A Study of English Loanw ords in Korean

1999학년도

西 江 大 學 校 敎 育 大 學 院

英 語 敎 育 專 攻

千 銀 淑 A Study of English Loanw ords in Korean

Cheon Eun - Sook

T hesis Presented

T o the Departm ent of English E ducation ,

T he Gr aduate School of Education , Sog ang Univer sity

P artial F ulfillm ent of Requirem ent for

Degree of M aster of E ducation 1999 A Study of English Loanw ords in Korean

指導敎授 이 성 범

이 論文을 敎育學 碩士學位 論文으로 提出함

2000년 1월

西江大學校 敎育大學院

英語 교육 專攻

천 은 숙 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT S

I w ould like to appreciate the kindness and efforts of many people who helped me to complete my thesis.

Fir st of all, I w ould like to give my deepest thanks to Professor Lee

Seong Bum who read my draft and kindly corrected my mistakes for the improvement of my thesis. He gave constant advice and encouragement to me throughout this thesis. Without his sincere help, I would not have

completed this thesis .

I w ould like to give my thanks to all the other professors in English

department and my colleagues in Yool- gok High School who helped me

during my graduate school day s.

I w ould like to give my thanks to my parents- in - law . T hey alway s

encouraged me to continue my study and they took care of my children

with their whole heart during my study .

Lastly, I give special thanks to my beloved husband, Park Seong Bae.

I am very grateful to his love and help. Of cour se, my children are tw o

of the first per sons to share the pleasure of completing this thesis because they have kept healthy during my study .

Cheon Eun Sook

November , 1999

- iv - 국 문 초 록

A Study of English Loanwords in Korean

영어교육전공 천 은 숙

현재 영어 전용론이 제기될 정도로 영어의 중요성이 강조되고 있으며 우

리 생활에서 많이 쓰이고 있다. 뿐만 아니라 영어는 우리말 속에 들어와 한

국어와 여러 가지 양상으로 결합되어 사용되고 있다. 그러나 영어가 한국어

와 결합되면서 영어 본래의 형태를 잃어버리고 한국어의 조어법에 따라 결합

함으로써 오히려 영어 학습을 방해하는 경우가 종종 있다.

이 논문은 이와 같은 실태를 분석하고자 율곡 고등학교 학생들에 의해서

사용되는 영어 외래어의 조어법 및 다양한 사용 방법 등을 살펴보았다. 이를

위하여 이 논문은 세 영역을 다루었다. 첫째, 외국어로서 자신의 고유한 의미

를 가지고 있는 순수외래어를 다루었다. 둘째, [영어 + 한국어]와 [한국어 +

영어] 형식의 혼성외래어, 셋째, 한국어의 간섭을 받은 일탈된 형태의 영어외

래어, 즉 Konglish에 대해 다루었다.

이 논문은 4장으로 구성되어 있다. 첫 번째로, 1장에서는 논문의 동기, 목

적과 조직이 소개되어 있다. 2장에서는 이론적 배경을 제시하고 있는데, 외래

어의 정의, 영어 어휘 형성 과정, 영어 복합어의 개요가 나타나 있다. 3장에

서는, 영어 외래어에서 일어나는 다양한 복합어 형성 과정이 분석되어 있다.

이 경우 고유어와 한자어는 구별을 시도하지 않았다. 이 장에서는 다음과 같

- v - 은 것을 보여준다. 첫째, 영어 외래어는 무엇으로 구성되어 있는가, 둘째, 영

어와 한국어의 조어 차이는 무엇인가, 셋째, 한국어에는 어떤 종류의

Konglish가 있으며, 영어에서 그 의미는 무엇인가를 다루었다. 이를 알기 위

해 영어와 한국어의 조어 양상을 분석하였다.

마지막으로, 4장에서는 전체 분석을 다음처럼 요약하여 제시하였다. 첫째,

영어 외래어는 - ed, - s 그리고 - ing 등의 접사가 탈락되어 간소화 된 형태로

한국어에 차용되는 경우가 많다. 그 결과 salaried m an 같은 영어외래어의

- ed가 축약되어 salary man 으로 쓰였고, f our balls 같은 영어 외래어가 f our ball로 쓰였으며, f ry ing p an이 f ry p an으로 쓰이고 있다. 둘째, Konglish

또는 [한국어 + 영어] 복합어는 한국어의 조어법을 따라 만들어지고 있다. 예

를 들어 달걀 f ry 는 영어로 f ried egg이다. 셋째, Konglish 또는 영어 외래

어에서 [명사 + 명사]로 합성된 복합어가 차용되거나 만들어지기 쉬웠고 대

부분 그것들은 내심합성어들이 많았다. 넷째, 영어외래어는 동사가 명사로 인

식되어 한국어의 동사 접사를 붙인 후에나 동사의 기능을 할 수 있었다. 그

래서, up g rade시키다 와 download하다 처럼 쓰인다. 영어가 한국어와 결합하

면서 영어 본래의 조어법에서 많이 일탈되어 있음을 살펴볼 수 있다.

그러므로 학생들이 영어 공부하는 데 방해가 되는 것을 제거하여 영어를

올바로 사용할 수 있도록 하기 위해 이런 방면의 계속적인 연구가 필요하다.

그리고 이 논문이 학생과 영어 교사들이 영어를 올바로 배우고 가르치는데

도움이 되었으면 한다.

- vi - T able of Content s

I. INT RODUCT ION

1.1 Motive ………………………………………………………………1

1.2 Purpose ………………………………………………………………2

1.3 Organization …………………………………………………………4

II. T HEORET ICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 T he definition of loanw ords ………………………………………5

2.1.1 English loanwords ………………………………………5

2.1.2 T he definition of Konglish ……………………………6

2.2 Word- formation processes of English ……………………………8

2.2.1 Inflection and derivation …………………………………8

2.2.2 Conversion …………………………………………………13

2.2.3 Complex compounding ……………………………………14

2.2.4 Coinage ……………………………………………………16

2.2.5 Acronym ……………………………………………………17

2.2.6 Clipping ……………………………………………………19

2.2.7 Blend ………………………………………………………20

2.2.8 Back - formation ……………………………………………21

2.3 An outline of English compounding …………………………23

2.3.1 Compound nouns …………………………………………23

- vii - 2.3.2 Compound verbs …………………………………………26

2.3.3 Compound adjectives ……………………………………26

2.3.4 Compound adverbs ……………………………………29

III. ANALYSIS OF LOANWORDS

3.1 Pure English loanwords ………………………………………30

3.1.1 Compound nouns …………………………………………30

3.1.2 Compound adjectives ……………………………………32

3.1.3 Compound verbs …………………………………………33

3.2 Hybrid loanw ords ………………………………………………33

3.2.1 Compound nouns …………………………………………34

3.2.2 Derivational verbs and derivational adjectives ………39

3.3 Konglish : English loanw ords adapted to Korean …………43

3.3.1 Compound nouns …………………………………………43

3.3.2 Clipping ……………………………………………………47

3.3.3 Blends ………………………………………………………48

IV . CONCLUSION …………………………………………………………50

REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………54

ABST RACT …………………………………………………………………57

- viii - I. INT RODUCT ION

1.1 Motive

T here are a number of English pseudo- loanwords introduced into

Korean . T hey interfere with English learning because broken English is

very wide- spread in Korean . Some examples will illustrate the point . Fir st

dead ball is an imitated Japanese expression . T he second example is

pine juice which is shortened for pineapple juice because of phonetic

convenience although pine is a kind of tree. T he third example is

[noiroze] which is pronounced incorrectly by the influence of Japanese.

Japanese came to have influence on Korean during the colonial period by using Japanese as the official language. T he fourth example is back

mirror which is mistranslated, and so on. For this reason, w ord- formation processes of English loanwords in Korean used by the students of

English should be analyzed. T his thesis will deal with three major areas:

1) Pure English loanw ords that have their own meaning as a foreign

language.

2) T he loanw ords made up of English + Korean and of Korean +

English

3) Konglish

- 9 - T hrough three areas, I will show how compounds of English

loanwords are made up of and used by high school student s. In general

when English loanw ords are borrow ed, they go through changes in

phonological, semantic, syntactic and morphological aspects. In the

morphological aspects word- formation processes of English loanwords will be studied. Konglish and compounding of English + Korean and of

English + Korean as w ell as English loanw ords are the object of the

study of this paper . It is not always easy to distinguish English

loanwords from w ords in Korean . T he origins and the w ay they are used

will also be examined in this study . So the w ords from English which

cannot be substituted by Korean w ords naturally are defined as English

loanwords in Korean . By contrast, the words which can be substituted

Korean for English words are defined as the foreign w ords.

One further goal of this thesis is to help student s and English teachers to study and teach English correctly and native English structures to be taken on as they are. In other words, it is hoped that when they study

English at first , lest they should use English incorrectly and the loanwords already come in Korean are corrected right .

1.2 Purpose

T he purpose of this thesis is to find out :

1) What are English loanw ords made up of?

- 10 - 2) How do the differences between English and Korean word- formation

affect the English loanw ords in Korean?

3) What are the types of deviant loanw ords, commonly called Konglish

and how are they adapted to Korean?

T his thesis will aim to help students and English teachers to study

and teach English correctly . English loanw ords are used in Korean every

day but there are also a lot of pseudo- English loanw ords which even native speaker s of English do not understand. An English loanw ord is

defined as the word which is borrowed but adopted as vernacular .

