Life Science Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL: Eight Topic: Cells Grade Level Standard: 8-1 Apply an understanding of cells to the functions of multicellular organisms. Grade Level Benchmark: 1. Demonstrate evidence that all parts of living things are made up of cells. (III.1.MS.1)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information Resources
Central Question: What are cells?
1. Compare and contrast cell structure and processes. Saginaw/Midland County Science Curriculum pages 2. “Looking At Yeast Cells” - Note how rapidly yeast cells 1483-1490. increase in number.
3. “Cellebration”
Activity is attached
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary: plants, animals, tissues, organs, organ system, paramecium, elodea leaf cells, onion skin cells, human cheek cells
1 LOOKING AT YEAST CELLS
OBJECTIVE Students will identify the basic functions of a cell.
SCIENCE PROCESSES Observing Measuring Communicating
TEACHER SUGGESTIONS Introduction of cell division and growth. Experiment may be extended for several lessons.
DESCRIPTION Looking at yeast cells and observing their growth.
GROUP SIZE Dependent on number of microscopes
EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS Covered glass container (quart jars) Microscopes Slides and cover slides 1/4 teaspoon yeast, powdered-dry Eye droppers 1 pint warm water Table sugar
PROCEDURE At least 12 hours before class, make up the following two solutions:
Mixture # 1 1/4 teaspoon powdered yeast 1 pint warm water
1. Place mixture in a quart jar with a cover and let stand until dissolved. 2. Mix thoroughly each time before using. 3. Mixture should last one week, then a new solution should be made.
2 Mixture # 2 1 cup water 1 tablespoon table sugar 1 tablespoon mixture # 1 (yeast and water)
1. Place in a jar and mix. 2. Cover loosely. 3. Allow to stand for 12 hours so that the yeast cells will begin to divide.
NOTE: At the start the yeast cells will divide rapidly in this mixture, but will stop dividing about four days later.
EVALUATION Discussion of questions on the following pages. These pages are to be duplicated for the students.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCE A Resource Book for the Biological Science, Harcourt, Brace, and World, Inc.
TAKEN FROM Science in a Sack
3 LOOKING AT YEAST CELLS
Make a slide using a small drop of yeast and table sugar mixture and a cover slip.
1. What does a yeast cell look like?
2. Draw a picture of several cells.
3. Can you tell the difference between a yeast cell and a small air bubble?
4. How big is a yeast cell?
4 EXAMINING YEAST CELLS THE NEXT DAY
The next day make another slide of the yeast and table sugar mixture and examine it.
1. Do you notice any differences in the size of the cells?
2. If so, are the cells larger or smaller than before?
3. Is there any difference in the number of cells in the area you can see?
4. If you think there is a change in the number of cells, how can you be sure?
5 HOW RAPIDLY DO YEAST CELLS INCREASE IN NUMBER?
1. Why is it important to shake or stir the mixture of yeast and table sugar before taking a sample?
Examine the slide you made using a microscope:
2. How many yeast cells did you count in the area you can see?
3. What time was it when you made the count?
4. If your microscope has more than one eyepiece, which one did you use?
5. Which objective lens did you use?
6. Why must you use the same lenses each time you make a count?
Now move the slide and count another group of cells:
7. How many cells did you count this time?
8. Why is it important to count more than one area of your sample?
9. What is the average of the counts you have made?
6 CELLEBRATION
You are going to examine a variety of cells under the microscope. Remember that the thinner the specimens are, the clearer the cells will appear. All of the specimens must be wet mounted. This means that you must be sure that the specimen is wet, and then you must press it flat against the slide. Add the appropriate dye, spread it evenly over the specimen, and set a cover slip on top. Tap the cover slip gently to remove any bubbles. Examine the specimen under LOW POWER ONLY.
1. ELODEA LEAF. Elodea is a pond plant. No stain is necessary. Notice the brick-shaped cells. The green dots are chloroplasts, which make and store chlorophyll (a chemical that enables plants to manufacture food). Draw several cells showing all of the detail.
