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AUTHOR Huifen, Duan; And Others TITLE Recent Trends and Developments in Educational Psychology: Chinese and American Perspectives. Educational Studies and Documents Series No. 61. INSTITUTION United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, Paris (France). REPORT NO ISBN-92-3-102980-0 PUB DATE 95 NOTE 55p. AVAILABLE FROM UNESCO Publishing, 'Sales Divilion, 7 Place de Fontenoy, 75352 Pazis 07 SP, France (87). PUB TYPE Reports Evaluative/Feasibility (142)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC03 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Constructivism (Learning); Educational Principles; *Educational Psychology; Educational Theories; Elementary Secondary Education; Foreign Countries; *Intellectual Disciplines; Learning; Personality Traits; *Teaching Methods; *Theory Practice Relationship; Trend Analysis IDENTIFIERS *China; Knowledge Acquisition; *United States

ABSTRACT This publication consists of two reports that were commissioned by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization as background for its biennial report on world education. The first paper, "Educational Psychology and Teaching Methods in China: Developments and Trends," by Duan Huifen and others, indicates that educational psychology in China began with the introduction of theories from abroad. This was followed by a period of testing, assimilation, and thorough investigation, and finally by actual creative development. A distinctively Chinese school of educational psychology has yet to be developed, but one trend is the emphasis on the harmonious development of the whole personality. The second paper, "Trends and Developments in Educational Psychology in the United States," by Rochel Gelman and Meredith Gattis Lee, emphasizes recent interest in the constructivist nature of learning, a view that is currently in favor. Notions of learning as a process of building associations are being expanded in examinations of the active construction of knowledge. (the first paper contains 60 references, and the second, 121 references, many of which are annotated.)(SLD)

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Educational studies and documents 61

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List of titles* 1. Education in the Arab region viewed from the 1970 35. Non-formal education and education policy in Ghana Marrakesh Conference (E,F) and Senegal (E,F) 2. Agriculture and general education (E,F) 36. Education in the Arab States in the light of the Abu 3. Teachers and educational policy (E,F) Dhabi Conference 1977 (E,F,A) 4. Comparative study of secondary school building costs 37. The child's first learning environment - selected (E,F,S) readings in home economics (E,F,S) 5. Literacy for working: functional literacy in rural 38. Education in Asia and Oceania: a challenge for the Tanzania (E,F) 1980s (E,F,R) 6. Rights and responsibilities of youth (E,F,S,R) 39. Self-management in educational systems (E,F,S) 7. Growth and change: perspectives of education in Asia 40. Impact of educational television on young children (E,F) (E,F,S) 8. Sports facilities for schools in developing countries 41. World problems in the classroom (E,F,S) (E,F) 42. Literacy and illiteracy (E,F,S,A) 9. Possibilitia and limitations of functional literacy: the 43. The training of teacher educators (E,F,S,A) Iranian experiment (E,F) 44. Recognition of studies and competence: implementation 10. Functional literacy in Mali: training for development of conventions drawn up under the aegis of IJNESCO; (EY) nature and role of national bodies (E,F) 11. Anthropology and language science in educational 45. The outflow of professionals with higher education development (E,F,S) from and among States Parties to the Regional 12. Towards a conceptual model of life-long education (E,F) Convention on the Recognition of Studies, Diplomas 13. Curriculum planning and some current health and Degrees in Higher Education in Latin America and problems (E,F) the Caribbean (E,F,S) 14 ALSED directory of specialists and research 47. National languages and teacher training in Africa (II) institutions (bilingual E/F) (EY) 15. MOBRAL - The Brazilian Adult Literacy Experiment 48. Technical and economic criteria for media selection and (E,F,S) planning in educational institutions (E,F) 16. School furniture development: an evaluation (E,F,S) 49. Reflections on the future development of education 17. An experience-centred curriculum: exercises in (EY) perception, communication and action (E,F,S) 50. Education in Africa in the light of the Harare 18. Nutrition education curricula: relevance, design and Conference (1982) (E,F) the problem of change (E,F,S) 51. Post-literacy training and endogenous development 19. World survey of pre-school education (E,F,S) (E,F) 20. The operational seminar: a pioneering method of 52. Senior educational personnel: new functions and training for development (E,F,S) training (Vol. I: Overview) (E,F) 21. The aspirations of young migrant workers in western 53. The articulation of school education and out-of-school Europe (E,F) training (E,F) 22. Guide for the conversion of school libraries into media 54. National languages and teacher training in Africa (Ul) centres (E,F) (EY) 23. Youth institutions and services: present state and 55. Senior educational personnel: new functions and development (E,F,S) training (Vol. II) (E,F) 24. Group techniques in education (E,F,S) 56. Innovations for large classes: a guide for teachers and 25. Education in Africa in the light of the Lagos administrators (E) Conference (1976) (E,F,A) 57. La discrimination et les droits de l'homme dans les 26. Buildings for school and community use: five case materiels didactiques: guide méthodologique (F) studi3S (E,F,S) 58. A new meaning for education: looking at the Europe 27. The education of migrant workers and their families Region (E,F) (E,F,S,A) 59. In search of new approaches to basic education and the 28. Population education: a contemporary concern evaluation of learning achievement in the last days of (E,F,S,A) the USSR (E) 29. Experiments in popular education in Portugal 60. Assessing learning achievement (E) 1974-1976 (E,F,S) 61. Recent trends and developments in educational 30. Techniques for improving educational radio psychology: Chinese and American perspectives (E) programmes (E,F,S) 62. A new partnership: indigenous peoples and the United 31. Methods and techniques in post-secondary education Nations system (E,F,S) (E,F) 63. Interpreting international comparisons of student 32. National languages and teacher training in Africa (I) achievement (E,F) (E,F) 33. Educational systems regulation: a methodological guide (E,F,S,A) 34. The child and play: theoretical approaches and * E = English, F = French, S = Spanish, R = Russian, teaching applications (E,F,S) A = Arabic. Educational studies and documents 61 Recent trends and developments in educational psychology: Chinese and American perspectives

UNESCO Publishing The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, tarritory, city or area or of its authorities, or c.oncerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Published in 1995 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 7 Place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP Typeset and printed by UNESCO

ISBN 92-3-102980-0

© UNESCO 1995 Printed in France

6 Preface

This publication consists of two reports which the International Union of Psychological Science were commissioned by UNESCO in 1992 as back- (IUPS), which aranged for it to be prepared by grotmd papers for the Organization's biennial Professors Rochel Gelman and Meredith Gattis World Education Report. Lee of the University of California at Los Angeles, The first report, originally entitled EduPational United States of America. Psychology and Teaching Methods in China: De- UNESCO isgratefulto both the National velopments and Trends, was commissioned from Commission of the People's Republic of China for the National Commission of the People's Republic UNESCO and IUPS for their co-operation. In pub- of China for UNESCO, which arranged for it to be lishing the two reports, the Organization consid- prepared by a tearo of specialists based at the ers that they merit the attention of a wider audi- Shanghai Educational Science Research Institute, ence interested in recent trends and developments China. in educational psychology. The second report, originally entitled Trends It should be noted that the opinions expressed and Developments in Educational Psychology in in the reports are those of the authors and do not International Perspective, was commissioned from necessarily represent those of UNESCO. Contents

Educational psychology and teaching methods in China: developments and trends, by Duan Huifen, Zhang Shengyuan, Wu Zenqiang, Shen Zhifei and Xu Mangdi, with guidance from Qian Zaisen and Hu Xinghong

Background, 9

Recent trends, 12

Research on the teaching aspect of educational psychology, 12 Educational psychology in the teaching of mathematics, 12 Research on educational psychology in the teaching of lanvage, chiefly focused on teaching character recognition and reading ability, 13 Research on moral psychology, 14 Research on differential psychology, 15 Comprehensive research linked to general educational reform, 16

Conclusions, 17

Bibliography, 19

Trends and developments in education(' i psychology in the United States, by Rochel Gelman and Meredith Gattis Lee

Introduction, 23 The historical study of learning,23 Our associationist roots,23 The active mind,24 The structured mind,25 The constructivist mind in education,26

The organization of knowledge,29 Levels of understanding,29 Organized inputs,30 Clues from the nature of concepts,30 Lessons from the study of mathematics learning,31 Lessons from the study of science learning, 33 Some cautionary notes,34

Putting learning and knowledge in context,35 Evidence from cognitive and developmentalpsychology,35 Evidence from cross-cultural psychology: the impactof culture, family and self, 35 Apprenticeships as models of school learning,38

Conclusion,41

Annotated references and bibliography,42 Educational psychology and teaching methods in China: developments and trends

Duan Huifen, Zhang Shengyuan, Wu Zenqiang, Shen Zhifei and Xu Mangdi, with guidance from Qian Zaisen and Hu Xinghong

Background Chinese scholar to be published in China since the founding of the People's Republic. It gives an Following a period of stagnation in the 1970s, edu- account of achievements in the field of educational cational psychology in China has in the past ten psychology in the West and in the Soviet Union years resumed development. Current research including Edward L. Thorndike's educational covers a broad range of subjects. Many disserta- theories,theGestalttheoriesoneducation, tions have been published and some noteworthy B.F.Skinner's operant conditioningtheory, achievements have been made. According to the J.S. Bruner's The Process of Education and current statistics of five psychology periodicals Zankov'sexperimentsineducationalreform. published in China (Xinli Xuebao Acta Psycho- Zhang Dexiu's Research on Educational Psy- logica Sinica, Xinli Kexue Tohgxun 1 Information chology, published in 1981, gives an account of on Psychological Sciences, Psychological Develop- American achievements in educational psychology ment and Education, Explorations in Psychology research. It covers subjects such as the foundation and Trends in Psychology), of 2,280 articles pub- and dynamics of learning, the learning and teach- lished in the past ten years, 750 (32.89 per cent) ing processes, the development of thinking, per- were on child development and educational psy- sonality formation, the measurement of intellec- chology. Some of these articles were about experi- tual aptitude and the evaluation of scholastic mental research on non-Chinese theories that had achievement. been introduced and tested. An even greater num- During this period, various monographs and ber concerned research undertaken in psychology, teaching materials by foreign authors on edu- moral psychology, the psychology of teaching vari- cational psychology were published in translation. ous educational disciplines, differential psychology TheseincludeEducationalPsychology by and other areas. Ohachi Masao of Japan, Educational Psychology Pan Shu's Educational Psychology (1980) was by T. M. Saurey of the United States (4th ed., the first original treatise on the subject by a Boston) and Educational Psychology in the Class- 10 Duan Huifen, Zhang Shengyuan, Wu Zenqiang, Shen Zhifei and Xu Mangdi room by H. C. Lindgren (5th ed., London, John Ausubel's and Gagne's theories on learning to edu- Wiley & Sons, 1976). cation design. They have tested these ideas and Even more articles presenting the most influen- begun to incorporate them into applied research tial theories and research findings from abroad on the reform of primary and secondary education. have been published in specialized psychology and These ideas have been found to be positive and education journals. These include articles on meaningful in terms of helping teachers to choose J. Piaget's theory of genetic epistemology and his appropriate methods of instruction, helping pupils concept of the stages of development of intelli- acquire sound cognitive structures and developing gence in children, J. S. Bruner's theory of cogni- their ability to transfer learning. tive discovery, D. P. Ausubel's theory of cognitive In Mastery Learning, Bloom a.,serts that effec- assimilation, B. S. Bloom's mastery learning, tive education should guarantee that the majority R. M. Gagne's theory of accumulative learning, of pupils are able to master the main content of Vygotsky's proximal zone theory, the humanist course material and that with adequate time theories of C. Rogers and Abraham Maslow, (learning opportunity) and appropriate teaching, A. Bandura'ssociallearningtheoryand the majority of pupils should be able to achieve Lawrence Kohlberg's theory on the stages of moral the main learning targets. To promote mastery development. Among these different schools of learning, he recommends 'diagnostic evaluation' thought, the cognitive and humanist theories have and 'formative evaluation' to ensure that as had a very wide-ranging influence on educational children apply themselves to their studies they psychologists in China as well as on educational will be able to achieve maximum development of practices in the schools. their intellectual potential. Bloom's theory of Of the cognitive theories, those of Piaget have learning is changing the views and methods of had the most significant influence in China. teachers in China, and its application has resulted According to statistics kept by China's main psy- inconsiderableimprovementsinscholastic chology journals, Piaget's theories and research results. Bloom's emphasis on the need to give were the topic most frequently written about in every pupil full opportunity for learning, and to the 1980s, being presented and discussed in sever- set different goals and requirements for cognitive, al dozen articles. emotional and action skills in keeping with the J. S. Bruner's The Process of Education, trans- needs of different types of pupils, has also had a lated in 1979 by Shao Ruizhen's research team, strong impact. stresses the discovery method of learning and The humanist school, represented by Abra- emphasizes the importance of the learning process ham Maslow and Carl R. Rogers, emphasizes the andthepupil'sinitiative.These factorsare individual's inner needs and the realization of his acknowledged to affect the development of the natural goodness and creative potential. The affir- pupil's intellectual aptitude, and Bruner's book mation of the individual's own personality is at has become one of the_chief references for primary the core of this theory, according to which 'the and secondary classroom teaching. Shao Ruizhen human personality, when freely allowed to follow published Educational PsychologyPrinciples of its course, is constructive and trustworthy'. This Learning and Teaching in 1983 and Educational theory thus advocates pupil-centred education Psychology in 1988. He also published a number of with an emphasis on affection and helping within other monographs during this period. In addition caring interpersonal relationships. Rogers recom- to presenting and examining selected theories mends a non-prescriptive approach to teaching that have had a major impact abroad, Shao pro- and stresses the importance of an equal, co- vides a systematic introduction to Ausubel's theo- operative relationship between teacher and pupil, ry of cognitive assimilation, which emphasizes based on sincerity, acceptance and understanding. meaningful symbolic learning for pupils in the The teacher's role is to assist, not to manipulate. schoolsituation and the concept of recept,ion These ideas in particular the emphasis on learning. This theory has had a major impact on the development of the pupil's personal ty and teachers'practices.Teachershaveapplied the need to give free rein to his latent abilities Educational psychology and teaching methods in China 11

constitute something of a challenge to tra- indeed on educational psychology throughout the ditional education and have had a major impact world. on Chinese educators. Like Chinese medicine, indigenous Chinese psy- John Dewey's educational theories have had chology is based on visceral manifestations (state their ups and downs in China, being rejected of internal organs), the network of main and col- totally until the 1980s. After that, there was a lateral channels through which vital energy circu- tendency to concentrate on the more rational ele- lates, and the principle of qi. The heart; ib recog- ments of these theories. Dewey's notion that edu- nized as one of the five internal organs. The cation must begin with the needs and interests of heart's qi drives the blood through the veins and the child, the concept of the interplay of thinking arteries, and at the same time stores the mind's and doing in learning, the principle of raising and energy. The heart is a major, basic channel of resolving questions through thought, and the test- mental activity. Qi thus affects the heart's activity ing of results through doing have been positively as well as Lae five sense organs. Qi is what makes received. the ears hear, the eyes see and the heart beat. In the 1980s, Chinese educational circles were Without qi, there can be no thought, no knowl- introduced to the works of the Soviet educator edge, no interest. The notion of qi as influencing Sukhomlinski. These works were much trans- seeing, hearing, thinking and the heart means lated and for a time were very fashionable. that it has no equivalent in the West. Other con- Sukhomlinski basically belonged to the humanist cepts, such as 'listening with the heart', 'listening school of educational psychology and was deeply with qi', 'inner vision', 'inner hearing', the 'heart's marked by Dewey's ideas on education. Although room' and 'transcendental meditation' are all the the influence of humanist ideological trends in more unfathomable from the point of view of education and Dewey's ideas on education may Western psychology. not have been as deep as that of some of the edu- Besides placing a great deal of importance on cational psychology theories that came later, in the heart's intelligence and decisive role, the terms of theevelopment of educational psy- ancient Chinese had an awareness of matters to chology in China it can be said that their influence do with the development of people's latent psycho- has been far more extensive than that of any of logical abilities long before the Human Potential the other theories. Movement, which did not emerge in the West In addition to introducing and assimilating edu- until the 1960s. cational psychology theories from abroad, edu- In indigenous Chinese psychology, body and cational psychology in China has been shaped by mind are integrated into a single theory and a traditional Chinese ideas on psychology. For a healthy mind is considered just as important as a long time, in China and elsewhere, there persisted healthy body. Moreover, in accordance with the a completely mistaken theory that psychology as a general notion of the mutually restraining five ele- field of study did not exist in China. However, in ments, the standard of psychological health is the past ten years, cultural experts and psycholo- defined as the harmony of yin and yang, and of gists have worked together to begin uncovering, the fiveelements. True psychological health, understanding and systematizing Chinese theo- therefore, is not characterized by great joy or ries on educational psychology from the early Qin strong feelings, but by a sort of general equilibri- dynasty up to the present. They have also con- um of the emotions. On the basis of this, the ducted research from a cultural comparison angle, ancients ad vocated mental self-regulation, so that exploringthedifferencesbetween indigenous through one's behaviour and habits the seven Chinese psychology and Western psychology, and emotional factors (joy, anger, melancholy, brood- the specific features of each. Although much re- ing, sorrow, fear and shock) and the six desires mains to be done in order to establish a system- could be kept under control, and one's psychologi- atic, indigenous Chinese psychology, there is no cal state could be kept in balance. This theory of doubt that this work will have an immeasurable the integration of mind and body, which values impact on Chinese educational psychology and harmony and stresses self-care, is being mastered

