tourism Institute (ICT), which has been from luxury to budget (see Trip Advisor for promoting tourism aggressively, reported an Monteverde). In the last few years, following a increase of almost one million international trend that started in California in 2007 and that arrivals in the 10 years from 2007 (1,979,789) to has gone viral worldwide, many Monteverde 2017 (2,959,869) (Instituto Costarricense de residents have started listing a wide range of turismo (ICT) 2018). Many of these arrivals were houses, cabins, and rooms for short-term rental tourists who headed to the beaches and non- online at VRBO (Vacation Rental by Owner) and sustainable mega-developments primarily owned Airbnb (see their websites for Monteverde by foreign investors, but many visited more listings). Many people are borrowing money to sustainable smaller scale ecotourism venues with build rental properties, seen as a lucrative local owners in less accessible places such as (currently untaxed) source of income in the low Monteverde (Honey 2008). Guidebooks and on- wage climate of Costa Rica. In 2018, one study line sources (especially Trip Advisor) continue to found 300 available short-term rentals in the cite Monteverde as a must-visit location. Monteverde zone (GCMHC 2018). Trip Advisor Monteverde and Santa Elena ranked number 1 of has even started listing some of the rentals (58 in 25 "Top Experiences" in the Costa Rica Lonely 2018). Conversely, some boutique hotels are Planet (2012); by 2016, however, Lonely Planet listing their rooms on Airbnb, whose commission ranked the Monteverde Cloud Forest number 11 is much less than the large on-line hotel booking of "Costa Rica's Top 20" as other experiences and agencies such as Trip Advisor. These rentals are locations moved up in the listing. The local very popular with tourists for their ease of Chamber of Tourism (Cámera de turismo booking, lower rates, interesting options, and Monteverde) whose motto is "Monteverde: amenities (such as kitchens). However, these Authentic and Sustainable," promotes all aspect short-term rentals have hurt occupancy rates at of tourism in the area from its Sta. Elena office traditional taxed lodgings (especially the budget and on its extensive website ones) and have eliminated most affordable long- (exploremonteverde.com); there it quotes term rental housing for local residents, National Geographic saying "the Monteverde researchers, teachers, interns, and volunteers (P. Cloud Forest Preserve is the jewel in the crown of Belmar, pers. comm.; GCMHC 2018). cloud forest reserves." No accurate data on the Restaurants (some organic and farm-to- annual number of visitors to Monteverde exist, table), cafes, art and craft shops, and souvenir but most estimates for 2017 were in the 250,000 stores have proliferated. Many educational range. When the rest of the road to Monteverde exhibits have developed, including the Bat is finally paved, there will certainly be more Jungle, the Ranario (Frog Pond), Butterfly visitors, though they may not stay as long. Gardens (essay), Serpentario (Serpentarium), Tourism has become Monteverde's primary hummingbird gardens, and orchid gardens. source of income, replacing the agricultural Several private farms offer tours, and almost sector (the iconic Cheese Factory was sold in everyone runs a night tour. Chocolate, sugar cane 2013 to a large Mexican company). (the Trapiche), and coffee tours include tastes and Facilities for tourism have expanded, the option to buy these goods (R. LaVal, pers. especially those linked to adventure tourism, comm.). including numerous canopy tours with zip lines, ICT developed a Certification for Sustainable hanging bridges, "sky trams," "Tarzan" swings, Tourism (CST) in 1997; hotels have to meet and bungee jumps. One hotel owner estimated extensive criteria in four different categories to that about half of his guests booked both an receive ratings (visitcostarica.com/ict/paginas/ adventure tour and a visit to a reserve, with a sostenibilidad; Honey 2008). The owner of the

4 first hotel in Monteverde to receive the highest which seeks to more effectively capture resources CST rating said "Our hotel was always developed from the influential tourism sector and equitably in a sustainable way...CST was a way to show the channel them into priority initiatives identified by world what we did in a way that could be the community. MCF currently provides small measured... Our guests do very much appreciate grants for projects related to environmental the fact that we run an eco operation" (P. Belmar conservation, social and cultural development, as pers. comm; hotelbelmar.net, agrees with Gora well as sustainable economic practices. Other 2013). In 2016, that same hotel, including its farm service offerings include training and technical Madre Tierra, was the first in Monteverde (and assistance with project proposal development and the second in all of Costa Rica) to be certified facilitating spaces where residents, businesses officially as carbon neutral by INTECO, one of and non-profit organizations can benefit from two certifying entities in the country. The hotel's peer exchanges. The organization ... operates as website has information about its extensive an independent entity with 2 staff members, Sustainability Program (P. Belmar pers. comm.; approximately 400 associates and a growing hotelbelmar.net; inteco.org). Several other CST network of local and national business rated hotels stress their strong sustainability collaborators" (J. Welch, pers. comm.). MCF has philosophies and practices on their websites. awarded environmental grants for water Some tour agencies highlight CST certified conservation through reforestation to protect facilities. ICT developed a separate certification springs and recharge areas and for rainwater system, the Blue Flag (Bandera Azul) for beach catchment systems at one school. They funded communities, nature reserves, and ecologically studies of community wastewater management managed land (Honey 2008; and Pathways toward Climate Change Resilience visitcostarica.com/ict, turismo-sostenible.co.cr); in Monteverde, Costa Rica (Brenes, et al. 2016). the two largest Monteverde Reserves (MCFP and Other grants went to the Recycling Center, the CER), one sustainable farm, schools, and hotels on-line non-profit Monteverde Community Radio fly the Bandera Azul. ICT also certifies naturalist (Monteverde. FM), the Santa Elena Library (a guides trained by INA (Instituto Nacional de solar panel), the Santa Elena high school (a Aprendizaje), a national vo-tech training institute biodigestor), and the local animal spay/neuter that provides classes in guiding and English in program (MCF, Extraordinary Assembly Feb. Monteverde about once a month and more 2017; J. Wilkins and N. Solano, pers. comm.). frequently in the Central Valley (R. Vargas, pers. While tourism has brought many benefits to comm.). the Monteverde area, it also has had negative The Center for Responsible Travel (CREST) effects (Chamberlain essay), especially water and stresses another international approach to ethical waste problems, pressures on protected areas, and tourism, which encourages tourists to support strain on infrastructure from unregulated sustainable environmental, economic, and social development. Social and health problems include development of the area they visit. CREST and poorer nutrition and obesity (junk food replacing MVI sponsored an International Travelers' home grown food), drug use, and thefts. Philanthropy Conference in 2011, which led to a Although natural history guiding has provided 3-year pilot project (funded by the Inter- many well-paying jobs and financial American Foundation) that became the opportunities, economic inequality has increased; independent non-profit Monteverde Community many jobs are in the low-paying service sector, Fund (MCF, Fondo Comunitario Monteverde, and the cost of living has increased (R. LaVal, FCM) in 2013 (Wilkins 2011; pers. comm.). Land prices have skyrocketed, and monteverdefund.org): adequate near-by housing is unaffordable for "The Monteverde Community Fund ... is most. Tourism has become a sort of monocrop dedicated to mobilizing resources that bolster the vulnerable to environmental and economic work of our engaged citizenry and community changes. The worldwide recession that started in organizations around themes of sustainability. 2008 had serious negative impacts as tourism and Among its varied fundraising strategies is the international donations dropped. Effects rippled Monteverde Traveler’s Philanthropy Program, through the Monteverde economy; several

5 businesses went bankrupt (P. Belmar, R. LaVal, dragonflies, and damselflies in cloud forests and pers. comm.). A hotel owner stated: "For the biological corridors (Bosqueterno poster 2014). moment, the market is keeping new development BESA contributed funding to baseline studies on at bay, but if we were to experience another wastewater problems in the Monteverde District boom, the risk of overdevelopment is high" (P. and a three-year project on the creation of a Belmar, pers. comm.). Fortunately, numerous stream water quality index for Monteverde and groups and individuals are aware of these adjacent watersheds (L. Camacho, pers. comm.). problems and are trying to solve them (Honey In 2018, they provided grants for assessing 2008, Koens et al. 2009, Stocker 2013, carbon offsets (CORCLIMA), for Environmental Burlingame 2018). Education promoting watershed protection (MCL), and for protecting the buffer zone of a 10.2 The Quakers and Bosqueterno, SA spring supplying Santa Elena's drinking water (R. (BESA) Guindon, pers. comm.). BESA shareholders In 2001, Quakers in Monteverde and other voted in 2018 to form a new non-profit community members celebrated the 50th Asociacíon del Bosque Eterno de Monteverde anniversary of the Quaker's arrival in that would be more in keeping with the non-profit Monteverde. They published an illustrated way BESA has been operating for some time. The collection of original documents and essays on shareholders are still looking for consensus on the life in Monteverde over the 50 years, including goal of dissolving BESA and transferring all its material on the history of many of the assets to the new Association (R. Guindon, pers. organizations discussed in this chapter (Guindon, comm.). et al., 2001; see also Chornook and Guindon 2007, Davis 2007). 10.3 The Monteverde Cloud Forest BESA, the organization that they established Preserve (MCFP) in 1974 to protect 554 ha of their watershed, The MCFP remains the most visited private continues to be managed by BESA's Board and reserve in the area, welcoming about two million protected by the Monteverde Cloud Forest visitors since its founding (Báez and González in Preserve (MCFP), owned by the Tropical Science Molina-Murillo 2017). From 2007-2017, an Center (TSC) in San José. In 2006, negotiations average of 83,563 visitors came per year, with a with TSC produced a new rental agreement for record of 96,296 in 2016 and 94,843 in 2017 (C. the continued protection of Bosqueterno's land Hernández, L. González, pers. comm.). The and for managing leases on telecommunication Preserve has 45 employees and creates about 600 towers on its Cerro Amigos (R. Guindon, pers. jobs directly and indirectly in the area (reserva comm.). These funds, plus new income from monteverde.com). In 2017, TSC celebrated its Costa Rica's Environmental Service Payments, 55th and the Preserve's 45th anniversaries in a 15- allowed BESA to start a small grants program in article issue of the journal Ambientico (Molina- 2008 to support "projects having to do with Murillo 2017). protection of springs, including reforestation; The Preserve's size is 4100 ha, less than education focused on water quality and river previously because of the 2007 settlement of the ecology; prevention, elimination, or treatment of dispute with the Monteverde Conservation contaminated waters; general education League (MCL) involving land purchased in the regarding freshwater conservation; education initial Peñas Blancas campaign (1986-1989). regarding climate change" (bosqueternosa. MCL kept the 5300 ha from its campaign, and wordpress.com; see for detailed history). They some horse-trading of land parcels smoothed out have funded projects for local conservation the border between the CER and the MCFP (B. organizations and schools, and Santa Elena's Law, pers. comm.). ASADA. BESA also made grants for: The Management Plan of 2005 reaffirmed biodigestors (for wastewater treatment) and land use zoning: 97% of the Preserve has absolute raingardens on local farms; the protection and protection; 1% is zoned for special use (by reforestation of springs and riparian buffer zones researchers and students); and 2% is for public (CRCF); and research on bird populations, use in the "Triangle" (13 K of trails for tourists).

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Several new trails have been built and most of which are available on their Facebook page. existing ones have been widened and re- One video focuses on a group of women in the hardened. A hanging bridge was added; viewing Bellbird Corridor town of La Guaria who make platforms at La Ventana and the waterfall, the soaps from medicinal plants with support from restaurant deck, signs, bridges, benches, and trail EEP and funds from the MCF (M. Díaz, pers. edges were rebuilt with boards made of recycled comm.). The Preserve continues to work with plastic. In 2017, MCFP had four of its own students from all Costa Rican high schools that naturalists for tours; many tourists continued to have ecotourism programs and universities with arrive with outside guides. biology and applied science programs (M. Díaz, Most buildings have been remodeled with a pers. comm.). They have also offered special focus on sustainable construction and practice. workshops for teachers and scientists from the The Casona's "rustic" lodge, with its solar hot whole country. The Program has provided water system and beds for 43, and its restaurant leadership in community activities related to have been certified at the highest level of recycling and COMIRES, the annual sustainability (5 leaves) since 2009 by the CST Environmental Fair, and Earth Day celebrations Program. Three years later, MCFP began flying (M. Díaz, pers. comm.). EEP's important role in the ecological Blue Flag with the highest level of the Comisión de Educadores Ambientales de 5 stars; this is a national award for the protection Monteverde (CEAM) is discussed in section 10.8. of natural areas including water and waste There have been significant developments in management (M. Díaz, pers. comm.). The MCFP's support for scientific research and its Preserve’s web page features a tab for applications. The Alexander Skutch Laboratory "Sustainability" that lists its practices opened in 1999 as the Monteverde book went to (reservamonteverde.com). press. The 200 m2 building has two labs, offices, The Environmental Education Program and a classroom. Some basic lab equipment is (EEP) has two staff members who work with 1st- provided, but researchers are expected to bring 6th grade students and teachers in 12 local most of their own equipment. The Research schools, all of which are in the Bellbird Program has a Director and two assistants; its Biological Corridor. Students and teachers also goal is to “generate information and technical and visit the Preserve for workshops and guided tours scientific knowledge that will help make (see Díaz in Molina-Murillo 2017). EEP has management decisions relevant to the protected broadened its focus on the Preserve's forest to resources in the area..." (Y. Méndez, pers. deal with global climate change, endangered comm.). The 2009 Plan Estratégico de animal species, and water and waste (Blum Investigación contains data from 1979-2009 2012). By 2018, the Reserve funded weather showing that 20% of the studies were done by stations in 10 of the schools; students collect and Costa Rican researchers and students; researchers enter data on tablets daily and learn about climate and students from the U.S. did most of the other change (M. Díaz 2018). In 2015, the Preserve studies. Chapter 1 of Monteverde: Ecology and built a new office for EEP next to the remodeled Conservation of a Tropical Cloud Forest had classroom in the forest now reached by a shown a decline in the number of researchers as "Pollinator Trail" (M. Díaz, pers. comm.). Since tourism increased; however, there was a jump in 2015, staff and volunteers have created nature the number of MCFP projects in 2000 and 2001, guides and booklets for students, including a followed by a decline until 2006, increasing to a coloring book of the Preserve's amphibians with high point in 2009, when there were 31 studies; a small photos, text, and conservation status subsequent document shows the 2009 level (Zamora 2015). Another booklet illustrating a continuing and even increasing in 2012 child's adventures in the Preserve contains an (Programa investigación, RBNBM, CCT 2014). introduction to climate change (Díaz 2017). In The subject matter of studies from 1979-2009 2018, as MCFP focused on quetzals, EEP was on: plants (41%), arthropods (21%), birds produced interpretative guides for students of (18%), and the remaining 20% on other animals. different ages (Díaz 2018). The EEP staff has Registers of Research projects for 2014-2016 also made a number of educational videos, many show an average of 27 researchers per year (Y.