2. ONION EPIDERMIS. Break a piece of onion and peel it back to remove the thin, transparent outer layer. Stain with two drops of iodine. Notice the large, narrow cell. The nuclei appear as tiny brown dots. Draw the entire field of view.
3. POTATO CELLS. Use a razor blade to shave off a paper-thin slice of potato. Stain with one drop of iodine. After about 15 seconds, (1) rinse it carefully, being sure not to lose the potato slice. Draw several of the large potato cells, showing the starch grains (which look like bunches of purple grapes).
4. CELERY STALK. Use a razor blade to cut a paper-thin slice across the stem. Add a drop of methylene blue stain. Notice that each vein is actually composed of a bundle of tubes. Draw a vascular bundle (vein) and the cells surrounding it.
5. ICE PLANT EPIDERMIS. Break an ice plant “leaf” and peel off a piece of (2) thin outer skin. Stain with one drop of methylene blue. Notice the stoma with their two guard cells. These look much like cat’s eyes. Draw a few stomata, their guard cells, and the cells surrounding them.
6. CHEEK EPITHELIUM. Gently scrape the inside of your cheek with a clean applicator. Smear the stuff on the end of a stick on the slide. Add one drop of methylene blue. Draw the tiny epithelium cells which look like irregularly shaped pancakes with a blueberry (the (3) nucleus) in the center. You might have to look around for quite a while to find a good group of cells.
(4) (5) (6)
7 Assessment Grade 8
CELLS
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.III.1.MS.1
Based on all the cell samples they have observed, students will create a product providing evidence that all living things are made of cells. This presentation should also highlight one scientist from the timeline and explain his or her contributions. Students may select from a variety of presentation mediums, including illustrations, multimedia presentations, models, posters, prepared slides, or informational books. Students will present their product to the class and explain characteristics of the different cells.
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.III.1.MS.1 Criteria Apprentice Basic Meets Exceeds Explanation of Provides a vague Provides a brief Provides an Provides an cells explanation. explanation. accurate, detailed extensive, explanation. detailed explanation. Evidence of cells Shows an Shows one or two Shows multiple Shows detailed example of a examples of cells. examples of cells. examples of a single cell. variety of cells. Explanation of Selects a scientist, Selects a scientist Selects a scientist Selects more than scientific but omits the and vaguely and explains his one scientist and contribution explanation of his explains his or her or her gives a detailed or her contribution. contribution. analysis of their contribution. contributions.
8 Life Science Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL: Eight Topic: Cells Grade Level Standard: 8-1 Apply an understanding of cells to the functions of multicellular organisms. Grade Level Benchmark: 2. Explain why and how selected specialized cells are needed by plants and animals. (III.1.MS.2)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information Resources
Central Question: Why are specialized cells needed in plants and animals?
1. “Respiration—Photosynthesis” Saginaw/Midland County Science Curriculum. Pages 2. “What Do Green Leaves Breathe Out”/“How is the 1525-1526, 1534-1535, 1537- Green Produced?” 1541.
3. “The Water Sucking Roots”
Activity is attached
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary: reproduction, photosynthesis, transport, movement, disease fighting, red blood cells, white blood cells, muscle cells, bone cells, nerve cells, egg/sperm cells, root cells, leaf cells, stem cells
9 RESPIRATION PHOTOSYNTHESIS Presence of CO² Presence of O
OBJECTIVE This activity is appropriate for all ages. It works well as a demonstration or a hands on activity. It shows the presence of carbon dioxide in our breath and the presence of oxygen in plant respiration.
TERMS Photosynthesis — the process in which the energy of sunlight is trapped by chlorophyll an used to make food. Respiration — the process by which food is broken down and energy is released.
TIME Part one - 15 minutes Part two - 1 to 2 hours
BACKGROUND Photosynthesis is the process by which green organisms make food. An organism that makes food is a producer. Green plants are producers. Photosynthesis is the source of food for almost every other organism. In photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water are combined with the aid of energy from light. The products of photosynthesis are sugars and oxygen.
Respiration is another plant process. The cell process of respiration results in a release of energy from food. The energy from respiration is used for all the activities of the cells metabolism. Carbon dioxide and water are products of respiration.