c $ _AL t-.A 12 Duan Huifen, Zhang Shengyuan, Wu Zenqiang, Shen Zhifei and Xu Mangdi by more and more school psychology counsellors, the methodological aspects of educational psy- and a combined Sino-Western model for psy- chology research are being explored. chology in schools is gradually taking shape. In the past ten years, Chinese educational psy- Education in ancient China emphasized moral chology scholars have undertaken a great deal of education and morality was ;onsidered to be at significant and creative research. Research topics the heart of knowledge. This model tended to include the psychology of teaching, moral psy- emphasize an abstract, overall grasp of knowledge chology and differential psychology. Comprehen- through emotional experience, while comparative- sive research has also been conducted in the con- ly neglecting the training of the intellect and for- text of general educational reforms. This research mal logic. In education, the principle of awareness mainly concerns research on the teaching aspect was considered important, as were introspection of educational psychology, research on moral psy- and self-analysis. The unique pedagogic methods chology, research on differential psychology and of ancient times are manifested in a technique cognitive research linked to general educational whereby direct perception of ideas by the senses reform. leads to the suggestion of another, symbolized sig- nificance. When applied to the teaching of lan- guage, this technique is very effective in produc- Research on the teaching aspect ing analogies and in inspiring students to draw of educational psychology inferences. However, in ancient China, studying meant Educational psychology in the teaching careful, intensive reading, with the number of of mathematics readings being equated with the depth of learning. Indigenous Chinese educational psychology is a Lu Zhongheng's experiments in mathematics self- product of an accumulation of elements and is learning are based on his research on Skinner's rooted in the mentalities of the ancient Chinese principle of programmed learning. He compares peoples. Many lessons can be drawn from these the characteristics of the classroom system with ideas. Not only are they frequently reflected in those of individual instruction and proposes a teaching in the schools, but they have permeated (guided)self-teaching method gearedtothe education in the home, public opinion, the media, Chinese context. He draws from the principles of etc. They still, however, need to be thoroughly 'programmed learning' as well as from the teach- investigated and scientificolly systematized. ing experience of some outstanding teachers and proposes nine psychological principles, of which 'appropriate pacing' and 'immediate knowledge of Recent trends results' are examples. Based on the algebra textbooks used in sec- Just as educational psychology theories have ondary schools, he has written self-teaching mate- developed over the past ten years, progress has rials for junior high school mathematics courses, also been made with regard to research methods. including a textbook, an exercise book and a quiz The principal methods now used are the experi- book. On the basis of the learning process, learn- mental method, the survey method and theory ing goals and the psychological characteristics of analysis. The survey method has developed quite lea-ning, Lu has formulated seven principles of rapidly and is being used on an increasingly wide guided self-learning, among which: the combina- scale. Rapid progress is also being made with tion of group teaching and individual teaching; the regard to statistical methods. There are fewer and primacy of pupil self-learning with coaching by fewer research reports which do not provide sta- teachers; the implementation of a classroom tistics or which give only descriptive statistics and model of awakening - studying practising the me of deductive statistics is becoming increas- - knowing - self-learning, etc. These form the ingly the norm. There is also a clear trend towards basic method for teaching and learning as well as the use of pluralist statistics. At the same time, the guiding principles of this method. Instruction Educational psychology and teaching methods in China 13 is geared to the development of pupils' knowledge already been completed, and the teaching results and aptitude, as well as to individual differences, have been very good. Some 2,500 classes m so that pupils are interested and motivated. This 28 provinces and cities throughout the country method is more powerful and more concentrated have taken part in the experiment. than traditional methods. Its effectiveness is par- ticularly clear in terms of retentiorof material Research on educational psychology learned,improvementofcreativ thinking, in the teaching of language, scholastic achievement, improvement of self-learn- chiefly focused on teaching character ing aptitude and transference of learning to other recognition and reading ability academic subjects. The research also deals with pupil typology with The teaching of Chinese characters in primary regard to learning. According to the author, the school is the subject of a long-standing conflict pupils who reap the greatest benefit from 'guided between two teaching methods: the 'decentralized' self-learning' are those who are 'steady rather method and the 'concentrated' method. According than quick'; the 'quick rather than steady' types to the findings of previous psychological research, get less out of this method. The first exploratory' there is something to be said for each of the differ- experiments in guided sPlf-learning were conduc- ent methods. Provided one does not go against ted in 1965 at the junior high school level. By the children'spsychologicalcharacteristics and as early 1980s the experiments had been extEnded to long as the conflicting relationship among the cover a broader scope. Today, more than 5,000 three components of Chinese characters sound, classes in 28 provinces and cities throughout the form and meaningis properly grasped and the country are involved. In 1985, these experiments main contradictions highlighted, then the objec- were awarded the Chinese Academy of Science's tive of improving character-recognition results can second prize for major achievement in scientific be achiev3d. In the post-1980s, an experiment research. aimed at reforming language teaching (phonetic LiuJinghe'scontemporaryexperimentsin character-recognition for earlier reading and writ- mathematics teaching in primary schools explore ing) was conducted. The first stage consisted of the development pattern of mathematics cognition intensive study of the Chinese phonetic system in primary-school children. They draw on Piaget's (Hanyu Pinyin). This phonetic system was then theories on the development pattern of thinking used as a tool to get through great volumes of in children, as well as on materialist dialectics. reading material. The idea was for reading and From his research on children's basic concepts writing to develop simultaneouslyfor reading to of 'number', 'type', 'multiplication and division', 'lookafter'and advancewriting.Psychology etc., he systematically investigates children's cog- research shows this approach to be suited to the nitive development in terms of their conception characteristics of children's cognitive development of partwhole relationships and proposes twelve and appropriate to the psychological patterns of targets for partwhole relationship cognition. He the way in which children learn Chinese charac- also proposes revising the way in which mathe- ters. It links the three elements of character- matical knowledge is currently structured in pri- recognition, reading and writing, thus forming an mary schools, by using '1' as the basic standard organic whole that is more complete, more orderly and making 'partwhole relationship' cognition and more coherent. This system has effectively the main thread in mathematics teaching in oder improved the quality of teaching and helps de- to mould sound cognitive structures in chi 'dren velop pupils' intellectual aptitude. The research andencouragethebeginningsofdialectical launched in 1982 in three cities of Heilongjiang thought. Province has been extended to several thousand A research group has written a set of teaching schoolsintwenty-threeprovinces,citiesand materials entitled Contemporary Primary School autonomous regions. Mathematics, which has been used experimentally Wan Yunying has conducted long-term research in the classroom since 1981. Several cycles have on reading ability. The main subject of this 14 Duan Huifen, Zhang Shengyuan, Wu Zenqiang, Shen Zhifei and Xu Mangdi research is the cultivation of primary- and sec- 1. Testing and revision of Piaget's model, with ondary-school pupils' independent reading ability. regard to moral judgement in terms of responsi- According to the research findings, the topic sen- bility for one's behaviour, collective ideas, devel- tence of a piece of writing and the characteristics opment of the concept of punishment, etc. of its literary form and structural pattern are the 2. In keeping with the Chinese social context, main external conditions influencing reading com- exploring the development of some specific prehension, and the reader's primary cognition moral concepts of Chinese children, such as the and cognitive structures are the internal con- concepts of public and private, collectivism, ditions affecting the achievement of reading com- friendship, patriotism, love of labour, etc. prehension and analytical skills. 3. Cross-cultural research on children's moral Wan has also conducted research on reading- development in China's different ethnic groups. level evaluation and reading-aptitude structure. 4. Research on intervention in children's moral In FactorsBehavioural Laws, Mo Lei and others development. define the factors of reading-aptitude structure as This research generally upheld Piaget's theory language decoding, organization and linking, pat- that moral reasoning in children evolves gradu- tern differentiation, selective storage, feeling for ally, in stages. Although the ages at which the language, transfer of reading, summarizing, eval- stages of development occurred did not always cor- uating, etc. respond to Piaget's findings, the phased nature of development was confirmed. Research on moral psychology With regard to moral judgement in terms of tak- ing responsibility for their behaviour and the Research on moral psychology was a compara- development of the concepts of fairness and pun- tively weak area in China until after the 1980s, ishment, Chinese children were generally found to when genuine, systematic development of this mature between one and three years earlier than field began. Some of the most outstanding re- Piaget had found. Because a larger sample was search in this area concerns levels of development selected, some of the findings differed from those of moral judgement in children and the character- of Western research. Some of the moral concepts istics of this development. Research has also been specific to Chinese children had never been stud- done on the psychological structures revealed by ied by researchers in other countries and other pupils' moral behaviour and the relationship with concepts had been studied from a different educational conditions and methods. Other re- research angle. This research makes a contribu- search concerns problem behaviour inpupils, tion to theories on the development of moral cogni- methods for correcting it, etc. The most influential tion in children. and representative studies include those described Cross-cultural research comparing the develop- bel ow. ment of moral judgement in the children of ethnic minorities such as the Mongols, the Zhuang, the Research by Li Bosh u et al. on the development of Tibetans, the Uighurs, the Yi, the Miao and the moral cognition in. Chinese children Tu with the development of moral judgement in ThisresearchwasbasedonPiaget'sand Han Chinese children reveal some patterns in the Kohlberg's theories of the stages of children's development of moral judgement in ethnic min- moral development, with reference to the Chinese ority children, as well as the influence of specific context. A series of co-ordinated studies applying cultural background and moral training on this scientifically proven methods was conducted on a development. large sample of kindergarten, primary- and sec- Research on intervention in moral development ondary-schoolchildrenof varyingages.The also confirm that praise and reasoning are more research covered eighteen provinces, cities and effective than praise and rewards in encouraging autonomous regions throughout the country. The children to make intentional judgements, support- ten-year research project was divided into four ing Piaget's position that moral development is a parts: process of natural change in thought structure.

lb Educational psychology and teaching methods in China 15

The findings of all of these studies have provided Research reveals the causeeffect relationships a scientific basis for moral education in China. between these internal and external factors, and patterns of formation and transformation of moral Research by Zhang Zhiguang et al. on the psycho- character. The research method, which combines logical structures manifested by pupils' moral the general lessons of educational experience with behaviour and the relationship with educational psychological experimentation, is favourable to conditions and methods the selection of topics meriting testing and exam- This research draws on non-Chinese theories (e.g. ination. Furthermore, research findings can be A. Bandura's social learning theory) and applies compared and contrasted with educational re- measurement tools developed abroad. In relation alities,andpractical,feasibleeducational to the Chinese context, the research explores the measures and recommendations can be proposed. way in which external conditions penetrate inter- nal psychological factors to play a role in forming Research on differential psychology and transforming moral character. This research covers three main areas: Ten years ago, no research had been done in 1. Educational psychology experiments on the for- China on differential psychology. Since then, grad- mation of moral character. These experiments, ual development has taken place. Research con- concerned with raising moral cognition, investi- ducted on the moral development of supernormal gate the effects of moods and changes in value children, specifically with regard to individual dif- systems on moral judgement, and on the forma- ferences, has filled in some of the blanks in tion and transformation of moral behaviour. Chinese research in this field. In 1978, a national, 2. Social psychology research on moral matters. co-ordinatedsurvey andtrackingstudy was This research explores interpersonal relation- launched by Zha Zixiu's research team. At first, ships and structures within the class group and only five schools were involved, but the study was their effect on individual moral development, gradually extended to cover thirty-two schools. and the circumstances in which shifts in role The research team's work consisted of: and position cause additional changes in the A survey of 100 supernormal children and young system of behavioural dynamics. people, of whom 50 were tracked. 3. Surveys and summaries of individualedu- A dynamic, comparative study of 5,000 normal cational experiences with problem behaviour. children aged 3 to 15, covering analogical rea- This research deals with manifestations and soning, creative thinking, power of observation, causes of problem behaviour by pupils as well memory and other areas. The publication of as remedies for such behaviour. Tests for Differentiating the Cognitive Ability of Research findings of the past several years indi- Supernormal Children established norms for cate that pupils' moral character is primarily use in testing the cognitive ability of supernor- based on their perception, knowledge and under- mal children. standing of the moral models and norms of the Comparative research on non-intelligence psycho- outside world. Through practice and feedback logical traits in the personalities of supernormal (including self-restraint), moral character gradu- children was conducted. This research produced ally forms and develops. The pupil's willingness to the Non-intelligence Personality Traits Test put what he has learned into practice depends on Questionnaire. allsorts of internal conditions, including his Intensification of experiments in group education innate 'cognitive-emotional' structure, value con- for supernormal children. Nearly thirty experi- cepts, determinatiOn and other personality traits. mental classes for supernormal kindergarten, External factors, including the form in which edu- primary- and secondary-school children, plus cation on moral models and norms is provided, more than thirty university classes for young interpersonalrelationshipswithinthegroup, people, were set up. These classes are intended social environment, role and position, are also to provide supernormal students with the right involved. kind of teaching at the right time and to create 16 Duan Huifen, Zhang Shengyuan, Wu Zenqiang, Shen Zhifei and Xu Mangdi

the conditions for educational intervention and most influential of these investigations include in-depth research on the psychological develop- the four described below. ment of supernormal children. Research findings indicate that the differences Feng Zhongliang's experimentsinstructured- between supernormal and normal children are directive education not obvious in all aspects of cognition. Rather, it The theory of 'structured-directive education' is is in the most difficult aspects of thinking that the result of ten years of educational experiments these differences are most strikingfor example, thoroughly exploring the basic areas of teaching, creative thought and numerical analogical reason- learning, aptitude and instinctive moral charac- ing. Differences between supernormal and normal ter,and the assimilation of the findingsof children are manifested not only in levels of devel- research conducted in other countries, e.g. the pri- opment and the speed at which development takes maryschoolsystemreformexperiments by place; these differences show up in the e ,v0op- Zankov of the Soviet Union, the Galperin School's mental process, in the form development takes theory of controlled education, Bloom's concept of and in the specific characteristics of development. structured education (United States) and Gagne's Research indicates that the differences in the accumulated learning theory. psychological structures of supernormal children According to the theory of 'structured-directive are not limited to intelligence and creativity, but education', education must be focused on the include some non-intelligence psychological per- pupil's ability and moral psychological structures, sonality traits. Supernormal children's develop- and on the implementation of directive training. ment depends not only on their outstanding intel- The research is based on three theories (edu- ligence, but on non-intelligence factors and per- cational systematization and transfer of experi- sonality traits such as independence, love of win- ence, acceptance and structuring of learning by ning and thirst for knowledge. The outstanding the pupil, and analogous experience in terms of traits of supernormal children merely represent aptitude and character) and on five types of learn- the potential for development; environment and ing patterns (motivation for learning, transfer of education are the decisive conditions by which learning, grasp of knowledge, skill-formation and this potential is realized. acceptance of behaviour standards). The findings described above provide a psycho- Feng recommends reforms in four areas of the logical basis for conducting research on special education system (education targets, teaching ma- education for supernormal children and better terials, teaching activity and the scholastic results education for normal children. evaluation system) with a view to accelerating the Measurements of the cognitive characteristics of formation and development of psychological struc- children of low intelligence have also been carried tures and implementing directive training. out and research has been done on early interven- The findings of experiments with 'structured- tion, training and other issues. Research has also directive education' indicate that it can substan- been carried out on children of normal or above- tially improve educational results. The experi- normal intelligence whose levelof scholastic ments in primary-school teaching reform are achievement is low. based on two premises:first,that,without increasing time spent on lessons in the classroom Comprehensive research linked to general and without increasing homework, two years' educational reform coursework can be completed in one year; and, second, that the quality of teaching is superior to This is psychological research on topics such as that of the transfer method of teaching. educational theory and the development and training of the pupil's intellectual aptitude, based Lin Chongde's educational experitnents on the on long-term, in-depth study of educational re- development and training of psychological ability alities and in close conjunction with educational in primary and secondary school pupils reforms in primary and secondary schools. The The core topic of this research, begun in 1978, is Educational psychology and teaching methods in China 17 the relationship between education, teaching and warped self-perceptions and improve substantially learning with the development of the pupil's intel- the quality of their education. Success-education lectual aptitude and skills. The findings empha- experiments have been extended to many junior size the importance of developing the quality of high schools. the pupil's thinking. Ten years of educational experimentation produced a specific system of the- ories and a number of standard conclusions on the Conclusions development and training of intellectual ability in primary- and secondary-school children. Exper- The development of educational psychology in iments are at present being conducted in twenty- China began with the introduction of theories six provinces, cities and autonomous regions. from abroad. This was followed by a phase of test- ing, assimilation and thorough investigation, and Research in 'joy education' by the primary school finally by actual creative development in China. attached to the Shanghai Teachers' College The results of research carried out in certain In terms of orienting primary and secondary edu- areas in conjunction with educational reforms in cational practices, the emphasis in Chinese edu- China are particularly salient. These results can cational psychology has shifted in the past ten be said to constitute a contribution to the world- years from the transfer of knowledge to the train- wide development of educational psychology. ing of intellectual aptitude, and then to the foster- However, research does not yet cover a very ing of non-intelligence factors and the develop- wide range of fields and if a distinctively Chinese ment of the pupil's whole personality. Personality- school of educational psychology is to be formed, based teaching has recently come to the fore. In much research still remains to be done regarding 1984, the primary school attached to the She- ghai the influence of various internal and external fac- Teachers' College became the first school in the tors on educational phenomena and the compre- country to implement 'joy education'. With this hensive application of research methodology and personality-basedteachingmethod,education multi-factoral analysis. The theories generated by begins with the emotions. Joy education empha- research fmdings need to be summarized and gen- sizes the need for the teacher to create a harmo- eralized, and traditional Chinese educational psy- nious, relaxed educational environment so that chology must be tapped. Many specific issues in pupils are able to participate actively and posi- education require more thorough research. tively in the educational process. The teacher Looking back on how existing research and the- must also consider what children need for their ories have influenced education and teaching, the physical and psychological development. These need to train skilled people for the twenty-first needs can be summed up as love, beauty, interest century can be expected to produce some trends in and creativitythe four key elements of joy edu- educational psychology that will have a major cation. At present, experiments in joy education impact on primary and secondary education and have been extended to a number of primary teaching methods. schools throughout the country. The first of these trends is emphasis on the har- monious development of the whole personality. Research on'successeducation' by Shanghai The acceptance of both cognitive psychology and Number Eight Secondary School, Zhabei District humanist theories by Chinese educational psy- 'Success education', initiated by Shanghai Number chologists illustrates the increasing awareness of Eight Secondary School, Zhabei District, is yet Chinese educators of the need to consider the another example of how educational psychology human being as an organic whole. In human psy- has guided educational practices. In success edu- chology, it is impossible to separate knowledge, cation, it is up to the teacher to create the teach- emotions, desires and actions. All of these things ing and learning conditions that will enable pupils interact and promote one another. In both pure who are having difficulties with learning to reap and applied research, the emphasis is on the pat- continual success and thereby to alter their terns of the pupil's cognitive development, includ- 18 Duan Huifen, Zhang Shengyuan, Wu Zenqiang, Shen Zhifei and Xu Mangdi ing knowledge of knowledge, study tactics and and research methods which conform to scientific study methods, as well as on the pupil's motiva- standards. Psychology is part of the spiritual tions, emotions, moral character, etc. Such trends wealth shared by all of mankind and Chinese edu- are influenced by contemporary developments in cational psychology must be able to reflect the psychology and are also deeply influenced by so- direction in which international research is devel- ciety's expectations for schools to train qualified oping. people. As for the indigenous element, psychology must It is not enough for qualified people throughout develop in the direction of studying the native the world to have knowledge and ability. If they country, the native peoples and the native terri- are to meet future world challenges, it is even tory, in order to resolve the country's own real, more important for them to have a sound moral indigenous problems. If one looks at all of the dif- character, a sympathetic heart, a sense of respon- ferent theories and factions in the history of psy- sibility and a spirit of co-operation. Schools are chology, one sees that all of them, to varying therefore not merely places where knowledge is degrees, reflect the spirit of a time, a people and a passed on. It is even more important that they place. enable pupils to learn the principles of conducting Development must follow an indigenous orien- themselves in society that they be places for tation. All of the most influential research in edu- 'learning to learn' and learning to be an upright cational psychology conducted in China over the human being. past ten years, outlined above, has striven to fulfil The historic trends in the development of edu- this aim. In addition to unearthing traditional cational psychology, from educational philosophy Chinese ideas on educational psychology and com- to educational science to psychological science, paring and contrasting these ideas with theories inspired psychology historian Sir Cyril Burt to from abroad, Li Boshu's monograph, Moral Psy- comment sadly in1962that,although psy- chology, gives an account of the findings of his chology's original objective was to study man, in own research in China Lu Zhongheng's method the 100 years since it was given over to science, for guided self-learning of mathematics in sec- first the human soul was lost, then the human ondary schools stresses the cultivation of the heart was lost and finally, he added, even human capacity for self-learning. Liu Jinghe's research on consciousness will completely disappear. modern primary school mathematics is about the Since the rise of humanist psychology in the beginnings of dialectical thought. In their investi- 1960s and the renewed influence of cognitive psy- gations of pupils' psychological abilities and devel- chology, there has been a general trend in psy- opment, Zhu Zhixian and Lin Chongde look at chology towards returning to the study of human things from the viewpoint of developing and train- nature (man's outward behaviour and internal ing the quality of the pupil's thinking. According psychological processes). At the same time, the to Feng Zhongliang's structured-directive edu- trend in educational psychology has been towards cation, an integrated system of education is the a return to the schools and pupils' learning behav- starting-point from which the pupil's abilities and iour has once again become an important research moral character can be structured. topic. From now on, the goals of educational psy- All of these theories, which are inseparably chology will be to provide a complete, harmonious linked to educational realities in China, are influ- education for the pupil's whole personality and to encing teaching methods and contributing a dis- develop all aspects of knowledge, emotion, purpose tinctively Chinese element. and behaviour. A third trend is the interpenetration of recent, The second foreseeable trend is the evolution developing disciplines. This is a major feature and of a specifically Chinese system of educational an important trend of modern science. The find- psychologytheories,combininginternational ings of research in various other disciplines have and indigenous elements. Where the international influenced the orientations of educational psy- element isconcerned, constant discrimination chology research. For example, brain-research must be exercised in assimilating foreign theories findings on the asymmetrical functioning of the

ni Educational psychology and teaching methods in China 19 two hemispheres of the cerebrum have revealed CHEN CHANGCEN. A New School in Learning ways of developing the right brain so that the left Psychology.Xinli Xuebao 1 Acta Psychologica and right hemispheres develop in a fully co-ordi- Sinica, No. 1, 1987. nated manner. These fmdings will have an impact CHEN HUICHANG; LI BOCHU. A Study of Children's on changes in teaching methods andclassroom Moral Judgements concerning Damages to teaching models. Public and Private Properties. Xinli Xuebao 1 Computer science provides another example, Acta Psychologica Sinica, No. 3, 1982. with education technology applications: the prod- DAI XIAOLI; WAN YUNGING. A Comparative Study uct of the linking of artificial intelligence with on Silent-reading Abilities of Primary- and educational science. The application of audiovisual Secondary-school Pupils. Psychological Develop- techniques to educational psychology in the class- ment and Education, No. 3, 1987. roOm has provided new topicsforresearch. DING PIN. On Piaget's and Bruner's Theories of Computer-Aided Instruction (CAI) has broken the StagesofCognitiveDevelopment.Fujian mould of collective classroom instruction. With Teacher's University Journal (Fujian), No. 2, thispupil-centredmethodofindividualized 1983. (Special issue on philosophy and social sci- instruction, the teacher guides and olganizes ences.) instruction in accordance with pupils' individual FENG ZHONGLIANG. Theory and Practice of Struc- differences.In Intelligent Computer-Aided In- tured-DirectiveEducation.Vols.IandII. struction(ICE), instructionisdesigned with Beijing, Beijing Normal University Press, 1992. emphasis on the organic link between the expert, GAO JUEFU et al. The History of Chinese Psy- the pupil and the teacher-guide, and on the need chology.Beijing, ThePeople'sEducational to impart knowledge in a way that is suited to the Publishing House, 1985. pupils' intellectual characteristics, existing knowl- GONG HAORAN. A Brief Account of Vygotsky's edge and individual differences. In accordance Theory on the Relationship between Education with learning targets, the pupil's cognitive struc- andIntellectualDevelopment. Psychology ture and feedback received from the pupil, the Abroad, No. 3, 1981. teacher adjusts teaching tactics in such a way as GU HAIGEN; CEN GUOZHEN; LI BOSHU. A Compari- to achieve the best possible teaching results. It son between Child Moral Developments of Han will therefore be necessary to conduct research on and Seven Minority Nationalities. Xinli Kexue the learning process and on cognitive structure, Tongxun 1 Information on Psychological Sciences, cognitivetactics and cognitiveprocessingin No. 5, 1987. pupils. Research on teaching tactics, teachers' cog- HE JIQUAN; Liu JENGHE; WANG XIANDIAN. The Cog- nitive traits and style, etc., will also be required. nitive Development of PartWhole Relationship In addition to research on pupils and teachers, Concerning Geometrical Figures in 5-11-year- research based on the principles of educational old Children. Xinli Xuebao 1 Acta Psychologica psychology should also cover curriculum, teaching Sinica, No. 1, 1983. materials, etc. JI WENYING. A Critical Review of A. Bandura's In brief, the intersection and combination of TheoryofLearningthroughObservation. various disciplines will ensure that educational Trends in Psychology, No. 4, 1985. psychology research develops both in breadth and JIN SHENGHUA. A Study of the `Role-changing' in depth. Method for Teaching Backward Students. Explo- rations in the Psychology and Education of Backward Students. Zhejiang, Zhejiang Univer- Bibliography sity Press, 1989. Li BOSHU. Cognitive Basis for School Children's (Note: The works listed here have been published Friendships. Xinli Kexue Tongxun 1 Information in Chinese only with the exception of the period- on Psychological Sciences, No. 6, 1986. ical Xinli Xuebao 1 Acta Psychologica Sinica which . Moral Psychology.East-China Chemical contains summaries in English.) Engineering College Press, 1992. 20 Duan Huifen, Zhang Shengyuan, Wu Zenqiang, Shen Zhifei and Xu Mangdi