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Méndez, pers. comm.). From 2006 to 2016 there comm., brown.edu/Research/Sax_Research_ were 298 research projects, nearly half of which Lab). In 2018, naturalist guide Ricardo Guindon were done by Costa Ricans or residents (Méndez was completing a data base of 31 years of his and Pounds in Molina-Murillo 2017). observations on birds in the Preserve and More individual researchers have been surrounding area; he has seen changes in all the investigating the effects of climate change on main groups of birds which seem to be linked to various organisms. Alan Pounds, known for his climate change. Guindon is working with Alan research on amphibian decline and climate Pounds, who has long-term weather data, to change in Monteverde, was hired as "Resident search for correlations between the two data sets Scientist" in 1999 to study climate change in the (R. Guindon, pers. comm.). Preserve and monitor specific animal groups. The Preserve has also established its own Costa Rican researcher Luisa Moreno studied the projects in cooperation with Costa Rican distribution, abundance, and composition of Universities. In 2007, they established avifauna in the MCFP from 2012-2016 and "Permanent Monitoring Plots" (1 ha each) in compared her data with Ana Pereira's 1994 data; seven locations. This work built on previous the differences showed the effects of climate projects by B. Haber, who "established long-term change (L. Moreno, pers. comm.). Canopy phenology plots around the community, with a researcher Sybil Gotsch (Franklin and Marshall few trees marked in the reserve." Starting in 1987, College) began a study in 2012 of the N. Nadkarni "was the first to put in hectare plots vulnerability of epiphyte communities to changes that have been continually re-measured every 5 in climate by examining the ecophysiological years, with marked and measured trees (about responses of selected common epiphytes to water 2500 in 5 ha, 4 in the primary forest, 1 in the loss (S. Gotsch, pers. comm.). "In 2016, Gotsch secondary forest within the Research Area of the in collaboration with Todd Dawson (Univ. of Reserve" (N. Nadkarni, pers. comm.). The California, Berkeley) and long-term Monteverde Preserve completed its second set of tree researcher Nalini Nadkarni (Univ. of Utah) measurements in their parcels in 2016 and is in received an NSF award to intensify this research the process of publishing the results (Y. Méndez, program" (S. Gotsch, pers. comm.). Nadkarni, pers. comm.). In 2010, MCFP set up continuing her "long-term studies on the effects meteorological stations, and they began a five- of disturbance on the ecology of epiphytes in the year Amphibian Monitoring project under the Monteverde landscape," is "studying the direction of A. Pounds. Five-year monitoring dynamics of regrowth following epiphyte projects also track quetzals nesting in artificial disturbance at the branch level (leaf removal and nest boxes (since late 2014) and reptiles (starting root trenching) in the primary forest and on 2016). Other projects include monitoring orchids isolated trees in pastures. Her collaborations with and a census of dragonflies and damselflies. Gotsch and Dawson involve comparing the About 15 camera traps in the Preserve monitor microclimate and distribution and physiology of animal movements; their sightings are recorded epiphytes at the landscape level, measuring in a database, and some of the videos are posted composition and water use of canopy on the web page. In 2015, one of the cameras communities in primary forest and isolated recorded the first video of a jaguar in the Preserve pasture trees. Nadkarni's graduate student, (Méndez and Pounds in Molina-Murillo 2017; W. Autumn Amici, has been carrying out her Haber, pers. comm.). Every year, Preserve dissertation research on the species diversity and personnel participate in a bellbird census for all community composition of forest and pasture of Monteverde that is part of a national count (Y. trees, as well as documenting differences of Mendez, pers. comm.). population genetics of bromeliad species in forest The idea of a corridor to connect the vs. pasture locales" (N. Nadkarni, pers. comm.). conserved areas in Monteverde to the Gulf of Emily Hollenbeck Heyne completed multi-year Nicoya had been discussed for years. TSC had dissertation research in 2018 on predicting the taken the lead with the purchase (1995) of the responses of selected epiphytes at different largest remaining forest patch on the Pacific side, elevations to climate change (Y. Méndez, pers. a 251 ha farm subsequently called the San Luis

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Biological Reserve, and developed a entrance, buying land to connect pieces of CER, Management Plan that includes natural forest and buying inholdings. In a return to the original regeneration (Méndez 2009). This Reserve flies vision for the MCL, they also wanted to extend the Blue Flag with 5 stars in the category of CER on the Pacific slope to help create a corridor Natural Protected Spaces. In 2017, TSC for animals with altitudinal migrations. MCL remodeled the San Luis facilities for use by the sister organizations in the U.K. and Germany and EEP and some university courses (Y. Mendez, others also contributed to the land purchases. pers. comm. and in Molina-Murillo 2017). MCFP After Crandell's death in 2009, U.S. supporters has played an important role in planning the new continued MCLUS, renamed Friends of Bellbird Biological Corridor (BBC) (Section Children's Eternal Rainforest (FCER) in 2012. 10.6. E). Two years later, they broadened their mission to include other conservation efforts in Monteverde 10.4 The Monteverde Conservation and became Friends of the Rainforest (FR) League and the Children's Eternal Rainforest (Burlingame 2016; friendsoftherainforest.org). (MCL/CER) Since 2016, the US based Engage Globally has At 22,600 ha, MCL's CER is the largest also raised funds for EE in CER. private reserve in Costa Rica. MCL has Following the 2007 Peñas Blancas agreement continued to pursue its mission "to conserve, between MCL and TSC, MCL had an additional preserve, and rehabilitate tropical ecosystems and 5300 ha to protect in CER. Squatters are no their biodiversity" through forest protection, longer much of a problem, but MCL's forest environmental education, reforestation, guards face serious challenges (especially on the sustainable development and eco-tourism, and Atlantic side) from illegal poaching, logging, scientific research. MCL has been recognized capture of live animals, and removal of plants. nationally and internationally for its successful MCL and MCFP staff can communicate on radios conservation efforts, most recently including the that operate on the same frequency "to carry out Costa Rican Blue Flag award (Bandera Azul) for joint forest protection actions and facilitate protected natural areas. CER has been supported communication in case of emergency" (L. for many years by sister organizations in Sweden, Stallcup, pers. comm.). MCL's guards also the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, monitor endangered species; there was great and Germany (acmcr.org; Burlingame 2016). excitement in 2013 when camera traps first "MCL collaborates extensively with other recorded videos of a jaguar and tapirs. MCL conservation organizations ... this includes personnel also help researchers. The important participation in inter-institutional committees Land Ordering Project, which began in 2006, with SINAC, police, Red Cross, firefighters, uses GIS and GPS to produce surveys of CER's other conservation organizations, community borders that can be used in legal defenses of those groups, and volunteers" (L. Stallcup, pers. borders and in pursuit of legal titles (MCL comm.). Annual Reports, Burlingame 2016). The League’s financial difficulties in the Major improvements to CER's infrastructure 1990s made additional land purchases a low (buildings, trails, signage, road, electricity, and priority until 2002, when Rachel Crandell, a internet access) have been made since 2000 with teacher, founded the Monteverde Conservation attention to environmental sustainability. The two League US (MCLUS) in Missouri. In biological stations (San Gerardo and Pocosol) consultation with MCL's leadership, in 2004 have sleeping, eating, and working spaces Crandell launched a new Land Purchase and powered by renewable energy and they have Protection Campaign, using 50% of each greywater treatment plants. Storm Nate did major donation for Land Purchase, 40% for protection damage to the road into San Gerardo and its trails (which includes the operation of MCL and in October 2017, requiring extensive repairs. The MCLUS), and 10% for endowment. MCL Pocosol station, completely rebuilt by 2010, established a prioritized list of properties to buy, suffered serious earthquake damage, forcing its focusing on filling out the borders of CER to closure from November 2016-April 2018; FR natural boundaries and blocking points of easy raised $60,000 for slope stabilization and

9 building repairs (MCL Annual Report 2017), of climate and elevation gradients on bromeliad which were completed in 2018. Offices of the fauna") (MCL "Research" in Annual Reports MCL on both the Monteverde and Atlantic sides 2015, 2016, 2017; Zamzow, et al. 2018). of CER were consolidated; they and structures at Although MCL's economic difficulties ended Bajo del Tigre have all been remodeled. The the Environmental Education (EE) Program in Bajo del Tigre sector is the only part of CER that 1995, most of MCL's personnel continue is easily accessible from the Monteverde area; it involvement with some EE activities, including receives nearly 75% of the visits to CER (MCL leadership roles in community environmental Annual Report 2017). Night walks started at Bajo festivals, recycling, roadside and stream cleanup, del Tigre in 2003 have become a significant and in CEAM. Since 2007, FR and BESA have source of funds for MCL. A native plant made grants for EE, including field trips for local greenhouse, constructed in 2005, was rebuilt in children to Bajo del Tigre and to the Finca Steller 2018, and a labeled native plant demonstration Education Center on the Atlantic side of CER. In garden was replanted around the Visitors' Center. 2012, a five-year grant provided for an In 2012, MCL added an observation platform environmental educator to work with 16 schools overlooking a regenerated forest, a on the Atlantic side of CER on such topics as meeting/picnic area, and greywater treatment recycling, biodiversity, reforestation, climate system. The following year, they built a change, animal welfare and abuse, water classroom adjacent to the greenhouse (MCL resources and the importance of wetlands. This Annual Reports, B. Law and W. Zuchowski, pers. educator, now working with 17 schools, is comm.). continuing her EE thanks to new funding from MCL has long wanted to have more Engage Globally and FR. In 2018, she added a researchers in CER. They hired a research new project (with a grant from BESA): coordinator in 1994 to promote and facilitate "Protecting water resources through research in CER, whose 7 life zones hold an environmental education in the Peñas Blancas abundance of biodiversity. That person did watershed" for communities along the eastern research on bare-necked umbrella birds in 1997- side of CER (MCL Annual Report 2017). 98 with funding from the British Embassy, but his The League's tree nurseries have produced position was cut as financial problems grew. 1.6 million trees (B. Law, pers. comm.). Most of Biologists directing US undergraduates from the these were planted in MCL's windbreak project University of California’s Education Abroad and persist, as do others planted under special Program (given through MVI) and CIEE have projects. Finca Steller has a small native tree encouraged their students to do short-term nursery that produces a few thousand native tree research projects in CER's Bajo del Tigre. These species per year for reforestation there and in projects contribute to CER's goal of finding out surrounding communities. The CRCF and MVI "what's there"; CER is in the process of compiling tree nurseries (see 10.6.A and 10.7.A below) raise a fauna list for each sector. Bob Law compiled native species that MCL has used for an extensive bird list for Bajo del Tigre based on reforestation of degraded pastureland on the years of observation (Law 1993, rev. 1999, Pacific slope. Zuchowski's ProNativa 2002). Camera traps have been helping Matthew organization promoting the use of native plants, Moran (Hendrix College, Arkansas) and MCL which began with the greenhouse and staff construct baseline studies of mammals in demonstration project at Bajo Tigre, has CER. Several researchers, such as David Ribble expanded (Burlingame 2016). (Trinity Univ., Texas) who studies small non- MCL's financial deficit, incurred when the flying mammals, and Cody Cox (UGA) who Debt-for-Nature-Swaps and grants ran out in the studies birds, have worked in CER and the BBC. mid-1990s and contributions were still earmarked Two researcher projects in CER and MCFP for land purchase, was at its worst in 2001. examining climate effects are being conducted by Gradually, MCL's finances began to improve. Fern Perkins and Luis Beltrán Lacouture The most important new source of income was ("Lichens as bio-indicators of air quality and payment for environmental services (PES) by the climate change") and Sarah Amundrud ("Effects government program FONAFIFO (Fondo

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Nacional de Financiamiento Forestal) and two funding is carbon offset payments for forest private hydroelectric companies. MCL's Annual protection and reforestation; MCL will need to Reports document the dramatic increase in the get legal title to all the land in CER it wishes to areas of CER included in PES and an equally include. Increasing the endowment and donations dramatic increase in income for the MCL, going can be another source for funds. The League has from no income in 1996 to an average of 62% of improved contacts with current and potential MCL's operation's income from 2009 to 2011 donors (and visitors) through more personal (MCL Annual Report 2013). Other income attention from the Director, a new website comes from fees for entry to trails, mainly at Bajo (2016), enhanced Facebook pages that include del Tigre; unrestricted donations for operations; many videos and photos, and the 2017 revival of the sale of merchandise in MCL facilities; and net the newsletter Tapir Tracks (L. Stallcup, pers. income from the biological stations. Donations comm.). Tapir Tracks had been published from for specific projects, including land purchase, are 1986-1995; the new newsletter is digital an important source of income. Another source of (acmcr.org). There are even live tapirs in CER funds is interest on investment, including a now. Their return, that of all 6 wild cat species of growing endowment fund; Rachel Crandell had Costa Rica, two frog species (Isthmohyla tica and made MCL the beneficiary of her substantial life Lithobates vibicarius), and other endangered insurance policy (B. Law, pers. comm.). animals are testimony to the success of MCL's In 2012, the Costa Rican government conservation efforts (L. Stallcup, pers. comm.). changed its policies on PES, deciding to help small landholders with 50 ha or less. MCL and 10.5 Santa Elena Cloud Forest Reserve several other conservation organizations in (SECFR) Monteverde saw their incomes drop dramatically SECFR is achieving its goals of sharing "the as land under PES phased out. By 2013, inflation benefits of tourism and using them as a tool for and increased expenses (including legal costs) [sustainable] development where entrance fees had raised the estimated amount needed to run are employed for the protection and management MCL to a half million dollars per year (MCL of the Reserve and to provide a better quality of Annual Report 2013). MCL and several other education in the Colegio [Sta. Elena high school] conservation organizations successfully lobbied and some schools of the zone" (Y.M. Arias, pers. the government, which in 2017 made an comm.). From 2009-2014 there were about exception to PES limits for "non-profit 30,000 visitors per year, more than double the organizations that make important efforts in the highest number in the 1990s; by 2017, there were conservation and care of forested areas in 47,744 visitors and 22 employees (Y.M. Arias, especially biodiverse and fragile areas" (MCL pers. comm.). These visitors provide indirect Annual Report 2017). The new limit for each economic benefits to tourism businesses in the NGO is 300 ha/Conservation Area. The other community and employment as Reserve staff and good financial news in 2017 was the settlement guides, primarily graduates of the Colegio, thus of a legal case in MCL's favor with one of the fulfilling another goal of SECFR (W. Bello, pers. private hydroelectric companies that had objected comm.). There are special programs in to its contract for continued PES payments; they environmental education, reforestation, and will pay MCL $47,800/year for the next 28 years species monitoring. The new bilingual website, (MCL Annual Report 2017). Legal disputes launched in 2017 for the 25th anniversary of the continue with the second private hydroelectric Reserve, provides information about these company. programs, a detailed history of the Reserve, and MCL is exploring other ways to raise income. many photographs (reservasantaelena.org). One is to increase the number of visitors to CER; The road to the 310 ha Reserve was in 2013 there were about 7000; by 2017, that improved, thanks to adventure tourism sites just figure had grown to 9302 (with no contribution below. The electrical needs of those attractions from the closed Pocosol, which had visitors as made the electrification of SECFR possible in soon as it opened in May 2018) (MCL Annual 2006. In 2012, the Visitor's Center was rebuilt; Report 2017). A promising option for new it and a new half k of hardened trail are