MATERIALS
H2O Phenol red indicator (purchase at pool supply store) Aquatic plants work best, however, carrot tops, grass, and other plants do work Light source Test tube Cork Straw
PROCEDURE # 1 1. Half fill a test tube with water. 2. Add phenol red, about two drops, and mix. 3. Take straw and place in test tube. 4. Gently blow in straw.
10 5. When the liquid goes from pink to yellow, it shows the presence of carbon
dioxide, CO2.
PROCEDURE # 2
1. Take the test tube with the CO2 rich water. Put a good size piece of an aquatic plant into the tube. 2. Lightly cork the tube. 3. Shine a light source on the tube or place in a sunny window.
4. InonetotwohourstheCO2 rich water will have turned pink again, showing the presence of oxygen in plant respiration and the use of carbon dioxide in photosynthesis.
RESPIRATION
C6H12O6 +6O2 6CO2 +6H2O + energy
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
6CO2 +6H2O + energy C6H12O6 + 6O2
TAKEN FROM Judy Meier, Teacher Specialist
11 WHAT DO GREEN LEAVES BREATHE OUT?
MATERIALS Green weed and wood split A large beaker, a funnel, a test tube A stand and clamp
PROCEDURE 1. Fill the beaker with water, immerse the funnel and the test tube in the water, and set the apparatus up as in the above sketch. 2. Raise the funnel and place some green weed under it. 3. Leave the apparatus in strong sunlight or under a spotlight and observe the bubbles given off by the leaves. 4. After collecting almost a full test tube of gas, test it with a glowing wood splint.
QUESTIONS 1. What gas is collected from the test tube? 2. What did the glowing wood splint do when lowered in the test tube? 3. What made the water in the test tube stand so much higher than the water level in the beaker?
EXPLANATION The green in the leaves, which is chlorophyll, produces sugar and cellulose and starch in the plant. During this process of sugar production, carbon dioxide, water, and oxygen are released. This only occurs during daytime when the sunlight is shining on it. The purpose of the funnel is to bring all the bubbles released by the weed together under the test tube. As the glowing splint flares up into the bright flame in the gas, it indicates that the gas is oxygen.
The fact that plants give off oxygen during the daytime makes having them in the living room a good thing. The air is enriched with oxygen and it is therefore healthy to have plants in the room.
12 HOW IS THE GREEN IN THE LEAVES PRODUCED?
MATERIALS A plant with large wide leaves Carbon paper or black construction paper Paper clips or masking tape
PROCEDURE 1. Cut out several patterns (circle, square, triangle) in several pieces of carbon paper. 2. Cover three or more leaves as much as possible with the cut out carbon paper by attracting it to the leaves with the paper clip or masking tape. 3. Cover some leaves halfway with carbon paper close to the stem (or any other pattern of covering) and leave it attached for two or three days. 4. After leaving the black paper against the leaves for several days, remove the attached paper and observe the leaves.
QUESTIONS 1. How did the covered areas of the leaves compare to the uncovered ones? 2. Do plants need sunshine to produce the green color? 3. What is the green color in the plant leaves called? 4. What is the process of production of the green color called? 5. What is the function of the chlorophyll in plant leaves?
EXPLANATION The covered areas of the leaves will become much paler. The longer it stays covered, the paler the color, because no sunshine is penetrating the green pigment that enables every plant that possesses it to combine water and carbon dioxide from the air to form sugar. This process in which sunshine is an essential ingredient is called photosynthesis. It is the sugar in the plants that gives animals and man the energy when it is consumed by them.
The chlorophyll also produces cellulose, a much larger molecule than sugar which is the basic building material in plants. Thus, without sunshine the leaves do not produce chlorophyll, no cellulose, and therefore, plants do not grow.