Li BosHu et al. The Co-operation Study Group of . Psychology of Guided Self-teaching. Beijing, Moral Development; An Investigation of Chil- Geological Publishing House, 1987. dren's Concepts of Justice; A Comparison with . A Study on the Psychology of Learning in Piaget Data. Xinli Kexue Tongxun Information Raising the Effect of Self-study. Xinli Xuebao I on Psychological Sciences, No. 1, 1982. Acta Psychologica Sinica, No. 4, 1984. . The Co-operation Study G oup of Morals of Lu ZHONGHENG et al. Some Useful Psychological Children; An Investigation on t Development Principles in Improving Self-learning of Math- of Moral Judgement in Children. Xinli Kexue ematics by the Primary-middle-school Pupils. Tongxun Information on Psychological Sciences, Xinli Xuebao Acta Psychologica Sinica, No. 2, No. 1, 1983. 1979. . Development of Collective Ideas in Primary Lu ZHONGHENG; SONG TONGLOA et al. A Research School Children. Xinli Kexue Tongxun Informa- on the Thinking Ability in Self-study of Math- tion on Psychological Sciences, No. 1, 1985. ematics in Middle-school Children. Xirdi Xue- . A Survey of Children's Punishments as Seen bao Acta Psychologica Sinica, No. 3, 1980. by Themselves. Xinli Kexue Tongxun I Infor- Luo QINGXU. Learning Strategies - A New Orien- mation on Psychological Sciences, No. 1, 1983. tation in the Research of Educational Psy- LI DAN; LI BOSHU. An Experimental Study of the chology. Explorations in Psychology, No. I, 1989. Development of Altruistic Behaviour in Chil- MA JIWEI. Some Psychological Peculiarities of dren. Xinli Kexue Tongxun I Information on Psy- Mentally Retarded Children and their Edu- chological Sciences, No. 5, 1989. cation. Xinli Kexue Tongxun I Information on LI QIWEI. A Survey of Piaget's Structuralism of the Psychological Sciences, No. 4, 1982. Development of Children's Intelligence. Xinli MAO YUYAN. An Early Intervention Programme Kexue Tongxun l Information on Psychological for Mentally Retarded Pre-school Children in Sciences, No. 2, 1982. Beijing. Xinli Xuebao Acta Psychologica Sinica, LIN CHONGDE. Ecological Movement - A New No. 3, 1989. Trend in the Research of Children's Psychology NI GUYIN; ZHANG SHENGYUAN. Joy Education. and Educational Psychology. Psychological De- East-China Teachers' University Press, 1992. velopment and Education, No. 3, 1990. OHACHI MASAO. Educational Psychology. Shrmg- . Learning and Development Develokment hai, Shanghai Educational Publishing 11( use, and Training of Psychological Ability in Pri- 1982. mary- and Secondary-school Pupils.Beijing, PAN SHU. EducationalPsychology. Be ijing, Beijing Educational Publishing House, 1992. People's Educational Publishing House, 1E80. Lriv FANG. Maslow's Motivation Theory and Be- . Remarks on Ancient Chinese Psychological haviouristic Science. Xinli Xuebao l Acta Psycho- Theories.XinliXuebao 1 Acta Psychologica logica Sinica, No. 3, 1983. Sinica, No. 2, 1984. LIu JINGHE; WANG XIANDIAN; ZHANG MEILING; PAN SHU; GAO JUEFU. Make a Systematic Effort to HE JIQUAN. The Development of Children's Explore the Treasure-house of Ancient Chinese CognitionofthePart-WholeRelationship Psychology.Xinli Xuebao l Acta Psychologica Concerning Number and Arithmetic.Xinli Sinica, No. 2, 1983. Xuebao Acta Psychologica Sinica, No. 3, 1982. SHAO RUIZHEN. Bloom's Strategies for Learning. Lu JUN. Piaget's Theory of Stages in Cognitive Shandong Education (Shandong), No. 2, 1987. Development. Xinli Kexue Tongxun Information .Educational Psychology. Shanghai, Shang- on Psychological Sciences, No. 3, 1985. hai Educational Publishing House, 1988. Lu ZHONGHENG. MethodsforExperimental . On Researchin Human Learning by Research on Guided Self-teaching (I). Trends in R. M. Gagne. Xinli Kexue Tongxun Information Psychology, No. 4, 1988. on Psychological Sciences, No. 2, 1981. . Methods for Experimental Research on . The Processof Education.East-China Guided Self-teaching (II). Trends in Psychology, Teachers' University Press, 1978. No. 2, 1989. . Psychologyof Learning and Teaching.

2 Educational psychology and teaching methods in China 21

Shanghai, Shanghai EducationalPublishing WAN YUNYLNG; ZHAI HUPNEN; SONG ZHUFENG. An House, 1990. Experimental Study on the Cultivation of Inde- SHAO RUIZHEN etal.Educational Psychology pendent Reading Ability of Iower-grade Pupils. Principlesof LearningandTeaching. Xinli Kexue Tongxun 1 Information on Psycho- Shanghai, ShanghaiEducationalPublishing logical Sciences, No. 2, 1981. House, 1983. XIN YAN. An Overview of National Discussions on SHI SHAOHUA. Analysis of Research Development the Psychological Education of the Child and on inPsychologyofChildDevelopment and the Methods of Psychological Research. Psycho- Education from 1979 to 1988 in China. Xinli logical Development and Education, No. 2, 1990. Xuebao 1 Acta Psychologica Sinica, No. 3, 1990. YAN Guoum; MA JIALE. Non-intelligence Factors . A Brief Analysis of the Status of Educational and School Education. Shensi, Shensi People's Psychological Research on Children's Develop- Educational Publishing House, 1992. ment in China in the Last Ten Years. Explo- YAN WENFENG. A Preliminary Exploration of the rations in Psychology, No. 4, 1991. Learning Theory of Cognitive Psychology. Infor- SUN SHIJIN. Factor-analysing Methods and Edu-, mation on Psychological Sciences, No. 3, 1987. cationalPsychology.TrendsinPsychology, ZHA &mu. A Comparative Study of the Analogical No. 2, 1986. Reasoning of 3-6-year-old Supernormal Chil- WAN JIARUO. Computer-assisted Instruction. China dren. Xinli Xuebao I Acta Psychologica Sinica, Scienceand TechnologyPublishingHouse, No. 4, 1984.

1990. . AFive-yearStudyoftheMental WAN SHULIN. Artificial Intelligence and Education. Development of Supernormal Children. Xinli Encyclopaedia Knowledge, No. 1, 1992. Xuebao 1 Acta Psychologica Sinica, No. 2, 1986. WAN YUNYING. Phonetic Symbols are Helpful to . Ten-year Study of the Mental Development Literacy. Explorations in Psychology, No.3, of Supernormal Children. Xinli Xuebao I Acta 1991. Psychologica Sinica, No. 2, 1990. WAN YUNYING; WANG SIAOFEI etal. An Ex- ZHU YONGXIN. Studies of Modern Ideas in Chinese perimental Study on the Effect of the Topic EducationalPsychology.Xinli Xuebao 1 Acta Sentence on Children's Independent Reading Psychologica Sinica, No. 3, 1990. Comprehension and Grasping of the Central Zuo QIPEI. Case-studies of Behaviour Problems of Idea. Psychological Development and Education, Primary- and Secondary-school Students. Ex- No. 4, 1990. plorations in Psychology, No. 3, 1985. Trends and developments in educational psychology in the United States

Rochel Golman and Meredith Gattis Lee

Introduction structures and have led to new efforts to define and measure competent performance and out-of- Worldwide,children must acquiretheskills school learning options. Contrasting trends in cur- required to flourish later as adults in their com- rent research point to the importance of consider- munities. More and more these skills include the ing implicit forms of learning as well as explicit diverse set of literacy tools that support informed ones. interactionswith the environmentsof print, numeracy, science, communication, markets, work and transportation. Developments in the psycholo- The historical study of learning gy of learning offer some clues as to how the world community might proceed to help countries and Our associationist roots their education systems meet these challenges. The emphasis in this paper is on the construc- The question of how people learn has always been tive nature of learning, a view that is currently in a fundamental one in both psychology and edu- favour. To place this position in perspective, we cation. Until recently, accounts based on, or con- briefly trace the history of the field from associa- sistent with, associationist theories of learning tionism to constructivism. We use the construe- have enjoyed centre stage. Indeed, they continue tivist paradigm to examine current trends in the to figure centrally in most connectionist models of study of knowledge and the study of context, and cognition and learning. Accordingly, it is not sur- the interactions between the two. The search for prising that scholars are stillconcerned witn contextual models of learning has led to close understanding the laws that govern the growth in examination of group learning and cultural mod- strength of associations, including the laws about els of learning, such as apprenticeships. Cultural practice,spacing, frequency, response-stimulus models and other factors have increased aware- compatibility, etc. (see Anderson, 1990; Schmidt ness of the multiple influences on knowledge and Bjork, 1992). These investigations have yield- 24 Rochel Gelman and Meredith Gattis Lee ed reliable findings but, as Anderson notes, they plex learning, thinking and interactive abilities. are of limited generalizability. This is especially so For example, during their first year, infants pay when oneconsiderseducationalapplications. attention to number-relevant input as demon- Another limitation is the difficulty of transferring strated by the inclination to match the number of the findings (Salomon and Globerson, 1987). As drumbeats they hear with one of two slides that Brown (1990) has ncted, the tradition of using has the same number of items on it (Starkey et al., materials and tasks that are simple enough to 1990). A similar early cross-modal mapping skill analyse in a laboratory has often left unanswered allows them to match a sad face with a sad voice the question of how to apply the outcomes of such (Walker, 1982). Their interest in and knowledge work to the learning of complex materials in spe- about three-dimensional objects is demonstrated cific subject domains. by the fact that they are surprised by impossible events, as when one object seems to pass through The active mind another (Baillargeon et al., 1986). Such findings have led psychologists and educators away from Psychology and education have witnessed a theo- the idea that infant minds are blank slates, inca- retical sea change in the last twenty-five years. pable of complex learning and thought. Even Until relatively recently, almost everyone accept- though infants are preverbal, they participate ed the empiricist's thesis that human infants start actively and selectively in their learning about the with mental blank slates, upon which the records world around them. of experience are gradually impressed. The com- Similarly, from a very early point in their lives, mon assumption was that newborns cannot hear, children are motivated to persist with a task see or smell, that they spend their first year of life seemingly on their own and without external in a blooming-buzzing confusion and that they reinforcement until they have mastered some lack the ability to form complex ideas about the game, problem or area of know ledge. A famous world.True, babiescertainlyare born with example of this active involvement in learning notably limited response abilities and spend much comes from Piaget, who tells of his infant daugh- of their early life sleeping. Still, they are not sim- ter's attempt to push a toy she was holdirn: hori- ply passive receivers of data that wash over their zontally through the vertical bars of her crib. The sensoria. opening was not wide enough, but she continued In fact, healthy infants will use whatever limit- to try until, eventually, she began to rotate the ed response abilities they have to exploreand toy. Soon thereafter she rotated it enough for it to even controltheir environments as soon as they pass through the bars. come into the world. We havE known since the Further examples of children actively engaging early 1970s that infants work (for example, by in cognitive activities on their own are seen every- sucking) for the privilege of looking at something where now that we are paying attention to them. that interests them. Kalnins and Bruner (1973) Karmiloff-Smith and Inhelder (1974175) describe showed that infants between 5 and 12 weeks of one such case. They offered preschool children age learn to suck on a pacifier to bring a slide into repeated opportunities (over several sessions) to focus and look at it until they are bored (that is, balance each one of a set of blocks on top of anoth- until they have habituated). They then let the er block. Some of the blocks had concealed weights picture go back out of focusuntil there is a clue and therefore did not balance at their geometric that a new picture might be on the screen, at centres. Initially the children succeeded at balanc- which point they will once again get actively ing each block, no matter what kind it was, by involved in adjusting the quality of their view. using a combination of trial and error and brute This study is but one of hundreds that tell us that force. When a trick block fell, a child moved it babies have the motivation and the ability in cer- around while pushing down on it until balance taincasestoexplorethe perceptual world was achieved. After repeated opportunities to play (Gibson and Spelke, 1983). with the blks, children started to behave as if It is now known that infants even possess corn- they were systematically applying a 'blocks bal- Trends and developments in educational psychology in the United States 25 ance at their midpc;ne hypothesis. As a result, study of the effects of malnutrition on develop- they now started to make errors with the trick ment made it possible for McDonald et al. (in blocks. These they placed aside, saying things press) to observe a drop in school-aged children's like, 'don't work'. Of special interest is the fact attentiveness during school tasks and a drop in that there came a time when children changed activity in the playground. Although attentiveness their strategy again, in a seeming effort to find an rebounded once the food shortages abated, play all-inclusive solution. On their own they came to activity did not. realize that they would have to use a third block as a counterweight for blocks that they couldfeel The structured mind would not balance at their geometric centre. Therefore, they were once again able to balance all The tendency actively to seek out, select and inter- blOcks. It is important to highlight the fact that pret inputs goes hand in hand with another these children gave up the trial and error solution important fact about the mind. This is that that worked in favour of a more systematic one. human beings develop organized knowledge bases. Had they not done so, they would not have gener- We are not all that good at remembering a collec- ated the negative data that eventually encouraged tion of random inputs and are far better able to them to find a yet more advanced solution. remember that which is organized, especially if we This motivation to explore, even to work to impose the organization on the information our- explore, and then to master what is of interest selves (Mandler, 1984). This means that coming to is indicative of more general facts about the understand and know is as much an active process human mind. Learners are inclined to attend to as is attending to the world. Indeed, to the extent things that they know somethingas opposed to that we already have knowledge in an area, it is nothingabout. Second, they interpret what they easier to find yet more things that are related to encounter with reference to what they already this knowledge and therefore to learn even more know. Finally, there are at least some times when about what we already know. We actively use self-motivated exploration leads one to learn new what we know to make sense of our interactions things on one's own. Kuhn (1970) suggests that with the environment. Put differently, knowledge thought experiments are mobt likely to occur can help make some aspects of the environment when a hypothesis has been tried exclusively long more salient than others. It can even alter our enough to generate outcomes that do not fit an ini- interpretation of that environment. For example, tial hypothesis. This, he continues, yields one con- it takes training as an archaeologist to see that dition for learning, which is the need to resolve something lying on the sand at an archaeological the conflict by finding a consistent account of all site is a piece of old bone. The same object might the data. not even be noticed by the untrained eye (that is, All of the above is consistent with Bartlett's and it would not be salient) and, if it were, it would Piaget's idea that knowledge is constructed by the probably be interpreted as just another stone. learner, and it fits well with the strong theoretical Other trends have fed the growth of attention to commitment to some form of constructivism in a a more cognitive approach to learning. These have number of research centres around the world (see included the reintroduction of the study of atten- Glaser, 1991, and McGuiness and Nisbet, 1991, tion as a centrally controlled process (see Shiffrin, for reviews from the perspectives of the United 1988, for a review), the uptake of the computer States and Europe, respectively). Of course, these metaphor of mind, following successful efforts to characterizations of children as active explorers usecomputer modelsforcomplexactivities and self-motivated learners take as given that the (Newell and Simon, 1972) and the growing appre- children are well nourished and free of disease. ciation of Piagetian theory as well as of other Ev n the relatively brief period of food shortage structuralaccountsofmind(forexample, that occurred in Kenya during the 1984 drought Chomsky, 1965). Subsequent demonstrations of influenced these active-learning tendencies in the centrality of knowledge-rich structures (for Embu schoolchildren: an ongoing longitudinal example, Chi and Ceci, 1987) have led cognitive,