11 handicapped accessible, making the SECFR the that formed in 2011. The group, which has 32-40 first reserve in the area to meet the requirements volunteer students per year, set up a recycling of Law #7600 for equal access. An orchid garden program in the Colegio and at SECFR. They whose plants were rescued from the forest floor, have been the most active members of the Adopt- a small medicinal plant garden, and other native a-Stream Program run by MVI. Amigos became plants attract butterflies and hummingbirds. The involved in fieldwork with researchers from four 12 k of the four original trails and their signage Costa Rican universities monitoring amphibians, have been improved. If the weather is clear, birds (especially nesting quetzals and bellbirds), spectacular views of Arenal Volcano and Lake, water and air quality, and climate data. Amigos the Gulf of Nicoya, and the Lake of Nicaragua also monitor mammals with 12 donated camera await those who scale the 12 m high metal traps that had recorded 30 species of animals by observation tower on the Youth Challenge trail. 2015, including tapirs, pumas, and ocelots; some In 2016, SECFR built a large Information Center of the photos are posted on the website. That attached to the entry reception building. The website added bird and mammal lists in 2017 (W. following year saw the addition of a conference Bello, pers. comm.; reservasantaelena.org). The room (with a capacity for 80 people) to the group joins visitors and other students in Visitor's Center and a major remodeling of the reforestation projects in buffer areas around the Reserve's office next to the Colegio in Santa Reserve using donated native tree seedling. Elena (Y.M. Arias, pers. comm.; Since 2011, 1500 to 5000 trees have been planted reservasantaelena.org). per year (Y.M. Arias, pers. comm.). SECFR's environmental education The Administrative Board of the Colegio coordinator worked closely with the Colegio continues to manage SECFR and has signed new students and teachers in the Ecological Tourism leases every 5 years (most recently in 2017) with degree program. Blum (2012) stressed the ACAT-MINAE (Area de Conservación Arenal- broader definition of EE, including Tempisque/ Arenal-Tempisque Conservation environmental ethics and values, used by SECFR Area and the Ministerio del Ambiente y Energía/ and the national high school curriculum Ministry of the Environment and Energy). compared to MCFP's more biological approach to Reflecting its historical origins, the Reserve is EE. However, Blum's research was conducted in officially classified as a Farm of the State (Finca 2003 just as EE approaches in the two del estado). organizations started to converge. Both include SECFR is an active member of other more attention to water and waste problems in the environmental groups in the area such as area, habitat destruction and endangered species, COMIRES, CEAM, and the Bellbird Biological and global climate change. The Commission on Corridor. They also have special international Environmental Education of Monteverde agreements with Rocky Mountain National Park (CEAM; see 10.8 below) began in 2003 under the and neighboring sister city Estes Park in leadership of the heads of EE at SECFR and Colorado. One agreement (in 2012) established MCFP. Also in 2003, SECFR started working exchange visits of department heads through with 5 primary schools around the Reserve and ACAT, and another (in 2014) established annual secondary students in the Colegio in ways similar exchanges of students to study scientific to MCFP, providing programs at the schools, monitoring (Y.M. Arias, W. Bello, pers. comm.). workshops for teachers, and engaging students and teachers in activities in the Reserve. The 10.6 New Conservation Organizations: theme of EE in 2017 was climate change; each of A. Costa Rican Conservation Foundation the now 6 primary schools and the Reserve used (CRCF) new meteorological stations to record weather In 2002, local residents, including biologists, data daily, entering it in a Google Docs database established the CRCF to protect, connect, and weekly (W. Bello, pers. comm.). restore "tropical habitats with a special emphasis The EE program also works with the Grupo on the deforested Pacific slope of Costa Rica ... Amigos del Ambiente (Friends of the [in] areas critical for the survival of the Three- Environment), a group of Colegio students that wattled Bellbird (Procnias tricarunculata)"

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(fccmonteverde .org). CRCF grew out of George for the Bellbird Corridor by 2018 (D. Hamilton, Powell's 1990s discovery that the endangered pers. comm.). Bellbirds rely on the wild avocado fruit trees that CRCF continues to monitor bellbird grow in Pacific slope forests, during their post- populations. Many other birds depend on the reproductive period. Although the breeding corridor, including Neotropical migrants, such as grounds of the Bellbird and Resplendent Quetzal scarlet tanagers, rose-breasted grosbeaks, wood are well protected on the Caribbean slope of thrushes, Baltimore orioles, and several migrant Monteverde, the decline in Bellbird numbers warblers. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services' after 1998 was traced to habitat loss in the Pacific Neotropical Migratory Bird Conservation Rain Shadow Forest. Program has provided several grants to the CRCF planned to create a 7 k biological CRCF. BESA and FR (see above), along with the corridor to link the protected Monteverde British Embassy, GEF from the UN Small Grants Reserve Complex with a lower protected zone, Program, and several U.S. zoos also supported Cuenca Abangares, creating the Bosque para CRCF with grants. Many donations and work Siempre (The Forest Forever). They developed efforts have come through a student organization, strategies to create the corridor: land purchases, The Change the World Kids (a US non-profit), conservation easements, cooperation with and researchers, interns, and students (fcc landowners, and pasture restoration. CRCF owns monteverde.org). The CRCF joined other four wildlife reserves and has two other privately conservation organizations in the creation of two owned areas under conservation easements, larger projects that include the Bosque para providing successful protection to 77.5 ha (D. Siempre: the Bellbird Biological Corridor and the Hamilton, pers. comm.). Working with farmers Monteverde-Arenal Bioregion Initiative (see E and other landowners, conservation and F below). organizations, students, and volunteers, they B. ProNativas-Monteverde (ProNativas) reforested CRCF properties and many others. Reforestation with native rather than fast- Their main tree nursery is at La Calandria, a growing introduced tree species had gradually private reserve and biological station in Los become accepted as the norm, but it took a new Llanos. CRCF subsequently added a tree nursery organization to convince people in Monteverde of at MVI, with whom CRCF signed an agreement the many environmental advantages of planting in 2016, passing reforestation operations to MVI. native ornamental plants and the environmental MVI also signed an agreement with National threats from invasive exotic plants. Willow Geographic's G Adventure Travel Program that Zuchowski, author of Tropical Plants of Costa provides 500 visitors/year to work in CRCF's Rica, founded the non-profit organization nurseries and contribute money for reforestation, ProNativas in 2004 with the support of local producing more than 12,000 seedlings in 2016 conservation organizations and outside funding. (MVI Annual Report 2016). Since 2011, CRCF She had to collect seeds and cuttings, have and MVI have jointly owned and administered greenhouses built (at MCL's Bajo Tigre, CFS, the 14 ha Crandell Memorial Reserve adjacent to and MVI), and then plant gardens with help from MVI. Research projects include experiments with volunteers and one half-time employee. The Bajo seedling propagation, survival, and growth rates, Tigre greenhouse was expanded and partially and the most effective and cost-efficient rebuilt in 2018 with funds from a donor. restoration practices (fccmonteverde.org; Zuchowski created demonstration gardens with monteverde-institute-blog.org/environmental/ signage around these organizations and at the 2013…). In 2017 and 2018, MVI's Duke Engage Biological Station, Monteverde Centro, local Program conducted a forest integrity study at La businesses, and private yards. At CFS, she helped Calandria, comparing an area there that was establish gardens featuring specific plants to reforested 14/15 years earlier with primary forest attract bats, birds, butterflies and bees. In 2007, (D. Hamilton, pers. comm.; MVI Annual Report she developed an illustrated Electronic Field 2018). CRCF produced and distributed about Guide to Native Ornamental Plants of 220,000 free native tree seedlings of 93 species Monteverde (efg.cs.umb.edu/efg2/TypePage.jsp) with the Electronic Field Guide Project at U.

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Mass. Boston. These activities led to the of varying ages [45%] and some pasture [5%]" (J. formation of a ProNativas Network in 2008 with Lowther, pers. comm.; reservacuricancha. com). workshops, conferences, and a website CRCF has planted many native trees bearing (pronativascr.org, W. Zuchowski, pers. comm.). fruits favored by bellbirds and quetzals, but the In 2015, she and volunteers created the New Reserve is maintaining some open pasture for Forest Park in a strip of land between the MVI habitat diversity. Seven k of interlocking trails and the road after non-native trees had been cut. have been improved since the Reserve opened; in The Park, a memorial for scientific illustrator and 2018, some of these trails were modified for photographer Turid Forsyth, features native handicap access in a rechargable electric vehicle. plants and trees (W. Zuchowski, pers. comm.). The reception center was expanded in 2014 to C. Arenal Tempisque Conservation Area include a large area for talks to groups; in 2018, (ACAT) it added 10 solar rooftop panels and a storage Most of the Monteverde zone was in the battery; all lights are LEDs. The property has its national Conservation Area called ACA (Area de own spring that provides potable water for the Conservación Arenal). In 2007, this Conservation Reserve. Reserve personnel work with several Area was reorganized to include territory down to biologists doing research, students, and visitors; the Tempisque River (adding the protected areas they also monitor four camera traps and update of Palo Verde and Lomas Barbudal, previously the website's Checklist of Birds (M. Ramírez, part of ACT or the Tempisque Conservation pers. comm.). Area). This new area became ACAT (Area de Curi-Cancha is legally recognized as a Conservación Arenal Tempisque), with a main Refugio de Vida Silvestre Privado by MINAE office in Tilarán. Arenal National Park was put in and aims to be an "economically and a new 11th conservation area, Huetar Norte environmentally sustainable business" (reserva (ACAHN), although Arenal Lake and the curicancha.com; J. Lowther, pers. comm.). It has Miravalles and Tenorio volcanoes remained in become popular with guides and tourists because ACAT. ACAT's 387,000 ha contain 8 life zones it is less crowded than MCFP, has more open and 36% of Costa Rica's biodiversity and are areas for animal viewing, and a lower admission crucial to the country's renewable energy cost. In 2013, 10,000 people visited the reserve; production (40% of hydroelectric and 90% of that increased to 17,000 in 2014, 22,000 in 2015, wind and geothermal energy); about 25% of the and 30,000 for both 2016 and 2017; visitors area is under strong conservation protection provide economic benefits for more than 25 (CREA-ACAT 2017). ACAT has several guides and for taxi drivers (M. Ramírez, pers. regional offices, including one in Santa Elena comm.). within the SECFR office. A team from ACAT has E. Bellbird Biological Corridor (BBC) been setting up camera traps (donated by JICA, The Three-wattled Bellbird Biological the Japan International Cooperative Agency) in Corridor (88,456 ha) aims to connect the all its protected areas (W. Bello, pers. comm.). Monteverde Reserve Complex through three The Conservation Areas are administered by watersheds and two subwatersheds and 11 life SINAC (Sistema Nacional de Areas de zones down the Pacific slope to the mangrove Conservación/National System of Conservation forests of the Gulf of Nicoya (H. Villalobos, pers. Areas), a part of MINAE (Minesterio del comm.). In 2008, building on earlier corridor Ambiente y Energía/Ministry of the Environment proposals to protect such altitudinal migrants as and Energy (sinac.go.cr). the Bellbird and the Quetzal, a local Council D. Curi-Cancha Reserve (Curi-Cancha) formed to make the corridor a reality. The seven The 83 ha Curi-Cancha opened in 2011 on founding members of the BBC were: the Arenal- property owned by the Lowther family, which Tempisque Conservation Area (ACAT-MINAE), they purchased in 1970 from Hubert Mendenhall, CRCF, MCFP, MCL, MVI, SECFR, and one of the original Quaker settlers. It forms a UGACR). In 2009, these groups agreed to pay for corridor linking BESA on the north and east a part-time Coordinator for the Project. With down to land owned by MVI and CRCF and has funding from the GEF-Small Grants Program of a "mix of virgin forest [50%], secondary growth the United Nations, they developed a Strategic

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Plan with a mission to reestablish and maintain: Monteverde's history of reforestation and biological connectivity, conservation of natural agroforestry to propose new priorities for resources, and the well being of local reforestation that would produce a latticework communities (Corredor Biológica Pájaro corridor; it could promote greater biodiversity Campana, Plan Estratégico 2011-2016). This conservation in a time of climate change Corridor is part of the National Program of (Townsend and Masters 2015). Biological Corridors, (established in 2006 under Scientific research in the Corridor has been SINAC) which in turn is part of the larger growing; local and international researchers, Mesoamerican Biological Corridor Project. college and university students and interns The local Council had many meetings and connected with UGACR, MCFP, MVI, and CIEE workshops with Corridor inhabitants and civic have been conducting more investigations (see: and community organizations to educate them ugacostarica.org under Research and MCFP's about the project and learn about their concerns, Registers of Research Projects). A baseline study to point out benefits they could receive, and to (2012-2013) monitored bird populations along 16 solicit their feedback and proposals for local transects in 8 of 10 life zones in the Guacimal projects. In 2017, communities bordering the watershed of the Corridor; the data from the first lower western edge of the Corridor asked to join year has been analyzed, but there was no funding because they saw economic advantages, to continue (R. Guindon, pers. comm.). Another including the ability to receive Payments for project tracked the movement of bellbirds and Environmental Services from the government quetzals "in a Fragmented Landscape to inform and access to the Corridor's developing Green conservation planning" in the Corridor Seal certification program giving them direct (ugacostarica.org). In 2018, the BBC led several access to markets in BBC towns for such products conservation groups and ornithologists in as sustainabily sourced seafood. Addition of this expanding bellbird counts down into the Corridor area increased the size of the Corridor to 88,456 during breeding season (June) and then in ha from 66,000 (H. Villalobos, pers. comm.). August, when the birds start moving down the Also in 2017, the Council decided to divide the Pacific Slope, to locate migration paths and Corridor into 5 sub-corridors that could focus on determine the prime areas for reforestation (H. their specific circumstances and needs. Two of Villalobos, pers. comm.). Preliminary findings the sub-Corridors had completed Strategic Plans from the June 2018 census indicated about 67 by mid- 2017. bellbirds (BBC Bulletin, August 2018). Two Using satellite images and GIS, MVI's GIS researchers have been studying mammals in the expert has created maps of the physical, BBC: David Ribble has continued long-term biological, and land-use features of the Corridor monitoring of the "abundance, biodiversity, and and its extension (R. Chinchilla, pers. comm.). distribution of non-volant small mammals," and Maps showing locations of springs and riparian Vino De Backer has been mist netting for bats zones and forest cover and fragments have down to Guacimal (L. Moreno, R. LaVal, pers. become the basis for extensive reforestation comm.). Carol Yang is studying freshwater crabs projects, primarily by CRCF/MVI with their two and their effects on the decomposition of leaf native tree nurseries. UGACR with its native tree litter in streams in the upper part of the BBC, and nursery has been the next largest contributor to William Haber has been surveying dragonflies reforestation. Reforestation has been funded by and damselflies in the BBC (C. Yang, W. Haber, grants and donations and carried out by pers. comm.). volunteers and students. By 2018, about 290,000 There have been a number of studies trees had been distributed for reforestation at all documenting water abundance and quality. A levels of the Corridor (H. Villalobos, pers. major project (started in 2013) led by researcher comm.). In 2016, two Master's theses evaluated T. Shahady, his students and interns, has been reforestation efforts in the northern part of the sampling three river systems at 18 sites from their Corridor and suggested ways to improve unpolluted headwaters down through the conservation outcomes (Gómez-Parra; Silva- Corridor to the Gulf; UGACR actively supports Morales 2016). Two biologists have built on this work and provides laboratory facilities, and