Increasing cultural exchange and the development of technology need to

coin a lot of new lexemes. T hey are borrowed in Korean by cultural and informational exchange although they are foreign w ords. T hey are used

every day like Korean, so they seem to be Korean . Granting that they

are awkw ard because of coming from foreign words, they are borrow ed to be used because the Korean w ords coined in Korea arbitrarily are less natural than English . T he number of English loanwords in Korean is

surprisingly increasing day by day . As a result, English loanw ords are

overused and misused, especially on T V or magazines. In addition, even in new spaper, the title of an article is written in English, often in pseudo- English . In internet, abbreviation and slanguage which sometimes

common people cannot understand are overused. Because of such overuse

and misuse of English, students and even English teachers can seldom

- 11 - distinguish whether they are pure English w ords or pseudo- English .

1.3 Organization

T his thesis consists of four chapter s: Introduction, T heoretical

Framework, Analysis and Conclusion. Chapter one describes the motive, purpose and organization of the paper . Chapter tw o deals with the theoretical background of English w ord- formation processes, the definition of the loanw ords and an outline of English compounding . In Chapter three, various word- formation processes occurring in English loanw ords are discussed. We analyze first the pure English loanword and then the hybrid loanw ords made up of [English + Korean] and [Korean + English].

Finally Konglish w ord- formation processes, the origins and the w ay they are used are discussed. Chapter four summarizes the results of the analy sis.

- 12 - II. T HEORET ICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 T he definition of loanw ords

2.1.1 English loanw ords

Before examining English loanwords in Korean, we need to define

what constitute the English loanwords in Korean . Some definitions are as follow s :

Lee (1982) claims that the loanw ords are another names of borrowed

w ords which come from foreign cultures and are used with vernaculars .

T heir supplier should be foreign cultures and they should undergo the

course of the adoption as vernaculars . T he w ords which did not go

through the cour se are only w ords of foreign languages. T he cour se of

the adoption is that borrowed w ords assimilate with the vernacular s and

have qualified features as vernaculars . In short, it can be defined that

the loanwords are Korean but it is hard for the loanwords to assimilate

with vernaculars . But borrow ed words which are not assimilated and

coexist with vernaculars are pseudo- loanw ords. Some examples are g reen

belt (녹지대), shock (충격), orientation (예비교육) and so on .

While Kim (1996) suggests that it is possible to tell loanw ords from

foreign languages theoretically, it is, in fact, hard to distinguish loanw ords

from foreign languages . So he claims that all words, whether they belong

to the loanw ords or foreign languages, should once be regarded as the

- 13 - loanwords.

Pyles (1971) divided the loanw ords into two categories: popular loanwords and learned loanw ords. Popular loanwords cannot be

distinguished vernacular s from foreign languages, because they are used

everyday life. While learned loanwords, which are borrow ed by cultural influences, are used at first in specific classes and groups, they will be

changed into the popular loanw ords as time goes by . Pyles & Algeo

(1993: 286) maintain that when speaker s imitate a word from a foreign

language and at least partly adapt it in sound or grammar to their native

speech way, the process is known as borrowing, and the w ord thus borrow ed is a loanword. One thing that w e need to note is that

loanwords have a life of their own that cuts across the boundaries

betw een languages. (Pyles & Algeo 1993: 286) In this thesis w e will see

how the English w ords are adapted to Korean and maintain their life

among the Korean speakers .

2.1.2 T he definition of Konglish

In Korea they call it Konglish when they make a mistake in using

English. Indicating the interference of their mother tongue Korean upon

English, the w ord Konglish is made up of Korean and English as a

blend. In other w ords, the word Konglish is coined by dropping

syllables or phonemes from tw o distinct English language items: the

initial syllable Ko of the w ord Korean has been maintained, while the

- 14 - initial phoneme E of the w ord English has been removed. T he

remaining two item s (Ko + nglish ) have been grafted on to each other in

order to form the term Konglish .

Initially due to its geographical location, a number of loanwords in

Korean were filtered into the language from China . With the recent rise

of globalization, English has started to penetrate and maintain a high

degree of influence on the evolution of Korean vernacular s. Koreans have

come to identify the use of English as an integral part of their speech,

whereby they actually give a part of phenomenon its own term,

Konglish . For example, when they have a cup of coffee, they put

prima or prim instead of cream . But prima cannot be found in the dictionary because it is a brand name in Korea intended to mean

fir st - rate . Another example is handle, which means in Korean a

wheel which you turn to control the direction of a car in the English

dictionary .

When one language is borrowed into other language, it can be the borrow ed word which violates the phonological structure or morphological

structure of the original word, because of the interference of vernacular s.

T his kind of interlinguistic contact and consequent modification is inevitable. In other words, according to Pyles and Algeo (1993: 286) that

w e saw earlier in this paper pseudo- loanw ords should be regarded as partial adaptation to vernaculars . For example, once English is borrow ed into Japanese, Chinese, or French, each of them can be Japlish, Chinglish,

- 15 - or Franklish . In this respect, all languages could behave in the same way .

T herefore, Konglish must not be just a degraded and vulgar form of

English absolutely , and it must have it s own rules and principles .

T herefore it deserves linguists attention .

2.2 Word- formation processes of English

2.2.1 Inflection and derivation

We will adopt in this study Lyons (1977: 521- 2) definition of inflection : inflection produces from the stem (or stems)1) of a given

lexeme all the w ord- form s of that lexeme which occur in syntactically

determined environments . For example, the formation of kicking from a

given lexeme kick to be used as its progressive form is called inflection .

T herefore, inflection produces new forms of a single lexeme, while

derivation, another important process of word- formation, produces a new lexeme.

Inflection differs from other processes of w ord- formation . Fir st of all, inflection involves relatively few variables in a closed system (Strang

1968: 101). For example, in the category of number in English, there are

1) A stem is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphology. Inflectional affixes are added to it : it is the part of the word- form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. In the form untouchables the stem is untouchable, although in the form touched the stem is touch; in the form wheelchairs the stem is wheelchair, even though the stem contains two roots.

- 16 - only two values : singular and plural. T here are only tw o variables, and no extra variables can be added to the list without radically changing the

entire system . T his is what Strang means by closed .

T he next point about inflection can be discussed in terms of

commutability, i.e. substitutability within a syntagmatic frame. For

example, in a series of w ord- form s like bangs, calls, covers, loves,

tick les, walks, the {s} is commutable with { } (= present tense, but not

3rd per son sing . ), {ing } and {ed}, but not with {let } and {ish }, although

these affixes can be added to some of the bases2). On the other hand, in

any given sentence, the possibility of commuting the affixes which are

highly commutable within the word- form will tend to be low . For

example, in a sentence like I am covering the wall with p aint

the {ing } cannot commute with {s}, {ed}, { }, etc. Inflection can thus be

said to be characterized by high commutability within the w ord- form , but low commutability within the sentence (Bazell 1953: 69)

It is sometimes claimed (e.g ., Aronoff 1976: 2) that inflection deals purely with grammatical morphemes. T he morphemes may be listed in the

2) A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. T his means that any root or any stem can be termed a base, but the set of bases is not exhausted by the union of the set of roots and the set of stems: a derivationally analyzable form to which derivational affixes are added can only be referred to as a base. T hat is, touchable can act as a base for prefixation to give untouchable, but in this process touchable could not be referred to as a root because it is analyzable in terms of derivational morphology. Neither can it be referred to as a stem since no inflectional affixes are added to it to form the word in question.

- 17 - specification of a grammatical word because they are inflectional rather than derivational. It is sometimes suggested that where both derivational and inflectional elements are found together, the derivational element is more intimately connected with the root3) (Aronoff 1976: 2). While this is true of English, it is not true of all languages. In Korean, when words of the English language are borrowed in Korean, an inflectional affix is clipped more easily than a derivational affix . For example, salary man in Korean is used instead of salaried man with the inflectional affix - ed missing . On the other hand, the derivational affix - er in singer - song - writer is seldom clipped to form sing - song - writer or

sing - song - write Another examples are ice coff ee and ice water. In English iced coff ee and iced water are correct expressions, but in Korean inflectional affix - ed is clipped. T herefore English words without the inflectional affix - ed are easier for Korean to pronounce than those with inflectional affix when they are borrowed. However , the notion of the inflectional affix is not affected when an English w ord is borrow ed to Korean ; e.g . broken English never becomes break English with the

abstract maker of the past participle missing . Moreover, in Korean, when words of English language are borrow ed,

3) Root ', stem ', and base' are all terms used in the literature to designate a word that remains when all affixes have been removed. A root is a form which is not further analyzable, either in terms of derivational or inflectional morphology. It is that part of a word- form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. A root is the basic part always present in a lexeme. In the form untouchables , for example, the root is touch, to which first the suffix - able is added, and then the prefix un- and finally the suffix - s are added.