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 26 Rochel Gelman and Meredith Gattis Lee developmental and educational psychologists to enced by Vygotsky and his focus on the socio-his- work on structural descriptions of different knowl- torical-cultural settings for development and/or edge states and to recognize learners' tendencies his concern with metacognitive skills. to relate novel inputs to what they already know. Some theorists' concerns fall at the intersect of Understanding the organization and structure of points on the above dimensions. Others focus their knowledge and itsimpact on learning have efforts exclusively on one of the issues captured by become the central goals of psychological investi- the outline. For example, Case (1985), Halford gations of learning, both in and out of school set- (1990) and Siegler (1991), who are often dubbed tings. neo-Piagetian, combine information processing Research concerning the nature and organiza- and Piagetian theory. Lave and Wenger (1991) tion of knowledge and how it influences further focus almost entirely on the effect of contexts, so learning has moved to the forefront in many coun- much so that they resist efforts to make general- tries, possibly because empirical progress in this izations about learning across settings. Others area can inform the teaching of complex bodies of prefer to appeal to the different mental models or knowledge. We now know that the ability to form structures and/or the related action goals that organized knowledg ; bases and to use related organize content domains (for example, Brown, structures provides learners with powerful stor- 1990; Carey and Gelman, 1991; Karmiloff-Smith, age, retrieval and transfer tools. Structures serve 1992). Although there are significant theoretical as memory organizationdevicesfor keeping consequencesassociatedwiththesedifferent together related material, even if the material is choices, most are committed to the idea that con- not yet well understood. Mental structures also cept acquisition involves the building of struc- support inferences and, therefore, transfer. For tured or complex knowledge systems as a function example, if we are told that something called an of learning opportunities. Coherent mental struc- Echidna is an animal, we can access our memory tures enable inference-making and understand- about animals to find information that can be ing. transferred to this new case. Doing so allows for the inference that an Echidna eats, breathes and The constructivist mind in education moves by itself, even if we have never seen or learned about one in our entire lives. Since constructivist inclinations are at least as Theoretical descriptionsof knowledge states characteristic of children as they are of adults vary along two continua. The first dimension per- (Mandler, 1984), the shift from the model of learn- tains to the units of analysis that theorists empha- er-as-depository of inputs to a model of learner-as- size. Two classes of models in which this dimen- active-mterpreter of inputs has important implica- sion is considered are information-processing mod- tions for education; in particular, we can no longer els and structure-specific models. In general, the assume that children start school with little if any former emphasize general process notions such as knowledge of the topics we propose to teach. processing speed, short-term memory, connec- Children start building organized representations tions, long-term memory, etc. (for examples, see of their social and non-social worlds early in devel- Anderson, 1990, and Halford, 1989). The latter opment. What they have already learned, usually emphasizestructuresandmentalmodels, in informal and implicit ways, is used to interpret although they vary as to whether they make use what they encounter in the classroom and in other of domain-general structures like logical ones or settings in their lives. This means that what we more domain-specific, content-relevant structures, teach is interpreted, not just abs rbed, even at the rules or mental models. The second dimension of beginning of school. Therefore, we need to consid- theoretical descriptions of knowledge states per- er what assumptions, beliefs and knowledge chil- tains to whether contexts are given a central role dren bring with them when they start school (for in the theory and, if so, to what extent context is example, Carey, 1985). Although knowing some- emphasized. The wide range of researchers who thing about a target topic can facilitate further are concerned with context are particularly influ- learning, it need not. In fact, what the learner and Trends and developments in educational psychology in the United States 27 teacher assume or know can form barriers to the 8- and 9-year-old children tell us that 1/76 is more instructional goals of schools. This can happen for than 1/56 because 76 is a 'bigger number (Gelman, several reasons. 1991). Although further instruction about frac- First, children start developing naïve theories tions leads to some accurate learning about cer- about the world they interact with before they tain facts (such as 1/2 > 114), the tendency for chil- start school (Carey, 1986; Hatano and Inagaki, dren to assimilate the data about fractions to their 1987; Keil,1989). For example, Hatano and notion that all numbers are the result of counting Inagaki showed that 5- and 6-year-old children in persists for a long time. It is well known that stu- Japan knew enough about animates to answer dents all over the world have difficulties mas- that they could not keep a baby rabbit small for- tering the mathematical concepts that are related ever because it would grow as it ate moreand to the fact that fractions (more accurately, ratio- more. Similarly, comparably young children in nal numbers) are true numbers. Well into sec- various countries develop a principled under- ondary school, robust tendencies remain for pupils standing of counting (Gelman, 1982; Resnick, to order both fractions and numbers with decimals 1989). Gelman and Meek (1986) report that 3- and as if they were natural, whole numbers and for 5-year-old children are able to distinguish stan- students to insist that the product of two fractions dard left-to-right counts of a row of items from must be greater than either of the separate frac- novel but correct counts, for example, one that tions (Fischbein et al., 19S5). starts in the middle of a row and comes back Just as children form naïve theories from obser- around to the beginning of the row. Researchers vations of the physical world and from experience repeatedly find that children invent solutions to with certain practices before they enter school, addition problems. The following from Carpenter they similarly acquire implicit cultural and socio- and Fennema (1989) is illustrative: linguistic knowledge from their community (for example,BernicotandMakrokhian, 1989; A first grade student (about seven years old) was asked Schieffelin and Ochs, 1986; Weisner, 1984). And to add 246+178. He responded: 'Well, 2 plus 1 is 3, so I again, the knowledge that children bring to the know it's two hundred and one hundred, so now it's somewhere in the three hundreds. And then you have to school setting has the potential both to help and to add the tens on. And the tens are 4 and 7...well, urn, if impede their performance on academic tasks. you started at 70, 80, 90, 100. Right? And that's four Cultural and sociolinguistic knowledge influences hundreds. So now you are already in the hundreds how children interpret the school setting, their because of that [100+300], but now you're in the 400's because of that [46+70]. But you've still got one more sense of place, their ability to do well in school, ten. So if you're doing it 300 plus 40 plus 70 you'd have the way people talk to them and so on. Often there four hundred and ten. But you're not doing that. So is a match between the assumptions children what you need to do then is add 6 more onto 10, which is 16. And then 8 more: 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24. So bring to school with them and the learning-teach- that's 124. I mean 424'. ing goals of their schools. But this need not be the case (Cazden, 1988). For example, certain cultures These understandings can support problem-solv- and families do not encourage young children to ing and the invention of further learning but can 'show off' by answering questions to which adults also impede them. Although knowledge about certainly know the answers. Children growing up counting and its relation to addition supports in such environments are at disadvantage in learning about addition and subtraction with the schools in the United States, the United Kingdom positive natural numbers, the same knowledge and Australia where a favourite pedagogical tech- can impede learning why fractions are numbers. nique involves asking questions which have obvi- Fractions are not the kind of thing one gets via ous and concrete answers (Siegal, 1991). Imagine counting (formally they represent the result of one the situation when a first-grade teacher asks: number divided by another). Yet this mathemat- 'How much is 1+1?' Children who have not learned ical truth does not keep children from interpreting the sociolinguistic rule that allows for answering their lessons as novel opportunities to apply their an obvious question may remain quiet (Heath, firm beliefs about the counting numbers. Many 1981). Their failure to answer is unlikely to be due 28 Rochel Gelman and Meredith Gattis Lee to a lo.ck of knowledge; still, it will be so interpret- statement implies that the motivation to learn ed and therefore will reinforce expectations that and successful learning are part of the same these children will not do well in school. Just as acquisition mechanism, a view that will be recog- the culture-specific pragmatics of language can nized as very Piagetian. Yet, educators worry a pose problems for knowledge acquisition, so can great deal about the lack of motivation they see in natural language as a whole. Children's knowl- students and are concerned about finding ways to edge of a natural language can interfere with their foster or re-ignite the cognitively based motivation learning the language of mathematics. For exam- thatisso prevalent in very young children ple, 'multiply' has different meanings in English (Stipek, 1988). An important step in this process and in mathematics (Orr, 1989). involves identifying how characteristics of the These considerations bear on assessments of teachers, students, classrooms, lessons and learn- competence and make it clear that competence is ing interacttoinfluencestudent motivation a multifaceted attribution. No longer can we focus (d'Ydewalle, 1987). Developmental, cognitive and simply on the question of what an individual cross-cultural studies of teaching style, classroom knows about reading, mathematics, problem-solv- goals and lesson content not only inform us about ing, etc. For no matter how deep their knowledge different cultural instantiations of such influ- might be in these domains, the display of it takes ences, but they also allow us to determine how place in different settings. Knowledge may be their variation may affect student motivation shown in some settings but not others. Whether levels. For instance, textbooks for university-level transfer from one setting to another will occur courses in education (for example, Eggan and depends on at least two variables: general think- Kauchak, 1992) note that students are motivated ing skills (especially the kind that are called to learn in classrooms in which order is main- `metacognitive', such as monitoring one's progress tained. Extreme differences on this classroom and evaluating strategy success and understand- order variable have been noted between Japanese ing) and interpretation of settings (recall the prob- and American classrooms. Japanese classrooms lem that might occur if the school setting is mis- are more orderly, even though the number of stu- interpreted as one in which obvious, concrete dents per class is greater than in the average questions are not answered). American classroom. The difference seems to be Interpretations of settings depend upon knowl- that Japanese teachers teach children how to pay edge and language use, people's attitudes and attention and how to change activities with a min- beliefs, institutions and so on, such that mis- imum of upheaval while at the same time giving matches on any of these dimensions can interfere children responsibility for their own behaviour with displays of conceptual competence (Elbers, and that of their peers (Stevenson and Stigler, 1991; Gelman and Greeno, 1989). So impressed 1992). These things happen less often in American are some theorists by the effects of situations on classrooms and may be just one reason why Asian performance levels that they argue that every students are said to be more mol iyated than their situation is unique unto itself and that itis American counterparts. Obviously education at premature to attempt to establish principles about international and local levels will benefit from learning and its transfer (for example, Lave and direct investigations of how this particular cul- Wenger, 1991). We do not go this far; rather, for tural difference in classrooms affects student reasons considered below, we share with others motivation for learning. In general, we see this (for example, Brown et al., 1993; Perret-Clermont move toward motivation issues as an acceptance and Schaubler-Leoni, 1989) the view that one can of Piaget's position that motivation and knowledge take the social and cultural knowledge of a com- acquisition should be considered as opposite sides munity into account mid still reach some general- of the same coin. izations about possible future directions for our Finally, it is important to remain aware that schools. there is always a potential downside to learners' There is a paradoxical fact about the claim that and teachers' constructivist tendencies, namely the young arc active knowledge constructors. This that they can lead us astray, to misunderstand- Trends and developments in educational psychology in the United States 29

ings and to misinterpretations. Of course this does this finding with investigations aimed at specify- not mean we are motivated to misinterpret or mis- ing the content of those levels in a variety of lead. It can be a straightforward consequence of domains. This work is particularly important to the way minds work. We can unknowingly misin- educators interested in how the inherent organi- terpret inputs (be they in school or out) on the zation of knowledge can provide guidance for the basis of what we know already, just as we perceive instructional organization of knowledge in order illusions as a result of our normal perceptual to assist the learner through progressive levels of processes. There cannot help but be times when understanding. Inputs need to be organized to we risk misinterpreting or even ignoring novel represent vividlyand thereby cue in memory data, settings or events as a consequence of the the relevant facts and principles as well as the normal mind's inclination to attend to and/or appropriate language and word meanings. We dis- interpret what we encounter on the basis of what cuss various ways to do this, including how the we know and believe to be true about the world clues and lessons gleaned from psychological and ourselves. And, of course, the longer we wait research on the nature of concepts and classroom to introduce the novel, the better the chance that research, bear on methods of teaching mathemat- established knowledge systems will 'misinterpret' ics and science. Our conclusion is that the previ- what is presented, often unwittingly. This argu- ously prescribed sequence of presenting concrete ment adds weight to the widely held view that inputs long before the abstract is not supported by education at the primary- and secondary-school recent research, which instead favours integrated levels is all important. presentations of concrete and abstract inputs for Our goal, as educators, should be to understand maximum conceptual understanding and transfer. as much as possible about the knowledge systems, and the cultural and sociolinguistic customs that Levels of understanding children bring to specific learning situations. Such an understanding will allow us not only to use An important discovery about human thinking what children already know so as to introduce and learning is that we can represent the similari- new information and encourage transfer, but also ty between objects and events at many different to anticipate domains (such as fractions) in which levels, including ones that use deep principles learning may be impeded by children's knowledge about cause, objects, social goals and so on. It structures. Creating a better 'fit' between children could hardly be otherwise given that we know that and teachers can only serve to increase the moti- it takes about ten years of study and practice for vation of both groups for their respective tasks. one to become an expert at anything: several Key findings that bear on these goals are reviewed studies have documented this for fields as diverse in the following sections. as music, chess and diagnosing X-rays (Chi et a)., 1988). Eventually experts come to organize their knowledge on the basis of principles of a domain. The organization of knowledge Although novices can solve a common set of prob- lems, their knowledge is not organized thisway. Discussions of the organization of knowledge usu- Chi et al.'s (1981) study of how novices and ally refer to one of two questions: 'What is the experts sort problems they both can solve illus- inherent organization of knowledge?' or 'How trates the difference. Whereas novices group should knowledge be organized in presentation?' together problems with common props, for exam- In this section, we review findings relevant to both ple a pulley or an inclined plane, expertsgroup questions. together problems hat are related to a common In the last two decades, research has consistent- law of physics, for example Newton's laws of ly demonstrated that in every domain there are motion. For a variety of domains and goals, atten- varying levels of understanding and that learning tion to principles or structure usually results in is a progression through those levels. More recent- more flexible knowledge for future learning and ly psychologists and educators have built upon problem-solving. Brown et al. (1993) build this

II) A.., C.) 30 Rachel Gelman and Meredith Gattis Lee knowledge base, assumptionintotheircurriculum,whichis tion of how to develop a richer sub- designed to turn classrooms into 'communitiesof Catrambone and Holyoak (1989) presented learning' (see also Bereiter andScardamalia, jects with multiple analogous wordproblems and 1989). An important partof their approach measured transfer to the solution of a superficially involves their commitment to the idea thatthe different word problem. They found that transfer classroom is made up of many zones ofproximal was best when subjectsreceived three rather than development (Vygotsky, 1978), which they opera- just two analogues, when the wording ofthe prob- between tionalize as lems emphasized structural similarities the problems and when subjects answered ques- the distance between current levels ofcomprehension tions on the analogues which forcedexplicit com- and levels that can be accomplished incollaboration parisons between the examples andenhanced with people or powerful artifacts. The zone ofproximal development embodies a concept of readiness tolearn development of a problem schema. This type of that emphasizes upper levelsof competence. Fur- instruction isalso likely to support language thermore, these upper boundaries are seen, not as learning. For example, vocabulary learningis the immutable, but rather as constantly changing with enhanced if students have ample opportunity to learner's increasing independent competence at succes- sive levels. relate new language inputs to the conceptual cores they represent (Beck and McKeown, 1989).Put Brown et al. (1993, pp. 3-4) and Hatanoand differently, vocabulary instruction is bestembed- Inagaki (1986) similarly draw attention tothe ded in conversations about the concepts towhich example, this need to consider different levels ofunderstanding they refer. In the case of science, for in their discussions of contextual contributionsto means talking aboutand doing science while the development of routine v. adaptive expertise. learning content and vocabulary. Structuralaccountsof learningalsoplace knowl- Organized inputs emphasis on the ways in which complex edge bases map onto the inputs offered forlearn- Embedded in the above are some generalguide- ing. Learners have a better chance ofassimilating lines for teaching. The first is that curricula the input if there is a good fit betweenwhat is to should be designed to move students fromwhere be learned and what is known. The fit can occur of theyarethroughstepsofunderstanding. because of an overlap between the structure Otherwise, the intuitive theories of novices are what is known and what is given for learning.It likely to leave open too many opportunities to mis- can also occur becausethere is a match between interpret the novel. Second, teachersshould use the number of structural units a student can multiple and different examples or experiments to process and the numberembodied in the data teach a concept in order to capture effectivelythe (Case, 1985; Halford, 1990). Without such fit there complexity of a concept (Spiro et al., 1989) and to is a risk that the input will be ignored or mistak- promote development of a schema (a flexible, gen- enly assimilated into the existing structure and eralized representation of the concept) which knowledge base (Gelman, 1991). increases the likelihood that a person will appro- priately use knowledge of that concept in future Clues from the nature of concepts problem-solving situations. Multiple and different examples of inputs that exemplify a structure are The fundamental role of organization in cognitive known to foster learning and transfer (Hatano performance has led researchers to ask how to and Inagaki, 1987; Fried and Holyoak, 1984). characterize our knowledge. Research on the where Achievement-richrepresentationofconcepts nature of concepts offers a potent clue as to enhances transfer (Catrambone and Holyoak, to look to modify traditional assumptions.The 1989; Goswami and Brown, 1990). Verschaffel and work bears particularly on the view that knowl- De Corte (in press) found that children's errors edge about concepts is always built up from the in solving word problems were frequently due to concrete or the perceptual. Although it is truethat an insufficient knowledgebase. In an investiga- both adults and children often organize their con- Trends and developments in educational psychology in the United States 31