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BESA has provided grants. They have been develop buffers by reforesting along the trail measuring physical, chemical, and biological (senderopacifico .net). parameters at each site four times a year and The Coordinator said in 2017 that the original relating findings to GIS studies of land use Strategic Plan was seriously out of date. The practices. The research has documented a variety following year, the German Development of pollution problems, including high E. coli Agency (GIZ) provided financial and technical levels in some sites. Shahady has developed a help to create new GIS maps based on satellite pollution scale based on the presence of different photographs that will be compared to the original aquatic invertebrates. This method can be used maps to measure changing land use and for citizen science studies of local pollution and reforestation's successes, as well as temperature can inform decision-making by the local water changes. The new Plan will also evaluate changes committees (ASADAS) (T. Shahady, pers. in research, environmental education, comm.; ugacostaricablog.com for March 2017). interactions among stakeholders, and the The promotion of community-based rural promotion of the responsible use of natural tourism is an example of a project that offers resources in the BBC (H. Villalobos, pers. economic benefits; it began in 2014 with a grant comm.). from the InterAmerican Foundation and an expert F. Monteverde-Arenal Bioregion Initiative from the Fundación Neotropica who produced a (MABI) strategy for sustainable tourism throughout the MABI, a cooperative conservation, research, Corridor (González 2015). The proposals were education, and sustainable development project, based on extensive consultations with local was launched at a Feb. 2014 conference at the residents and an inventory of existing businesses Monteverde Institute. P. Raven, in his welcoming and attractions. Three years later, students remarks, framed the focus of the conference: developed a "Strategic Marketing Plan," "How can the talents and activities of the many researching 12 businesses, now listed on the organizations who have permanent facilities in BBC's web page with an interactive map (Bhatia, this region or visit it repeatedly become a et al. 2018; bbc.org/programas/rural tourism). conceptual entity with more facilities, Rural tourism is also connected with the educational opportunities, more extensive development of the Pacific Trail (Sendero conserved and restored areas, an enhanced Pacífico) that will eventually go within the contribution to sustainable tourism, and lasting corridor from the Monteverde Reserve Complex value...[that is] fully integrated with the welfare down to the Gulf of Nicoya. While some of all the people who inhabit the region" (MABI landowners have decided to give free access 2014)? The Bioregion included the Monteverde through their land, the rest of the trail follows Reserve Complex, the Arenal Volcano National small public roads; this trail thus differs from all Park, the Alberto Manuel Brenes Biological the trails in Monteverde reserves that charge Reserve, and substantial buffer zones. admission. By 2017, five communities were The Initiative grew out of a symposium involved, and an improved trail extended down to organized by N. Nadkarni at the joint 50th Guacimal, which is about 1/3 of the way to the anniversary meeting of the Association for Gulf; Nat Scrimshaw has spearheaded the Tropical Biology and Conservation (ATBC) and project, working with landowners, and the Organization for Tropical Studies (OTS) held organizing volunteers to construct and repair the in San José, Costa Rica in June 2013. Entitled, trail. The San Luis Development Association and "The Perfect Storm: Educational, Conservation, the Guacimal Sustainability Demonstration and Community Synergisms for Tropical Center have been promoting sustainable rural Ecology Research in Monteverde, Costa Rica," tourism, including the trail (sanluis.or.cr; the session included presentations by six sustainablecostarica .org); a new hostel opened in Monteverdans with different institutional San Luis in 2018. It is possible to hike all the way perspectives (ATBC Online Web program for S- to the Gulf in several days with a guide; some 11, 25 June 2013). They examined the special hostels and places to eat are already in place. interactions in Monteverde of "conservation, Plans include working with landowners to education, ecotourism, civic awareness, and

16 spirituality" that made Monteverde such a followed by sessions on "Thinking and Working productive location for scientific research even Systemically," and on working for carbon though it had no major biological research station neutrality and climate resilience (MABI 2015). (N. Nadkarni, pers. comm.; see Nadkarni and In 2016, the third MABI conference was held at Wheelwright 2000). How could Monteverde's the University of Georgia's San Luis campus. Its success be improved and how could it serve as a main focus was the on-line database of all model for nearby and other tropical areas? research (including data sets), projects (including MABI drew 55 participants including long-term monitoring), educational resources, representatives from all the organizations etc. in the area (MABI 2016). Subsequently, discussed in this update and more from the larger several volunteers constructed the database bioregion and beyond such as MINAE-SINAC; website and began entering some information, the Santa Elena ASADA; the Universities of especially on environmental education, but Georgia, Texas A&M, Brown, California, progress has been limited by the lack of funding Stanford, Utah, and Vermont in the States, and to hire a data entry person (MABD 2018; C. the Universidad Nacional in Costa Rica; The Yang, pers. comm.). The 2016 Conference also School for Field Studies; FCER; Conservation had presentations on existing group conservation International and the Nature Conservancy and individual research projects (including poster (iniciativamonteverdearenal.blogspot.com/2014/ presentations). A fourth MABI conference (in 02/instituciones-invitadas-invited.html). The 2017) followed a different format, bringing conference began with poster presentations by the together MABI, CORCLIMA, the BBC, and different organizations so that everyone knew the MVI to focus on reforestation in three workshops. focus, priorities, and activities of the other The first workshop, held in May 2017 at MVI, organizations. Emphasis was on forging analyzed the scientific basis of effective "communication links between existing groups" reforestation and featured talks by Deb Hamilton, (N. Nadkarni, pers. comm.). Participants worked Nalini Nadkarni, and Eladio Cruz. The second, to develop a common vision. Further discussion in June in the lower part of the Corridor and planning took place in committees: (Coyolito) where the Women's Association had a Education, Conservation, Research, Maps, tree nursery, stressed positive and negative Communication, and Funding. The leaders of experiences with reforestation. The third, held at each committee constituted a Coordinating UGA in San Luis in July, focused on ways to raise Committee. The Conference blog outlined the money and cooperate in reforestation projects in challenges, possible solutions, and committee the Corridor (MABI 2017). Although no MABI proposals (iniciativamonteverdearenal.blogspot conference was planned for 2018, several .com/2014.02...). The Research Committee successes continue from the Conferences. The planned to develop a website where scientists most important has been improving would be able to post research projects and data communications and contacts among the various sets. Participants realized that a key next step was stakeholders, educating them about what finding funding to hire a part-time coordinator, different organizations and individuals were and they planned a follow-up conference. doing, and laying the groundwork for new kinds The second MABI conference was held in of cooperation. A concrete example of this was 2015 at the Texas A&M's Soltis Center near the the formation of the Biologists' Group after the eastern border of the League's CER and north of 2016 Conference. Each monthly meeting at San Ramon. Celia Harvey gave an excellent MVI, features a talk by a biologist on her/his keynote speech on "Global Challenges and research with discussion and sharing of news, Opportunities for Biodiversity Conservation" that including new publications (D. Hamilton, pers. set the context for the conference. Fortunately, it comm.). and the whole conference were recorded (MABI G. Arenal-Monteverde Protected Zone 2015). Working committees reported on Management Plan (ZPAM) developments in the last year. There were papers Another major initiative, completed in 2016, on biological research, and many on tools for involves a somewhat smaller geographic area that conservation, (including corridors and mapping), lies within the MABI region. The 28,314 ha

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Arenal-Monteverde Protected Zone has been a volunteers in monthly recycling pick-ups and legally recognized entity for decades, first as a community education (M. Díaz, pers. comm.). Forest Reserve to protect water resources for However, population growth and large hydroelectric power; this Zone does not include increases in the number of tourists have been what is now Arenal National Park. In late 2014, generating much more solid waste. Local MVI was awarded a grant by Costa Rica por garbage trucks use a lot of fuel collecting and Siempre (Costa Rica Forever, an international transporting garbage down the mountain to the non-profit funded by a debt-for-nature swap) to big landfill near Miramar, where they pay a write a Management Plan for the Protected Zone tipping fee based on tonnage. About 40% of for SINAC. F. Burgos of MVI worked in Monteverde's waste is organic; as this consultation with all of the conservation decomposes in the landfill, it generates methane, organizations (who protect nearly 80% of ZPAM) a powerful greenhouse gas. These problems have and with numerous stakeholders in the Zone to prompted a variety of local solutions, including a develop the plan (MVI Newsletter 4/20/2015; F. new COMIRES Management Plan for 2018 to Burgos, pers. comm.). The process had two very 2022 (J. Welch, pers. comm.). Some individuals positive results: conservation organizations put a and businesses have been composting organic lot of energy into developing closer working waste for years to use in gardens, and pig farmers relationships that avoided historical tensions, and pick up food remains from several restaurants. there are now more than 20 detailed GIS maps of The Hotel Belmar has had an employee trained in multiple features for the whole area (R. state-of-the-art composting who operates their Chinchilla, pers. comm.). The Director of MCL extensive composting system that yields rich says she uses these maps all the time (L. Stallcup, compost for their large biointensive organic pers. comm.). "The major recommendations gardens (R. Garro, pers. comm.). Several include the need for additional personnel for the individuals have also been experimenting with monitoring of the protected zone, increased advanced composting techniques that include collaboration and coordination among the local microorganisms and that can benefit local conservation partners, increased research and farmers and home gardeners (J. Welch, F. ecological monitoring, proactive measures to Camacho, pers. comm.). Welch's experiments are increase ecological resilience to anthropogenic being done as a COMIRES pilot project in challenges such as climate change, and the need managing organic waste through a centralized for clear boundary determinations and their composting system to produce environmentally mapping" (F. Burgos, pers. comm.; MVI Annual friendly products that contribute to carbon Report 2016). SINAC has accepted and approved neutrality while promoting organic agriculture. the Plan, which they posted on line (SINAC He has started selling sacks of the organic 2016); they have started implementing some of compost and gallons of the liquid containing local the suggestions (D. Hamilton, pers. comm.). microorganisms that can accelerate H. Monteverde Commission for the decomposition of organic materials in Integrated Management of Solid Waste composters, septic tanks, grease traps, etc. (MCF (COMIRES) 2018; J. Welch, pers. comm.). In 2017, Belmar In 2010, conservation organizations joined and Los Piños offered household composting the local government to create a commission workshops to their neighbors. The following (COMIRES) to develop plans for dealing with the year, Belmar and MVI cooperated to offer well- area's solid waste and comply with a nation-wide attended workshops for larger groups; this 2010 law (Ley No. 8839). COMIRES produced meshed with MVI's push for intensive organic its first Management Plan in 2013. The local home table gardens that would fit in small yards. government now runs regular garbage pick-ups The MCFP, supported by JICA (the Japan (for which it charges fees), has built a recycling International Cooperation Agency), offered collection center, has constructed mini-recycling composting workshops using Japanese receptacles around the district, has full-time staff techniques (J. Welch, R. Garro, pers. comm.). for the recycling program, and involves Another set of experiments focuses on improving the conversion of used cooking oil to biodiesel

18 fuel (J. Welch, pers. comm.). Other local efforts overflowed (Guevara and Bonilla 2017). The stress preventing and reducing waste, especially second baseline study of wastewater surveyed from paper and cardboard, single-use plastics, knowledge and practices by individuals in and metals other than recyclable cans. businesses, as well as public and private I. Monteverde Special Commission for the institutions (Welch 2017). This group was better Integrated Management of Water Resources educated and more informed than the first. All (CEGIREH) respondents favored water conservation, Rural areas such as Monteverde have protection of waterways, and treatment of Associations that administer community water wastewater. All knew the difference between and drainage systems (ASADAS). They are black and greywater and most knew of and used overseen by the national AyA (Costa Rican various ways to treat them, generally without Institute of Water and Drainage). The Santa problems such as overflows, leaks, or odors. Elena, Monteverde, and San Luis ASADAS have They used some biodegradable products. been in charge of providing clean water to the Slightly more than half knew of CEGIREH zone by protecting springs, treating drinking (Welch 2017). In 2017, the Commission water, and cleaning and monitoring streams and presented these baseline findings to the local rivers. However, the growth of tourism increased government and then to the general public. The demand for clean water as climate change following year, the Commission proposed an decreased the supply; more untreated wastewater Integrated Wastewater Management Plan for the poses health risks locally and for areas district and invited public discussion. downstream. Preliminary planning for a centralized CEGIREH grew out of a workshop at MVI in wastewater treatment facility and a search for 2014 to deal with local concerns about water funding was underway by 2018 (J. Welch, pers. resources and wastewater. All the main public comm.). In the meantime, CEGIREH and public and private players related to water in the area and conservation organizations can extend their (including the Ministry of Health) are members efforts to mitigate the problems. Education and of CEGIREH (MVI Assembly Reports 2014, publicized demonstration projects are key, 2016, 2017). MVI's Coordinator of the especially if encouraged by incentives such as Community Health Program chairs the avoiding fines. The Santa Elena ASADA has Commission; she is aided by MVI's Coordinators published a magazine, Agua Pura, with articles of Sustainable Futures and GIS; MVI has also on greywater, solid waste, results of AyA tests of provided water-testing equipment and scientific water quality, chlorination of drinking water, and expertise. CEGIREH has received local grants to contributions of conservation organizations. support two baseline studies on wastewater. One They, the MVI, and Friends School have printed study (Guevara and Bonila 2017) did scientific such brochures as Every Drop Counts (n.d.) and analyses of water quality using physical, sponsor talks and fairs focused on water. All the chemical, and bio-indicators that provided EE programs have involved children in water evidence of stream and river pollution. The study conservation in their schools and homes. also conducted a survey of 265 people in the zone Greywater pollution can be reduced if more to evaluate public knowledge of the problems and people and businesses are educated to use household cultural practices associated with affordable biodegradable cleaning products and greywater, much of which (especially in the Santa the special microorganisms that clean grease Elena downtown area) is untreated and currently traps. There are several demonstration goes into streets and streams. Most buildings in biogardens (MVI, MCL's Bajo Tigre, and the area have septic systems for black water, but Belmar) that use reedbeds to clean greywater. 43% of those surveyed did not know the Local authorities need to inspect septic systems, difference between grey and black water, and a regulate their cleaning, and promote the use of majority did not know about options to treat microorganisms that increase organic greywater or were not aware of biodegradable decomposition. There are a number of cleaning products that could reduce greywater demonstration projects that treat human and pollution; a number of the septic tanks had animal waste in biodigestors, producing methane

19 for cooking (2 at UGACR and Belmar and 1 at pers. comm.). The workshop led to the formation each of a dozen farms in San Luis). Biodigestors of a new group in 2016, known by its Spanish need more land than is available in downtown acronym CORCLIMA, which in 2017 became a Santa Elena, but there could be nearby ones that special commission of the local government that would be stepping stones to a biogas powered works with representatives of all interested centralized treatment plant for all organic waste parties. Their mission is to "unite efforts in (J. Welch, pers. comm.). The amounts of grey Monteverde to lower emissions, capture carbon, and black water have been reduced by water and adapt to climate change" with a vision of conservation measures such as greater use of low capturing more carbon than Monteverde emits flow faucets and low flush toilets. The Friends and becoming a "model for resilience to climate School even checked all of their water pipes, change" (CORCLIMA. org). They prefer the eliminated leaks, and saved money on water bills. term resilience to carbon neutral or negative, Another way to address water shortages is to saying "mitigating and adapting to climate capture rainwater from roofs and use it for change create resilience, the ability of a social or irrigation (as at Belmar) or to flush toilets (as at ecological community to function despite major CFS, which cut its piped water consumption). disruptions" (Brenes, et al. 2016). In 2016, three MVI has a waterless composting toilet and has local authors wrote an excellent bilingual developed a demonstration rain garden that has booklet: Pathways toward Climate Change been replicated; rainwater that would have Resilience in Monteverde, Costa Rica (funded by flowed downhill, picking up contaminants and MCF and the Global Fund for Community causing erosion, is now contained (Burlingame Foundations). Following the National Climate 2018; R. Garro, pers. comm.). Change Strategy, CORCLIMA analyzed J. Monteverde Commission for Resilience Monteverde's greenhouse gas emissions by to Climate Change (CORCLIMA) sectors, outlining steps that could be taken for CORCLIMA developed from growing local mitigation and adaptation. Costa Rica is concern informed by global concerns over fortunate that more than 98% of its electricity climate change. The UN Earth Summit (Rio de comes from renewable sources (hydro, wind, Janeiro 1992) and subsequent conferences geothermal, biomass, and solar) that do not emit brought international attention to climate change, greenhouse gases, although these sources may culminating in the Paris Agreement of 2015 not be able to supply future needs. Monteverde is under the leadership of Costa Rican Christiana fortunate that it has so much forested area that is Figueres, Executive Secretary of the UN already sequestering carbon. Transportation and Framework Convention on Climate Change, agriculture (including cattle) are the primary 2010-2016. Costa Rica's goal is to become carbon sources of greenhouse gases in Monteverde as neutral by 2021. MINAE's Directorate for well as nationally (Brenes, et al. 2016). Climate Change (DCC), following the National In 2017-2018, CORCLIMA began measuring Climate Change Strategy (2009) "manages carbon emissions and sequestration using national climate change initiatives" (Brenes, et. al techniques from the 2015 EARTH workshop, the 2016). Its two main strategies are mitigation and National University (UNA), the Meteorological adaptation. Institute, and, subsequently, the methodology Scientists have been documenting evidence developed by DCC for cantons. In 2018, DCC of climate change in Monteverde since at least named Monteverde as one of 6 municipalities in 1999 (Brenes, et al. 2016). In 2014, a pilot program for Country Carbon Neutrality approximately 300 people took part in a climate 2.0 (K. VanDusen, pers. comm.; Dirección march in Santa Elena. The following year, 41 Cambio Climático Costa Rica, Facebook, July people from 25 organizations participated in an 27, 2018). CORCLIMA embarked on baseline intensive long workshop given by Costa Rica's studies to calculate emissions from all the main EARTH University to learn how organizations sources of greenhouse gases; they extrapolated can achieve carbon neutrality certification from the samples to the whole area. Other teams according to rigorous international ISO standards began carrying out a carbon sequestration (Brenes, et al. 2016; D. Hamilton, F. Perkins, inventory; they are measuring tree diameters on