13 THE WATER SUCKING ROOTS
MATERIALS A beaker (250 mL), a one-hole stopper, a glass tube A carrot or a cylinder shaped potato, syrup (sugar), candle wax A coring knife (apple corer), a stand and clamp
PROCEDURE 1. With the coring knife, cut a hole in the carrot or potato about three-quarters down its length, such that the one-hole stopper will fit in it and close it tightly. See sketch. 2. Insert a 20 cm long glass tube in the one-hole stopper. 3. Fill the hole in the carrot or potato with syrup or a concentrated solution of sugar in the water. 4. Push the stopper with the glass tube in the hole (liquid level should rise in the tube) and seal any openings between the stopper and the carrot or potato with candle wax (light a candle and let the melted wax drop on the places that you want sealed). 5. Mark the liquid level in the glass tube with a piece of masking tape, a grease pencil, or a rubber band. 6. Clamp the carrot or potato and immerse it in water. Observe the water level in the glass tube at the end of the period.
QUESTIONS 1. What made the water level in the glass tube rise? 2. Would this water level also rise if the tube were filled with plain water? With salt water? 3. Why did the stopper have to be sealed with wax? 4. What would happen if the carrot and tube were filled with plain water and the beaker with sugar solution?
14 EXPLANATION The skin, tissue, and fibers of the carrot or potato act like a semi-permeable membrane, letting only the small water molecules through, but not the larger sugar molecules. This makes the water move from the beaker into the carrot and up the tube. If the concentration of sugar is higher in the beaker compared to that inside the carrot, the water will move out of the carrot and thus the water level in the tube will go down.
This action and migration of water molecules through a semi-permeable membrane is called osmosis.
15 Assessment Grade 8
CELLS
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.III.1.MS.2
Students will select an organism and one of its specialized cells to research. They will prepare a summary of their research, including information about its structure (visual representation) and function (written summary) that could be used on a class web site.
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.III.1.MS.2 Criteria Apprentice Basic Meets Exceeds Accuracy of Shows a sketchy Displays a visual Designs an Designs a visual visual of a cell. of a cell structure. accurate visual of detailed, presentation specialized cells. comprehensive visual(s) of several specialized cells. Completeness of Provides a vague Describes briefly Describes the Describes in description description of cell the cell’s function(s) detail the function. function. accurately of the function(s) of specialized cell. several specialized cells. Correctness of Explains with Explains with Explains with Explains with format inappropriate partially correct appropriate extended vocabulary or vocabulary and vocabulary and vocabulary and grammar. grammar. grammar. exceptional grammar.
16 Life Science Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL: Eight Topic: Ecosystem Grade Level Standard: 8-2 Analyze ecosystems.
Grade Level Benchmark: 1. Explain how humans use and benefit from plant and animal materials. (III.5.MS.5)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information Resources
Central Question: How do humans interact with the environment?
1. Classify commonly used plant and animal materials in Saginaw/Midland County the classroom. Have students look around the Science Curriculum classroom and have them group commonly used items into two categories—from animals and from plants. Students will classify items such as cotton, wool, paper, leather, etc. into their proper categories.
2. “The pH Game”
Activity is attached
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary: Materials from plants: wood, paper, cotton, wax, oils; Materials from animals: leather, wool, fur, oil, wax; Human made objects that incorporate plant and animal materials: clothing, medicines
17 The pH Game
PURPOSE To teach students about the acidity levels of liquids and other substances around their school so that they understand what pH levels tell us about the environment.
OVERVIEW The pH game will engage students in the measurement of the pH of water samples, soil samples, plants, and other natural materials from different places. Students will create mixtures of materials in order to collect different pH measurements.
TIME One class period for preparation One class period for game
LEVEL All
KEY CONCEPTS pH measurements
SKILLS Taking measurements Conducting analysis Interpreting findings Understanding interrelations in nature
MATERIALS AND TOOLS For each team (about 4 students) 20 pH strips 3 or 5 small cups Paper and pencil Labels with which to attach results to the results board
For the whole classroom: Results board for all teams (one line of pH levels from 2 to 9 for each team) Flip chart with rules Additional pH strips
18 PREPARATION The teacher should prepare various acidic and alkaline mixtures/solutions of natural and processed materials. These solutions should be labeled with the ingredients and a letter, but not their acidic or alkaline characteristics. Examples of acidic solutions include fermented grass, diluted and concentrated lemon juice, black coffee, vinegar, orange juice, and soft drinks. Alkaline solutions include salt water, shampoo, baking soda, chlorine bleach, household ammonia, and oven cleaner. Soil solutions produced by mixing water and local soil samples should be used as well as local water samples. The teacher can also produce solutions from materials found around the local school area, such as oil drippings from a vehicle, liquid in a discarded bottle, etc.