cepts on the basis of perceptual similarity, they tasks need not be accessible to language. That is, also make use of deep principles. It is now recog- we need not be able to state how our mind is mak- nized that were we to rely solely on perceptual ing the categorization choices that it does. This similarities to make decisions about which items kind of classification knowledge is often implicit. belong in which categories, we would make a lot of Similarly, implicit knowledge of causal principles assignment errors (Medin, 1989). Yet 'we do not. enables the mind to take into account whether Thus, although a red tomato and a red apple look something moves on its own as well as some alike, we have no difficulty saying they are not in salientcharacteristicsof the way itmoves. the same category. In the same way, although a Different peoples develop different culture-specific whale looks more like a fish than like a human knowledge and theories about the causes and con- being, we can classify it along with the human ditions of movement of the animate and inanimate being as a 'mammal'. When we do this we use items in their culture (Hatano and Inagaki, 1987). principled knowledge to override a classification Still, these different models are built on a shared based on perceptual similarityeven if we have belief in the fundamental differences between the trouble articulating the principle that led to way animate and inanimate objects move. When correct categorization. we talked to a 5-year-old American child about a The implicit use of 'deep' relationships to catego- wooden bird hanging from the ceiling, he said: rize a variety of life forms is a universal achieve- 'You know it's not a real bird...because it is too ment of the human mind (Atran, 1990). This does flat and too hard and is attached to the strings.' not rule out the role (:)f culture, for the specific He tried in his own way to tell us that these are relationships that matter for a classification may not characteristics of animate material, the kind depend on culture-specific accounts of the roles of of stuff that a real bird is made from. certain objects (Murphy and Medin, 1985). For In summary, representations of concepts are example, Bulmer (1967) reports that the Karam of multilevelled. In many cases, people can rely more New Guinea do not categorize a cassowary as a on deep, even implicit, principles than on percep- bird, because as a forest creature it has a special tual similarities to classify objects and events. rol(incultural ideas about the relationship between the forest and cultivation. The features of Lessons from the study of mathematics the cassowary that matter to the Karam are not learning those that matter for Western biological theories (Murphy and Medin, 1985), but both cultures These new ways of thinking about the organiz- share a dependence on deep, non-perceptual fea- ation of knowledge have implications for edu- tures of the cassowary for proper classification. cational programmes. Concept learning does not Just as we do not use simple perceptual similar- always proceed in one direction, from the percep- ity to categorize natural kinds, so we do not tual (or concrete) to the abstract. Insome cases, depend solely on surface appearances to classify learning is maximized if the abstract is introduced artefacts. Young and old alike organize ca:egories alongside concrete examples. This is not tosay of artefacts on the basis of function and in turn that educators should move entirely to lessons use intended functions to determine how relevant that focus on abstract principles and knowledge% a particular surface feature is to that function and Rather, the idea is that a judicious mix of thecon- thus how central it is to the concept. To illustrate, crete and the abstract will often enhance the although an igloo, tent, adobe, house, cave, etc., development of understanding. Fortunately,we vary widely in their shape and material, we classi- can share some examples of how this mix can be fy them together because they allserve as accomplished. Educators in Japan, the United dwellings and provide shelter. There are some States, Israel and Canada offer examples ofsuc- similar perceptual characteristicsfor example, cessfulintegrationsof concrete and abstract an inside spacebut these characteristics need inputs in mathematics classes. not be the ones that are first apparent to the eye. Visitors to mathematics classes for 6- and 7- The deep principles used for categorization year-olds in Japan and the United States will 32 Rochel Gelman and Meredith Gattis Lee notice a number of differences (Stevensonand ties when 43 children go to 26 parties or 26 chil- Stigler, 1992). We focus on one particular kind: dren go to 43 parties and so on. Next they were the different ways children are taught about num- asked to make up stories for multiplication prob- ber facts. In the United States, children mightbe lems, for exampk.: introduced to these facts with the aid of various Teacher: Can anyone give me a story that could go with supporting materials. The idea is to introduce this multiplication...12 x 4? symbolic ideas with concrete, physical examples. Jessica: There were 12 jars and each had 4 butterflies The same materials might well be found in a in it. Teacher: And if I did this multiplication and found the Japanese classroom. However, they are used in a answer, what would I know about the jarsand the different way, for Japanese schools engage very butterflies? young children in problem-solvingand more Jessica: You'd know that you had that many butterflies abstract mathematical discussions about possible altogether. solutions from the start. For example, a child's erroneous solution to a problemmight be written The class then proceeds to represent Jessica's on the blackboard and used as atopic for class dis- story in a concrete way. They also take groups cussion. Were a teacher in the United States todo apart and make new groups of different sizes, this, the children would surely be embarrassed, which demonstrates the numerical principles of for attention would be drawn to their answersand decomposition and recomposition as well as the to them as individuals. In Japanthe error serves distributive law of multiplication. Eventually stu- as an opporttmity to engagethe class as a group, a dents get to the point where they can make up fact that helps explain why the child is not embar- multiplication algorithms, a clear index of their rassed. Similarly, correct answers serve as occa- principled understanding of multiplication. Note sions to encourage children to think ofdifferent that the children themselves never talk about the ways to state themathematical problem, for distributive law or any other mathematical laws, example offering the idea that: but they do talk in ways that are consistent with the language and structure of mathematics (some- (3+4) = 1+1+1+1+1+1+1 = (2+2)+3 = 5+2. .. thing that many researchers consider especially important these days) (Brown et al., 1989; Voigt, In addition to differences in how individual class 1989). sections are structured, Japanese teachers tend to Research from Israel converges on the idea that provide more linkage between sessions than do students in math classes benefit from abstract their American counterparts. For example, home- inputs that organize examples they are mastering. work assignments are discussed in terms of how Nesher and Sukenik (1991) addressed the difficul- they relate to what was learned the day before. ty that high-school students have with formal rep- Coherence in the lesson is derived from this dis- resentations of ratios and proportions. Their goal cussion and from the successful integration of the was to offer instruction to support acquisitionof concrete and abstract data about the relevant both implicit and explicit understanding. The lat- principles of mathematics. This is accomplished in ter is a necessary foundation if students are to large part by having children talk about mathe- learn more mathematics. The students started matics in the language of mathematics while with explicit representations of all entities in the learning to use algorithms for doing particular expression a/b = c. This was accomplished in a problems. colour-mixing demonstration. Quantities of blue Similar factors contribute to Lampert's (1986) and yellow were mixed in water to generate green. successful efforts to bring her 10-year-old students Variations in the amounts of yellow yielded to a principled understanding of multi-digit multi- lighter and darker values of green. Students pre- plication algorithms. In one series of lessons she dicted how dark the green water would be as a first had fourth-grade students (average age = result of mixing different quantities of yellow and 8.5 years) learn to tell 'math' stories, for example, blue. Since they received immediate feedback, about the total number of children attending par- they had an opportunity to compare their predic- Trends and developments in educational psychology in the United States 33 tions with the outcome and gain relevant informa- Lessons from the study of science learning tion about ratios. This feedback enhanced learn- ing to some extent, but the learning was most The literature on science learning adas weight to enhanced when these experiences were paired the theme that inputs should be organized in a with the parallel relevant formal statements, way to support learning about relevant facts, the quite likely because these offered a particularly scientific principles that organize them and the apt structure within which to summarize the related language. The reason, once again, is that particulars of the experiment in a meaningful way. people's misconceptions are tied to the way they A related example of the advantage of focusing reason and talk about scientific phenomena. For instruction on the abstract, mathematical side of example, when people are asked to explain why things prior to doing arithmetic problems comes objects stop moving, they typically talk about the from Griffin et al. (1992). They have designed a loss of something akin to impetus inside the programme to encourage disadvantaged children object. One subject told McCloskey and Kargon: to master conceptual understanding of the num- 'At first, it La toy car] still has the force from the ber line before they start arithmetic lessons. push, so it's going fast; as the force decreases the Doing this yields consistent positive effects across car slows' (1988, p. 55). a varied set of cultural backgrounds, including As the authors point out, such talk fits well with Anglo-American, Mrican-American, Latin Ameri- pre-Newtonian onceptions of physics and the idea can and recent Portuguese immigrants. that forces are internal to a moving object. There It is possible that the pairing of abstract mathe- is no reference to the Newtonian idea that the car matical talk with concrete examples emphasizes will move at a constant velocity (for a given time) the fact that some natural language terms are in the absence of the application of an external false cognates in the language of mathematics. force. It is important to note that such answers For example, although 'multiply' always means came from students who studied a year of univer- increase in a natural language, the same is not sity-level physics and did well in their course! true in mathematics. Pupils are not warned of this Furthermore, many of the same students tell difference, which surely contributes to their sys- interviewers that a ball will emerge from a circu- tematic errors on problems that require them to lar tube and continue to go around in circles, as if multiply two fractions together (Fischbein et al., the object's impetus will make it continue doing 1985). A similar problem arises when 6- to 9-year- what it is doing already (McCloskey and Kargon, old children are asked to place either Arabic rep- 1988). For these students, physics instruction was resentations of whole numbers and fractions or N laid on top of a potent intuitive theory of motion. whole circles or parts of a circle on number lines. Typically, no effort is made to take intuitive theo- They often place 3/3 where 3 belongs on the num- ries into account, let alone confront them and ber line, saying either that we said 'three' or that organize instruction to create the conditions that they counted three pieces. From the child's point might support conceptual change. Much like the of view such items are simply further counting case of mathematics instruction, supporting con- opportunities. In the absence of being told to the ceptual change means trying to increase under- contrary, it is hard to imagine how they could standing of core concepts and how principles come to the right generalizations. In fact, Gelman relate these concepts to each other. It alsomeans (1991) reports that training designed to encourage trying to move students to use the language of sci- children to relate the mathematical descriptions, ence in a way that is consistent with the concepts relations and terms for fractions to different rep- of science. And again, there are false cognates in resentationsof fractions(including numerals, thenaturallanguage.Whereasacceleration number lines, parts of circles and parts of squares) means 'speed up' in conversational English, it increases the likelihood that children will accept means 'change (positive or negative) in velocity or the idea that there are numbers between the direction' in physics. Thus a decrease in speed whole numbers. involves negative acceleration. The way in which language both impactson and 34 Rochel Gelman and Meredith Gattis Lee reveals conceptual understanding is a recurring that the traditional recitation form of talk, where theme in educational research in mathematics teachers ask questions in rapid succession and and science. Our discussions point out that lan- children are expected to give a 'right' answer, has guage has two roles in conceptuallearning: learn- failed to encourage learning how to think and talk ing the appropriate word meanings determines about the domains in question (see Cazden, 1988, understanding of the accompanying principles, for a review). Similarly, many concur that a major and achieving a level of understanding that allows partof learninginvolvesacquiring coherent articulation of concepts signifies a step beyond the knowledge about a domain. Although many implicit understandings which support judgement research-oriented educators encourage instruction that cannot be expressed. Repeatedly historians of designed to challenge students' naive, intuitive science note how the meaning of scientific terms concepts, encourage conversations about the con- is related to the concepts and the principles that tent of the domain, ask teachers to take time to let organize these terms in a given domain of sci- their students fumble around for an answer and ence (for example, Kitcher, 1982; Kuhn,1970). propose that students be encouraged tochallenge Advances in our understanding of scientific con- and experiment, few offer guidelines for doing cepts therefore move in concert with our acquisi- this. One approach is the use of thematic organiz- tion of the language that refers to these. Learning ation which allows students to explore a concept about the language of science and the concepts deeply to discover not only the relevant facts, but therein can be thought of as learning about the also the principles and language meanings tied up two sides of a coin. Progress in learning about one in that concept. However, as Goldenberg and bootstraps progress in learning about the other. Gallimore (1991) point out, it is hard to accom- The lesson here is that science instruction should plish these goals in short teacher-training work- involve students talking about and doing science shops and without finding ways to support teach- at the same time as they are being introduced to ers and schools in their efforts tochange. the content of the discipline. A related lesson, one Third, theorists note that it takes time on task proposed by a number of researchers (Brown et to achieve any understanding of new scientific and al., 1993; Carey, 1988; Linn and Gelman, 1987), is mathematical concepts. As Anderson (1992) con- that science instruction should focus on a limited cluded, the variable that consistentlydistin- number of key themes (for example, variability, guishes groups of students who do and do not interdependence and conservation) that organize a master these areas is the amount of time spent large range of phenomena and concepts. engaged in a task. There is simply no getting around the fact that elementary- and high-school Some cautionary notes students in Japan, for example, spend many more hours studying mathematics than do their Finally, we offer three cautionary notes concern- counterparts in the United States. ing the organization of knowledge. First, the In sum, advances in our understanding of the emerging advice is not that schools should forget nature of concept learning offer clues for improv- the concrete and focus on the abstract. Instead it ing instruction, be it about history, reading, math- is that schools should make efforts to teach con- ematics or science. In particular, it is no longer tent, language and domain-relevant principles clear that instruction has to proceed from the con- together. The goal is to enhance the probability crete to the abstract when the goal is to ensure that learning about any of these can bootstrap understanding of the abstract. Although the con- learning about any of the others. The ultimate crete sometimes can illustrate the abstract, it does goal is understanding, but it is unlikely to be not, on its own, offer unambiguous interpretations achieved if care is not taken to anchor the steps of the relationship between the principles of a along the way. domain (for example, mathematics and science) Second, there is much current speculation about and their concrete applications. In order to pre- the need to develop expertise and encourage talk vent and rectify misconceptions, educators must about the domain being taught. All seem to agree provide guidance for students in how the concrete Trends and developments in educational psychology in the United States 35 is interpreted in language and symbols that are and cues. For example, Shatz and Gelman(1973) consistent with the target knowledge of the demonstrated that 4-year-old children modify the domain. We will return to the special role of lan- complexity of their speech depending on whether guage in the next section from a different but they are talking to a child younger than them, to a related perspective. peer or to an adult. Children of the same age, however, are 'egocentric' on Piaget's three-moun- tain task; that is, they say that someone on the Putting learning and knowledge other side of the mountain will see the same view in context they do. Egocentrism is not a characteristic of a child; it is a characteristic of thinking in specific Above we have resisted offering specific rules for task contexts. Research shows that children and taking laboratory findings into school systems all adults keep separate their knowledge of everyday over the world. We now turn to our reasons for mathematics and school mathematics, be they in such reticence. Knowledge itself is dynamic and Brazil, Ciite d'Ivoire, Liberia or the United States has multiple states, not just between learners of (Lave, 1977; Saxe and Gearhart, 1988; Saxe and varying ability and experience levels, but within Posner, 1982). It is also important to relate the the same person at different times. Research in study of cognition and learning to the ecological several areas of psychology has demonstrated that settingsin which learningis embedded (see both the acquisition and use of knowledge is Bronfenbrenner, 1986; Shaw and Bransford,1977, dependent on context. Converging evidence comes for reviews). from cognitive psychology, ecological psychology and especially cross-cultural psychology. How the Evidence from cross-cultural- psychology: role of context should determine educational poli- the impact of culture, family and self cies and methods is still being debated. In what follows, we discuss the pros and cons of one pro- Perhaps the most powerful lessons about how con- posal for modelling educational practice on cultur- text determines learning and cognition come from al traditions, the apprenticeship model. studies in cross-cultural psychology. These studies have demonstrated that culture determines abili- Evidence from cognitive and ties, curricula and classroom style, and family developmental psychology expectations and self-expectations of the role of schooling and personal achievement. Bransford and Franks (1971) demonstrated that Cross-cultural studies of the problem-solving knowledge is not simply stored experience but is abilities of various people underscore how much integrated with other knowledge. When given a our conception of intellectual abilities and our recognition test for compli.x sentences which rep- methods of researching them are influenced by resented combinations of ideas presented earlier our culture. Cole and his collaborators provide in independently presented, simple sentences, many compelling examples of how the conclusion subjects falsely recognized the complex sentences, that 'primitive tribal' people cannot engage in indicating that the related information in each of abstract thinking is false. The initial evidence the simple sentences had been integrated rather that Liberians lack the ability to classify, measure that storedindependently. Moreover,recalled and do logical problems failed to take into account knowledge is not retrieval of a static structure but potent confounds of the setting. For example, a temporary construction based upon context, cues when the Kpelle are asked to measure with stan- and goals at encoding and retrieval (Hyde and dardized units of measurement, they do not fare Jenkins,1973).Several studies have demonstrat- well. But any conclusion that they lack an under- ed that recognition and recall changes when the standing of measurement would be quite silly; context changes (Smith et al.,1970). they are skilled measurers. It is just that they Developmental studies reveal a drastic change use content-specific units, such as one for cloth, in performance with changes in task, environment another for distance and so on. This is an es- 36 Rachel Gelman and Meredith Gattis Lee pecially poignant example, for in point of fact the prescriptions about the way children should be tendency to wed the unit of measurement to what raised to share the values and goals of responsible is being measured is very widespread. We use a members of their society (Hatano and Miyake, troy ounce as opposed to a liquid ounce when 1991). It is against this backdrop that we turn to measuring gold and other precious materials. In- consider how people'sgoals,values,implicit deed, the adoption of common universal standards knowledge of their environment, social institu- is very much a twentieth-century development. tior. s and culture influence their interpretation of Stigler et al. (1988) offer us a different perspec- learning tasks and the role and functioning of tive on the need to consider cultural differences in schoels. the study of abilities. It has been widely assumed Specific family expectations and values concern- that tests of digit span, the ability to repeat back ing the role of children in society as well as the as many digits as possible given arandom string role of schools in their lives contribute to the net- of them, is a relatively pure test of short-term work of variables that distinguish the schooling memory. We no longer can assume this. It turns experiences of children (Rogoff, 1990). Compelling out that Chinese-speaking children have much examples of the network of these relationships are longer digit spans than English-speaking children appearing in a variety of reports. For example, because the time it takes to say the count words is Japanese mothers are more inclined to attribute shorter in the Chinese language. their children's school success to how hard they A comparison between American and Japanese work in school, whereas American mothers will children offers further lessons about the need to speak more of theroleof nativeabilities. consider how cross-cultural factors determine cur- Vietnamese mothers prefer that the Australian ricula and classroom style. It is widely agreed that schools their children attend focus on teaching Japanese children score better on mathematics school subjects; Australian mothers want schools achievement tests be these computational or to nurture their children's social needs. conceptual in their focus (Stevenson and Stigler, Along with parent's expectations, different cul- 1992). Above we considered one reason for this, tures can lead to differences in children's goals the different kinds of lessons that students are and self-expectations. Bandura (personal commu- offered. Some have suggested that American nication) found that single African-American and schools would catch up if they simply imported Latin American mothers finish their high-school Japanese-style lessons. This would probably be a studies at dramatically different rates, >80 per mistake given that the way students are offered cent and <50 per cent, respectively. Interviews the opportunity to do and talk about mathematics revealed that the African-Americanstudents' in Japan fits well with certain aspects of Japanese greater completion rates depended on their sense culture. Similarly, many features of the American of place in their community. They said they knew curriculum reflect deep cultural factors and beliefs that they could not count on others taking care of that influence educators' choices. In the United them and their children in the future. Therefore, States children are encouraged to develop as indi- they had to be sure to obtain the education needed viduals. In Japan, the emphasis is on learning to for a good job. They also noted that their commu- share group values. Hence, the fact that schools in nity encourages the use of grandmothers for child the United Staes favour efforts to individualize care. Latino students emphasized different issues, instruction and Japanese schools favour whole- including the tendency of the family to stick class instruction are not theory-neutral facts. The together and take care of all of its children as well tendency to give children in the United States as the embarrassment of having an unwed mother individualized 'seat-work' in mathematics must be in the family. These young women were encour- considered in the context of the constellation of aged to quit school and stay at home. cultural effects that influence choices about how In many places in the world, girls and boys face lessons and schools are structured. different expectations about whether they will go Clearly, any planstochange mathematics to school, what they should learn and how long instruction cannot ignore the culture's values and they should stay in school, and these different

3 Trends and developments in educational psychology in the United States 37

expectations for girls and boys can influence fac- efficacy in school settings (Bandura, 1980). They tors such as attendance records. Families' ideas invest a great deal of energy in minimizing about the developmental agenda for when and demonstrations of failure on their part. They what children should do in the way of household devalue school tasks, count on teachers knowing chores varies as a function of sex (Goodnow and not to embarrass them by calling on them (Cole Collins, 1990). We know of 12-year-old Puerto and Traupman, 1981) and expend a great deal of Rican girls living in Philadelphia (Pennsylvania) effort looking as though they are doing something who stay out of school whenever there is a house- when they really are not. Their failure-orientation hold need that requires an English speaker, for influences their perception of their performance. If example arranging for delivery of a washing they get something right, it is due to luck; if they machine or being available when a service person get something wrong, it's just more proof that they comes to the home. Their brothers do not provide are incompetent. We know that children's cultural this service for the family. These are not the kind niche interacts with their sense of their self- of behaviours that are typical of 'truant' children. efficacy, but we have far to go to understand the Instead they reflect the ways that families' expec- reasons and consequences of this relationship tations of their children may not fit with those of (Heckhausen, 1982; Sinha, 1982; Steele, 1992). the schools. Of course, what families might want to do for Variations in cultures are also reflected in varia- their children interacts with issues of politics and tions in sociolinguistic rules. The ways in which economics. Desires to visit children's teachers and languages map rules of discourse vary both as a help with homework do not matter if work and function of the language and of the community school schedules conflict, or if parents are embar- that speaks the language. Politeness markers are rassed to admit they know less than their child typically indirect in English; there is no parallel to because they were too poor to go to school. the French tu/vous distinction. Not surprisingly, Prescriptions to read books or use hands-on sci- then, the differences between direct and indirect ence materials are hard to follow if there are no requests in French do not map one for one onto funds to buy them or if there is no transportation the differences in English (Bernicot and Mak- or food. And, subgroups who feel stigmatized or rokhian, 1989). Given that knowledge of socio- devalued May assume they are not competent to linguistic rules influences children's interpret- achieve high levels of success. Steele's (1992) ations of both the agenda that schools set for account of why 70 per cent of allAfrican- them and classroom discourse, failure to appreci- Americans at four-year colleges drop out before ate such influences is likely to have serious conse- they finish their degrees is a particularly dist, trb- quences. ing example of the potency of these self-attribu- The effect of culture is not a uniform blanket tions. across all the individuals in a group. Rather than The foregoing illustrates what is surely a uni- influencing all members in the same manner, cul- versal truth. Successful transfer of research about ture can have the effect of creating niches for indi- school learning depends on our ability to transfer viduals and setting certain expectations for them our findings in ways that fit, as well as possible, that can powerfully influence performance. Dweck the implicit assumptions children, their families and Bempechat (1983) draw attention to the dif- and their communities have about schooling and ference between failure-oriented and mastery- the topics that are taught. Unfortunately, there oriented children. Mastery-oriented children treat are no recipes for doing this. It is therefore crucial obstacles as challenges, reasons to modify their that attention be given to the way different influ- strategies, reasons to try again, etc., and thus fit ences on performance are likely to play out in dif- our model of the self-motivated learner. The same ferent cultural settings. So, too, is it crucial to cannot be said for failure-oriented children. keep in mind different models of teaching and how Thosii who come to think of themselves as 'not they might be adapted to teach the range of liter- good r t school things', too dumb to learn to read acy skills needed for successful negotiation of the and do math', etc., come to question their personal challenges one faces as an adult member ofa corn- 38 Rochel Gelman and Meredith Gattis Lee munity. We turn to consider a class of models that hypotheses, making guesses, reaching dead-ends is attracting a lot of research attention in edu- and so on. Schoenfeld also works through prob- cational settings these daysthe apprenticeship lems with the class, an approach that leads to talk model. about and compariso, of different lines of attack, why a dead-end is a dead-end, why two seemingly Apprenticeships as models different solutions both work, etc. Collins et al. of school learning (1989) argue that such discussions serve as the intellectualfood needed for reaching explicit Some have proposed that the interconnections understanding, seeing the merits of strategies and between knowledge and context are so extensive being able to take on novel problems. In short, that we err in trying to teach knowledge and gen- they propose that 'cognitive apprenticeships' medi- eral decontextualized learning skills (for example, ate the development of the kinds of metacognitive Brown et al., 1989; Lave and Wenger, 1991). This skills students can use to approach related prob- trend is consistent with scholars like Bordieu lems. We will return to a discussion of these skills (1972), who have focused attention on learning and why, for us, this kind of teaching is more that involves participating in the practices of one's appropriately called a cognitive mentorshio. We community. Through the 1980s there has been a note that there is much in their proposal that fits growing commitment to the idea that we should with the kindsof themes developedabove. establishsituatedlearning environmentsfor Similarly, the notion Collins et al., (1989) call 'cog- transmitting the kind of knowledge schools were nitive apprenticeship' overlaps a great deal with set up to teach. More and more attention has been other model programmes that attempt to embed paid to the possibility of using apprenticeship ways for students to talk about a domaizi in rele- models to this end. vant ways and under domain-relevant conditions. The appeals of the apprenticeship model are But there are some notable differences. many. When they work, apprenticeships provide Brown and his colleagues (Brown et al., 1993) on-the-job training, limit the amount of negative consider it romantic to talk about inducting ele- feedback individuals encounter, offer a community mentary and high school students into the cul- of models for learners to watch and be watched tures of historians, mathematicians, linguists or and helped by, generate some income and consti- whatever. There is the very practical problem that tute a social network. As Lave and Wenger (1991) practitioners of these cultures seldom teach school point out, there are many cases in which the at these levels, a problem that would surely be apprenticeship model does work, the case of how magnified in places where there are almost no Liberians become tailors being an especially com- members of these cultures. We add that when pelling one. Their characterization of the reasons such a model is used, the learners are usually for success serve as the background for Collins et graduate students who have been selected by the al.'s (1989) proposal that schools become sites masters as especially likely candidates fosuccess. where students serve as cognitive apprentices. That is, they already know enough and/or are tal- The goal is to lead students to share in the prac- ented enough to merit the master's involvement in tices of those who work at acquiring and using their apprenticeship. It is also important to recog- knowledge of a particular kind. They use exam- nize that there are likely to be individual differ- ples to illustrate what one might expect of a cogni- ences in the apprentice level that individuals will tive apprentice. rise to. In Senegal, all who are in training to One example of how a cognitive apprenticeship become tailors learn how to do buttons and hems; system could work is Schoenfeld's (1987) method only some move on to master especially intricate of teaching college-level mathematics. He encour- embroidery (Lucy Colvin Phillips, personal com- ages students to bring problems to class to give munication,1992). Brown and hiscolleagues him, the teacher, to solve. By doing so, he explicit- (Brown et al., 1993) continue that schools are cul- ly shows that doing mathematics is a complex tural institutions expected not only to prepare citi- business. It involves using heuristics, generating zens to take their place in the job force, but also to Trends and developments in educational psychology in the Untted States 39 help them learn how to solve problems and to Apprentices interact closely with their masters master the new technologies and demands they and others in the same trade. This supports learn- are sure to confront in the future. ing by imitation and is consistent with the fact Despite the above cautionary notes, there are that apprentices receive less explicit feedback and reasons to want to understand how and when instruction than do students in traditional school- apprenticeships can serve as teaching or learning ing environments. Lave (1977) observed that models, for they are used succe-:sfully to prepare Liberiantailorsrarelycommentedtotheir people for a wide range of jobs (mechanic, aca- apprentices on their attempts to construct gar- demic researcher, musician, hotel clerk, travel ments. Instead ik:iedback came via attempts to sell guide in the Okavanga Delta, plumber, etc.). the garments: the apprentice would know his suc- Apprenticeships have been studied as models of cess by the price of the garment. Similarly, cognitive change by several researchers. Lave and Rogoff's (1990) notion of guided participation Wenger characterize an apprenticeship as a 'legit- argues that a parent provides feedback on a imateperipheralparticipation',whereinthe child's performance by changing a task more than learning involves 'partial participation in seg- by commenting on it. As the child's role becomes ments of work that increase in complexity and more complex, the changing task not only allows scope' (1991, p. 80). Discussions of apprenticeships new learning to begin but also provides implicit share a commitment to the central concepts of: feedback about the success of the previous stage. everyday or authentic work activities; the pres- One reason feedback might be built into the ence of a master and a learner (or expert and apprenticeship setting is that successful models novice); mutual participation in the work activi- are omnipresent; that is, all members of a work ties; the gradually increased participation by the group, including both masters and apprentices, learner/novice;relianceonimplicitlearning serve as models by virtue of the fact that all are mechanisms like imitation and modelling; and a participating in the related work tasks. This is de-emphasis of explicit instruction. These charac- related to Lave and Wenger's (1991) conclusion teristics of apprenticeship are related to the way that access, both physical and psychological, is an roles, interactions and tasks are structured. important contributor to successful apprentice- By definition, an apprenticeship includes at ships. They report that apprentice butchers whose least one person who has mastered a skill and view of expert butchering activity was obstructed another person who desires to acquire that skill. by the environmental layout failed to learn the They might be called master and apprentice, necessary skills. expert and novice, model and learner, but in all Access may vary with the medium and the task. cases both are participants in the task. We believe Lave and Wenger (1991) acknowledge that not all that the embedding of these roles in a successful expert models need be humans one source of apprenticeship carries with it an assumption of access to expert models is technology, especially in eventual parity. Despite the differences in knowl- the form of computer models which can perform edge to start, a successful apprenticeship is meant expert tasks. Access is surely likely to vary as a to generate a new master. In this sense, then, the function of the cultural dimensions that con- very concept of apprenticeship implies a future in tribute to shared status. Apprenticeship systems which the learner shares the master's status. The that require people to be slaves or servantsare concept that an apprentice is a future master hardly systems for motivating individualsto grants legitimacy to the apprentice and creates assume the same level of skill as the master. For maximum similarity between the roles (emphasiz- this reason, we might also imagine that the lan- ing only the current knowledge differences), and guage used to talk about the different roles will between learning and future performance. This matter. It is a different matter to be able to say characterization contrasts with the teacherpupil 'one is in training to be a master' as opposed to relation. There is no presumption in school sys- 'one is a servant to a master'. Indeed, the word tems that all pupils will one day become teachers master takes on different meanings in these differ- or assume roles of equal stature. ent linguistic contexts.