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24 plots in randomly selected farms every year sites in the country, including Santa Elena. for 5 years and will then scale up the results. The Students can earn degrees by correspondence findings will shape decisions on steps for and/or online, working with professors at the mitigation and adaptation (CORCLIMA.org). various centers (uned.ac.cr). Some residents have In the meantime, CORCLIMA has begun also gone to universities in North America. tackling the transportation sector. They have However, most higher education in the sponsored talks, fairs, and demonstrations to Monteverde Zone has been for students coming promote more walking and biking and a switch to from abroad (mainly the US). Costa Rica has electric vehicles (bikes, golf carts, automobiles) become the leading Latin American study abroad that could be recharged by an expanding network destination (Dyer 2014, Institute of International of solar panels. They are also working on a plan Education 2014). Monteverde has been a magnet for clean collective transportation within the for US college/university courses, starting with Monteverde area. CORCLIMA recognizes a the OTS graduate Fundamentals course in 1971 hidden source of greenhouse gases in the indirect (Burlingame 2002). The Monteverde Institute emissions linked to the travel of 250,000 tourists has offered programs for international students to Monteverde per year. UGACR and MVI offer since 1987; since 1999, three other institutions carbon offsets where cash payments are used for have established centers in the area. reforestation; some hotels, such as Belmar, offer A. The Monteverde Institute (MVI) carbon offsets through FONAFIFO; the Chamber MVI has built on its mission of "education for of Tourism and the MCF work together to direct a sustainable future," providing a broad range of "offset" donations from visitors to local climate courses supported through many institutional change projects; these programs need to be partnerships. It puts sustainability and expanded (J. Welch, pers. comm.). CORCLIMA conservation into practice on its campus and has also started working on mitigation and through its courses and community interactions. adaptation efforts in agriculture and a number of MVI has encouraged students, researchers, the other areas discussed in Brenes, et al. (2016; interns, and volunteers to develop applied see also Facebook page for CORCLIMA- research projects that generate information and Monteverde, Our Story, Feb. 7, 2018 and options to help local communities deal with monteverde fund.org Local Alliances). pressing issues. In addition, MVI has brought CORCLIMA cooperates with COMIRES, substantial educational, cultural, and economic CEGIREH, the local municipal government, the benefits to local communities (Burlingame 2018, tourist bureau, all the conservation and MVI Annual Reports; monteverde-institute.org). educational organizations mentioned in this By the end of 2017, MVI had provided more than Update, as well as many local businesses, and 585 courses (long and short) for nearly 10,600 national organizations (see list of collaborators at students; there are about 25 courses each year (F. corclima.org under About Us). Lindau (Messerli), E. Coghi, D. Santamaría, pers. comm.). Tropical Biology and Conservation, the 10.7 Environmental Education and University of California Education Abroad Sustainability at the University/College Level Program (UCEAP) began in 1987 and increased Primarily for Students from North America to two semesters per year in 1992. This program Residents of the Monteverde zone who want has consistently had the largest number of to continue their education at the university level students. In the continuing long course, have attended several of Costa Rica's excellent "Sustainable Futures" (SF) that started in 1995, universities in the Central Valley or at satellite upper level undergraduate and graduate students campuses; the University of Costa Rica (UCR) in architecture, landscape architecture and and the National University (UNA) are known for planning, engage in “service learning” to develop their science and environmentally related their knowledge and skills by working (gratis) on programs (ucr.ac.cr, una.ac.cr). Other residents planning and designing projects that help local have sought higher education through UNED communities and institutions. Projects have (Universidad Estatal a Distancia or State ranged from designs for specific facilities University for Distance Learning), which has 45 (including those of MVI) to large scale “scenario

21 planning." In 2001, a partnership with the tree nursery producing saplings for reforestation. University of South Florida produced an annual Native plants and tree saplings are planted on course on "Globalization and Community MVI's campus and donated to local people for Health." A semester-long interdisciplinary place- their use. In 2016, MVI signed an agreement with based program, "Globalization, Development, the CRCF to produce large numbers of native tree and Environment," began in 2009 as a joint seedlings in two nurseries for large-scale venture between Mount Holyoke and Goucher reforestation in the BBC (D. Hamilton, pers. Colleges. 2017 saw the beginning of a new long comm.). Volunteers tagged trees behind the main summer program with Duke Engage focused on MVI building to establish an arboretum. The "habitat and water resource restoration in the gardens have been used for experiments with Bellbird Biological Corridor" (dukeengage.duke sustainable agricultural techniques and provided .edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/costa-rica- educational opportunities and nutritional 2017). Most courses are shorter; MVI information for MVI students, staff, and local collaborates with partner institutions to provide a communities (D. Hamilton, pers. comm.; variety of educational and support services. monteverde-institute-blog.org). Internships offered by MVI have expanded From the beginning, MVI was interested in considerably since 2013 (details on courses at fostering, facilitating, and applying research in Burlingame 2018). the region. Research done by international By 2009, MVI's campus occupied 24 ha; two students and faculty working with MVI staff and years later, MVI and CRCF began joint local and visiting resource people continues to be ownership and management of the newly created made available to other researchers and the 14 ha Dwight and Rachel Crandell Memorial community through public presentations of Reserve adjacent to MVI's campus. This Reserve research findings and the collection of research completes a corridor in the 28,027 ha of privately papers in the library; many student papers are protected forest reserves known as the now digitized. MVI staff members have also Monteverde Reserve Complex (D. Hamilton, conducted and led applied and long-term research pers. comm.). projects such as: experiments to discover best A new wing was added to the main building reforestation practices for tropical native tree in 2002 to house the John and Doris Campbell species, a forest integrity study comparing an area Library and a laboratory, which was expanded in reforested 14 years earlier (La Calandria) with a 2014. Behind it is a small classroom building, primary forest, and carbon dioxide sequestration constructed in 2002 by the Fox Maple School of in tropical trees. Other research focused on: Traditional Building (Maine) using non-native phenology and dietary preferences of the three- trees. Construction of a new outside timber- wattled bellbird, food resource tracking and its framed, multi-functional, glass-enclosed conservation implications for bellbirds, evidence classroom in 2012 was a collaborative project of song learning in bellbirds, bird community among local artisans, volunteers, and MVI changes as a possible response to climate change, courses (Burlingame 2018; monteverde-institute lichens as bioindicators of pollution and climate .org/facilities-at-mvi). Sustainable construction change, and pollution in watersheds below Santa has been joined by sustainable practice at MVI, Elena (D. Hamilton, pers. comm.; Hamilton, as detailed on MVI's web site. MVI has also Singleton, and Joslin 2018; Burlingame 2018). In worked with homestay host families to help them addition, MVI has hosted researchers who improve energy efficiency in their homes, and to worked on: bird and mammal mapping, bellbird promote recycling and composting. conservation, plant physiology and climate Since 2013, students and volunteers have change, and mammal conservation in Costa Rica. developed demonstration organic "Carbon The Director's Report to the 2016 Assembly Gardens" around the new classroom, including a provides a partial list of research affiliates over vegetable and herb garden, a keyhole garden, the previous 30 years. raingardens (to use rain runoff from the Fox MVI has used proceeds from its international Maple roof), a biogarden to treat greywater, a courses, donations, and grants to support greenhouse for raising native plants, and a native programs that enhance education, well being, and

22 sustainable development and culturally enriching Reports; Newsletters; Hamilton, Chinchilla and activities in Monteverde and surrounding Zuñiga 2018; Burlingame 2018). communities (Burlingame 2018). In 2008, MVI In 2012, MVI reached out to a new group, began its Integrated Water Resources Program, local 12-15 year olds, with a camp experience. which built on concerns over use of water Counselors aged 16-20 and adult volunteers from resources and public health. The program also seven area communities helped the younger kids carries out education and community outreach, have fun, engage in community service, and particularly through its Adopt-a-Stream Program "develop healthy and educational links between that supervises monthly stream data collection Monteverde's youth and its community members" and annual reports on water quality by students (monteverde-institute.org/summer-camp). The from the three high schools. The study, "The camp is now an annual event. Impact of Economic Change on Food Habits and MVI has provided direct financial benefits Nutritional Health in Monteverde, Costa Rica: for staff, teachers, taxi drivers, cooks, guides, and Mixing Agriculture and Tourism," started in 2008 for families offering homestays for MVI students, with funding from the National Science as well as owners and employees of tourism Foundation and collaboration from the University establishments and other businesses. In 2017, of South Florida and evolved into MVI's MVI payments of $416,630 remained in the Community Health Program by 2011. Data community (MVI Assembly Report 2017). Some indicated that as families increased their in the community have received individualized involvement in tourism, food insecurity and financial benefits such as scholarships to attend health problems increased. In 2012, MVI began MVI courses or aid (for MVI employees) to encouraging better nutrition through workshops continue their education. and demonstration gardens and small portable MVI developed serious financial problems table gardens (starting 2015) to alleviate food by 2005 as its financial debt burden grew (from insecurity issues. The second initiative the construction of its new building and library encouraged more physical exercise with a addition and from land acquisition) while income "Monteverde in Motion" program; it became from courses decreased. Beginning in 2006, strong enough to stand on its own by 2016. The MVI's Director, working closely with the Board, third outreach area was promoting a healthy instituted drastic reductions in expenses through environment, especially clean water (J. Peña, major personnel cuts, sale or divestment of some pers. comm.; see 10.6.I). properties, and expanded efforts to increase Students in service learning courses, interns, income and find new partnerships for offering and volunteers working with local organizations courses on a regular basis. The leaner, more have contributed to sustainable community focused MVI paid off its debts by 2008 and has development in a wide variety of ways. They successfully expanded its financial base (more have designed wastewater treatment options, courses and students) and extended its proposed ways to improve traffic flow in community outreach. The Director reactivated congested Santa Elena; and developed the U.S. non-profit Alliance for the Monteverde architectural and landscaping plans for many Institute (AMVI) in 2009. MVI has played institutions. They also helped build: greenways crucial roles in community conservation and and sidewalks from the Friends School along the sustainability efforts, especially the BBC, MABI, main road to Santa Elena and two aerial road ZPAM, COMIRES, CEGIREH, and crossings for animals; two community parks, part CORCLIMA. The Institute's GIS person has of the Pacific trail in the BBC, and raingardens made maps for all of these organizations and and biogardens. Volunteers expanded MVI's two more. MVI also played a major part in founding tree nurseries and raised large numbers of tree the MCF. MVI's weekly community electronic seedlings for reforestation in the BBC. Students Bulletin Board notifies all interested parties of analyzed: the rapid growth of Airbnb and its upcoming events in the area. impacts in the zone; and the impacts of tropical storm Nate and recovery efforts (MVI Annual

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B. Council on International Educational summer courses (since 2016) is Environmental exchange (CIEE) Engineering for the Tropics (K. Masters, pers. CIEE is a U.S. based non-profit organization comm.; ciee.org). Students in semester courses that has provided international exchanges in must complete internship projects. These have many countries since 1947 (ciee.org). In Costa ranged from constructing a biodigestor and Rica, CIEE is based in Monteverde, where it composting toilet for a coffee farm to designing started offering a summer quarter Tropical native plant gardens and greenhouses, to creating Ecology and Conservation Program through MVI interactive exhibits for MCL's environmental in 1989 and added two semester programs in education program. Interns built artificial 1996 under the direction of Alan Masters, who wetlands to treat greywater, created a website and became the Director of CIEE Programs in produced GIS maps of reforestation plots for Monteverde in 1993. CIEE separated from MVI CRCF, and worked with Hydroponics of in 1999 and became an independent organization Monteverde on "alternative, renewable in Monteverde. Students in the Ecology Program fertilizers." Other projects included producing have courses and live at the Biological Station. In organic compost for environmentally friendly 2007, CIEE added the Sustainability and the coffee and turning organic waste into biofuel. Environment Program, with Karen Masters as Two recent interns worked with the local climate Director. Students in this program live with change group CORCLIMA. One developed homestay families. CIEE then moved to its own methods to measure carbon sinks in plots of land; Study Center in Cerro Plano where there are another measured net greenhouse gas emissions classrooms, meeting areas, a library, and on 9 local livestock farms (K. Masters, pers. computer facilities with eco-friendly construction comm.; study-abroad-blog-monteverde.ciee.org). and native plant landscaping. Both Programs take C. University of Georgia, Costa Rica extensive field trips on the Pacific and Atlantic (UGACR) slopes (A. and K. Masters, pers. comm.; In 2002, the University of Georgia ciee.org/study-abroad/costa-rica/monteverde/ Foundation purchased the 63 ha Ecolodge San sustainability-environment). Luis and Biological Station in San Luis adjacent The Tropical Ecology and Conservation to the MCFP to develop a satellite campus for Program is designed for biology majors, with UGA. The property is 60% forest, 30% integrated courses in Tropical Diversity, Tropical farm, and 10% built space (F. Camacho, pers. Community Ecology, Independent Study, comm.). UGACR's Mission "is to facilitate Spanish, and a course that explores the impact of transformative educational and research humans on tropical ecosystems, including opportunities for students and faculty from UGA "urbanization, food production, energy and other academic institutions from across the generation, and tourism [and] ... innovative ways planet" (F. Camacho, pers. comm.). to mitigate or minimize human footprints on UGACR has built campus facilities with an tropical ecosystems" (A. Masters, pers. comm.; emphasis on sustainability. Climate is controlled ciee.org). The full texts of all research papers in: a wet lab furnished with field equipment, an since 2004 are available in MVI's library digital insect collection, GIS lab, and herbarium, which collection; each one has an abstract in English includes William Haber's donation of his and Spanish and the collection is key word extensive herbarium. Indoor and open-air searchable (M. Leitón, pers. comm.; monteverde- classrooms are equipped with the state-of-the-art institute.org/mv-digital-collections-Tropical electronic equipment. There is a weather station Ecology). that posts real time data on the website; the The Sustainability and the Environment campus is connected to the Internet via a high- Program for majors in Environmental speed fiber optic and WiFi network. Four Studies/Science offers two semester courses, a bungalows house students; faculty, researchers, January course and 3 summer courses. Courses and interns have their own residences; these include tropical conservation biology, policy, facilities have solar water heaters and LED lights. sustainability, Costa Rican natural history Campus total capacity is 110 people per night (F. Spanish, and independent research. One of the Camacho, pers. comm.). The cafeteria, a