PREREQUISITES None
BACKGROUND The level of acidity (pH) significantly influences the vegetation and wildlife in an environment. The pH can be influenced by different factors. The main influences are the alkaline contributions from rocks and soils, the amount of water in the landscape, and also human activities (traffic, buildings, paved surfaces, etc.) Acid rain may also have an important impact on water pH. It is important to understand these relationships. This simple activity will help your students to understand the interdependence of nature and human activities.
Note: Remind students of the difference between hypothesis and results. Encourage them to develop their hypothesis and find a way to test it with results (prepare some literature for them, invite an expert to the class, examine past measurements, etc.)
THE RULES 1. Explain to students the objective of the game is that each team identifies solutions which have a pH range of 2-9.
The students should draw a horizontal pH scale from 0-14, marking pH 7 as the neutral point. Each unit should be spaced at least 1 cm apart. They should then draw a box underneath each pH unit from 2 to 9.
Each team finds substances that have a pH corresponding to a box in the pH scale.
2. The teacher draws the following matrix on the board. See Matrix HYD-L-1.
3. One point is awarded for each box filled, even if the team finds two samples with the same pH.
19 4. Students should record all the information about the solution from the labels and the pH they measured.
5. When students are ready to submit a sample for the game results board, they show the teacher their notes and sample. Together they measure the pH with a new pH strip. If the pH agrees with the students’ previous measurement, the sample is approved and the points are added to the team’s score. The table below is an example of results for different teams. See Matrix HYD-L-2.
6. The teacher gives a new pH strip for each sample added to the results board.
Matrix HYD-L-1 pH Value Teams 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 TOTAL Teams 1 Teams 2 Teams 3
Matrix HYD-L-2 pH Value Teams 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 TOTAL Teams11 1 11 4 Teams 2 1 1 1 3 Teams 3 1 1 1 3
MODIFICATIONS FOR DIFFERENT AGES
Beginning For a basic understanding, use salt and sugar and explain to students that salty does not necessarily mean acid and that sweet does not necessarily mean alkaline. Cola soft drinks are good examples of a sweet and very acid liquid.
Intermediate Make the game more competitive. For instance, the team that finds or creates the first sample of a particular pH value receives 5 points; subsequently, samples for that pH level receive only 1 pont.
Make the game more difficult by limiting the sample sources to only natural materials.
20 Limit the number of pH strips given to each group and set up a rule for buying a new one with game points.
Advanced Ask the students which solutions should be added together to produce a neutral solution. Have them test their hypothesis by adding some of the labeled solutions together and recording the pH. Have students quantify the neutralization capacity of different solutions. Relate this to buffering capacity (alkalinity) of hydrology sites.
Provide students with samples of solutions from other parts of your country (or of the world) and ask them to characterize how they influence pH differently.
Conduct a similar analysis of samples from different geological layers or different areas of the community or study site.
Note: For older students we recommend inviting an expert to answer their questions.
FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS Examine the Hydrology Study Site for materials in soil, rocks, and vegetation that influence the pH of the water.
Try to identify and quantify influences that are not always present at the study site, such as precipitation or some event upstream of your sampling site.