3 0 40 Rachel Gelman and Meredith Gattis Lee

Research on the nature of implicit learning learning may indeed be external access to a per- mechanisms helps explain some of the character- formance model. But when flexible thinking is the istics of apprenticeship learning.According to goal of the learning situation, internal access is Reber (1989), implicit learning processesrely on needed, and how that access is achieved maybe 'lower level' cognitive mechanisms such as pattern remarkably different. This distinction is crucial perception. Implicit learning is known to result because the ultimate goal of formal education is from repeated experience with stimuli,without not routine performance but flexiblethinking. awareness of the learning or anability to talk Similarly, implicit mechanisms create a means about it. Typically, what is learned is about fre- for learning fundamental things about how todo quency and covariationsbetween features, rela- something. But the goals of formal education are tions and other observable aspects of thestimuli. more extensive. We aim toenable a student not Learning is slow and depends on extended experi- only to do some task, but to alter it in order to do ence; it results in good,but not perfect, perfor- it flexibly, and to talk about it, in order to trans- well as mance and extremelylimited success on related mit it to others and to Ow v self-access as transfer tests (see Holyoak and Spellman, 1993, access for others to measureunderstanding and for a recent review of relevant experiments). alter procedures as well. As we discussed earlier The notion of access as defined by Lave and in the context of mathematics and sciencelearn- Wenger (1991) and the reliance on implicitlearn- ing, talking about concepts is an essential partof ing provide clues not only about reasons forthe the educational process, a part that is notpossible success of apprenticeship in its manymanifesta- without explicitin addition to implicitrepre- tions outside the schools but also about thelimita- sentation of those concepts. Articulation, not just tions of using apprenticeship methods to meetthe observation and participation, is an irreplaceable goals of formal education. Lave and Wenger's element of formal education. ideas of access should be kept separate from those Lave and Wenger's (1991) criticisms of explicit advanced by theorists who use the term in theo- learning conditions should be considered in view retical discussions of ways to develop internal rep- of these ideas about access and the natureof resentations of knowledge and enhanceflexible implicit learning. Educators, including those who thinking. For Lave and Wenger, access refers to advocate what has been called cognitive appren- the availability and visibility of an externalmodel ticeship, continue to focus on teaching mindful of task performance. For others, access isrelated strategies for problem-solving, decision-making to understanding. If knowledgeacquisition has and managing mental resources in the classroom proceeded to a point where one has a principle of because their goal is most frequently not routine understanding, then transfer is possible. This is expertise but flexible expertise. This is not to say because the principles can be adapted to a wide that they have not been influenced by arguments variety of settings, as long as they all offerrele- about context effects. Indeed, it is common to hold vant structured inputs. Brown andCampione the view that the most likely way to encourage (1981) argue that such access is possible only general learning and thinking skills is to embed when a learner has reached a sufficient level of training in lessons designed to develop rich and understanding toallow representation at an organized knowledge bases (for example, Brown et explicit, verbalizable level. Hatano and Inagaki's al., 1993; De Corte, 1990). But it is clear that (1986) discussion of the varying levels of under- explicit instruction has not been and should not be standing revealed in routine expertise (the accu- abandoned. This is clearly seen in models of cogni- rate performance of a task with little variance) tive apprenticeship discussed earlier (Collins et and flexible expertise (the adaptive performance al., 1989; Schoenfeld, 1987). Those models focus of a procedure under varied conditions and con- not just on providing external models of task per- texts) seems to correspond to the different notions formance, but also on the use of articulation and of access discussed by Lave and Wenger (1991) interaction (mostly verbal) as a method of develop- and Brown and Carnpione (1981). When reliable, in.; and monitoring explicit understanding of a accurate execution of a task is the goal, the key to domain.Traditionalapprenticeshipsdonot

4 0 Trends and developments in educational psychology in the United States 41 engage in such explicit instruction, according to of young children (7 years old or less) vary heir Lave and Wenger. To adapt the idea of modelling tendencies to use exhibits as teaching opportuni- task performance for the classroom it is necessary ties. They offer their children extensive guidance to accommodate the goals of formal education, and information at exhibits about daily life, for which include flexible performance and articula- example those about transportation, food shop- tion of procedures and goals. For this reason, we ping and visits to the doctor. In contrast, parents recommend that a more appropriate label for typically allow their children to visit by them- these models is cognitive mentorship. A mentor, selves the exhibits that feature numbers and sci- unlike the master of an apprentice, does not just ence. The effects of exhibit type on parental create an opportunity for a student to learnhe involvement were salient enough to warrant a col- or she instructs the student in what, how and why laboration between Gelman et al. (1991) anda to learn as well. This latter type of instruction is museum to develop alternative techniques for often the hallmark of excellent educators and is assuring that children interpret and use the the key to producing a motivated, skilful and mathematics and science exhibits as intended. eventually self-guided learner, which is the goal of This led to an exhibit with an interactive video many education systems. that started when sensors picked up the presence One valuable lesson for educators in the com- of someone at the exhibit. Children now responded parison of formal education with studies on to suggestions to experiment (and parents started apprenticeship learning is that there is more than to join in when they saw what their charges were one way to learn. In her initial study of how doing). Mayan mothers apprentice their daughters to the skill of weaving, Greenfield (1984) highlighted how the mothers stuck close to their daughters. Conclusions Few errors were made because the mothers moved their charges through a series of steps as they The original notions of learning as a process of were ready for them. Increases in the number of building associations have both multiplied and jobs available to adults can lead to changes in mutated. While some of these principles continue their roles as mentors, as illustrated by the work to be used in connectionist models of learning and that Greenfield is doing in her follow-up of the in theories of implicit learning, it is clear that next generation of families. She finds that many there are other paths of learning which go beyond girls no longer learn to weave at their mothers' these conceptions. We have seen that the learner sides. The reason is straightforward: their moth- is not a passive recipient, but an activq construc- ers now have additional tasks. Some are working tor of knowledge who benefits from inputs struc- on pieces specially designed for tourists to buy. tured around deep principles which advance the Some young girls are learning by watching their learner from his or her current level of under- sisters and trying to weave on their own. As a standing to deeper and more flexible levels of result, they are making errors that their mother understanding. While understanding continues to might take out at night but not criticize them for. be a somewhat mysterious notion, psychologists There is surely more than one learning path to and educators agree that indicators of under- knowledge. It is neither necessary nor wise to standing include the ability to solve a variety of assume that there will be one best way to trans- problems in a domain flexibly and the ability tu mit to our children the knowledge they need. talk in appropriate language about the principles Especially where the increasing complexity of life which shape that domain. The role that contextual places more and more demands on adults to cope factors such as language, cultural models, and with and excel in a variety of areas, we should not family and self-expectations play in learning has be surprised if there is a continuing division of influenced new models of how these abilitiesare labour regarding the education of our young. acquired. These models range from those that There is evidence that this has already started to emphasize variation in context, methods andpre- happen. Gelma,1 et al. (1991) report that parents sentation fr-mat of problems in order to empha-

41 42 Rochel Gelman and Meredith Gattis Lee size the underlying principles of a domain, rather Atran, S. 1990. Cognitive Foundations of Natural His- tory. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. than surface similarities, to those that advocate Baillargeon, R. S.; Spelke, E. S.; Wasserman, S. 1986. importing models of instruction traditionally used Object Permanence in the Five Month Old Infant. outside of formal education as a more culturally Cognition, Vol. 20, pp. 191-208. relevant method of education. The debate about The experiment consisted of two parts, a habituation phase and a post-habituation phase. During the first which methods are most suitable centres around phase, 5-month-old infants were first shown a screen the differences between instruction and education, as it rotated through an 180° arc, the trajectoryof what kinds of inputs and access are necessary, which moves towards and away from them. When their interest in looking at the rotating screen and the merits of both implicit and explicit learn- declined by 50 per cent, that is, when they habituated ing. Recent research suggests that there are mul- to the particular display, they were moved onto the tiple ways of learning and that each has a role in second phase. To start this phase, the screen was education. Trial and error experimentation, imita- stopped in an upright position and they were shown a yellow cube, placed to one side of the screen. Once the tion of models and more systematic explorations infant looked at the object, the experimenter moved it leading to statable principles all contribute to the out of sight behind the screen. This set the stage for development of a knowledgeable, flexible learner. the post-habituation phase of the experiment. Once again the screen rotated toward and away from the infant. Given the physics of the situation, the screen should have stopped at about the 110° position of its Annotated references rotation. But if, as it once did, it continued through an and bibliography 180° arc (thanks to the use of trick mirrors), adults 'saw' an impossible event, one where the block behind Anderson, J. A. 1990. Cognitive Psychology and Its the screen is repeatedly crushed and uncrushed as Implications. New York, W. H. Freeman. the screen moves through the 180° arc. Adults believe . 1992.Intelligent Tutoring and High School that one object cannot pass through anothersave in Mathematics. In:C. Frasson,G. Gauthierand the world of imaginary ghosts. If infants share ow- G. I. McCalla (eds.), Intelligent Tutoring Systems. knowledge then they should be surprised by the Berlin, Springer-Verlag. impossible event. If, as Piaget concluded, infants this The mathematics achievement of American children young believe that objects exist only as long asthey lags behind that of most students from other devel- can see them, then the impossible event should not oped countries. While some view curriculum reform, bother them. This means that they should continue to better teacher training and smaller class sizes as be bored by the screen that passes through a full 180° ways to improve achievement,psychologists who arc and treat the 110° arc rotation as more novel. study learning believe that improvement will come Infants looked more at the impossible event, showing only when students spend more time effectively that they must have changed their interpretation of engaged in the learning task. One way to engage the 180° arc event. If we consider just the surface learners is to integrate computer-based tutors into information available to them, there is no difference the classroom. One such tutoring system is called between the impossible and habituated events. Both model-tracing tutoring. The systemissocalled involve the screen rotating through a 180° arc. To because the computer develops a model of the correct treat these as different requires a conceptual inter- way to solve problems (for example, in geometry) and pretation of the conditions, that is, the fact that there uses this both to interpret a student's problem-solving is a solid block behind the screen. behaviour and to provide feedback about that behav- Bandura, A. 1980. Self-referent Thought: The'Develop- iour. By choosing certain paths to a solution, the stu- went of Self-efficacy. In: J. H. Flavell and L. D. Ross dents guide their own learning as much as they are (eds.), Development of Social Cognition. Hillsdale, guided by the tutor's feedback. By proceeding step-by- N.J., Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. step through a problem, the solution is reached by the Bassok, M.; Holyoak, K. J. 1990. Pragmatic Knowlodge student and the tutor rather than simply being given and Conceptual Structure: Determinants of Transfer by a teacher. Research shows that computer tutoring between Quantitative Domains. (Paper presented at systems increased geomary achievement by an aver- the annual meeting of the American Education age of one letter grade .and accelerated learning as Research Association, Boston. Mimeo.) well. Providing such benefits to each student in the Bassok and Holyoak discuss the reasons behind the American education system will depend on program- finding that students' understanding of algebra solu- ming hundreds of hours of instruction into tutoring tions transfers readily to their attempts to solve packages. Changes in ideas about school organization, physics problems, but transfer in the other direction such as the role of the teacher as facilitator rather (from physics to algebra) is highly problematic. The than instructor, and a de-emphasis on obvious track- authors draw a distinction between the domains of ing of students by ability level, are also crucial to the algebra and physics based on the degree to which success of computer-based tutoring. information taught within each domain is considered Trends and developments in educational psychology in the United States 43

context-bound. Students of physics are generally and belief systems of scholars'. In effect, their goal is taught to solve a distinctive set of problems with a to assist the students in 'learning to learn'. Students specific set of procedures. Algebra teaching instead acquireresearch,evaluation and communication tends to be more abstract and algebraic procedures skills. Brown et al. focus on 'depth of understanding are applied to a wide range of problems with varying and explanatory coherence', rather than 'breadth of content. Differences in the degree to which these coverage and retention'. domains are taught in a content-Gnecific versus con- As participants in a community of learners, stu- tent-free manner are considersby Bassok and dents specialize (or become 'authorities') in aspects Holyoak to be the reason behind the asymmetrical of the class research topics that interest them most. transfer found between them. The conZ;ent cues of The resultisthat students acquiredistributed physics problems (including the types of units) are expertise. The students then collaborate and co-oper- assumed to limit the applicability of these problems to ate so that a shared knowledge base is developed. the solution of algebra problems. Transfer from alge- Brown et al. also refer to their classrooms as 'com- bra to physics is obtained more easily, presumably munities of discourse'. As such, students engage because of its content-free nature. The findings of in constructive discussions of their findings. They Bassok and Holyoak suggest that the context of learn- jointly negotiate meanings and serve as critics of ing affects the learner's understanding of which fea- each others' work. Discussion takes place in an tures of problems in both the original and transfer atmosphere of mutual respect. Students' questions domains are important to attend to. are taken seriously and the students learn to listen to Beck, I.; McKeown, M. G. 1989. Expository Text for one another. YoungReaders:TheIssueofCoherence.In: The goal of Brown et al. is for students to become L. B. Resnick (ed.), Knowledge, Learning and Instruc- 'intelligent novices'. As participants in communities of tion, pp. 47-63. Hillsdale, N.J., Lawrence Erlbaum learning and discourse, it is hoped that students will Associates. develop the skills that will allow them to gain knowl- Bereiter, C.; Scardamalia, M. 1989. Intentional Learn- edge in any area they desire to learn about. ing as a Goal of Instruction. In: L. B. Resnick (ed.), Brown, A. L.; Campione, J. C. 1981. Inducing Flexible Knowing, Learning and Instruction, pp. 361-92. Hills- Thinking: A Problem of Access. In: M. Friedman, dale, N.J., Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. J. P. Das and N. O'Connor (eds.), Intelligence and Bernicot, J. A.; Makrokhian, A. 1989. Asking and Insist- Learning, pp. 515-30. New York, Plenum Press. ing after a Refusal. International Journal of Psycho- . 1990. Communities of Learning and Thinking, or logy, Vol. 24, pp. 409-28. A Context by Any Other Name. In: D. Kuhn (ed.), Bordieu, P. 1972. Outline to a Theory of Practice. Cam- Developmental Perspectives on Teaching and Learn- bridge, Cambridge University Press. ing Thinking Skills (Special Issue). Contributions to Bransford, J . D.; Franks, J. J. 1971. The Abstraction Huntan Development, Vol. 21, pp. 108-26. of LinguisticIdeas. Cognitive Psychology,Vol. 2, Brown, J. S.; Collins, A.; Duguid, P. 1989. Situated Cog- pp. 331-50. nition and the Culture of Learning. Educational Bronfenbrenner, U. 1986. Ecology of the Family as a Researcher, Vol. 18, No. 1. Context for Human Development: Research Perspec- Many present teaching methods assume that knowl- tives. Developmental Psychology, Vol. 22, pp. 723-49. edge comprises formal concepts which are theoreti- Brown, A. I,.1990. Domain-specific Principles Affect cally independent of the situations in which they are Learning and Transfer in Children. Cognitive Science, learned and used. Students may learn many mathe- Vol. 14, pp. 107-33. matical formulae and develop facility in demonstrat- Brown, A. L.; Ash, D.; Rutherford, M.; Nakagawa, K.; ing that knowledge. They may, however, have great Gordon, A.; Campione, J. C. 1993. Distributed Exper- difficulty in applying those formulae to the resolution tise in the Classroom. In: G. Salomon (ed.), Distrib- of real-world problems. It is argued here that knowl- uted Cognition. New York, Cambridge University edge is fundamentally situated, that knowledge is not Press. separable from the activity and the culture in which it Changing the ethos of the classroom has been the is developed. Learning, then, is a process of encultur- focus of several educational reformers. Brown et al. ation;itrequires exposuretoconcepts through provide an example of an ambitious reconstruction of authentic problem-solving activities. fifth- to seventh-grade biology and environmental sci- The notion of situated cognition calls for more ence classrooms. Such projects appear to have great attention to learning activities which are context- potential for improving not only the design of the edu- embedded. Such cognitive apprenticeship methods cationprocess, but alsothe students'attitudes involve students in activities and social interactions towards acquiring knowledge. that aresimilartocraftapprenticeships.This Brown et al. describe their classrooms as 'communi- approach is examined in two illustrative examples of ties of learners'. In these communities, students are mathematics instruction. inducted into the practices and discourse of the scien- Buhner, R. 1967. Why is the Cassowary Not a Bird? A tist. Their aim is not to reproduce the cultures of Problem of Zoological Taxonomy among the Karam of mathematicians and scientists in the classroom but to New Guinea Highlands. Man, Vol. 2, pp. 5-25. provide an authentic environment in which students Catrambone, R.; Holyoak, K. J. 1989. Overcoming Con- may 'adopt the ways of knowing, discourse patterns, textualLimitations on Problem-solving Transfer.