- 18 - they are usually shortened. For example, g lam or + hata is a wrong expression. In Korean root + hata, both nominal root + hata and +lul hata are possible. As a result, g lam or+lul hata is awkw ard in Korean, and is not a right expression. It is used g lam orous + hata instead of g lam or + hata. A more recent example is s up er, which is more favorable expression than sup ermark et in Korean . Also, televis ion becomes terevi in Korean, because of phonetic convenience. Another major word formation process that can be found in any language is called derivation . Derivation can be defined as the converse of inflection . Derivation is the morphological process that results in the formation of new lexemes (Lyons 1977: 522). It involves many variables in an open class (Strang 1968: 101). It is characterized by low

commutability within the word- form . A s we saw earlier, a derivational

affix tend to come closer to the root than an inflectional one. For

example, in untouchables the derivational suffix - able is closer to the root touch than the inflectional suffix - s. On the other hand, inflection is marked further from the root than derivation . Furthermore, inflection marks agreement, while derivation does not mark agreement . Inflection

can not be replaced by a simple root form in a sentence while derivation

can . T ypically inflection does not show gaps in the paradigm while

derivation show s gaps in the paradigm . Besides, inflection is semantically regular but derivation is semantically irregular .

All these various criteria are summarized in T able 1.

- 19 - T able 1.

Inflection Derivation

Produces w ord- forms of a single Produces new lex emes. lexeme.

Involves few variables in a closed May involve many variables in an system . open system.

Characterized by high commutability Characterized by low commutability w ithin the w ord- form. within the w ord- form.

T ypically has low commutability Some types show high commutability w ithin the sentence. within the sentence.

Marks agreement. Does not mark agreement.

In many languages, including English, In many languages, including is marked further from the root than English, is marked closer to the root derivation. than inflection.

In some languages cannot be replaced In some languages can be replaced by by a simple root form in a sentence. a simple root form in a sentence.

T ypically does not show gaps in the T ypically show s gaps in the paradigm. paradigm.

T ypically semantically regular. T ypically semantically irregular.

As we mentioned earlier, an inflectional morpheme is easier to disappear when the w ord containing the morpheme is borrowed than a derivational morpheme. How ever, this does not mean that a derivational affix is not clipped in loanwords . For example, Koreans say shorting instead of the correct form shortening with the derivational affix - en

- 20 - missing .

2.2.2 Conversion

Conversion is the change in class of form s without any corresponding

change of the form . In other words it is a word formation process that

assigns an already existing word to a new syntactic category . For

example, the change whereby the form nap alm , which had been used

exclusively as a noun, came to be used as a verb (They decided to nap alm the villag e ) is a case of conversion . It seems that conver sion can be made in any parts of speech without limit . For example,

later originally

(1) ink V ← N permit N ← V dry V ← A up V ← P gay N ← A

T he exact status of conversion within word- formation is unclear . For

some scholar s (e.g ., Lyons 1977: 522) conversion is a branch of derivation, but for other s (e.g ., Strang 1968) it is a separate type of

w ord- formation . Conversion is frequently called zero- derivation, a term

which many scholar s prefer (Adam s 1973: 16). Most scholar s who use both terms appear to use them as synonym s.

- 21 - 2.2.3 Complex compounding

When two (or more) elements which could potentially be used as

stems are combined to form another stem , the resultant form is said to be a compound. A compound lexeme can thus be defined as a lexeme

containing two or more potential stem s. Since each potential stem

contains at least one root, a compound must contain at least tw o root s.

An example is viny l bag which is made up of [noun root + noun root] in

Korean, but it means p lastic bag in English . T his is compounded after

each word, viny l and bag comes separately from English into Korean.

Another example is m orning call. T his compound is made up of [noun

root + noun root] in Korean at random instead of borrowing it from

English. Recently, there are a lot of pseudo- loanw ords which are coined

arbitrarily in Korean such as D ream land, love hotel, coup le ring, car

center, S exy m ild, m illenium dream , E ver land, H oney land, and so on .

A compound may therefore be more fully defined as a lexeme

containing tw o or more potential stems that have not subsequently been

subjected to a derivational process.

Compound nouns can be further subdivided into three groups according to semantic criteria. Consider first the examples beehive, arm chair,

redsk in, highbrow, maidservant. T hese can all be divided into two parts:

a second element is the grammatical head and a first element is the modifying element . In the first two examples, the compound is a hyponym

of the grammatical head: a beehive is a kind of hive, an arm chair is a

- 22 - kind of chair .

Another examples that show the same behavior are as follow s (Ahn

1998: 511):

(2) puppydog = dog which is a puppy bulldog = dog which is like a bull w atchdog = dog which watches something policedog = dog used by the police lapdog = dog for the lap

T his type of compound is termed an endocentric compound. In contrast, in examples of redskin and highbrow , the compound is not a hyponym of the grammatical head: a redsk in is not a type of skin, nor is a hig hbrow a type of brow . T his type of compound, termed an exocentric compound, is a hyponym of some unexpressed semantic head ( per son ' in both the examples given here). T here are a number of exocentric compounds in English (Ahn 1998: 513).

(3) turncoat 배신자 penknife 주머니 칼 blackmail 협박 편지 bigwig 거물 paleface 백인

T hese exocentric compounds are more difficult than endocentric

- 23 - compounds for Koreans to under stand and tend to be borrowed least in

Korean .

Since the semantic head is unexpressed in such compounds, the

compound is frequently seen as metaphorical. T urning to a different type

of compounds, m aids ervant is a hyponym of both maid and servant : a

m aids ervant is a type of maid and also a type of servant . T hat is, AB

means at the same time A and B. (Kim 1998, 265) T his type of

compound is termed an appositional compound. Appositional compounds

and endocentric compounds are easier to grasp and thus are borrowed

without a severe resistance or inference by the speakers of the borrowing language.

T hese semantic divisions interact with syntactic divisions according to the form class of the whole compound (compound noun, compound

adjective, etc) and the form classes of the individual elements in the

compounds, so that redsk in, as w ell as being an exocentric compound, is

a compound noun made up of an adjective and a noun, and arm chair is

an endocentric compound noun made up of tw o nouns. We will be looking

at compounds in English in more detail in 2.3

2.2.4. Coinage

New w ords can be coined as a purely arbitrary combination of letter s, not derived in whole or in part from any existing word. T his process,

sometimes called root creation, occur s when a new thing or device is

- 24 - made or comes into being . Any words can be coined unless they are

against the rule of phoneme collocation . For example, w e can expect a

w ord like croz er for a skin - lotion, but not ctoz er, which w ould violate the sequential constraints of English. Recently companies invented a number of new names for their products: for example, K odak, K leenex ,

P olaroid, ny lon, orlon, def lon, X rox, J ell- O, Vaseline, F rig idaire,

M adis on A venue and so on . A more recent example is cy ber- . It seems productive as exemplified in cy berschool, cy berclinic, and cy bers ing er.

Cy ber- comes from cy bernetics coined by Norbert Weiner . T he origin of

some coinages which are put on record is sometimes known but there are much more words whose origin cannot be known because they are put

off the record. Newly coined words can be borrow ed when the things they represent are introduced into the foreign country . In most cases they

are easier to adopt to the new situation but they are subject to the familiarity or popularity of the thing . For example, carnation w as once very popular in usage among Koreans but it is hardly used by the younger generation of Korea because the item that the word represents, i.e. coffee cream, is not used in large quantity in Korea anymore.

2.2.5. Acronym

An acronym is a w ord coined by taking the initial letters of the words in a title or phrase and using them as a new w ord. For example,

Strategic Arms Limitation T alks gives SA L T, Non - Government

- 25 - Organization gives N GO. A cquired I m m une D ef iciency Sy ndrom e gives

A ID S, and United N ations E ducational, S cientif ic, and Cultural

Organiz ation gives UN E S CO. How ever, not every abbreviation counts as

an acronym ; to be an acronym the new word must not be pronounced as

a series of letters, but as a word. Further recent examples of acronym s

are K ED O (the Korean Peninsular Development Organization ), W T O

(W orld T rade Organization ) and K DI (Korean Development Institute). One

interesting to note is that WT O w as once an acronym for the Warsaw

T reaty Organiz ation but it stands for the W orld T rade Organization as the political environment changes.

T he lack of predictability in acronym s stem s from at least two

sources. Fir stly, the phrase from which the acronym is taken is treated

with a certain amount of freedom to permit the acronym to arise. For

example, in BA SI C (Beginner s ' All- purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)

only the first part of a compound adjective provides a letter for the

acronym, while in WA SP (White Anglo- Saxon Protestant ) both parts of

Anglo- Saxon provide a letter for the acronym . It seems that the interests

of the acronym are the deciding factor in what the initial letter s" of the phrase will be taken to include.

T he second main reason for the lack of predictability in acronym s is that not every abbreviation which could be an acronym is treated as one,

and there seems to be no particular reason why some abbreviations

should be ignored. Clearly, B B C cannot be pronounced as a w ord, since it

- 26 - violates constraints on the phonological structure of English words, but

the same is not true of GOM (Grand Old Man ) or N A SA (National

Aeronautics and Space Administration) or laser (light amplification by

stimulated emission of radiation ). Usage alone would seem to make the

difference, and it is not clear what factor s influence the variant usages.

2.2.6. Clipping

Clipping refers to the process whereby a lexeme is shortened, while

still retaining the same meaning and still being a member of the same

form class . Frequently clipping results in a change of stylistic level. T he

unpredictability concerns the w ay in which the base lexeme is shortened.

T he main pattern is for the beginning of the base lexeme to be retained

as in the recent examples m ik e (

hipp o (

syllables will be retained in the clipped form, whether the final syllable

will be open or closed, whether the stressed syllable from the base

lexeme will be included or not .