STUDENT ASSESSMENT After the game, sit with students around the results board and identify what samples they have found, where the samples were found, and the pH of the samples. Encourage students to present their own ideas about why different samples have different pH values. Emphasize differences among water samples from soils, rocks, artificial surfaces, lakes, rivers, etc. Mention the acid neutralization capacities (alkalinity) of some rocks and the acidic influences of different materials. Ask them why it was difficult to find samples for some pH levels and easy to find others.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The pH game was created and tested by the leaders team of TEREZA, the Association for Environmental Education, Czech Republic. NOAA National Geophyiscal Data Center, Boulder, Colorado, USA Questions/Comments regarding the GLOBE Program http://archive.globe.gov/sda-bin/wt/ghp/tg+L(en)+P(hydrology/pHGame)
21 Assessment Grade 8
ECOSYSTEMS
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.III.5.MS.5
Students will read the following scenario:
It is the year 2020 and a fabulous new product has hit the market – Food 4 Life. Food 4 Life is an incredible break-through food substitute that you take once a week. It will supply all of your nutritional needs. Just think, no more hassling at the dinner table. Food 4 Life will take us into the new millennium as space colonization becomes a reality. With the problem of food solved, humans will be free to live a healthy, happy, plant-less life.
Students will debate the claims of Food 4 Life and decide if humans could live in a world without plants.
Each student will write a position statement giving five substantial, scientifically accurate reasons for or against the following idea:
I want to live in a world without plants.
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.III.5.MS.5 Criteria Apprentice Basic Meets Exceeds Accuracy of Provides one to Provides one to Provides four to Provides six or reasons five reasons that three accurate five accurate more accurate are incomplete or reasons. reasons. reasons. contain inaccuracies. Correctness of Shows limited use Shows some use Uses proper Uses proper mechanics of proper writing of proper writing writing writing mechanics mechanics. mechanics. mechanics. in a highly expressive, creative manner.
22 Life Science Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL: Eight Topic: Ecosystems Grade Level Standard: 8-2 Analyze ecosystems.
Grade Level Benchmark: 2. Describe ways in which humans alter the environment. (III.5.MS.6)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information Resources
Central Question: How do humans alter the environment?
1. Explain how humans bring animals and organisms from Library other places to new places and offset the ecosystem. www.biology.com (Zebra muscle epidemic in Great Lakes Region).
2. Have children count how many smokers they see in one day. As well as all transportation sources emitting excessive emissions.
3. Have students bring in recyclable items they would normally throw away.
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary: agriculture, land use, renewable and non-renewable resources, resource use, solid waste, toxic waste, biodiversity, species, reintroduction, reforestation, pollution
23 Research Findings News & Announcements
Calendar Job Board Discussion Board
Current Journal Contents
Research Findings Share a research finding!
June 14, 2000 Filtration capabilities of quagga and zebra mussels Seasonal filtration rates of Dreissena bugensis (quagga mussels) and D. polymorpha (zebra mussels) from Oak Orchard Creek, NY, have been measured in Niagara River water (1 L static tests, 1 h duration, clearance of added natural sediment [< 63 ], 2 - 10 mg/l). twenty mm quagga mussels filtered ~1/3 more than zebra mussels in fall and spring tests (both at 14 c). means (ml/h): nov. 1999- quagga 270, zebra 203; may 2000- quagga 309, zebra 226 (sample sizes of 17 - 20 mussels, p [t-tests] < 0.05). rates were generally higher at the lower particle concentrations. interspecific differences were non-significant among 15 mm mussels. the influence of shell-free tissue mass is currently being evaluated. the modest differences in filtration shown thus far seem insufficient to solely explain the profound displacement of d. polymorpha in the lower great lakes. this suggests the continuing need to investigate also growth rates, fecundities, and recruitment success. Sponsoring Organization: Industry/University Center for Biosurfaces-SUNY at Buffalo, Great Lakes Center for Environmental Research and Education, Buffalo State College. Contact: Thomas P. Diggins, [email protected].
June 1, 2000 Algal development and production in Lake Baikal Remarkable water blooms of phytoplankton develop in Lake Baikal during the period of lake water stratification; diatoms bloom under the ice in spring, picocyanobacteria colonize the pelagic zone and large colonial cyanobacteria are found at bay areas in summer. In addition, massive increase of periphytic algae turns the lakeshore rocks green. These blooms indicate
24 that Lake Baikal is potentially eutrophic. Since Lake Baikal contains a huge volume of cold hypolimnetic water, symptoms of excessive eutrophication do not appear throughout the year, at present. To protect Lake Baikal, as an invaluable water resource for Siberian residents and as a natural heritage in the world, research and monitoring on the eutrophication process are strongly needed. Contact: Yasunori Watanabe, Department of Biology, Tokyo Metropolitan University, 1-1, Minamiosawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0397, JAPAN. Phone & Fax: (81)-426-77-2580; [email protected].