24 computer lab, library, and offices are located in Tropical Reforestation Service-Learning, the student union. A recreation center, fields and Veterinary Medicine, Sustainability of Tropical courts for various sports, and 3 k of trails provide Agro-Ecosystems, Environmental Anthropology, activity options. UGA landscape architecture Latin American and Caribbean Studies, and students designed a 1.5 ha botanical garden, Theater and Film (ugacostarica.org). which includes medicinal plants and an Approximately 40-45 short programs (average 5 arboretum. UGA rebuilt the 12-room Ecolodge days) for institutions other than UGA, including San Luis where tourists and the general public OTS, bring ca. 1200 students and faculty a year. have the opportunity to stay and participate in the UGACR actively promotes research on campus's educational programs on sustainability, campus and in the area, offering laboratory and reforestation, and natural/cultural history of the residential facilities, logistical support, area. More than 700 tourists/year stayed an institutional partnerships, research sites, research average of 4 days at the Ecolodge in 2013-2017 assistants, species lists, weather data, as well as (ugacosta rica.org). help with government permits. Several staff Tracking goals and improvements in campus members have been carrying out their own sustainability has been a priority from the research. Station Manager and Associate beginning. The campus has an integrated farm Director Fabricio Camacho's research has that produces 15% of food consumption. focused on the "bio-optimization of compost Livestock wastewater is processed by a through the integration of cultures of native soil biodigestor producing biogas and biofertilizers microorganisms and digestates from anerobic for the farming system and reducing the farm's digestors" with the aim of helping farmers greenhouse gas emissions. After seeing the "rebuild the natural fertility of the soil" without effectiveness of the farm's biodigestor, in 2013, using synthetic pesticides (ugacostarica.org). UGACR built a large biodigestor on campus to Other staff research focuses on the classification process all human waste; it produces methane to and natural history of the butterflies of San Luis power the kitchen stove. The processed water and on bird collisions with reflective windows leaves the system 99.9% clean and is and how to prevent them. Independent reincorporated into the environment (F. researchers and graduate students have also Camacho, pers. comm.). A native tree nursery carried out research projects, such as Shahady's (started by CRCF and taken over by UGACR) study of water quality in the BBC (see above) and "produces 3000-5000 seedlings of 20 species of camera trapping to document terrestrial and native trees each year that are planted in the BBC arboreal mammals (see costarica.uga.edu/faculty for ecological restoration, agroforestry, and -researchers/research-projects). carbon sequestration" (F. Camacho, pers. Community involvement and outreach are comm.). Funding to support this reforestation part of UGACR's mission. They purchase 25% of work comes from UGACR's carbon offset their food and many services from local program that began in 2008. UGA students must providers. UGACR has developed "innovations pay $25 as part of their required fees to for the sustainable intensification of small-scale compensate for the carbon footprint caused by agriculture and forestry (i.e. biodigestors, their travel to the campus. Students from other effective microorganisms, compost optimization, institutions and tourists may make carbon offset agroforestry) taking into consideration the local contributions. By 2017, more than 40,000 trees farmers' needs. These innovations, after being had been planted on farms in the BBC. tested on campus, are gradually transferred into (ugacostarica.org for Sustainability; ugacostarica the farming communities under a careful blog.com, Oct. 11, 2017). participatory approach" (F. Camacho, pers. There are about 15 UGA programs (semester comm.). and short-term) per year, representing more than UGACR has played a crucial role in MABI, 25 disciplines and 8 Colleges with about 250-275 hosting the third conference in 2016 and part of students and 40 faculty and teaching assistants the fourth in 2017 (see 10.6.F above). UGACR (H. Mata, pers. comm.). Programs include is also an active partner in the BBC. In addition Tropical Biology, Landscape Architecture, to their reforestation efforts, they have conducted

25 water quality research at 18 sites along 3 rivers in donated English books to the school. Other the corridor and have contributed to GIS maps of students created a short hands-on recycling the corridor (see 10.6.E above). UGACR became course and built a water distribution system for a certified member of the Audubon Cooperative local communities (soltiscentercostarica.tamu Sanctuary Program International in 2018 .edu). Non-TAMU schools and organizations, (auduboninternational.org). such as OTS, have brought courses, workshops, D. Texas A&M Soltis Center (TAMU- and tour groups to the Center (soltiscenter Soltis) costarica.tamu.edu). Usage of the station doubled Texas A&M opened its 117 ha Soltis Center in the last two years to more than 7000 person for Research and Education in 2009. It is located days for 2018 (E. Gonzalez, pers. comm.). in San Isidro de Peñas Blancas, San Ramon, Since 2007, geographers and other adjacent to the eastern border of CER researchers have been mapping and establishing (soltiscentercostarica.tamu.edu). TAMU-Soltis benchmarks in the 100 ha of forest, gathering seeks to: “train succeeding generations of Texas baseline data on biota, making species lists (and A&M students with the aid of experiential, field- posting them on the web site), and collecting data based learning; catalyze and facilitate critical and at a meteorological station that posts real time on- innovative research in the biological, physical, line information (soltiscentercostarica.tamu.edu). and social sciences; [and] serve as a major Monteverde scientists have contributed to international location for research and education baseline research; D. Hamilton and R. LaVal in sustainability issues and wise stewardship of have collected vertebrates, and B. Haber has natural resources" (soltiscentercostarica.tamu collected insects for his Electronic Field Guide .edu/content/ mission-vision-and-objectives). Project (D. Hamilton, pers. comm.). Most of the The land and facilities of the new center were current researchers come from TAMU. The donated to the TAMU System by Bill and Wanda Director encourages more researchers to use the Soltis. Bill Soltis, a TAMU graduate, had site, as the site provides a unique and rich setting traveled to Costa Rica on business and started for research and education activities (E. buying forested land next to CER to preserve it. Gonzalez, pers. comm.). He donated 16 ha that had been deforested for a By 2017, they had taken several regional farm and reforested it for the campus, provided a initiatives to advance research into global climate 100 year free lease for ca. 100 ha of primary and change and its impact on biodiversity. They have secondary forest that he and partners own on the established contacts with the main Costa Rican border of CER (E. Gonzalez, pers. comm.), and universities as well as partnerships with local underwrote construction costs for the Center, landowners. They built three weather stations using designs by TAMU architecture students. "along the altitudinal gradient of the Peñas An academic building has a wet and dry lab, 3 Blancas river watershed" and plan to add "eco- classrooms, library, computer facilities and WiFi, hydrology and vegetation data for each site" (E. offices, and cafeteria, with 8 dormitories that Gonzalez, pers. comm.; soltiscentercostarica. sleep up to 56. All of the facilities are handicap tamu.edu). They also have developed a regional accessible (soltiscentercostarica. tamu.edu). GIS database and created 230 maps The Center hosts courses run by TAMU (soltiscentercostarica.tamu.edu). A founding faculty focused on Environmental Design, Water member of MABI, TAMU-Soltis hosted the Management, Field Studies in Tropical Biology, second annual conference in 2015 (see 10.6.F and Geography Mapping. In 2018, the campus above). welcomed an NSF funded Research Experience for Undergraduates (costaricareu.tamu.edu). 10.8 Environmental Education in the They also facilitate service-learning programs; in Primary and Secondary Schools 2010, TAMU's chapter of Engineers Without A. EE in Schools of the Monteverde Area- Borders built a computer lab at the School of San Overview Juan de Peñas Blancas. Students from TAMU's EE in local primary and secondary schools College of Education established an English as a includes more attention to water and waste issues, Second Language Program for local children and climate change, endangered species, and

26 sustainable living (Blum 2012). Primary schools program. High school students have organized (grades 1-6) supported by the government include recycling at the school. In 2017, the high school two in Santa Elena and Cerro Plano and ca. 20 science teacher, an accredited teacher in other in surrounding towns. The public Colegio Advanced Placement Environmental Science, Técnico Professional de Santa Elena (similar to a gave the first college level course in this subject US high school) offers specialized programs or at MFS, aided by local biologists. His students all majors in agriculture, ecological tourism, and received high scores in the US AP test (MFS food services in addition to traditional academic Newsletter June 2017). That same year, the subjects (See Section 10.5). There are also 3 school's 65th anniversary celebration included a private bilingual schools in the area: Monteverde two day symposium on changes in Monteverde Friends School (MFS), The Cloud Forest School over those years; one panel focused on (CFS), and the Adventist School (the latter does environmental changes and another addressed not have a high school) that are now accredited changes in tourism and the economy. by the Ministerio de Educación Pública (MEP: The school installed 12 solar panels in 2016. Ministry of Public Education). All area schools They adopted water conservation measures in have basic curricula, including Environmental 2016 and 2017, including dry- and low-flush Education, shaped by MEP. Most teachers in the toilets. The school wants to create a carbon primary public schools still lack sufficient neutral campus. The challenge is that over 90% training and resources for EE and depend upon of their carbon emissions come from the EE Programs at the two cloud forest reserves transportation, mainly parents dropping off and (Blum 2012). CEAM (see below) helps picking up their children (K. VanDusen, pers. coordinate EE activities. comm.). They also built a nearby 3-unit A new initiative in sustainable development environmentally friendly house for teachers in involving Colegio majors came from a 2017. MCF helped support its water conservation Monteverde Community Fund grant to the systems: rainwater catchment provides water for Colegio in 2014 to help build a biodigestor to low flow toilets and washing machines and process animal waste from the agricultural processed greywater irrigates native fruit trees program; it keeps the waste out of regional and a permaculture garden. The roof is ready for streams and produces methane gas to use for solar panels (MFS Newsletter, June 2017 at cooking in their Food Services Program mfschool.org). (monteverdefund.org/mcf-newsletter-January- C. Cloud Forest School (CFS) 2014). Students from the 3 high schools continue The CFS, established in 1991, has about 200 to be involved in the Adopt-a-Stream program students and is the only school in the area offered by MVI for regular monitoring of the dedicated to "learning the language of a health of local streams using equipment from sustainable future" through environmental MVI. education and on-campus land stewardship. B. Monteverde Friends School (MFS) (cloudforestschool.org; Burlingame 2013). CFS MFS has about 120 students (mfschool.org). acquired its 46 ha campus through a loan from the The school is committed to Quaker values, U.S.-based Nature Conservancy, to establish including "Stewardship: The school promotes an legal precedents for conservation easements in appreciation of and connection to the natural Costa Rica. The easement put the farm (72% world. By increasing our awareness of our forested) under strict protection. "Green interdependence with all life on earth, we strive Building" standards for new buildings were to use water, land, and other resources mindfully developed in 2003 and used that year in and wisely. Our resolve is enhanced by the construction of the Gazebo or Kiosco (with natural beauty and biodiversity that surrounds us" Monteverde's first solar panel) and all subsequent (mfschool. org/aboutMFS). Students go on field construction with funding from the US Cloud trips to local reserves and educational nature Forest School Foundation (Burlingame 2013). In exhibits. They carry out an independent project 2015, a grant from the MCF funded a pilot in their last year; e.g., following a stream from its rainwater catchment system for flushing toilets origin to the sea, investigating the local recycling

27 with the goal of reducing the school's use of committed "to offer young people a career potable water (C. Yang, pers. comm.). alternative to tourism" (CFSF Rainbow Spring Once CFS owned the land, they hired a 2013, G. Vargas, pers. comm.). steward to monitor land-use plans and work with D. Monteverde Commission on the EE Coordinator, staff, and volunteers to Environmental Education (CEAM) integrate stewardship activities with the CEAM is a cooperative group of curriculum. By 2017, more than 13,000 native environmental educators formed in 2005 by the trees representing a number of species had been MCFP, SECFR, MCL, ACAT, the local planted (M. Brenes, pers. comm.). Volunteers government, and the Santa Elena ASADA have constructed and maintained trails and (ceamonteverde.weebly.com). CEAM mapped reforestation areas (CFSF Rainbow coordinates environmental activities for students, Spring 2014). Two organic vegetable gardens, 2 raises local environmental consciousness, and greenhouses, and native plant gardens featuring a contributes to sustainability. From 2005-2009, medicinal plant garden and thematic gardens to they sponsored an annual prize contest for attract various animals provide additional EE ecological stories by students from 14 schools. resources. The large project using earthworms to The 15 best stories from all these years were compost organic waste came to an abrupt halt published in 2014 with funding from the local when pizotes (coatis) broke into the enclosure government and BESA (M. Díaz, pers. comm., and ate all the worms! CEAM 2014). In 2016, CEAM sponsored a new Environmental Education (EE) has always contest for ecological stories for grades 4-6 in 14 had a central role in CFS's curriculum, but it took schools that focused on water resources. The a big leap forward in 1998 with the hiring of a prize was a visit to a national park for the student full-time EE Coordinator. Coordinators have and the parents. CEAM is looking for funding to taken various approaches to EE including publish the winning essays. CEAM has also teaching separate courses on EE themes, started sponsoring new workshops, such as one providing resources to teachers, arranging field on the conservation of bats. They continue trips, and helping teachers integrate EE issues and offering educational programs on recycling, themes into their subject matter courses for helping COMIRES, and organizing annual different grade levels (L. Grenholm, C. Yang, Environmental Fairs and celebrations of Earth pers. comm.). The EE person also worked with Day (M. Díaz, pers. comm.). the land steward to create activities that CEAM, under the leadership of M. Díaz from integrated theory and practice for students. All MCFP and Y.M. Arias of SECFR, organized a 3- students have some responsibility for the year training program for those concerned with stewardship of their campus; for example, they environmental issues and education. Funded by have been involved with a campus-wide ACAT and the US Fish and Wildlife Service, recycling program since 2013. As she departed in workshops involved 103 people from 2016, the EE Coordinator prepared a very useful conservation organizations, local government, Manual for future coordinators based on her and agencies in the region (Menacho 2010). several years of service in the position; her CEAM is one of 34 active organizations in successors have built their programs on her ACAT's CREA, the Regional Environmental document (Yang 2016). CFS's camera trap on Education Commission, which was established in the trails in the forest above the campus has 1998 (CREA-ACAT 2017). recorded cats (including a puma and ocelot), 10.9 Conclusion: Lessons from coyotes, and other more common animals (CFSF Monteverde and Topics for Future Research Rainbow, Spring 2018). A. Recommendations for Future Work CFS has been in the ICT Blue Flag Program Environmental organizations and (C. Yang, pers. comm.). In 2013, CFS formed a conservation/sustainability practices are rich new alliance with UNION VARSAN S.A., owner areas for historical analysis and documentation. of a local sustainable farm, to offer students Many of the organizations discussed in this opportunities for internships, hands-on farm Update are more than 20 years old; their early activities, and educational tours. The business is records are deteriorating in quality. This history