While a clipping which retains the initial part of the word is the most

common type, there are also others. In the following examples, it is the final part of the base lexeme which has been retained: Cong (< Viet

Cong ), loid (< celluloid ). A much rarer type is where the middle of the

w ord is retained, but both ends are clipped. Examples are j am s

(

- 27 - (

(

van (

Clipped forms are also used in compounds, as in op art (

It is also frequently the case that both halves of a compound are clipped

as in p ro- am (

(

recorder. T hese days, Korean students are crazy about the game of S tar

Craf t. T hey call it s tarc betw een them . T hese are examples of clipping of

English loanw ords in Korean .

2.2.7 Blend

A blend may be defined as a new lexeme formed from parts of tw o

(or possibly more) other words in such a way that there is no transparent analysis into morphs. Recent examples are brunch (< breakfas t

+ lunch), chunnel (< channel + tunnel) and shoat (

T here are other kinds of blend where the rules for blending are more

obvious . In particular this is true of those blends where the two w ords used as the bases are both present in their entirety in the blend, though there is overlap. Recent examples are s lang uag e (< slang + lang uag e ),

tig on (< tig er + lion) and lig er (< lion + tig er).

A third kind of blend is the type where the new lexeme looks as

- 28 - though it is or might be analyzable in terms of other word- formation processes. Recent examples are p ornotop ia (

(

Korean, because ham burg er seem s to be made up of ham + burger , rice

burg er is coined recently . In hybrid blending, there are also a lot of

examples of [Korean + English] like 새우 + burg er. Another example is

L otteria which is made up of Lotte + Cafeteria. T here are so many blends in pseudo- loanwords made in Korea. In other w ords, there are

English- like w ords in Korean that show this process of blends such as

off icetel, airtel, N ovotel and so on. T his - tel comes from hotel.

Generally speaking, the category of blends is not well- defined, and blending tends to shade off into compounding, neo- classical compounding,

affixation, clipping and acronyming . Nevertheless it is a very productive

source of w ords in modern English, in both literary and scientific

contexts .

2.2.8 Back- formation

Back- formation is the formation of a new lexeme by the deletion of a

suffix or supposed suffix . T hus laz e is actually derived from an earlier form lazy , possibly by analogy with such pair s as craz e/ crazy .

- 29 - T he great majority of back - formations in English are verbs . T here is

a wider range of possible sources for a back - formation which is a verb.

Much has been made in the literature of the fact that back - formation is

of mainly diachronic significance, since it is impossible to see

synchronically that editor and exhibitor are not produced by identical processes from edit and exhibit respectively . Back - formation is a

diachronically productive process in English word- formation . T he classic

example is the word cherry , a back - formation from an earlier singular

(uncountable) form cherries, which was perceived as plural. A recent

example of this type of formation is the form alm from alm s .

T he usual description of the process of back- formation is that a rule

of w ord- formation is reversed. T his is perhaps slightly misleading : the precise process can be seen from the formula below .

(4) Formation : X + A → Y Back- formation : Y - A → X

T he majority of back- formations are of this type. Some recent

examples are las e < las er and s urreal < s urrealis t. An interesting

example is a m onok ini suit which is a kind of swim suit without the upper part of the body . It is back- formed from bik ini suit. It is believed to be bi + k ini, because in bi- polar or bilingual, bi- means tw o, although

bik ini is borrowed from the island of Bikiniatoll in Marshall Islands. T his

- 30 - is a kind of back - formation . (Park & Seong 1995: 72) In the light of the modern data, it might be better to redefine back- formation as the formation of new lexemes by the deletion of actual or supposed affixes in longer words . Back - formation w ould then become a special case of

clipping .

2.3 An outline of English Compounding

Since we are concerned with compound loanw ords in Korean, let us investigate into English compounding here.

2.3.1 Compound nouns

Compound nouns made up of [noun + noun] are the largest

subgrouping of compounds, and many types of semantic relationship can be isolated within this grouping, as w ell as different syntactic pattern .

T he majority of compounds in this class are endocentric as we saw

earlier in 2.2.3. However , there are also exocentric compounds . T he pattern of [noun + noun] exocentric compounds is very restricted in productivity . But a few examples are found: hatchback and sk inhead . T he

second group is made up of appositional compounds. In a large proportion

of established appositional compounds the fir st element marks the sex of

a person : boy - friend, manservant, woman doctor , and so on . T his function is still productive, but possibly most obviously so with pronominal sex marker s used for animals: she- g oat, he- cheetah.

- 31 - All the other groups to be discussed are endocentric like s team boat

and mailman (Kim 1998: 259). Within this category, the next group

consists of compounds made up of [gerund + noun]. Since a gerund has both nominal and verbal characteristics, this pattern could be treated as

either [noun + noun] or [verb + noun]. T he elements in these compounds

all end in - ing , and the semantic relationships between the tw o elements

seem more like those which hold in [noun + noun] compounds than those

which hold in [verb + noun] compounds. More recent examples are dry

cleaning, ice dancing, hom e shopp ing, school bank ing, p hone bank ing , and p c bank ing .

T here is a compound noun made up of [verb + noun]. We observe two

distinct patterns of this, distinguishable on functional criteria . T he fir st of this is where the noun is the direct object of the verb. T hese compounds

are all exocentric. T his type used to be common for denoting people.

Examples are cut- throat, k ill-j oy , p ickp ock et, sp oil- sp ort; and, not

denoting people, breakfas t and dreadnought. T he second pattern is where the noun is not the direct object of the verb. T hese compounds are all

endocentric, and the pattern is definitely productive. It is here that the

difficulty in deciding whether the fir st element is a noun or a verb is most sharply felt, but some recent examples which seem clearly to

contain a verb are g og g le - box and drownp roof ing. In fact, this compound

seems seldom to be borrow ed.

Compound noun can also be made up of [noun + verb]. T he pattern

- 32 - does not appear to be productive, but this may be because the second

element is usually interpreted as being a noun, as in birth control and nosedive.

Compound noun made up of [verb + verb] is extremely rare, and not productive. An established form is mak e- believe, which is also used as

an adjective and a verb. T he compound made up of [verb + verb] is neither borrowed, nor coined. Accordingly the compound made up of [verb

+ verb] seems not to be an natural expression in Korean .

T here is compound noun made up of [adjective + noun]. However , it

can be difficult to decide whether a given [adjective + noun] collocation is

a compound or simply a noun phrase. T he criterion taken as

distinguishing between the two here is stress: nuclear stress on the

adjective, when the collocation is spoken non- contrastively in isolation, indicates a compound: nuclear stress on the noun indicates a noun phrase.

A collocation like deep s tructure is thus a compound if stressed ' deep s tructure, but a noun phrase if stressed deep 's tructure. Compound noun made up of [particle + noun] is a quite productive pattern . Recent

examples include af terheat, in- crowd, and over- k ill.

Compound noun made up of [adverb + noun] is a very restricted pattern, partly because only adverbs of time or place occur in such

compounds. T he recent example of this pattern is now g eneration, where now could alternatively be interpreted as an adjective formed by

conversion . But it seems they are rarely borrowed into Korean . Af ter- sale

- 33 - s ervice is changed into af ter s ervice in Korean . Another rare example made up of [pronoun + noun] is m e- g eneration.

T here are compound nouns made up of [verb + particle]. T he majority

of words of this form are nominalizations of phrase verbs. Recent

examples are cop - out, drop - out, p ress - down, p ush- up , show- down, etc.

2.3.2 compound verbs

Fir st of all, there are compound verbs made up of [noun + verb]. T he

vast majority of this group arise from back- formation, although a form

like carbon- copy is a conver sion. T here are plenty of verbs of this type

being coined in current English, some recent examples being block bus t,

carbon- date, sky - dive. Compound verb made up of [adjective + verb]

again generally arises through back - formation . It is a relatively productive

w ay of forming compound verbs. Recent examples are double- book , f ree- ass ociate, s of t- land and double- check. T here is compound verb made

up of [particle + verb]. While some of this type may be back- formations,

most of them seem to be genuine verbal formations. Recent examples are

overeducate, overm ark. Compound verb made up of [noun + noun] is not

particularly common, but generally arises from conversion of a compound

noun. A recent example is to breath- test.

2.3.3 Compound adjectives

Compound adjective made up of [noun + adjective] is the most

- 34 - frequent type of compound adjective, and there are a number of

distinguishable semantic sub - types. A list of some recent examples will provide some idea of the range of this type: card - carry ing , childp roof ,

leadf ree. On the other hand, compound adjective made up of [verb +

adjective] has only one recent example: fail saf e . It must therefore be

assumed that the type is rare.

Another type of compound adjective is made up of [adjective +

adjective]. T his can be divided into tw o clear semantic groups:

appositional compounds and endocentric compounds. Recent examples are p ro- am , bitter- sweet and deaf - m ute. T hese appositional compounds, however , are rather rare, and [adjective + adjective] compounds are normally endocentric. In this group it may, in some cases, be difficult to tell whether the first adjective is really functioning adjectivally rather than adverbially . Recent examples are op en- ended and ready - made. In

English loanw ords, there are much more endocentric compounds than

exocentric compounds . T his is also the case in English loanw ords in

Korean .

Compound adjective made up of [adverb + adjective] is not particularly

common . Recent examples are over- qualif ied and up tight.

Sometimes, a noun follow ed by another can form a compound

adjective. Compound adjectives are exocentric in that they function as

adjectives but their second (head) element is not an adjective. In many

cases these adjectives are converted nouns or verbs, and it often seem s

- 35 - rather misleading to term them adjectives at all. A recent example is

coff ee- table (book ) which belongs to compound noun and compound

adjective.