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Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Mem- method described by Cazden is termed 'formulating' ory, and Cognition, Vol. 15, pp. 1147-56. or 'reconceptualizing'. This final approach refers to Carey, S. 1986. Conceptual Change in Childhood. Cam- teachers prcviding summaries of or expansions on bridge, Mass., MIT Press/Bradford Books. children's responses that serve to place the students' . 1986. The Acquisitionof Scientific Knowledge: answers in a wider context or to highlight connections The Problem of Reorganization. In: S. Strauss (ed.), that may be drawn to material that has already been Ontogeny, Phylogeny, and the History of Science. Nor- discussed. wood, N.J., Ablex Publishing Corp. Chi, M. T. H.; Ceci, S. 1987. Content Knowledge: Its . 1988. Why Jane andJohnny Aren't Learning Sci- Representation and Restructuring in Memory Devel- ence Yet. (Paper presented at a Science and Public opment. In: H. Reese (ed.), Advances in Development Policy Seminar sponsored by the Federation of Behav- and Behavior. Orlando, Fla., Academic Press. ioral, Psychological, and Cognitive Sciences, Wash- Chi, M. T. H.; Feltovich, P. J.; Glaser, R. 1981. Catego- ington, D.C. Mimeo.) rization and Representation of Physics Problems Carey, S.; Gelman, R. (eds.). 1991. The Epigenesis of by Experts and Novices. Cognitive Science, Vol. 5, Mind: Essays on Biology and Cognition. Hillsdale, pp. 121-52. N.J., Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. The authors contrast the methods by which experts Carpenter, T. N.; Fennema, E. 1989. Building on the and novices categorize and solve textbook problems in Knowledge of Students and Teachers. (Paper present- the domain of physics. The initial task was to classify ed at the Thirteenth International Meeting of the a series of problems using whatever criteria they Psychology of Education Association, Paris. Mimeo.) chose. Experts were found to sort problems based on Case, R. 1985. Intellectual Development: A Systematic the physics principles (energy laws, Newton's second Reinterpretation. New York, Academic Press. law,etc.)underlying the problems. In contrast, Cazden, C. 1988. Classroom Discourse: The Language of novices sorted the problems on the basis of their visu- Teaching and Learning. Portsmouth, N.H., Heine- al features, including the type of apparatus involved mann. (levers, inclined planes, etc.). The novices' solutions Recitation is the most common method of instruction were much more context-bound than those of the in American classrooms. This form of classroom dis- experts. The ways in which novices think about a course is problematic for children who are not accus- problem are shaped by the problem's presentation. tomed to its use. The forms of discourse that are used Experts think about the problems more abstractly in classroom settings are to some extent new to all and use their previous knowledge to reshape the children. Some children, however, are placed at a problems so that they are more readily s lived. greater disadvantage than others because there are Novices and experts also attempt to solve problems greater cultural and linguistic differences between in different ways. Novices start with the variables their home and school environments. that are given in a problem presentation and attempt Cazden discusses this issue and offers some rem- to identify the formulae that include them. The:- con- edies. She describes two situations in which ethno- tinue their solution attempts by working forward graphers studied the problems faced by children from their initial equations, using algebraic manipu- culturally unprepared for the typical communicative lations eventually to determine the values of the context encountered in school. In both of these cases, unknown va,-iab1.:s. The experts instead first reinter- the ethnographers not only documented differences pret the probiems and identify the key relationships between the cultures of the communities and the involved in the problem description. Experts write school, but also collaborated with teachers to design fewer equations than novices because they have virtu- more positive learning environments, including new ally solved the problems by the time they write their participation structures that provide a better fit with equations. They already know what they are solving students' communication patterns at home. Inter- for and move quickly toward their goal. The experts' ventions such as these appear to be quite successful methods thus contrast sharply with the "trial-and- in combating the problem of cultural discontinuity error attempts of the novices. between home and school. Both the sorting and problem-solving methods of Cazden also discusses three specific methods used the experts and novices indicate that novices' solu- by teachers to assist their students in responding to tions are tied much more closely to the surface fea- questions. The first is termed 'preformulating'. Teach- tures of the problems than those of the experts. The ers use this method before posing a question to help experts' greater knowledge base allows them to go students determine the relevant area of expertise beyond the surface features of problems; their solu- or the boundaries of the content matter under tions instead rely on the more abstract principles they consideration. Cazden calls her second method 'refor- are based on. mulating'. This method includes teachers' attempts Chi, M. T. H.; Glaser, R.; Farr, M. J. 1988. The Nature to make a question more specific, particularly after of Expertise. Hillsdale, N.J., Lawrence Erlbaum Asso- receivinganincorrectresponse.Thecognitive ciates. demands placed on the children are lessened as Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. open-ended questions are gradually reduced to ques- Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press. tions requiring children to choose one of a few alter- Clark, A. 1991. In Defense of Explicit Rules.In: natives or simply to answer `yes' or 'no'. The third W. Ramsey, S. P. Stich and D. E. Rumelhart (eds.), Trends and developments in educational psychology in the United States 45

Philosophy and Connectionist Theory, pp. 115-28. pation. Dillon used a case-analysis method to study Hillsdale, N.J., Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. the effects of questions and their alternatives in five Cole, M. S.; Traupman, K. 1981. Comparative Cognitive secondary-school classrooms. He found that students' Research: Learning from a Learning Disabled Child. contributions to class discussions became shorter and Minnesota Symposium of Child Development. Hills- shorter as the instructor introduced more questions, dale, N.J., Laurence Erlbaum Associates. regardless of the cognitive level of the questions. Collins, A.; Brown, J. S.; Newman, S. E. 1989. Cognitive When the instractor instead used declarative state- Apprenticeship: Teaching the Craft of Reading, Writ- ments to summarize and recast students' comments, ing, and Mathematics. In: L. B. Resnick (ed.), Know- shared his own opinion, invited the students to raise ing,Learning, and Instruction.Hillsdale,N.J., questions, or just remained silent, student talk not Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. only increased, but became richer in content. Stu- De Corte, E. 1990. Acquiring and Teaching Cognitive dents became more personally involved, more stu- Skills: A State-of-the-Art of Theory and Research. In: dents participated and more complex thoughts were P. J. D. Drenth, J. A. Sergeant and R. J. Takens expressed. (eds.), European Perspectives in Psychology, Vol. 1. Dweck, C. S.; Bempechat, J. 1983. Children's Theories London, John Wiley & Sons. ofIntelligence:ConsequencesforLearning.In: De Corte, E.; Verschaffel, L.; Schrooten, H. 1989. Cogni- S. G. Paris, G. M. Olson and H. W. Stevenson (eds.), tive Effects of Learning to Program in Logo: A One- Learning and Motivation in the Classroom. Hillsdale, year Study with Sixth Graders. N.J., Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. De Corte et al. investigated how effective an environ- d'Ydewalle, G. 1987. Is It Still Worthwhile to Investi- ment the Logo computer language is for the acquisi- gate the Impact of Motivation on Learning? In: E. De tion and transfer of problem-solving skills. The partic- Corte, H. Lodewijks, R. Parmentier and P. Span ular skills in question were two metacognitive skills (eds.), Learning and Instruction.. Leuven/Oxford, Leu- (planning and debugging) and two heuristics (problem ven University Press/Pergamon Press. decomposition and construction of an external prob- Eggan, P. D.; Kauchak, D. 1992. Educational Psycholo- lem representation). The authors proposed that three gy: Classroom Connections. New York, Macmillan. prerequisites must be satisfied if transfer is to occur. Elbers, E. 1991. The Development of Competence and The first is that children receive ample domain-speci- Its Social Context. Educational Psychology Review, fic knowledge. (Children learning basic Logo concepts Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 73-148. met this condition.) Second, the mastery of strategic Fischbein, E.; Deri, M.; Nello, M.; Marino, M. 1985. The skills (that is, the heuristics and metacognitive skills Role of Implicit Models in Solving Problems in Multi- necessary for programming) is required. Finally, one plication and Division. Journal of Research in Mathe- must be successful in transferring skills learned in matics Education, Vol. 16, pp. 3-17. the Logo domain to another domain. De Corte et al. Fried, L. S.; Holyoak,". J. 1984. Induction of Category predicted that if the first two conditions were satis- Distributions: A Framework for Classification Learn- fied, then transfer would occur. However, satisfaction ing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, of the third condition would lead to better transfer. Memory, and Cognition, Vol. 10, pp. 234-57. The study was conducted in a pre-test/post-test Gelman, R.1978. Cognitive Development. Annual manner, with three groups. The two experimental Review of Psych:)logy, Vol. 29. Palo Alto, Calif., Annu- groups (El and E2) were identical except for exposure al Review, Inc. in a transfer domain. The Logo language was taught . 1982. Basic Numerical Abilities. In: R. J. Stern- to both groups, but only E2 was additionally given berg (ed.), Advances in th'e Psychology of Human explicit instruction in another domain (mathematical Intelligence, Vol.1. Hillsdale, N.J., Lawrence Erl- word problems) in order to enhance transfer. The con- baum Associates. trol group was not taught in either domain. . 1991. Epigenetic Foundations of Knowledge Struc- Results indicated that children from both experi- tures: Initial and Transcendent Constructions. In: mental groups had mastered three of the skills S. Carey and R. Gelman (eds.), The Epigenesis of learned in Logo (debugging, planning, and construc- Mind: Essays on Biology and Cognition, pp. 293-322. tion of external representations). However, explicit Hillsdale, N.J., Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. transfer instruction did not enhance E2 children's Gelman, R.; Greeno, J. 1989. On the Nature of Compe- ability. The authors claim that this result is inconclu- tence. In: L. B. Resnick (ed.), Knowing, Learning, and sive and provide reasons for why they did not get the Instruction. Hillsdale, N.J., Lawrence Erlbaum Asso- desired result. ciates. De Corte et al. conclude with a discussion of future Gelman, R.; Massey, C.; McManus, M. 1991. Character- Logo research topics, particularly regarding its 'cogni- izing Supporting Environments for Cognitive Devel- tive power' and learning environments in which its opment: Lessons from Children in a Museum. In: implementation will be effective. J. M. Levine, L. B. Resnick and S. D. Teasley Dillon, J. T. 1985. Using Questions to Foil Discussion. (eds.), Perspectives on Socially Shared Cognition, Teaching and Teacher Education, Vol. 1, pp. 109-21. pp. 226-56. Washington, D.C., American Psychologi- In this paper, Dillon claims that when teachers use cal Association. questions to stimulate discussion in the classroom, Constructivist theories of cognitive development hold they often succeed only in reducing classroom partici- that learners are actively engaged in selecting and

4 5 46 Rachel Gelman and Meredith Gattis Lee

interpreting inputs from their environments. This ance matches. In each of the experiments, 4- to approach therefore makes it possible that novices will 9-year-olds were required to complete a pictorially ignore or misinterpret inputs presented to them in presented analogy of the a:b:c:? form by choosing the instructional settings because they do not share the appropriate picture to complete the sequence. Chil- purpose intended by those who design instructional dren of all ages were able to solve the analogies. How- materials. This paper applies the constructivist per- ever, performance improved with age. Goswamiand spective to an exploration of learning in a children's Brown's results show young children to be more com- museum. petent than has been shown in other studies of chil- A series of studies is presented in which successive dren's analogical problem-solving. They attribute this adjustments are made to an exhibit on causal reason- difference to their use of pictures instead of verbal ing that is based on a simple principle of physics. The presentations of the problems. Goswami and Brown exhibit consisted of two identical large cylinders suggest that analogies are a potentially effective tool wrapped with clear plastic tubing through which rub- for learning for even very young children. ber balls can be rolled. The tubing was wrapped Greenfield, P. M. 1984. A Theory of the Teacher in the around one cylinder three times and around the other Learning Activities of Everyday Life. In: B. Rogoff cylinder five times. The child's task was to predict and J. Lave (eds.), Everyday Cognition, pp. 117-38. which of two balls, dropped simultaneously into the Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press. two tubes, would exit the tubing first. In the original Griffin, S.; Case, R.; Capodilupo, A. 1992. Rightstart: A exhibit, instructicnal information was provided only Program Designed to Improve Children's Perfor- on signs. The adults accompanying thechildren mance in Early Mathematics by Developingthe Cen- rarely read the signs to their preliterate charges. Con- tral Conceptual Structure on which this Performance sequently, the children failed to make predictions or Depends. In: S. Strauss (ed.), Development and Learn- to use the apparatus in a way that allowed them to ing EnvironmRnts. Norwood, N.J., Ablex Publishing make the relevant comparisons. A series of additions Corp. and changes were made that modified the exhibit. In Griffin et al. discuss the Rightstart programme and the final version, a computer which provided both its effectiveness as a tool for helping children develop visual and auditory demonstrations, questions and the quantitative conceptual structures essential for instructions was incorporated into one of the cylin- the acquisition of more advanced mathematical con- ders. These changes resulted in an increase in adult cepts (for example, addition and subtraction) during involvement. With the greater levels of adult interac- the first year of formal schooling. tion, the children were found to produce more scientif- Griffin et al. conducted a study to answer four ques- ic talk, to make predictions and to perform the rele- tions regarding Rightstart. The first question was vant experiments. whether or not the programme would be effective in Gelman, R.; Meek, E. 1986. The Notion of Principle: The the development of the 'central dimensional structure' Case of Counting. In: J. Heibert (ed.), The Relation- (p.12). The second was how effective Rightstart ship between Procedural and Conceptual Competence. would be in comparison to other instructional pro- Hillsdale, N.J., Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. grammes. The researchers also questioned whether Gibson, E. J.; Spelke, E. S. 1983. The Development of instruction from Rightstart would help children Perception. In: J. H. Flavell and E. M. Markman transfer knowledge to other quantitative tasks. Final- (eds.), Handbook of Child Psychology, pp. 1-76. New ly, they were interested in how children who had been York, Wiley. in the Rightstart programme woula do in the first- Glaser, R. 1991. The Maturing of the Relationship grade setting (where instruction in arithmetic is mini- between the Science of Learning and Cognition and mal). EducationalPractice.Learning and Instruction, Portuguese kindergarten children in Toronto par- Vol. 1, pp. 129-44. ticipated in the study. Subjects were placed into one Goldenberg, C.; Gallimore, R. 1991. Changing Teaching of three programmes: (1) the Rightstart programme Takes More Than a One-shot Workshop. Educational (experimental group); (2) a traditional early mathe- Leadership, Vol. 49, No. 3, pp. 69-72. matics programme (control group A); and (3) a read- Goodnow, J. J.;Collins, W. A. 1990. Development ing readiness programme (control group B). The According to Parents: The Nature, Sources, and Con- groups differed in the amount of number training sequences of Parents' Ideas. Hillsdale, N.J., Lawrence their members recei ved. Participants in the Right- Erlbauxn Associates. start programme received the most extensive number Goswami, U.; Brown, A. L. 1990. Higher-order Struc- training of all three groups. Children in control group ture and Relational Reasoning: Contrasting Analogi- A received training on some, but not all of the number cal and Thematic Relations. Cognition, Vol. 36, components presented in the experimental condition. pp. 207-26. Children in control group B did not receive any num- Goswami and Brown's findings dispute the claim that ber training. children can only succeed in solving analogies when Programme effectiveness was measured as the per- they can use low-level associative reasoning strate- centage of children within a group who could perform gies. The authors performed two studies in which at the first-grade level. The results indicated that the higher-level relational responses were pitted against Rightstart programme was more effective than either lower-level associative responses and mere appear- of the other two programmes at improving children's

46 Trends and developments in educational psychology in the United States 47

performance to the first-grade level. The majority of tions by more frequently referring to a dictionary, and children in the experimental group demonstrated produced more literal and less elaborate translations. knowledge suggesting the development of a central The students in the other group were more likely to conceptual structure, while onlY a minority of chil- draw the inferences required fully to understand the dren who had been in the control groups demonstrat- text. ed comparable performance. In addition, more chil- . 1987. Everyday Biology and School Biology: How drenintheRightstart programmetransferred Do They Interact? Quarterly Newsletter of the Labora- acquired knowledge to novel tasks, in comparison toryof Comparative Human Cognition,Vol.4, with children from both control groups. pp. 120-8. The second study differed from the first in only . 1991. Sharing Cognition through Collective Com- two ways. Subjects were from various schools in the prehension Activity. In: J. M. Levine, L. B. Resnick United States and some modifications had been made and S. D. Teasley (eds.), Perspectives on Socially to the Rightstart programme. The results again indi- Shared Cognition, pp. 226-56. Washington, D.C., cated the effectiveness of the experimental treatment. American Psychological Association. Regardless of school and cultural background, the Hatano, G.; Miyake, N. 1991. What Does a Cultural proportion of children who demonstrated knowledge Approach Offer to Research on Learning? Learning which implied a central conceptual structure and and Instruction, Vol. 1, pp. 273-81. transferred acquired knowledge to a novel task was This paper discusses the roie of culture in learning greater in the Rightstart programme than in the and raises the question of why learning researchers other two programmes. have adopted an acultural approach to research. The Halford, G. S. 1989. Cognitive Processing Capacity and authors argue that culture impacts directly on learn- Learning Ability: An Integration of Two Areas. Learn- ing in two ways. First, other people and artefacts play ing and Individual Differences, Vol. 1, pp. 125-53. an important role in learning and in the development . 1990. Children's Understanding: The Development of mind and, second, what occurs in the micro envi- of Mental Models. Hillsdale, N.J., Lawrence Erlbaum ronment in which individual learning is observed is Associates. affected by a larger context, at both community and Hatano, G. 1988. Social and Motivational Bases for global levels. In spite of this, the academic tradition of Mathematical Understanding. In: G. G. Saxe and learning research ignores the methodological implica- M. Gearhart (eds.), Children's Mathematics, Vol. 41: tion of the effect of culture on learning. In an effort to New Directions for Child Development, pp. 55-70. San control the experimental setting, basic research on Francisco, Jossey-Bass. learning is conducted in an artificial environment Hatano, G.; Inagaki, K. 1986. Two Courses of Expertise. that is significantly different from the context in In: H. Stevenson, H. Azuma and K. Hakuta (eds.), which it takes place. For example, research has ChildDevelopmentandEducationinJapan, shown that strategies that allow young children to pp. 262-72. San Francisco, Freeman. solvesimplemathematicalproblemsareoften Hatano and Inagaki discuss the role of contextual fac- acquired in informal settings. However, these prob- tors in developing two forms of expertise, adaptive lem-solving strategies do not transfer to classroom and routine. Both forms of expertise refer to the abili- situations where the children are expected to solve ty to perform procedural skills efficiently. Adaptive mathematics problems using more traditional paper experts, however, perform these skills with under- and pencil methods. standing. They are able to explain the principles Heath, S. E. 1981. Questioning at Home and School: underlying the skills they perform and they can modi- A Comparative Study. In: Spindler G. (ed.), Doing fy their procedures to meet the requirements of their Ethnography: Educational Anthropology in Action. tasks. Routine experts are highly efficient but they New York, Holt, Rinehart & Winston. can apply their skills only to a limited range of prob- Heckhausen, H. 1982. The Development of Achievement lems. Their problem-solving lacksflexibilityand Motivation. In: Hartup, W. W. (ed.), Review of Child adaptability. Development Research. Chicago, University of Chica- Adaptive expertise is encouraged when people are go Press. exposed to variation in the repeated application of a Holyoak, K. J. 1991. Symbolic Connectionism: Toward given procedure. Variation may be built into a system Third-generation Theories of Expertise. In: K. A. Eric- or may be the result of one's drive to experiment. Situ- sson and J. Smith (eds.), Toward a General Theory of ations in which performance efficiency is rewarded on Expertise: Prospects and Limits, pp. 301-35. Cam- the basis of external evaluation and the focus is on bridge, Cambridge University Press. the timely completion of the task will instead result Holyoak, K. J.; Spellman, B. A. 1993. Thinking. Annual in the development of routine expertise. Review of Psychology, Vol. 44, pp. 265-315. An example of the way in which the different types Hyde, T. S.; Jenkins, J. J. 1973. Recall for Wordsas a of expertise are encouraged is provided by a study in Function of Semantic, Graphic, and Syntactic Orient- which college students were asked to translate a let- ing Tasks. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal ter from English to Japanese. Some students were led Behavior, Vol. 12, pp. 471-80. to expect external evaluation while others were not. Kalnins, I. V.; Bruner, J. S. 1973. The Coordination of The students who expected their work to be evaluated Visual Observation and Instrumental Behavior in spent more time on the task, verified their transla- Early Infancy. Perception, Vol. 2, 'pp. 307-14.