May 29, 2000 A multi-agency effort to address declines in the abundance of Lake Michigan yellow perch Catch of adult yellow perch in Lake Michigan declined dramatically between 1988 and 1998, and the population age structure shifted toward older fish with an almost complete lack of reproductive success in recent years. Steps taken to address this decline included coordinated regulation of commercial and recreational yellow perch harvest, and formation of a multi-agency Yellow Perch Task Group to expand research aimed at identifying likely causes for the lack of perch recruitment.
Three hypotheses currently being addressed by activities of the yellow perch task group are 1. mortality at the egg stage influences yellow perch recruitment, 2. inappropriate diet limits survival, and 3. alewife predation limits recruitment.
There appears to be little evidence to support the idea that factors at the egg stage directly influence perch population survival, but experiments have shown a relationship between adult female yellow perch size and larval perch length and yolk volume. This relationship suggests that building spawning stock diversity will produce offspring with enhanced probability of successful recruitment in a variable environment.
Lake Michigan zooplankton populations have changed considerably between the 1980s and 1990s, and evidence collected to date shows a significant positive relationship between zooplankton density and yellow perch survival. Additionally, long-term data collections in southern Lake Michigan continue to show a negative effect on yellow perch as alewife abundance increases. Maternal factors, diet, and predation probably act in concert, along with harvest and "natural" density-dependent functions, to regulate yellow perch abundance. Successful management of perch populations will require ongoing research to understand the interrelationships among all of these factors. Sponsoring Organization: GLFC - Lake Michigan Technical Committee and LMC. Contact: Dave Clapp, (231) 547-2914, [email protected].
March 24, 2000 Identification of the Polychlorinated Terphenyl Formulation Polychlorinated terphenyls (PCT) have been identified in the sediment and tissues of the common snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina serpentina) within the St. Lawrence River Area of Concern (AOC) adjacent to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Superfund Site near Massena, NY. To our knowledge, PCT have not been previously reported in the St. Lawrence River AOC. PCT were identified as Aroclor 5432 in the surficial sediment at 0.8 mg/kg (dry weight), approximately 6.5% of the sediment-bound PCBs. The most probable source of the PCT to the AOC being the hydraulic fluid Pydraul® 312A utilized by many heavy
25 industrial users for high-temperature applications. The sediment-bound PCT showed no biological or physico-chemical alterations, chromatographically matching an Aroclor 5432 technical standard. Concentrations of PCT in the snapping turtle adipose, liver and eggs, were 42.2, 20.2, and 6.5 mg/kg - lipid basis, respectively. Analysis of the gas chromatographic pattern indicates that PCT were selectively metabolized and bioaccumulated by the snapping turtle. Concentrations of PCT found in the snapping turtle tissues and eggs ranged between 2-5% of the PCB measured in the turtle tissues. Sponsoring Organization: Environmental Research Center, State University of New York at Oswego. Contact: James J. Pagano, [email protected]
February 22, 2000 Physical and Biological Processes Influencing Walleye Early Life History in Western Lake Erie Our research focuses on quantifying the effects of physical and biological processes on walleye early life history vital rates in western Lake Erie. Our results indicate that egg abundance, egg survival, and larval abundance are highest in years when lake waters warm quickly and few strong wind events occur. In April 1998, we documented the effect of a gale force storm on egg abundance on reefs. Over 80% of spawned eggs were removed from reefs by the storm, and larval densities adjacent to the reefs were the lowest observed during the six years of our study. We also examined the potential for egg predation on reefs in April and found that eggs were common in stomachs of white perch, yellow perch, and trout perch but rare in stomachs of round gobies. These findings enable us to better predict the response of walleye to variability in their habitat and respond with appropriate management strategies. Further, they provide insight into the effects of global climate change and exotic species introductions on the walleye population. Sponsoring Organizations: Michigan Sea Grant, Michigan State University, Michigan DNR, Ohio DNR. Contact: Ed Roseman, [email protected]