By contrast, the most productive set of compounds containing nouns

are compound adjectives made up of [adjective + noun]. Recent examples

are broad- brush (estimate), g rey - collar (w orker ), and red- brick

(university ). T here is compound adjective made up of [particle + noun]. In these examples a prepositional phrase is converted to a modifier . Recent

examples are bef ore- tax (profits), and in dep th (study ). T here is

compound adjective made up of [verb + verb]. Most of the forms used here do not occur as compound verbs. T he type must be assumed to be new and possibly growing . Recent examples are g o- g o (dancer ), and s top - g o (economics). In Korean, there is a compound of this type, i.g . g o- s top which is not a compound adjective but a compound noun .

T here is compound adjective made up of [adjective/ adverb + verb].

T his type of compounds may be illustrated by the recent examples high- ris e (tower ) and quick - chang e (artist ). T he description is awkward because their fir st element is an adjective in form , but appear s to function

semantically as an adverb.

Finally, there is compound adjective made of [verb + particle]. T his type is very productive. In most cases it w ould seem that it is not phrasal verbs which are converted in this type, but verbs and prepositions

or adverbial particles . Recent examples are s ee - through (blouse) and

- 36 - wrap - around (skirt ).

2.3.4 Compound adverbs

T he most common way of forming compound adverbs is by the

suffixation of - ly to a compound adjective. However , other patterns are found, as is shown by double - quick, f lat- out, f lat- s tick, off - hand, and

over- night. Some of these are also used in other form classes. It is not

clear to what extent such formations are productive.

- 37 - III. ANALYSIS OF LOANWORDS

3.1. Pure English loanw ords

3.1.1 Compound nouns

Fir st of all, compound nouns made up of [noun + noun] are extremely

common in English . Some of compounds are w ords of foreign language,

not the loanwords . Others are loanw ords or Konglish . T he student s whom

I surveyed can 't generally distinguish loanwords from words of foreign

language. Sometimes foreign words are used as if they were Korean . So the words of a foreign language which cannot be substituted by Korean

w ords naturally are defined as loanw ords. But the words of a foreign language which can be substituted by Korean w ord naturally are defined

as words of the foreign language (Song 1997: 4). Some of the compounds loanwords or foreign languages are body g uard (경호원), cam eraman (사진

기자), China town (중국인마을), coff ee m ak er(커피 제조기), coff ee shop (다

방), elevator g irl(승강기 안내원), f olk s ong (민속 노래), g uide book (안내책

자), hair brush(머리 빗), hair cut(이발), hair s ty le (머리 모양), hair

dress er(머리 손질), ice rink (실내 스케이트장), school bus (학교 버스), s eat

cover(의자 덮개), team work (협력), trade mark (상표), dry cleaning (세탁),

and wedding dress (결혼식 드레스). T hese words can be substituted by for Korean without awkwardness . But the students do not know whether they belong to the loanw ords or not because they are used in everyday

- 38 - life. Examples of the loanwords made up of [noun + noun] are air show, echo machine, body lang uag e. More examples are as follow s:

body painting, bus card, bus terminal, cable car, cable T V, car phone, Christmas tree, Christmas card, color film, color lens, computer programmer, computer virus, earphone, eye liner, fan letter, floppy disk, gas boiler, goal keeper, goal line, hair dryer, hair spray, hand lotion, hand bag, hand cream, headphone, health club, ice box , laser disk, lip synch, lip stick, mink coat , motorcycle, motor show , music video, necktie pin, night club, oil fence, orange juice, quiz show , rush hour, self- service, show window , silk road, skate board, snow board, suntan oil, talk show , variety show , video game, room service, home shopping, ice dancing, school banking, phone banking, tele- banking, pc banking .

Second, the compound noun made up of [verb + noun] is very rare.

An only example is knowhow but it can be substituted by 비결 . So it is not the loanword but the w ord of foreign language.

T hird, there are compound nouns made up of [adjective + noun].

Among them , there are words of foreign language but not the loanwords, for example, big deal(사업거래), big news (화제 거리), black board (칠판), blue belt(청정 수역), fast f ood (즉석식품), g reen belt(녹지대), hot p ants (짧

은 반바지), m inibus (소형버스), m inisk irt(짧은치마), y ellow card (경고장) and mass m edia(대중매체). T he students use them as if they are the loanwords. T he loanw ords of the compound nouns made up of [adjective

- 39 - + noun] are as follow s:

best seller, black box , black hole, black list , dark hor se, fair play , free

kick, French kiss, heavy metal, new media, open book, white board,

quick service, high light, soft ware, hard w are, hot line, free talking .

Fourth, examples of compound nouns made up of [particle + noun] are

under line (밑줄), under wear(속옷), and over action (과도한 행동). T he last

example overaction becomes over losing its noun part in Korean . Yet, the word keeps its meaning although the semantically important part is missing, like 오바한다 and 그건 오바 야. T hese are not the loanwords

but the w ords of foreign language. T he loanw ords are m ultim edia,

m ulticoating , s up ermark et, sup erman, sup er m odel and so on .

Fifth, compound nouns are made up of [verb + adverb]. Examples are m ak e - up (화장) and warm - up (준비운동), which are the words of foreign language. Especially warm ing - up is used in Konglish . W e can also find the w ord of back - up in the list of the loanwords student s use and it is a

computer term . T his kind of compound is not common in the English

loanwords.

3.1.2 Compound adjectives

English examples of compound adjectives made up of [adjective +

noun] include blue- collar and white- collar. T his kind of compound can be

- 40 - found rarely in the loanw ords.

How ever, w e find examples of compound adjectives in Korean . (High

School Korean 1996: 276)

(1) noun + adjective : 값 + 싸다, 꿈 + 같다 adjective + adjective : 굳 + 세다, 높 + 푸르다 noun + verb : 맛 + 나다, 풀 + 죽다 adjective + verb : 게을러 + 터지다, 약아 + 빠지다 adverb + verb : 못 + 나다, 막 + 되다

3.1.3 Compound verbs

Compound verbs made up of [particle + noun] are found in English but

rare. T he loanwords are up g rade, up - date and down load which are all

the computer term s. In English dictionary these are all verbs but Korean

student s use them as compound nouns. For example, up g rade shik ita,

up - date shik ita, and download hata are used in Korean . For example,

once up date, up date and download are added to Korean derivation affixes,

they all are used as verbs in Korean . Another examples are dem o hata, p lay hada, drill hata, show hata, disp lay hata and race hata. T he word

dem o shortened for dem ons trate as a verb and p lay as a verb in English

are all regarded as nouns in Korean.

3.2 Hybrid Loanwords

In this section we will be examining the hybrid loanw ords which are

- 41 - made up of either [English + Korean] or [Korean + English].

3.2.1 Compound nouns

In English and in Korean, compound nouns made up of [noun + noun]

are much more numerous than other types of compound nouns . Fir st, let us examine compound nouns of this type in Korean .

T he structural rules of the Korean compound nouns are as follow s:

(Kim 1993, 196)

(1) N°→ N°+ N°(눈물, 봄비, 시냇물, 고깃배, 노름돈) N°→ V°+ N°(뜬구름, 볶음밥, 앉은키, 죽을힘, 큰집) N°→ Det°+ N°(새색시, 이것, 첫눈, 옛날, 오른손) N°→ V - 1 + N°(깎낫, 굳기름, 늦바람, 후릿고삐, 들숨) N°→ N - 2 + N°(곱슬머리, 딱성냥, 부슬비, 산들바람)

X°level: simple word and complex X - 1 level: stem X - 2 level: root Xa f level: derivational affix and inflectional affix

One type of compound nouns is made up of [specifier + N°(head)]. So the modifier of a compound noun can be as long as possible. But in

appositional compounds and portmanteau compounds, internal expansion is impossible because of morphological restriction . T he examples of

appositional compounds are 남녀, 노소, 청탁 and the examples of

- 42 - portmanteau compounds are 밤낮(늘), 춘추(나이), 광음(세월). Compound

nouns and compound verbs have syntactical structures which are used as

idioms .

T he examples of the words expanded internally are as follow s:

(3) * 남소녀 * 노인소 * 청부탁 * 춘과추 * 광과음

T hese words are not used in Korean .

Most of all, words of a foreign language used by mistake by Korean

student s are [미용 tiss ue] and [table보]. But they can be substituted by

미용 화장지 and 탁자보 without awkw ardness in Korean . T he examples of

such loanw ords are 가죽 belt, 고무 band and 공중전화 box . More

examples that I collected are as follow s :

관광 bus, 광cable, 광sensor, 구명 boat, 기름 boiler , 기상 caster, 냉 coffee, 네잎 clover, 나비 necktie, 도시 gas, 독gas, 때밀이 tow el, 마감 new s, 마을 bus, 만능 entertainer , 머리 pin, 먹이 pyramid, 무인경보 system, 물 cup, 반coat, 백 percent, 공tape, 보도 block, 생일 cake, 선물 set, 선불 card, 성 hormone, 쇠 pipe, 수상 ski, 수성 paint, 수중 ballet, 신용 card, 십자 driver, 안전 belt , 감자 chip, memo지, missy족, 사내 venture, sports (운동)화, orange족, T exas촌, hardboard지, 암dollar, 양

- 43 - 면tape, 영양 cream, 옷 pin, 운동 energy , 원두 coffee, digital 시계, 유명 maker, 인기 star, 접착식 tape, 정비 center, 종이 cup, 총알 taxi, alcohol중독, angel 산업, anomie 현상, audio 기기, braun관, bus표, can 맥주, chatting 방, coffee 잔, cut 칼, dump 차, energy원, game 방, vedio 방, gas통, goal대, golf장, gossip란, hit 상품, laser 광선, leisure 산업, lesson비, memo판, new s 속보, nobel상, ozon층, pyramid 판매, radar망, refill 제품, relay 경주, service 산업, shower실, silver 산업, sink대, ski복, sparta식, sticker 사진, thema 소설, venture 산업, wrecker 차, x선, embossing 가공

Especially one striking characteristic is found. When compound nouns

are made up of English + Korean or Korean + English, the loanw ords are made by the rule of Korean w ord- formation. An example is 달걀 f ry , not f ry 달걀 nor f ried 달걀 . In English the correct form is f ried egg . A

similar example is chick en f ry . T he English counterpart is fried chicken .