28 should be preserved in digital form, preferably in B. Failures or Problems of Conservation a central location. Because organizations are Organizations and of Sustainability evolving so rapidly, it would be ideal to have a "There are multiple visions and practices of single electronic database (linked to the future environmentalism operating in a scene of MABD) with historical and current information complicated regional social, economic, political, and live webpage links for all these organizations. and ecological change" (Vivanco 2006). Such a database could also include all available Conservation organizations have not made GIS maps and real-time camera trap sufficient efforts to understand the differing photos/videos to enable tracking animals' visions and practices says anthropologist movements in the zone. Vivanco. "The fact that many residents see the Recommendations for special projects are: a) now-protected forests as off-limits to their continue to follow the evolution of each of the recreation and use reinforces the authority of the conservation organizations discussed in this environmental organizations that police those Update; b) analyze the evolution of lands, but fuels quiet talk by some people of organizations, issues, players, and projects future land invasions" (Vivanco 2006; see also E. related to water (CEGIREH), to waste Vargas Essay in section E below). Historian (COMIRES), and to climate change Davis claims "many residents share the (CORCLIMA) and their interactions in the perspective that support for conservation in Monteverde area; c) examine relationships Monteverde is relatively shallow" and "only as between Monteverde conservation and viable as the continued flow of money and jobs sustainability organizations and regional, through tourism" (Davis 2007). Another national, and international organizations, anthropologist discusses conflicts between the movements, policies, and agreements d) evaluate values of conservationists and more urban Costa the success of experiments on sustainable and Ricans in Sta Elena, Cerro Plano, and San Luis integrated/organic agriculture and reforestation with their development associations and their and their applications in the zone; e) explore the understanding of sustainability in more social and developments of personal networks linking economic terms (Blum 2012; see also Davis conservation organizations and their impact on 2007). Some Costa Ricans have resented a lack building a base for consensus decision-making; f) of access to scientific research information assess the impacts of the EE programs started at generated in Monteverde but available only in MCL in 1986, at MCFP in 1992, and at CFS in English and in locally inaccessible specialized the early 1990s on those early students who are journals (Blum 2012, Kutner 2018). now adults; and g) write a history of the Finca La Some think that the rapid development of Bella community. tourism, especially adventure tourism, is There are many topics to explore in the destroying what was special about Monteverde. growth of Monteverde area tourism, beginning In 2016, Lonely Planet commented: "On a good with an accurate estimate of the number of day, Monteverde is a place where you can be tourists in Monteverde to assess environmental inspired about the possibility of a world in which impacts on biota, water, and waste. This is also organic farming and alternative energy sources critical to understanding the impacts that paving are the norm. On a bad day, Monteverde can feel the road up the mountain will have. A study on like Disneyland in Birkenstocks." Zip lines, the growth of the area’s adventure tourism which started in Monteverde, are now widespread industry, and the effects of the commission and more accessible and cheaper in other areas, system, will show the sector's economic so adventure tourism may decline in Monteverde contribution to the Zone. How sustainable and or (Davis 2007). Crowds of tourists in MCFP and green are tourism businesses, and how do they other tourist destinations, billboards, and heavier define, value, measure, and implement traffic are associated problems. In addition, sustainability? The answers to these questions tourists and the population increase they caused will come from carefully designed social science have strained water supplies, increased amounts surveys and questionnaires. of waste, burdened infrastructure, and have had some negative effects on the biota.

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Financial stability remains a persistent such as guans, umbrella birds, and great problem for many of the conservation curassows, which have disappeared in organizations in Monteverde. Problems were unprotected areas because of hunting, are being magnified with the global economic downturn by seen in the reserves. Two frog species thought to 2009; for Monteverde, this involved decreases in be extinct have reappeared in the CER. We also tourism and international donations. have been learning much more about what Organizations are working to develop species are found in multiple area habitats from endowments and more stable sources of funding. scientific studies and observations by guides and Money and personnel are also needed to develop naturalists. The annual Monteverde Christmas and maintain the ambitious projects proposed by Bird Count celebrated its 25th year in 2018. COMIRES, CEGIREH, CORCLIMA, and the However, recent camera trap research in CER MABI database. and UGACR's campus that focused on large C. Successes of Conservation terrestrial mammal and terrestrial bird Organizations populations photographed only 25 "of the 33 1. A traditional measure of conservation species historically found in the region; most success is the amount of forest that has been species were rarely detected ...[and] only five protected. By 2017, BESA, MCFP, CER, were found more than once per 30 days of camera SECFR, Curi-Cancha, and CRCF included time" (Zamzow, et al. 2018). While the three- 27,650 ha; these reserves are part of the Arenal- wattled bellbird and resplendant quetzal have Monteverde Protected Zone of 28,314 ha. The been breeding in the reserves (mainly in nest Monteverde Reserves plus Arenal Volcano boxes watched by cameras), their status is still National Park and the Alberto Manuel Brenes threatened on their migratory routes. Therefore, Reserve provide 50,000 ha of continuous conservationists are protecting and replanting the protected areas (L. Stallcup, pers. comm.). Most birds' wild avocado food sources along these of the Monteverde reserves are included in routes (Hamilton, Singleton and Joslin 2018). ACAT's 387,000 ha which offer some measure of 4. Environmental Education is part of the protection. curriculum for primary and secondary schools. 2. The practice of linking forest patches to Numerous groups have provided EE for local protected areas via corridors has expanded schools and the community; these groups beyond buying land to large-scale reforestation cooperate through CEAM to offer activities, fairs, efforts with native tree species by many and environmental clean-ups involving the organizations. Increased forest connectivity on broader community. There have been more private land has been most successful in the upper outreach efforts to the people whose resentments third of the Bellbird Biological Corridor, were mentioned in item B above, stressing the extending from the Monteverde Reserves down benefits of conserved areas and providing to Guacimal. This reforestation has provided practical education in such areas as improving benefits to the private landowners as well as to farm productivity and developing rural tourism. wildlife. As Nadkarni has noted, however, the Other forms of EE have expanded in the forests growing back after severe deforestation institutions for foreign university students, in are not the same as the original ones, and could guided tours of reserves, in some green hotels and be thought of as the "third state," forests that restaurants, and in educational businesses with bring new ecological relationships (Nadkarni animals and orchids. 2018). 5. Organizations have continued to emerge to 3. Endangered species have been returning. meet new needs: a local government, the All 6 Costa Rican members of the wild cat family Community Fund, the CRCF, ProNativas, the have been seen on camera traps, although the few BBC, MABI, COMIRES, CEGIREH, jaguar sightings may indicate that one or more is CORCLIMA, and CEAM. Volunteers serving on passing through and are not residents (L. committees and on each other’s Boards link these Stallcup, pers. comm.). Tapir tracks have been organizations to each other and to continuing observed for many years; now these animals are organizations. Monteverde's conservation being seen on camera trap videos. Large birds organizations occupy different niches and do not

30 compete with each other, but they do cooperate because of dedicated, hard-working, motivated, with each other and with other organizations at educated, and creative people. local, national, and international levels. 5. Information and access have been The successes of conservation organizations improving. Making the Nadkarni and in these areas have been possible because of the Wheelwright, eds., Monteverde: Ecology and following factors (Burlingame 2000): Conservation of a Tropical Cloud Forest and the 1. Resident and visiting scientists and Chapter Updates available on the internet in conservationists have provided basic and applied English and Spanish with free access was a major knowledge that led to the formation and growth contribution (digitalcommons.bowdoin.edu/ of conservation organizations and their programs. scholars-bookshelf/1/; /3/; /5/). It is important to 2. Economic prosperity and a diversified continue regular digital updates to the book. The economy supported the development of proposed on-line MABI database will also be conservation organizations and made an educated important in communicating pure and applied middle class a reality. Since 2000, tourism has scientific and social science research information surpassed agriculture as the main economic (MABD 2018). MVI's library has been building a driver and source of conservation support. searchable digital collection and has created an 3. Successive immigrants brought new electronic list of MCFP's library holdings MVI perspectives, skills and knowledge, starting with has an offprint collection of local research, but the Costa Rican settlers, followed by the Quakers, they are missing many articles. Researchers need then the biologists, the tourists and business to be encouraged to submit copies of their articles people, civic leaders, educators, and artists to to MVI and to opt for Open Access journals for create what the 2013 session at the ATBC called their publications; US universities such as MIT "The Perfect Storm: Educational, Conservation, and U. of California now require their faculty to and Community Synergisms for Tropical publish in these journals (Kutner 2018). Ecology Research in Monteverde, Costa Rica." Electronic media have contributed to rapid 4. Monteverde's conservation organizations communication in the zone and at national and and the people who support them have been able international levels. MVI's weekly electronic to change as conservation thinking evolved from bulletin board reaches a wide audience with a focus on preserving particular endangered information about upcoming talks, meetings, and species in a reserve to concern about protecting events, including the monthly meeting of habitat for organisms that migrate outside of biologists. reserves (such as quetzals, bellbirds, jaguars). D. The Monteverde Zone and its Thinking then broadened to preserving Conservation Organizations as Models biodiversity in much larger areas through such Simply copying Monteverde and its measures as creating connectivity (corridors) conservation organizations and applying these between protected areas and working with people activities elsewhere is problematic because of the in those corridors and around protected areas to unique elements in Monteverde and in Costa meet their needs and offer sustainable options for Rica. However, some of the conservation and their livelihood in agriculture, tourism, or other educational organizations or some of their occupations. Today's challenge of climate change programs and practices can be adapted as models. broadens conservation thinking to the global Monteverde's successes with ecotourism as a way level. Members of the organizations have kept to support conservation organizations and the up-to-date on national and international development of ecotourism businesses can serve conservation thinking, policies, organizations, as a model for certain locations. and technological tools such as GIS (C. Harvey, The Monteverde-Arenal Bioregion Initiative, Keynote Address at MABI II, 2015; Davis 2007). launched in 2014, proposes to extend the They learned how to tap into outside sources of synergisms of the Monteverde area that have funding and steer benefits of tourism to contributed to its successes in research, conservation and sustainable development ends. conservation, and education to the larger The organizations have shown resiliency and bioregion around it. CORCLIMA openly wants resourcefulness; their success has been possible

31 to be a model for Costa Rica in addressing the years of protest, the Guacimal and Santa Rosa challenges of climate change. communities went to the Constitutional Court E. "Human Voices Around the Forest" (Sala IV) to appeal for legal protection against the E. Vargas' update to his (essay), "Human water concession approved by MINAE for the Voices Around the Forest" offers a concluding irrigation project SUDAGUA. This water vision of promises and challenges to conservation concession would have left the Veracruz River successes: with only 16% of its flow (almost dry). In “As neighbors living around the protected December 2016, the Court ruled in favor of the areas, we enjoy the beauty of landscape, the community appeal on the grounds that pureness of water and air, the peace of the bird’s SUDAGUA did not comply with environmental songs; but it also implies a responsibility: to care impact studies (Lara 2016). La Alianza de for this natural richness, as the source of life and Communidades por la Defensa del Agua is admiration for all creatures, among them, human currently working on a project to obtain a legal beings. For this purpose, it is essential that our protection status for the Veracruz and Guacimal short and medium term actions be framed by an rivers by creating a Water Reserve for drinking integral, long-term vision. water (Caballero 2017). If this proposal gets "The conservation organizations and the official support, it may become a precedent for government highlight the extension of protected many other communities and rivers facing the forest as proof of conservation success in same risk. However, public and private Monteverde and Costa Rica. However, we do not hydroenergy companies are creating more know if in a few decades, these organizations will pressures as they construct dams on various rivers have the capacity and the necessary resources to whose main water sources are in the Monteverde ensure the protection of such a large area. Will Reserve Complex. they be able to do it without the participation and "These cases offer an idea of the big support of the people living around these forest challenges for the conservation organizations, reserves? What will be the future pressures on governments, educational institutions, these areas? Other actor’s voices are being heard, community leaders, farmers and enterprises of from the inhabitants of nearby communities (e.g. the region. Enduring sustainability will depend Guacimal, Chachagua) defending their water on the will among all organizations and actors sources for human consumption from the agro- involved to maintain and improve the industry and tourism developments pushing for collaborative work relationships that have water concessions. For example, after several distinguished our communities."

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Key to Acronyms CRCF: Costa Rican Conservation Foundation CST: Certification for Sustainable Tourism ACAT: Area de conservación Arenal- [from ICT] Tempisque [Arenal-Tempisque Conservation DCC: Dirección de cambio climático Area; previously ACA] [Directorate of climate change; in MINAE] ASADAS: Asociaciones administradoras de los EE: Environmental Education Sistemas de Acueductos y Alcantarillados FONAFIFO: Fondo Nacional de Comunales en Costa Rica [Administrative Financiamiento Forestal [National Fund for associations of rural community water and Forest Financing; in MINAE] drainage systems] FR: Friends of the Rainforest [previously ATBC: Association for Tropical Biology and FCER: Friends of the Children's Eternal Conservation Rainforest and MCLUS] AyA: Acueductos y Alcantarillados [Costa ICT: Instituto Costarricense de Turismo [Costa Rican Water and Drainage Institute] Rican Institute of Tourism] BBC: Bellbird Biological Corridor MABI: Monteverde-Arenal Bioregion Initiative BESA: Bosqueterno, S.A. [Eternal Forest, Inc.] MCF: Monteverde Community Fund CASEM: Cooperativa de Artesanías de Santa MCFP: Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve Elena-Monteverde [Santa Elena and MCL: Monteverde Conservation League Monteverde Artisan Cooperative] MCLUS: Monteverde Conservation League CEAM: Comisión de educación ambiental de U.S. Monteverde [Monteverde Commission on MEP: Ministerio de Educación Pública Environmental Education] [Ministry of Public Education] CEGIREH: La Comisión especial para la MFS: Monteverde Friends School gestión integral del recursos hídrico MINAE: Ministerio del ambiente y energía [Monteverde Special Commission for the [Ministry of the Environment and Energy] Integrated Management of Water Resources] MVI: Monteverde Institute CER: Children's Eternal Rainforest [previously OTS: Organization for Tropical Studies used Spanish acronym BEN] PES: Payment for Environmental Services CFS: Cloud Forest School [previously used SECFR: Santa Elena Cloud Forest Reserve Spanish acronym CEC] SINAC: Sistema nacional de areas de CFSF: Cloud Forest School Foundation conservación [National System of CIEE: Council on International Educational Conservation Areas] Exchange TAMU-Soltis: Texas A&M University Soltis COMIRES: Comisión de manejo integral de Center for Research and Education residuos sólidos de Monteverde [Monteverde TSC: Tropical Science Center Commission for Solid Waste Management] UGACR: University of Georgia, San Luis Costa CORCLIMA: Comisión resiliencia al cambio Rica climático de Monteverde [Monteverde ZPAM: Zona Protectora Arenal Monteverde Commission for Resilience to Climate [Arenal Monteverde Protected Zone] Change]

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Sources

Acknowledgments: This Update was made possible by very generous help from many individuals who provided essential oral and documentary information and/or detailed helpful feedback on drafts. I especially thank: Yaxine Maria Arias, Walter Bello, Pedro Belmar, Wendy Brenes, Fabricio Camacho, Bob Carlson, Mercedes Díaz, Carol Evans, Ashley Gora, Eugenio Gonzalez, Laura Grenholm, Chad Gueli, Debra Hamilton, Patricia Jiménez, Laurie Kutner, Richard LaVal, Bob Law, Fran Lindau (Messerli), Julia Lowther, Alan Masters, Karen Masters, Yoryineth Méndez, Luisa Moreno, Nalini Nadkarni, Quint Newcomer, Jenny Peña, Fern Perkins, Alan Pounds, Lindsay Stallcup, the late John Trostle, Sue Trostle, Katy VanDusen, EugenioVargas, Justin Welch, Jannelle Wilkins, Carol Yang, and Willow Zuchowski.

NOTE: Most of the sources for this Update are “grey literature,” unpublished computer generated reports, newsletters, and documents available from the organizations that produced them. Also, most all of the organizations discussed in this Update have websites with extensive information and Facebook pages.