4 7 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 48 Rochel Gelman and Meredith Gattis Lee

Karmiloff-Smith, A. 1992. Beyond Modularity: A Devel- of another artefact can be identified as what they opmental Perspective on Cognitive Science. Cam- have been changed to because they do not share the bridge, Mass., MIT Press/Bradford Books. same types of biological origins as do natural kinds. Karmiloff-Smith, A.;Inhelder, B.1974/76.If You . 1989. Concepts, WordMeanings, and Cognitive Want to Get Ahead, Get a Theory. Cognition, Vol. 3, Development. Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press. pp. 196-212. Hitcher, P. 1982. The Nature of Mathematical Knowl- Keil, F. 1986. The Acquisition of Natural Kind and edge. New York, Oxford University Press. Artefact Terms. In: A. Marras and W. Demopoulos Kuhn, T. S. 1970. The Structure of Scientific Resolu- (eds.), Conceptual Change. Norwood, N.J., Ablex Pub- tions. 2nd ed. Chicago, University of Chicago Press. lishing Corp. Lampert, M. 1986, Knowing, Doing and Teaching Keil argues that between the ages of 4 and 10 years Multiplication. Cognition and Instruction,Vol. 3, children's basic knowledge of biology is acquired and pp. 305-42. restructured. Children's early biological concepts are Lave, J. 1977. Cognitive Consequences of Traditional based on their interpretations of surface phenomena. Apprenticeship Training in West Africa. Anthropology They reason in terms of clusters of surface features and Education Quarterly, Vol. 8, pp. 177-80. rather than the essences of things that appear in Lave J. L.; Wenger, E. 1991. Situated Learning: Legiti- nature. Older children instead base their reasoning mate Peripheral Participation. Cambridge/New York, about natural phenomena on deeper, underlying char- Cambridge University Press. acteristics that do not necessarily correlate with sur- This book explores different notions and examples of face features. apprenticeship from the metaphorical invocation to Keil performed two experiments to test these investigating the historical forms. Lave and Wenger assumptions. In his first experiment, 6- and 9-year- argue that apprentices learn to think, argue, act and olds were asked to identify an animal based on a interact by engaging in activities through legitimate description of its behaviours and appearance. For peripheral participation with masters, people who are example, a skunk was described as something that considered expert in the skills related to the activity. was 'active at night and squirted smelly stuffwhen it Initially the apprentices' participation in the tasks is was attacked or frightened, and so on'. Children were partial and limited in scope. As skills develop, the good at identifying the described object based on its work increases in both complexity and scope. The cul- description and its picture. The children were then ture of the society determines the exact definition and told that the animal's 'parents had been raccoons, role of the apprentices. that its babies had been raccoons, that its heart, brain The authors examine five diverse examples of and blood were like the heart, brain and blood of rac- apprenticeship: midwives, tailors,quartermasters, coons'. Children were again asked to identify the ani- meatcutters and Alcoholics Anonymous members (AA: mal. The younger children continued to base their a self-help group for recovering alcoholics). The mas- identifications on the animal's surface characteristics. ter role varies greatly from one example to the next Thus, they continued to call the animal a skunk. The and structure is dictated by the environment or work older children instead cla:med that the animal was a task and not by the teacher/master. This structure raccoon that simply looked like a skunk. results in emphasis being placed on the curriculum In Keil's second study, children were shown similar and not on the individual teacher. For example, in the pictures (for example, skunk), but this time they AA apprenticeship, a high emphasis is placed on were told that the origin al animal's fur had been 'reconstruction of identity', and stories are used to shaven off and replaced wl th raccoon fur. They were provide information. Here the two marks of appren- further told that the original animal had been made ticeship are models/stories. Stories provide criteria for fatter and that its original tail had been removed and full membership. Alcoholics, in telling their stories, replaced with one from another animal. The resulting provide an explicit external model which allows the animal looked like a raccoon. When asked to identify new members to reflect by comparing themselves to the resulting picture, 5-year-olds again relied on sur- the model. Older members serve as masters by pro- face features, this time identifying the animal as a viding the model and reinforcing appropriate aspects raccoon. The 9-year-olds said the animal looked like a of the new members' stories by picking up on certain raccoon but 'it was really a skunk. Thus, Keil con- themes while ignoring other aspects which are not cluded that the 9-year-olds based their interpret- appropriate. ations on the essence of the animal rather than its Lave and Wenger develop a social anthropological appearance. theory of learning activities and environments where The use of control items in the study demonstrated the emphasis is shifted away from the individual as that all children tended to reason about artefacts in learner to the learner as participant in a social world. the way that the 5-year-olds reasoned about natural Linn, M.; Gelman, R. 1987. On the Use of Hands-on kinds. For example, a coffee-pot that was altered to Materials in Science Class. Continuum Newsletter of resemble a bird-feeder was identified as a bird-feeder the Philadelphia Renaissance in Science and Mathe- by both 6- and 9-year-old children. This result shows matics, pp. 3-4. that older children distinguish between artefacts and McCloskey, M. 1983. Naive Theories of Motion. In: D. natural kinds. Older children realize that artefacts Gentner; A. L. Stevens (eds.), Mental Models. Hills- which have been altered to take on the characteristics dale, N.J., Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

48 Trends and developments in educational psychology in the United States 49

McCloskey, M.; Kargon, R. 1988. The Meaning and Use Social Factors in Learning and Teaching: Towards an of Historical Models in the Study of Intuitive Physics. IntegrativePerspective. International Journal of In: S. Strauss (ed.), Ontogeny, Phylogeny, and Histori- Educational Research, Vol. 13, pp. 575-80. cal Development. Norwood, N.J., Ablex Publishing Reber, A. S. 1989. Implicit Learning and Tacit Knowl- Corp. (Human Development Series, Vol. 2.) edge. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, McDonald, M. A.; Sigman, M. D.; Espinosa, M. P. In Vol. 118, pp. 219-35. press. Impact of a Temporary Food Shortage on Chil- Resnick, L. B. 1989. Developing Mathematical Knowl- dren and Their Mothers. Child Development. (Special edge.AmericanPsychologist,Vol.44,No.2, Issue on Children and Poverty edited by C. Garcia pp. 162-9. Coll.) Researchers from many disciplines assume that McGuiness, C.; Nisbet, J. 1991. Teaching Thinking in knowledge, specifically mathematical knowledge, is Europe. British Journal of Education, Vol.61, actively constructed by learners of all ages. Evidence pp. 174-86. suggests that even infants have prelinguistic, number Mandler, J. M. 1984. Stories, Scripts, and Scene3: knowledge which allows them to discriminate small Aspects of Schema Theory. Hillsdale, N.J., Lawrence set sizes and to make comparative size judgements. Erthaum Associates. Preschool children use their developing language Medin, G. L. 1989. Concepts and Conceptual Struc- skills to express quantitative information in non- tures. American Psychologist, Vol. 44, pp. 1469-81. numerical form, using terms such as 'smaller' and Murphy, G. L.; Medin, D. L. 1985. The Role of Theories 'lots'. Children of this age understand basic addition, inConceptualCoherence.Psychological Review, subtraction, even conservation of number. Simple Vol. 92, pp. 289-316. part-whole judgements can also be made. Principled Nesher, P.; Sukenik, M. 1991. The Effect of Formal Rep- counting skills also develop in the preschool years. As resentation on the Learning of Rational Concepts. an exact measurement system, counting skills are Learning and Instruction, Vol. 1, pp. 161-75. integrated with non-numerical quantitative abilities Newell, A.; Simon, H. A. 1972. Human Problem Solving. to make more precise mathematical judgements. Hillsdale, N.J., Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Although the development of these basic numerical O'Connor, M. C. 1991. Negotiated Defining: Speech abilities seems to be universal, rates of acquisition Activities and Mathematics Literacies. Unpublished may vary as a function of the extent to which mathe- manuscript, Boston University and the Literacies matical skills are part of everyday life. Institute. (Mimeo.) Exactly how mathematics knowledge develops dur- O'Connor presents an example of an attempt to ing the elementary-school years is difficult to deter- immerse students in the discourse practices of the mine, given the increased number of skills to be stud- mathematics discipline. She assumes that students ied and the not-fully-understood effect of schooling. will only be able to understand the discourse practices Certain abilities emerge without specific tutoring, of the mathematics discipline when they enter into including an intuitive understanding of commutativi- the practice of tha t discipline. Comprehension of the ty and the complementarity of the addition and sub- specialized linguistic patterns of a discipline is consid- traction procedures. Studies indicate that unikr- ered necessary for the development of conceptual, fac- standing of additive composition occurs universally tual and procedural learning as well as an under- and without schooling, allowing, for example, street standing of the beliefs and values of the field. vendors in Brazil to quickly solve mathematical prob- Classroom discourse is thought to support students' lems (such as the price of 10 coconuts if one costs transitions from everyday to scientific uses of lan- 45 cruzeros) in the market place. If children intuitive- guage by increasing students' access to such language ly know so much about mathematical concepts, why and by providing the support of a teacher who can do so many have trouble with mathematics in school? orchestrate speech activity so that it is compatible The problem seems to be that the focus on mathemat- with practice within the discipline. O'Connor notes ics as a formal symbol system does not map well onto that a teacher's subject-matter knowledge is crucial what children already know about the to-be-taught if he or she is to provide this form of guidance effe.- concepts. Despite arguments on how to teach math- tively. ematics most effectively, many now agree that chil- Orr, E. W. 1989. Twice as Less: Does Black English dren's own counting methods may provide a bridge to Stand between Black Students and Success in Math more advanced conceptual knowledge and therefore and Science? New York, W.W. Norton & Co. should not be discouraged in the school setting. Palincsar, A. S. 1989. Less Charted Waters. Edu- Rogoff, B. 1990. Apprenticeship in Thinking. New York, cational Researcher, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 5-7. Oxford University Press. The article responds to a paper on situated cognition Apprenticeship (or learning from others) takes differ- which argues for learning and conceptual develop- ent forms depending on the task. Important charac- ment through enculturated activities. Three main teristics of apprenticeship include shared problem- virtues of situated cognition are outlined: learning in solving, establishment of routine activities between a meaningful context, aiding students to relate new participants, explicit shared communication anda information to a meaningful framework and giving supportive structure of novices' efforts. In guided par- students a sense of agency in their learning. ticipation, the structuring of the task, the social inter- Perret-Clermont, A.-N.; Schaubler-Leoni, M. L. 1989. action, and roles of the children and their caregivers

4 8 50 Rochel Gelman and Meredith Gattis Lee

are interrelated within the zone ofproximal develop- rules are often ignored in experimental settings and ment. this results in ambiguous or incorrect responses from A second related major theme highlighted by Rogoff children. For example, children may change a correct is the consideration of an event as a unit of analysis. answer simply because the previously answered ques- From a sociohistorical perspective, the basic unit of tion is repeated or they may misinterpret a question analysis no longer focuses on the processes of the sole because the experimenter provides too little or too individual; rather, itis processes of sociocultural much information. The author examined children's activities involving active participation of people in performance on a variety of tasks used to assess cog- socially constituted practices that are examined. nitive development and concluded that the failure of Rogoff's discussions of Piaget and Vgotsky lead to the children frequently reported on these tasks was another major theme of her book: how learning from due to a lack of the conversational experience that masters is unique and different from learning from would have allowed them to successfully interpret the peers. The author contrasts Vgotsky's expert sup- experimenter's questions. port/apprenticeship(throughexaminationof the Siegler, R. S. 1991. Children's Thinking. 2nd ed. Engle- social tool of language) with Piaget's `cognitive conflict wood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall. between peers' (through examination of transforma- Sinha, S. 1982. Sociocultural Factors and the Develop- tions in reasoning processes). mentofPerceptualandCognitiveSkills.In: Salomon, G.; Globerson, T. 1987. Context-dependent W. W. Hartup (ed.), Review of Child Development Effects on Analogical Transfer. Memory and Cogni- Research, pp. 441-73. Chicago, University of Chicago tion, Vol. 14, No. 5, pp. 442-49. Press. Saxe, G. B.; Gearhart, M. 1988. Transfer of Learning Smith, S. M.; Glenberg, A.; Bjork, R. A. 1978. Environ- across Cultural Practices. Cognition andInstruction, mental Context and Human Memory. Memory and Vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 335-50. Cognition, Vol. 6, pp. 342-53. Saxe, G. B.; Posner, J. 1982. The Development of Spiro, R. J.; Feltovich, P. J.; Coulson, R. L.; Anderson, Numerical Cognition: Cross-cultural Perspectives. In: D. K. 1989. Multiple Analogies for Complex Concepts: H. P. Ginsburg (ed.), The Development of Mathemati- Antidotesfor Analogy-induced Misconceptions in cal Thinking. New York, Academic Press. Advanced Knowledge Acquisition. In: S. Vosniadou Schieffelin, B. B.; Ochs, E. 1986. Language Socializa- and A. Ortony (eds.), Similarity and Analogical Rea- tion across Cultures. Cambridge, Cambridge Universi- soning, pp. 498-531. New York, Cambridge Universi- ty Press. ty Press. Schmidt, R. A.; Bjork, R. A. 1992. New Conceptualiza- Spiro, Feltovich, Coulson and Anderson suggest that tions of Practice: Common Principles in Three Para- while the use of simple analogies can assist a novice digms Suggest New Concepts for Training. Psycholog- in gaining an initial understanding of a domain, the ical Science, Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 207-17. simplification of concepts presented in this manner Schoenfeld, A. H. 1987. What's All the Fuss About may impede the acquisition of more complete under- Metacognition? In: A. Schoenfeld (ed.), Cognitive Sci- standing. The authors suggest two ways to avoid this ence and Mathematics Education, pp.189-215. Hills- problem. First, instructors must be aware of mislead- dale, N.J., Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ing aspects of individual analogies as well as the pos- Shatz, M.; Gelman, R. 1973. The Development of Com- sibility that they will fail to allow a complete mapping munication Skills: Modifications in the Speech of to the target domain. Although an analogy may be Young Children as a Function of Listener. Mono- misleading or incomplete in reference to a specific fea- graphs of the Society for Research in Child Develop- ture of a domain, it will often provide a piece of infor- ment, VoL 38, No. 5, Serial No. 152. mation that is not evident without its use. Spiro et Shaw, R.; Bransford, J. D. 1977. Perceiving, Acting, and al.'s second method of dealing with this problem takes Knowing: Toward an Ecological Psychology. Hillsdale, the usefulness of such faulty analogies into account. N.J., Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Their second approach to combating probleins due to Shiffrin, R. A. 1988. Attention. In: R. C. Atkinson, the oversimplified application of analogiesisto R. J. Herrnstein, G. Lindzey and D. R. Luce (eds.), employ the use of multiple analogies that collectively Steven'sHandbookof ExperimentalPsychology, reflect the complexity of the domain under study and pp. 739-811. New York, W. J. Wiley. that can serve to compensate for any misleading Siegal, M. 1991. A Clash of Conversational Worlds: aspects of a given analogy. The use of integrated sets Interpreting Cognitive Development through Commu- of analogies is also effective in that it allows students nication.In:L.B.Resnick,J. M. Levine and to connect newly presented concepts to knowledge S. D. Teasley (eds.), Perspectives on Socially Shared they have previously acquired. Cognition, pp. 23-40. Washington, D.C., American Starkey, P.; Spelke, E. S.; Gelman, R. 1990. Numerical Psychological Association. Abstraction by Human Infants. Cognition, Vol. 36, This paper explores the notion that children may pp. 97-127. incorrectly answer questions posed by adults during Steele, C. M. 1992. Race and the Schooling of Black experimental tasks because they do not share the Americans. Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 269, pp. 68-79. purpose and context of the experimenters' question At some time in their academic career, 70 per cent of and not because of conceptual difficulties or limita- all black Americans at four-year colleges drop out. tions. In an effort to probe the child, conversation More than half of black college students fail to corn-

5 0 Trends and developments in educationalpsychology in the United States 51

plete their degree work. The author identifies stigma Tharp and Gallimore discuss the limitationsof using as the cause of this crisis and the endemic devalua- recitation as a method of classroom instruction. tion many blacks face in our society and They in our suggest that methods that stress the importanceof schools. recalling facts presented in the text American schooling fails to instil in blacks are not as effec- the tive for student learning as methods thatdraw on belief that school achievementcan be a basis of self- students' experiences. Recitation methodsencourage esteem. Racial devaluation at schoolcomes from the students to take a passive role society in general and not just from the strongly in the learning process.Conversationalmethodsofinstruction racially prejudiced. Blacks disidentify fromscholastic instead promote active participationas students achievement as a reaction to a double vulnerability,a attempt to relate material presented in the risk of confirming a particular incompetence classroom and a to events in their own lives. The authorsapply this risk of confirming a suspected racial inferiority. concept in their use of the 'instructional 'Wise' schooling, that is, schooling that conversation'. sees the This instructional technique focuseson assisted per- value and promise in black students andacts on it, formance. Expert teachers continually should undermine vulnerability and improve assess their achieve- students' performance levels and adjusttheir degree ment. 'Unwise' schooling may includea remedial ori- of guidance accordingly. Eventually, entation toward education of blacks, students are an orientation expected to perform the functions of theadult assis- which putsabilities under suspicion and which tant for themselves. foments greater racial vulnerability. A major challenge involved inimplementing this Schooling must focus more on reducing thevulnera- instructional method is training teachers bilities that block identification with achievement. to become successful moderators of classroom discussion.Teach- Four conditions are fundamental: (1) thestudent ers must have a deep understanding of the subject- must feel valued by the teacher for hisor her poten- matter they are teaching if they tial as a person; (2) personal fulfilment, are to guide students' not remedia- learning effectively. Although the point of tion, should guide the education of these students; a story pre- sented in a reading lessonmay appear to be obvious, (3) racial integration is a generally useful element,if teachers must understand the story not a necessity; (4) the particulars of black life to the degree that and they can recognize multiple opportunitiesto link story culture must be present in the mainstreamcurricu- concepts to ideas that students bring to the lum of American schooling. lesson. They must also learn when it will bemost beneficial Stevenson, H. W.; Stigler, J. W. 1992. The Learning to discuss a point of information and when Gap: Why Our Schools are Failing and What it will be We Can better to simply teach a concept directlyto their stu- Learn from Japanese and Chinese Education.New dents. York, Summit Books. Moving away from recitation methods Stevenson and Stigler address the question of how requires the teachers to do much more than simplydecide to adopt United States might improve education byexamining a new technique. The effectiVe implementation the education systems of other cultures, of specifically instructionalconversations requires much effort, Japan and China. They conclude that theUnited adjustment and practice on the part of the States' educational crisis will only be resolved teacher. when Verschaffel, L.; De Corte, E. Inpress. A Decade of institutions at all levels (family, schools, federal,state Research on Word-problem Solving in Leuven: and local governments, etc.) become deeply Theo- involved retical, Methodological, and Practical.Outcomes.Edu- in the issue. Additionally, an effective solutionmust cational Psychology Review. address multiple variables, including the beliefsand Voigt, L. A. 1989. The Social Constitution attitudes of students and parents toward the of the Math- edu- ematics Province A Microethnographical Study in cational process, identification of the factorsthat Classroom Interaction. Quarterly motivate students and specific educational New0.etter of the practices. Laboratory of Comparative HumanCognition, Vol. 11, Comparisons of children in the United Stateswith Nos. 1-2, pp. 27-34. children in China and Japan indicate that American Patterns of interaction between teacherand students students' scores on achievement tests fall belowthose are important elements of the classroom culture.This of their counterparts in many subjects, especiallyin study examines the nature of classroom math and science. Stevenson and Stigler social inter- note that the action used in mathematics educationin Germany. poorer achievement of the American students is not One typical routine found in German due to intellectual deficiencies, but is the result classrooms is a of dif- 'staging pattern', utilized by teachersto introduce ferences in factors related to contributionsfrom both new mathematics concepts to students. A the home and school to academic performance. 'staging pattern', identified by the author,is one in which Stigler, J. W.; Nussbaum, H. C.; Chalip,L. C. 1988. teachers elicit students' Developmental Changes in Speed of Processing: responses to questions about Cen- relevant everyday experiences andnon-academic ti al Limiting Mechanism or Skill Transfer? Child ideas that can be connected to the Development, Vol. 69, pp. 1144-63. mathematics les- son. For example, the teacher may questionstudents Stipek, D. J. 1988. Motivation to Learn: FromTheory to about their experiences with Practice. Boston, Allyn & Bacom. everyday gambling games (lottery) and then connect theirresponses to a Tharp, R. G.; Gallimore, H. 1989. RousingSchools to lesson on probability. This teaching Life. American Educator, 20-25 June, strategy serves as pp. 46-52. a starting point for discussion onnew mathematics

51 52 Rochel Gelman and Meredith GattisLee Experimental Child Psychology, Vol. 33, pp.514-35. topics. The teacher's routineslead students' ideas Niches of Middle towards the theme of the mathematicalconcept to be Weisner, T. S. 1984. Ecocultural Childhood. In: W. A. Collins (ed.),Development during presented. Middle Childhood: The Years fromSix to Twelve. The author suggests manyadvantages for the routine Washington, D.C., National AcademyPress. establishment of this initial teacherstudent Wheeler, D. D. 1970. Processes inWord Recognition. in mathematics lessons. The Development Cognitive Psychology, Vol. 1, pp. 59-85. Vygotsky, L. S. 1978. Mind in Society: Models: A Miss- Cambridge, Mass., White, B. Y. 1991. Intermediate Causal of Higher Psychological Processes. ing Link for Successful ScienceEducation? In: R. Harvard University Press. of Ex- Glaser (ed.), Advances in InstructionalPsychology, Walker,E.1982.IntermodalPerception Erlbaum Associates. pressive Behaviors by HumanInfants. Journal of Vol. 4. Hillsdale, N.J., Lawrence Recent trends and developments in educational psychology: Chinese and American perspectives (ISBN 92-3-102980-0) Order form Price: 35 FF, US$7 Please send this form to the sales agent for UNESCO publications These prices are valid only for direct purchase from UNESCO in your country or, in case of difficulty, send it together with your Publishing. Prices include the cost of sending the books to you by remittance (cheque, money order or jNESCO coupons) to UNESCO surface mail. In most countries it will be more convenient foryou to Publishing, Sales Division, 7 Place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, purchase from a local bookseller or the sales agent for UNESCO France. If you wish to charge your credit card (VISA cards accepted), publications in your country, who will indicate to you the price in please give the number, expiry date and your signature. your national currency.

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