But the order of the w ord is changed by the rule of Korean

w ord- formation . Some compound nouns made up of [noun + noun] are

Konglish that means broken English in terms of word formation rules.

For example, 볼touch should be used as blusher and dance가수 should be used as dancing가수 in English . 소개ting is a blend which is made up of

소개 + m eeting, but m eeting should be used blind date in English .

However the apparently connect form of 소개 + blind date is never used

in Korean. Another examples are 얼굴 massag e which means facial

m assag e in English, 전자rang e (electronic microw ave oven ), 학교

badg e (school pin ), A rabia숫자 (Arabic figures), fancy점 (gift shop), sharp 심

- 44 - (mechanical pencil 심), sharp 연필 (mechanical pencil), s ig n회 (autograph회).

In hous e 밀감, hous e means viny l hous e in Korean but it means g reen house in English . An example of compound nouns made up of [affix + noun] is 생cream . Derivation is very productive w ord- formation in Korean

and is defined as a process of root or w ord being added to a derivational

affix . A derivational affix belongs to one of the three types in Korean ; prefix , infix and suffix . T he examples are as follow s: (High School

Korean 1996: 277)

(4) noun + suffix : 꾀 + 보, 장난 + 꾸러기 verb + suffix : 놀 + 이, 웃 + 음 noun + infix + noun : 코 + + 등, 조 + + 쌀 prefix + noun : 맨 + 발, 홑 + 이불

Second, examples of clipping compound are com맹 (computer맹), net맹

(internet맹), 수성 ball p en (수성 ball point pen ), ero물 (erotic물), m elo물

(melodramatic물), 재tech(재 technology ), and classic 음악 (classical 음악).

T hey are used through clipping because of phonetic convenience in

Korean . Especially ros구이 is characteristic. In English roast means 굽다

in Korean . T he ros where a and t are clipped is added to the Korean verbal root 구 bake ' and Korean noun suffix 이. A m ateur 선수 is made up of amateur + 선수. In this form , the noun amateur, which contains

meaning of p lay er, is added to the Korean noun 선수. An example of

compound nouns made up of [adjective + noun] is lig ht급 . A compound

- 45 - noun which looks similar to this type but not quite the same is made up

of [linking w ord + noun]. Example are cy ber대학, cy ber병원, cy ber가수

and so on. Here cyber - are substituted by 가상 in Korean .

T hird, compound nouns in Korean can also be made up of [adverb + noun]. T here are 깜짝 cam era, 깜짝 p arty , 깜짝 show, 깜짝 idea, 몰래

video, 몰래 cam era and 반짝 s tar. In English, this type of compound is

very rare but it is very common in Korean recently . In Konglish, 몰래

beit is used as a result of blending of 몰래 and beit which is clipped

from arbeit. In addition, there is an interesting example of tic 장애 . In

English tic is one of adjective suffixes as illustrated in pedantic and

democratic. But tic is regarded as a stem by Korean student s and

restructured. So tic 장애 is made up of stem + noun .

Fourth, examples of compound noun made up of [adjective + suffix]

are s lim화 and s of t화 . In 쫄tee, 쫄 is the root of adjective in Korea, and

tee means a T - shirt in Konglish. In g lobal 시대, global is an adjective but sometimes Korean student s seem to regard it as an English w ord itself. So they use g lobal 시대 or g lobal care as if they are made up of

[noun + noun]. Another examples are long 다리 and short 다리 . T here is

an interesting example of 한 sp oon, which is a compound noun made up

of [Korean determinative4) + English noun]. Examples of the compound

noun made up of [adverb + noun] are 볼록 lens and 오목 lens . Finally

examples of the compound noun made up of [noun + suffix] are dig ital화,

4) It is called 관형사(pre- nominal specifier) in Korean.

- 46 - gam e기, massag e기, m eter기, screen화, shower기 and dry기. Here, the

Korean part 화 and 기 function as nominal suffixes. M ix er기 is Konglish because m ix er기 in Korean means blender in English, but mixer ' is for

itself the electric appliance blender .

3.2.2 Derivational verbs and derivational adjectives

T hrough contact with English, only a part of English word can be

borrow ed and then a Korean affix is added to form a new w ord. T his

w ord is used as if they are originally Korean . In other words, derivation made up of English [adj ective + hata] are extremely common in Korean .

H ata is a kind of suffix in Korean . Derivational adjectives made up of

English adj ective + hata are found abundant in Korean . Compared to

other derivational words, derivational verbs are the most unrestricted in morphological expansion . T he structures of derivational verbs in Korean

are as follow s: (High School Korean 1996: 277)

(5) noun + suffix : 위반 + 하다, 운동 + 하다 verb + suffix : 남 + 기다, 먹 + 이다 adjective + suffix : 낮 + 추다, 밝 + 히다 adverb + suffix : 깜박 + 이다, 출렁 + 거리다

But the structures of derivational adjectives in Korean are as follow s:

(High School Korean 1996: 296)

- 47 - (6) adjective + suffix : 넓 + 적하다, 높 + 다랗다 noun + suffix : 신사 + 답다, 복 + 스럽다 verb + suffix : 그리 + 다, 놀라 + 다 det + suffix : 새 + 롭다 adverb + suffix : 울퉁불퉁 + 하다, 반듯반듯 + 하다

T he words of the form root + hata are divided into tw o types: one is

free noun and another is bound root . For example, (Kim 1993: 197)

(7) 일하다 : N + hata → Derivational verb 착하다 : R + hata → Derivational adjective

T herefore internal expansion in derivational verb is possible but

derivational adjective is not possible. Here, w e can find that derivational

adjectives are used as if they are a w ord habitually . In N + hata, no negation or modifier can be added until it has internal expansion (Kim

1998: 211).

(8) 일하다 : 일(을) 하다. 공부하다 : 공부 (안) 하다. 착하다 : *착(을) 하다. 깨끗하다 : *깨끗 (안) 하다

So N + hata is a word but in it there is a syntactic structure. But in

English adj ective + hata, to be expanded internally is impossible. So it is

- 48 - like a perfect word. Examples are as follow s:

(9) wild hata *wildlul hata

For example, in a derivation made up of English adj ective + hata,

English adjective seems to be regarded as adjective root . So English adj ective + hata is one adjective word and English adj ective + lul hata is impossible, in other w ords, internal expansion is not possible. Examples

are as follow s:

grotesque hata, delicate hata, delux hata, dressy hata, dynamic hata, erotic hata, humorous hata, mild hata, open hata, real hata, rhythmical hata, romantic hata, sentimental hata, sexy hata, sharp hata, shocking hata, simple hata, smart hata, smooth hata, tough hata, unique hata, wild hata .

Glam or hata should be substituted by g lam orous hata. Glam orous is

clipped because of phonetic convenience in Korean and E ng lish adj ective

+ han or hag e is also possible. English adjective seems to be regarded as

adjective root, where han is added. An interesting fact is that an English loanword is content word in this type of words and the added Korean

affix is a function word. In contrast with this, rare examples are 시골tic

and 얌전tic (Choi 1997: 18). Korean content w ord is added to English

- 49 - adjective affix . As an example of English noun + ita, cap + ita (캡이다) is Konglish . D own can be used either as an adverb and a preposition in

English. But in down shik ita, the Korean students seem to regard down as a noun. M atch is a verb and a noun in English. But in match doeta, they also seem to regard m atch as a verb in Korean . P lus doeta, m ix doeta and p unc(p uncture) nata are the same cases. Another example is op en m ind hata which means op en m inded in English . Because it is much easier for Koreans to pronounce the English word without inflectional affix - ed than with it .

T here is another example of E ng lish noun + hata. In N + hata, N plays an object role and hata is a transitive verb which needs an object .

A s a result, N is an object and hata is a transitive verb. In this case, N

+ lul hata is possible in Korean . T hat is, in N + hata, it is possible to be expanded internally . Example are as follow s:

(10) check hata checklul hata

Examples are as follow s:

dubbing (ul) hata, dessin (ul) hata, corner kick (ul) hata, copy (lul) hata, countdown (ul) hata, D.C(lul) hata, design (ul) hata, display (lul) hata, dry (lul) hata, heading (ul) hata, kiss (lul) hata, lead(lul) hata, lobby (lul) hata, long run (ul) hata, master (lul) hada, rehear sal(ul) hata, rinse(lul)

- 50 - hata, rotation (ul) hata, sale(ul) hata, scrap(ul) hata, shampoo(lul) hata, shock死(lul) hata, shopping (ul) hata.