Acueducto Comunal de Santa Elena. 2014. Agua Pura. _____. 2014. Chapter 10 Update (2014): Conservation in Revista Semestral 29. the Monteverde zone. [available online since Area de conservación Arenal Tempisque (ACAT). 2017. 2016 at digitalcommons.bowdoin.edu/scholars- www.sinac.go.cr/ES/ac/acat/Paginas. bookshelf/5/). Association for Tropical Biology and Conservation _____. 2016 . Short history of the Monteverde (ATBC). 2013. The Perfect Storm: Educational, Conservation League and the Children's Eternal Conservation, and Community Synergisms for Rainforest. Lancaster, Pennsylvania, USA. Tropical Ecology Research in Monteverde, (online at acmcr.org). Costa Rica. atbc.confex.com/.../2013/ _____. 2018. History of the Monteverde Institute. webprogram/.../ Lancaster, Pennsylvania, USA. (online at ATBC-OTS-2013_Progra...S-11 (June 25). mvinstitute.org). Bhatia, M., E. Leclerc, E. Mowatt and D. O'Halloran. Caballero, A. 2017. Communidad se une en defensa de la 2018. Designing a strategic marketing plan for cuenca del rio Guacimal. Seminario Universidad. rural tourism development. Worcester San José, Costa Rica. 23 agosto. Polytechnic Institute. Worcester, Massachusetts, CEAM (Comisión de educación ambiental Monteverde) , USA. (undergraduate report submitted to M. editors. 2014. Cuentos ecológicos de Belz, WPI, and H. Villalobos, BBC). Monteverde. CEAM, Monteverde, Costa Rica. Blum, N. 2012. Education, Community Engagement and Centro Cientifico Tropical (photos by B. Cole). 2006. Sustainable Development. Negotiating Reserva Bosque Nuboso Monteverde. CCT, San Environmental Knowledge in Monteverde, Costa José, Costa Rica. Rica. Springer, London, UK. Chornook, K. and W. Guindon. 2007. Walking with Wolf: Bosqueterno S.A. 2010. Bosqueterno, SA. reflections on a Life spent protecting the Costa http://bosqueternosa.wordpress.com. Rican wilderness. Wandering Words Press, _____. 2014. Bosqueterno [poster by K. Johnson, R. Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. Guindon, J. Welch for the Monteverde-Arenal Cloud Forest School Foundation (CFSF). 1997- date. Initiative Conference]. BESA, Monteverde, Rainbow [newsletter] CFSF, Sewanee, Costa Rica. Tennessee, USA. (online since Fall 2011 at Brenes, J. K. VanDusen and J. Welch. 2016 Pathways cloudforestschool.org). toward Climate Resilience in Monteverde, Costa Cloud Forest School (CFS/CEC). 1992 to date. Board Rica. MCF, Monteverde, Costa Rica. (available reports to the General Assembly. CFS, in English and Spanish at corclima.org/wp- Monteverde, Costa Rica. content/uploads/2017/11/Pathways-climate- _____. 1995 to date. Director’s Reports to Board and to resilience-Monteverde.pdf). Assembly. CFS, Monteverde, Costa Rica. Burlingame, L. 2000. “Conservation in the Monteverde Cobb, M. 2017. One community's story of tropical storm Zone: Contributions of Conservation Nate: landslides, fear, and resilience. Organizations.” Pages 351-388 in N. Nadkarni ticotimes.net/2017/10/09. and N. Wheelwright, editors. Monteverde: Corredor Biológica Pájaro Campana. 2011. Plan Ecology and Conservation of a Tropical Cloud estratégico 2011-2016. www.cbpc.org. Forest. Oxford University Press, New York, _____. 2017-date. Boletín informativo del CBPC. CBPC. USA. (online since 2014 at digitalcommons. Monteverde, Costa Rica. (online at bowdoin.edu/scholars-bookshelf/1/.) facebook.com/cbpajarocampana.) _____. 2002. Evolution of the Organization for Tropical Costa Rican Conservation Foundation. 2012-date. Studies. Revista de Biología Tropical 50(2): 439- www.fccmontverde.org. 472. Costa Rican Tourism Institute (ICT). 2014. _____. 2013. A Short history of the Cloud Forest School www.visitcostarica. com/ict/paginas/ (CFS) in Monteverde, Costa Rica. Lancaster, sostenibilidad. Pennsylvania, US.

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Council on International Educational Exchange (CIEE). asociado a las descargas de aguas servidas en el 1993-date. Study abroad in Monteverde. distrito Monteverde, Puntarenas. CEGIREH. ciee.org/study-abroad/costa-rica/monteverde. Monteverde, Costa Rica. CREA-ACAT (Comisión regional de educatión ambiental- Guindon. C. 1996. The importance of forest fragments to Area de conservación Arenal Tempisque). 2017. the maintenance of regional biodiversity in Costa Proceso de educación ambiental participativa del Rica. pages 168-186 in J. Shelhas and R. Area de Conservación Arenal Tempisque). Greenberg, editors. Forest Patches in tropical Guanacaste, Costa Rica (online at sinac.go.cr). landscapes. Island Press, Washington D.C., Cresson, O. 2013. Blossoming and Building at Finca La USA. Bella. Quaker Earthcare Witness. 26(2.). Guindon, L., M. Moss, M. Rockwell, J. Trostle and S. www.quakerearthcare.org/article/blossoming- Trostle (eds.). 2001. Monteverde Jubilee Family and-building-finca-la-bella. Album. R.B. Sibaja, Monteverde, Costa Rica. Davis, J. 2007. Evolution of protected area conservation in Haber, W., W. Zuchowski and E. Bello. 2000. An Monteverde, Costa Rica. MS Thesis. University introduction to cloud forest trees: Monteverde, of Florida, USA. (online at ots.ac.cr/rdmcnfs/ Costa Rica (2nd ed.). Mountain Gem datasets/biblioteca/pdfs/nbina-14093.pdf.) Publications, Monteverde de Puntarenas, Costa Diáz, M. and G. Phillips. [2017]. Las aventuras de Ana en Rica. el bosque nuboso. Centro Cientifico Tropical, Hamilton, D., R. Chinchilla and J. Zuñiga 2018. Tropical San José, Costa Rica. Storm Nate: The resilience of conservation _____. 2018. Quetzal. Una guía interactiva para efforts, forests, and the community in investigadores jóvenes. Centro Cientifico Monteverde, Costa Rica. Poster. Ecological Tropical, San José, Costa Rica. Society of America (ESA) annual meeting, New _____. 2018. Quetzal. Una guía interactiva para Orleans, Louisana, August 2018. F1000Research investigadores principantes. Centro Cientifico 2018, 7:1439 (poster). (doi:10.7490/f1000 Tropical, San José, Costa Rica. research.1116062.1). Dyer, Z. 2014. Costa Rica remains most popular Latin Hamilton, D., R. Singleton and D. Joslin. 2018. Resource American study abroad destination. tracking and its conservation implications for an ticotimes.net/2014/05/23/costa-rica-remains- obligate frugivore (Procnias tricarunculatus, the most popular ... three-wattled bellbird). Biotropica 50 (1) 146- Ewing, T. 2007. Community development and capacity 156. building: A case study of Monteverde, Costa Honey, M. 2008. Ecotourism and sustainable development. Rica. Sociology-Dissertations. Paper 6. (2nd. ed). Island Press, Washington, D.C., USA. http://surface syr.edu/soc_etd/6. Institute of International Education. 2014. Open Doors FE (Friends of the Rainforest) [previously called Data. U.S. Study Abroad: Leading Destinations. Monteverde Conservation League US (MCLUS), iie.org/Research-and-Publications/Open- then Friends of the Children's Eternal Rainforest Doors/Data/US-Study-Abroad/Leading- (FCER)]. 2003 to date. Annual Report. www. Destinations/2010-12. friendsoftherainforest.org. Instituto Costarricense de turismo (ICT). 2018. Anuario Garrigues, R. and R. Dean. 2007. The Birds of Costa Rica. estadistico de turismo 2017. Llegadas Cornell University Press (Zona Tropical internacionales a Costa Rica, todas las vias. Publication), Ithaca, New York. Cuadro 13. ict.go.cr. GCMHC (Goucher College Mount Holyke College). 2018. Koens, J., C Dieperink and M. Miranda. 2009. Ecotourism Airbnb [student group's final project]. as a development strategy: experiences from Monteverde Institute video, April 13, 2018 on Costa Rica. Environment, Development, and facebook.com. Sustainability 11(6) 1225-1237. link.springer. Gómez-Parra, R.S. 2016. Evaluación de las acciones de com/article/10.1007/s10668-009-9214-3. restauración realizadas en le sector de Kutner. L. 2018. Equity issues in scholarly access and Monteverde del Corredor Biológico Pájaro production: A view from Latin America. Campana, Costa Rica. Máster en gestión y Monteverde Institute video, July 3, 2018 on restauración del medio natural. Universidad de facebook.com. Alicante, Spain. Lara, J. 2016. Vecinos de Guacimal ganan pulso contra González, A.. 2015. Estrategia de turismo sostenible para proyecto de riego. Sala IV paró obras de el corredor biológico pájaro campana. entubamiento por falta de estudios de impacto Fundación Neotrópica. San José, Costa Rica. ambiental. La Nacion. San José, Costa Rica. 20 Gora, A. 2013. Sustainable tourism norm transfer and the marzo (nacion.com). case of Monteverde, Costa Rica. Senior Thesis. Law, B. 1993, rev 1999, 2002. Birds of Bajo del Tigre. Lake Forest College Publications. publications. Monteverde Conservation League, Monteverde, lakeforest.edu/seniortheses/7/ [Lake Forest, Costa Rica. Illinois, USA]. Law, B., R. LaVal and W. Zuchowski. 1998. Bajo del Guevara, M. and M. Bonilla. 2017. Diagnóstico de línea Tigre guide. Monteverde Conservation League, base sobre la percepción social y la calidad del Monteverde, Costa Rica. agua de los recursos hídricos superficiales

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Lonely Planet, N. Cavalieri, A. Skolnick and W. n.d. Every Drop Counts/Cada Gota Cuenta. Yanagihara. 2012. Lonely Planet: Discover [Brochure] Monteverde, Costa Rica. Costa Rica (2nd. ed). Lonely Planet Publications Monteverde Institute (MVI). 1993-date. Actas. MVI, Pty Ltd., n.p. Monteverde, Costa Rica. _____. 2016. Costa Rica (12th ed.). Lonely Planet Global _____. 1987-date. Annual Report/Informe anual. MVI, Ltd., n.p. Monteverde, Costa Rica. MABD (Monteverde-Arenal Bioregion Database). 2018. _____. 1987-date. Executive Director's report to General bellbird.w3.uvm.edu/monteverde. Assembly MVI, Monteverde, Costa Rica. MABI (Monteverde-Arenal Bioregion Initiative). 2014. _____. 2011-date. Newsletter. MVI, Monteverde, Costa Conference at MVI Feb. 14-17, 2014. Rica. mvinstitute.org. iniciativamonteverdearenal.blogspot.com/2014/ Nadkarni, N. 2018. Falls, floods, forest fragmentation: 02. (Blog Archive). reflections on disturbance and recovery. _____. 2015. Conference at TAMU-Soltis April 13, 2015. Monteverde Institute video, March 26, 2018 on audio recording and Program at: facebook.com. monteverdefm.wordpress.com/2015/04/13/2015- Nadkarni, N. and N. Wheelwright, editors. 2000. mabi. Monteverde: Ecology and Conservation of a _____. 2016. Informe Final de la coordinación de la Tropical Cloud Forest. Oxford University Press, tercera conferencia de la bioregión Arenal New York, New York. (on line since 2014 at Monteverde 2016 by Shirley Murillo, digitalcommons.bowdoin.edu/scholars- Coordinator (includes Program). Conference bookshelf/1/) held at UGA San Luis de Monteverde August Reserva Biológica Bosque Nuboso de Monteverde 12-13, 2016. (RBBNB). 2005. Plan de manejo de RBBNM. _____. 2017. MABI Conference. Part 1, May 18 at MVI; www.reservamonteverde.com/documentos. Part 2, June 28 at Coyolito; Part 3, July 19 at _____. 2008. Plan program educación ambiental. UGA San Luis. Summary of all 3 in MVI www.reservamonteverde.com/documentos. Annual Report 2017. Video of Part 1 at: www. _____. 2009. Plan estratégico de investigación 2010-2020. pscp.tv/w/1ynJOjzbEdZGR. www.reservamonteverde.com/documentos. McCandless, S. 2008. Partial Power, Partial Knowledge: _____. 2014. Programa investigación RBBNM. Centro Accounting for the Dis-Integration of a Costa Cientifico Tropical, San José, Costa Rica. Rican Cooperative. Society and Natural _____. 2014-date. Registro de Investigaciones. RBBNM. Resources, 21 310- 323. academia.edu/386148/ Centro Cientifico Tropical, San José, Costa Rica. Partial_Power_Partial_ Knowledge ... Silva-Morales, E. 2016. Áreas prioritarias para la Menacho, R.M. 2010. Programa de capacitación restauración del sector norte del Corredor interinstitucional para la comisión de educación Biológico Pájaro Campana. Máster en gestión y ambiental y educadores de Monteverde. restauración del medio natural. Universidad de Biocenosis 23(1):14-21. Alicante, Spain. Méndez, Y. 2009. Plan de manejo de la Reserva biológica SINAC (Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación). San Luis, Monteverde, Costa Rica. Proyecto 2016. Plan General de Manejo de la Zona final ... por el titulo de Máster en Liderazgo y Protectora Arenal Monteverde. Area de Gerencia Ambiental otorgado por la Universidad Conservación Arenal Tempisque (ACAT). para Cooperación Internacional (UCI). UCI, San Guanacaste, Costa Rica. Available online at José, Costa Rica. canjeporbosques.org. Molina-Murillo, S, editor. 2017 Centro científico tropical: Stocker, K. 2013. Tourism and Cultural Change in Costa 55 años de historia conservacionista en Costa Rica. Lexington Books, Lanham, UK. Rica. Ambientico 263 (Jul.-Set.) 2-72 (on-line at Townsend, P. A. and K. Masters. 2015. Lattice-work ambientico.una.ac.cr). corridors for climate change: a conceptual Monteverde Community Fund. 2014-date. E-Bulletin. framework for biodiversity conservation and MCF. Monteverde, Costa Rica. social-ecological resilience in a tropical _____. 2015-date. Informe Anual/Assembly Reports. elevational gradient. Ecology and Society MCF. Monteverde, Costa Rica. 20(2):1. http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-07324- _____. 2018. COMIRES and the alchemy of compost. 200201. (On-line at monteverdefund.org). University of Georgia Costa Rica (UGACR). 2010, 2011- Monteverde Conservation League (MCL) 1987-date. 12. Sustainability Report Annual Report/Informe anual. MCL. dar.uga.edu/costa_rica/index.php/site/ Monteverde, Costa Rica. acmcr.org since 2008. sustainability_initiatives. _____. Bulletin (became Tapir Tracks/Huellas de Danta in _____. 2011-date. Blog. ugacostaricablog.com. 2017). 2009-date. MCL. www: acmcr.org. _____. 2014. Sustainability Report. Monteverde Friends School (MFS). 2018 . About Us. static.externalaffairs.uga.edu/costarica/UGACR_ MFS, Monteverde, Costa Rica. mfschool.org. Sustainability_Report_2013.pdf. 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