As Konglish w ords, there are arbeit(lul) hata, g ibs hata(cast ), p ick - up (ul) hata(scout ). N + han or hak ey is an impossible expression

because to the affix - han or - hak ey only an English adjective root is

added. Examples are as follow s:

(11) realhan

realhak ey

*salehan

*salehak ey

Examples of English noun + not hata are A .S (af ter- sale s ervice) p atta,

hik ing kata, underline chita, handp hone(cellular p hone) chita, and pp ipp i

cihta.

3.3 Konglish : English loanw ords adapted to Korean

3.3.1 Compound nouns

When a language borrow s a w ord from a foreign language, it tends to use the word in a simple and easy way . So only a base form of noun or verb is borrowed and various morphemes or allomorphs are not borrow ed

- 51 - in order to pronounce it easily . Fir st, there are compounds made up of

[noun + noun]. An example is curry rice(curried rice). When English is

borrow ed in Korean at first , w ords of English language without

inflectional affix - ed is easier for Korean to pronounce. A s a result ,

curried rice in English is shortened. I ce coff ee, ice water and salary m an are the same cases, and in the case of f ry ing p an, ing is shortened to become f ry p an. And in Korean a plural form is not important

grammatically , so in f our balls, blue j eans, high heels, slipp ers and two s trik es, s is dropped. Another example is m ent which is one of T V or radio terms . M ent in Korean is clipping from announcement . It is the final part of the base lexeme which has been retained. T hat is, the root

as a content w ord is removed and then the nominal affix m ent is left . In

mis- take , the root tak e as a content w ord is also removed and then the prefix m is is left .

T here are a lot of compound nouns which are coined arbitrarily in

Korean instead of borrowing it directly from English . Examples are as follow s :

banana kick (bicycle kick ). band stocking (stocking ), beach parasol(beach umbrella), bed scene(bedroom scene), running shirt (shirt ), car center (car repair shop), fashion model(commercial actor/ actress), cheer girl(cheer leader ), coffee time (coffee break ), cunning paper (cheat sheets ), cut line (cut off point ), door phone (door bell), Dutch pay (Dutch treat ), eye shopping (window shopping ), fancy store(gift shop), finger

- 52 - size (ring size), gas range (gas stove), group sound(musical band), hair designer (hair dresser ), hair shampoo(shampoo), hair shop (beauty salon ) hair dry (hair dress), hand phone (cellular phone), home drama (soap opera), hotel front (the reception desk ), love hotel(hotel), morning call(w ake up call), morning perma (permanent w ave), music band(musical band), oil bank (gas station ), one piece(dress ), pantalong (knee stocking ), panty stocking (panty hose), pocket book (memorandum book), prime coffee(cream coffee), sign pen (felt - tip pen ), sport new s (sports cast ), tee- shirt (shirt ), vinyl bag (plastic bag ), vinyl house(green house), Y shirts (dress shirt ), cooking w are(cook ware), hearing test (listening comprehension test ), my my (W alkman ).

In Korean, notebook comp uter means a small computer that you can carry with you but in English they use the expression a lap- top computer . Han (1999: 61) claims that notebook comp uter in Korean should be corrected as lap- top computer, because notebook computer is a brand name. So hotchk iss (stapler), mag ic p en(maker), p olla tee(tuddle neck shirt) and burbery coat(trench coat) which can not be found in the dictionary for they are all brand names, but notebook comp uter is widely accepted in English . Examples of this kind are as follow s:

alpha (extra), arbeit (part - time job), cider (seven- up). circle(club),

complex (inferiority ), autobi(motorcycle), band(band aid), castera (sponge

cake), consent (w all outlet ), handle(steering wheel), mustang (sheep skin

coat ), manicure(nail polish), pokhrein (steam shovel), sticker (citation

ticket ), talent (T V actor/ actress), pas (Ben - Gay ), training (jogging suit ),

- 53 - trump (plastic card), gibs (cast ), sack (backpack), prangcard(banner ),

stand(desk lamp), frima (cream ), gagman (comedian), back (connection ),

jumper (jacket ), cunning (cheating ), driball(dribble), episode(anecdote),

fighting (go for it ), hard(popsicle), night (dance), second(mistress),

service(on the house), vacance(summering ), craxon (horn ),

T here are compound nouns made up of [adjective + noun]. Examples

are as follow s:

big deal(trade), black color (black), dead ball(hit by pitched ball), global care(globalization care), golden time (prime time), old miss (old maid), soft lens (soft contact lens ), sharp pencil(mechanical pencil), straight perma (straight permanent w ave), one side love(unreturned love).

A characteristic example is no g oal. In this case, no is added to the g oal. Once no is added to the requisite w ord, a new word is coined. For example, there are no m arg in, no s leeve, no p anty , no bra, no tie and no hit no run in Konglish. T here are so many Konglish w ords which are coined by mistranslating in Korean . Examples of compound nouns made up of [adverb + noun] are as follow s:

back dancer (background dancer ), back mirror (rear view mirror ), back number (player number ), behind story (behind the scenes story ), overeat (vomit up), over sense(oversensitive), rear car (hand truck ), side mirror (outside mirror ).

- 54 - Examples of compound nouns made up of preposition and noun are af ter service(after - sale service), m inisup er(food store), and on

line(electronic fund transfer).

3.3.2 Clipping

Sometimes long loanwords words are shortened because of phonetic inconvenience such as aircon(air conditioner), rem ocon(remote controller), gam e s et(game and set), dry (dry cleaning), hom e run(home run hit), ap art(apartment) and so on . Another example is pine juice which is

shortened for pineapple juice although pine is a kind of tree. In contrast

with this, charm ing school, cook ing ware and warm ing up are all

Konglish. Koreans seem to think that warm, charm, cook are not nouns but verbs. T hus although a gerundive affix - ing is added, w arm, charm,

cook remain all nouns. So the gerundive affix - ing should be all removed.

Another interesting example is the use of over - in Korean . In Konglish

over + action, the head action is clipped and only the particle over is left .

Over in Konglish also means overcoat, which is the same case. Examples

of clipping are as follow s:

aerobic (aerobic dance), ama (amateur ), cassette(cassette tape recorder ), classic(classical music), codi(coordinator ), cold(cold cream ), combi(combination ), compact (compact power ), condo(condominium ), counter (check out counter ), driver (screw driver ), ero(erotic), front (front desk), happening (false happening ), happy end(happy ending ),

- 55 - hy steri(hy steria ), lift (lift chair ), mass com (mass communication ), mike(microphone), note(notebook), panty (panties ), perma (permanent ), photo shop(photography shop), white(white out ), post - it (post - it note pad), pro(professional), pro(program ), super (supermarket ), rent car (rental car ), shutter (shutter button ), speaker (loud speaker ), terevi(television ), stain (stainless steel), wrap(plastic wrap).

3.3.3 Blend

Some loanwords become Konglish as a result of inappropriate blending .

A s we saw earlier, a recent example is burg er. T he w ord ham burg er has no connection to ham . It got it s name from the German town of

Hamburg, which was famous for it s ground steak. German immigrants to the United States introduced the hamburger steak. At the St . Louis

W orld ' s Fair in 1904, hamburger steaks were served on burns for the

fir st time. Hamburger s on buns were convenient and tasted good. T his

became the usual w ay of eating hamburger s. T he hamburger became the most popular, most typical American food. In Korean, the word hamburger

w as considered to be made up of ham + burger . A s a result, rice burg er is coined in Korean . Burger King as the name of a company is even

coined. Examples of English blends in Korean are comp utop ia (

+ utop ia), technop ia (

off is tel (

rice), Oxy clean (

tig er), s unting (

- 56 - (

(

English. In Korean, K olong (

D o), S onoram a (

means blind date over the phone in English . Let us take examples in

Korean (Lim 1992: 191).

(12) 반창tival = 반창회 + festival 몰ting = 몰래 + meeting 여천 = 여수 + 순천 쫄뽂기 = 쫄면 + 떡뽂기 라뽂기 = 라면 + 떡뽂기

Examples of compound nouns made up of [noun + preposition] are hom e in (scored) and g oal in (point ). Recently there are so many Konglish

w ords which are coined at random and arbitrarily,

- 57 - IV . CONCLUSION

T hrough this thesis, I have analyzed and described various

w ord- formation processes found in English loanw ords in Korean .

Although most of the data shown here have been w ell- known among

Korean speakers, there has been little compilation of this information, the

system of English loanw ords. T hus, in this thesis, I have tried to formalize those well known phenomena in w ord- formation processes of

English loanwords . By doing this, those various messy - looking

w ord- formation processes can be view ed as a very systematic part of

overall Korean and English morphology . T o categorize the w ay of

description, I divided the thesis into four chapter s.

In chapter one, the general outline of this thesis w as introduced. Here the motive and the purpose, as well as the organization of this thesis

w ere described. In addition, the focus and the domain of the study w ere

also introduced.

In chapter tw o, the overall English w ord- formation processes were

examined. First , the definitions of the loanw ords and Konglish were

discussed. Second, w e explore word- formation processes of English in

detail including inflection, derivation, conver sion, complex compounding,

coinage, acronym, clipping, blend and back - formation. T hen an outline of

English compounding w as introduced. Compound nouns, compound verbs,

compound adjectives were illustrated with many recent examples.

- 58 - In chapter three, I analyzed various word- formation processes

occurring in English loanw ords in Korean . Here I dealt with three major

areas. In the fir st section of this chapter, I analyzed the pure English loanwords that have their own meaning as part of English language. Here

I showed that many Korean students fail to distinguish loanw ords which have been adopted by Korean from genuine English words and so many

English w ords are used as loanw ords in Korean everyday life. I found

English loanw ords of compound nouns made up of [noun + noun] are borrow ed more easily than other compounds. Among them, especially

endocentric compounds are much more numerous than exocentric

compounds. In the examples of compound verbs: up g rade, up date, down

load, I pointed out that they are all verbs in English, but they are regarded as nouns. So they all need Korean verbal affixes to be used as verbs in Korean.

In the second section, I discussed and analyzed the loanw ords made up

of English + Korean and Korean + English. Here, I showed that they are

so thoroughly Koreanized that they are perceived as native w ords and naturally connected with pure native Korean w ords. T he most striking

case is that compounds of English + Korean and Korean + English are united according to the characteristic rule. In the examples of 달걀 f ry and tire p unc, the compounding is governed according to the Korean

w ord- formation rule. Also, in derivational adverbs and derivational

adjectives they have usually been preferred to English words. In such

- 59 - cases, we have used native morphemes just for case marker s (i.e.,

particles ) or modifier s of English nouns. We often simply attach native

adjective suffixes or verbal suffixes as function w ords to English nouns

as content w ords. T herefore, in many occasions, native morphemes are

chosen for derivational affixes like tough han, romantic hata, shamp oo hata and smart hata. In a number of cases the content word is usually from English and Korean is used as an affix . In English adjective + hata, it is impossible to expand internally like *real(lul) hata.

Another interesting thing is that compound nouns made up of [adverb

+ noun] are very rare in English. But in Korean, compounds made up of

Korean adverb + English noun are very common e.g ., 몰래 cam era and 깜

짝 idea. On the other hand, because English loanwords have been used so frequently in Korean, they can be easily mixed with native Korean lexical item s in w ord- formation .

In the third section of this chapter, I discussed Konglish

w ord- formation processes, the origins and the way they are used. Here, it

w as Konglish compound nouns made up of [noun + noun] that are coined more easily than the other s. I show ed that Konglish is usually coined by immediate necessity . A Konglish compound is made out of each word

which is needed, before English w ords are borrow ed or natural Korean

w ords are coined. I show ed that there are so many pseudo- English in

Korean like back m irror and back dancer. T hey are all coined by mistranslating into Korean . In addition, sometimes Korean students seem

- 60 - not to like phonetically difficult words, so Konglish is often shortened and

blended in their own w ay like rem ocon and lep orts . Moreover in

over- action or over- coat, action or coat as a head is removed, only over is left although it is not the head of the words . I showed that when a

w ord is borrowed, it is usually used in a simple and easy w ay in the borrowing language. For example, an English w ord without affix can be

considered less difficult . T herefore, English words with - ed or - s deleted

are easier for Korean to pronounce. So they are often removed to be used like ice coff ee (iced coffee) and two s trik e (two strikes) in Korean.

I have tried to re- analyze the w ord- formation in English loanw ords in

Korean . How ever, there remain numerous problem s which deserve more thorough research. Nonetheless, this study is an attempt to see the various w ord- formation processes of English loanwords in an organized

w ay . T hus this study will be a helpful reference for those who may try to see many interesting aspects of word- formation processes of English loanwords in Korean. Finally, I hope that this thesis will help students

and English teachers to study or teach English correctly and native

English structures to be taken on as they are.

- 61 - REFERENCES

강진식. (1996). 국어형태론연구. 전북: 원광대학교 출판국.

고등학교 국어. (1996). 대한교과서.

국립국어연구원. (1995). 기본 외래어 용례집.

김세중. (1996). 외래어 표기법에 대한 비판 분석 새국어생활. 6, 서울:

국립 국어연구원.

김영석. (1998). 영어형태론. 서울: 한국문화사.

김종택. (1993). 국어 어휘론. 서울: 탑출판사.

김진우. (1985). 언어. 서울: 탑출판사.

민현식. (1997). 외래어의 차용과 변용 국어사연구. 태학사.

박종호. (1998). 엉터리 영어 바른 영어. (vol. 1, vol. 2,) 서울: 조선일보사.

송철의 외 4인. (1997). 외래어 순화방안과 수용대책 외래어사용실태와

국민언어순화방안. 서울: 국어학회. pp. 1- 16.

안상철. (1998). 형태론. 서울: 민음사.

여상필. (1984). A Phonological Study of English Loanw ords in Korean .

영남대학교 대학원. 박사학위논문.

유만근, 김하수, 이은정. (1990). 외래어와 그 수용정잭 한국어

연구논문. 25, 서울: 한국방송공사아나운서실 KBS 한국어

연구회.

유만근 외 7인. (1996). 외래어를 귀화시켜 국어다운 외래어로 새국어생

활. 6, 서울: 국립국어연구원. pp. 105- 121.

윤효윤. (1990). Konglish . 서울: (주) 시사영어사.

- 62 - 이승명. (1982). 외래어 수용양태에 대한 어휘 의미론적 연구. 수련어논문

집. 9,

이찬규. (1988). 외래어 연구. 중앙대학교 대학원. 석사학위논문.

임지룡 외 12인. (1997). 21세기 국어 어휘 의미 연구의 방향 한국어 의

미학 (Korean Semantic) 1, 서울. 한국어의미학회. pp.

5- 28.

한순복. (1999). 한국식 영어표현 바로 잡기. 서울: 홍익미디어플러스.

최명숙. (1997). 영어 외래어의 어의변화에 관한 연구. 인하대학교 대학원.

박사학위논문.

Adam s, V . (1973). An Introduction to Modern English W ord- formation .

London : Longman .

Aronoff, M . (1976). Word Formation in Generative Grammar . Linguistic

Inquiry Monograph 1. Cambridge, Mass : MIT Press.

Bauer , L. (1983). English Word- formation . New York: Cambridge

Univer sity Press.

Bazell, C. E . (1953). Linguistic Form . Istanbul: Istanbul Press .

Farb, P . (1997). 말 그 모습과 쓰임. (이기동, 김혜숙, 김혜숙 역).

서울: 한국문화사.

Fromkin, V . & Rodman, R. (1995). An introduction to Language 신영어

학개론. (박의재, 성락일 역). 서울: 한신문화사. (1993년 원저출판).

Lyons, J . (1977). Semantics . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Pyles, T . (1971). T he Origins and Development of the English

Language. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.

- 63 - Pyles, T . & Algeo, J. (1982). T he Origins and Development of the

English Language. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich .

(1993). T he Origins and Development of the

English Language, 4th ed. New York : Harcourt Brace

Jovanovich.

Strang, B. M . (1968). Modern English Structure. 2nd ed., London :

Edw ard Arnold.

- 64 - ABST RACT

A Study of English Landlords in Korean

Cheon Eun Sook Major in English Education Graduate school of Education Sogang Univer sity Seoul, Korea

T his thesis is an attempt to analyze and examine w ord- formation processes of English loanw ords, various origins and the w ay they are used by the student s of Yool- gok High School. For this purpose, this thesis deals with three major areas:

1) Pure English loanw ords that have their own meaning as a foreign

language.

2) Hybrid loanwords made up of [English + Korean] or of [Korean +

English]

3) Konglish : English loanw ords adapted to Korean

For convenience of description, this thesis consists of four chapter s.

First of all, in chapter one, the motive, the purpose and the organization

- 65 - of the thesis are described. In chapter tw o, the theoretical background is provided: the definition of loanw ords, word- formation processes of English

and an outline of English compounds . In chapter three, various

w ord- formation processes occurring in English loanw ords are discussed.

But this thesis does not distinguish pure native Korean morphemes from

sino- Korean morphemes. T his questions we address here include the

following :

1) What are English loanw ords made up of?

2) How do the differences between English and Korean word- formation

affect the english loanwords in Korean?

3) What are the types of deviant loanw ords, commonly called Konglish

and how are they adapted to Korean?

T o answer these questions several word- formational aspects of English loanwords and Korean words are discussed in detail.

Finally in chapter four , the overall analy sis is summarized and some implications of this study are provided. T he conclusion we arrive at through the study of English loanw ords used by the student s of Yool- gok

High School is :

T he conclusion is that

1) An English loanword is often borrowed in a simple and easy way

- 66 - without English affix like - ed, - s and - ing in Korean . As a result,

salaried man in English is shortened and used as salary man. And

four balls and two strikes are shortened for f our ball and two

s trik e . Frying pan is shortened for f ry p an.

2) [English + Korean] or [Korean + English] loanword is made by the

rule of Korean w ord- formation. So 달걀 f ry is coined by Korean

w ord- formation rule, not f ry 달걀.

3) in English loanw ord or Konglish, compounding nouns made up of

noun + noun are borrow ed and coined more easily than any other

compound. And most of them are endocentric.

4) Most English loanw ords are regarded as nouns and are used with

Korean verbal affixes as verbs, although they are compound verbs.

So up g rade hata and down load hata are used in Korean .

T herefore this kind of study should be done in order to help students to use English correctly without interference with English study . It is hoped that this thesis will help students and English teacher s to study

and teach English correctly and native English structures to be taken on

as they are.

- 67 -