Role of Lipids in Low Temperature Tolerance of Alewives Although massive winter die-offs of alewives in the Great Lakes are well known, the physiological basis for these mass mortalities remains unclear. Our research focuses on the role of dietary lipids in cold tolerance of alewives. We conducted laboratory studies to compare the survival rates of alewives that were fed different diets and then subjected to a cold challenge. Alewives fed frozen brine shrimp survived better than alewives fed frozen Daphnia, and alewives that died during the cold challenge showed significant decreases in membrane polyunsaturated fatty acids. Survival during the cold challenge was not correlated with percent body lipid. These results suggest that dietary factors can influence cold tolerance of alewives, and death at cold temperatures may be due in part to changes in membrane fatty acids that impair proper membrane function. The long-term goal of this research is to develop a model to predict alewife die-offs. This in turn would lead to better management of Great Lakes salmonids, which rely heavily on alewives for food. Sponsoring Organizations: Great Lakes Research Consortium and the University at Buffalo Multidisciplinary Research Pilot Project Program. Contact: Randal J. Snyder, [email protected]
December 29, 1999 Possible Meteorite Impact Site in Lake Ontario USGS scientists Thomas Edsall and Gregory Kennedy have identified a prominent lakebed feature in the Charity Shoal Complex in eastern end of Lake Ontario that appears to be a major solution pit or perhaps a meteorite impact site (see map). A side-scan sonar survey of about
26 1,000 hectares of lakebed on the U.S. Canadian border surrounding the site revealed an oval crater covering about 70 hectares and surrounded by solid bedrock, which in eastern Lake Ontario is Ordivician limestone. The inside edges of the crater are broken bedrock lying on solid bedrock. The floor of the crater is about 12 m deeper than the surrounding rim. A sediment sample collected from the crater floor was stiff, varved lake clays covered with a thin layer of coarse sand. Edsall and Kennedy are searching for magnetometer data collected in the vicinity of the crater to see if they reveal a magnetic anomaly suggesting the crater is a meteorite impact site. Contact: Thomas Edsall, [email protected]
December 3, 1999 Separating Stressors via In Situ Testing We have had great success in detecting and separating stressors using various types of in situ Stressor Identification Evaluation chambers. Stressors can be separated into compartments: surface water (low or high flow), pore water, surficial sediment, and upwelling or downwelling. Specific stressors separated were: suspended solids, flow, photo induced toxicity, ammonia, metals, nonpolar organics, and bioaccumulative cmpds. Exposures range from 1 d to 2 wks with multiple species and supported with traditional physicochem. profiles, benthic community characterization, and lab toxicity testing. Sponsoring Organization: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, primarily. Contact: Dr. G. Allen Burton; (937) 775-2201, [email protected]
Cercopagis in North America The predatory cladoceran Cercopagis pengoi invaded the Great Lakes basin, initially in Lake Ontario (1998), but also in six Finger Lakes and Lake Michigan (1999). Our research group is attempting to track invasions by Cercopagis, Bythotrephes, Daphnia lumholtzi, and other invertebrate invaders, and would appreciate correspondence with investigators who find any of these species in new localities. Sponsoring Organization: New York Sea Grant. Contact: Hugh MacIsaac, [email protected]
November 23, 1999 Zebra Mussels in the Erie Canal Based on sediment surveys at locations in eastern Lake Erie and along the NY State Erie Canal, D. bugensis seems to be out competing D. polymorpha. The consequence is that the percentage of the total number of combined dreissenids shifts in favor of D. bugensis over time. One can speculate as to how or why one species has a slight competitive advantage over the other. However, without further long-term studies of the abundance and population dynamics of natural populations, or detailed experimental studies, we are left to speculate about the nature of the ecological interactions, which seems to provide a slight advantage to D. bugensis. Because both animals are still species of zebra mussels, and both species are known bio-foulers, at this stage it is difficult to ascribe a greater or lessor economic impact to one species more than another; nevertheless, the economic impacts of these species are notoriously clear, particularly in costs associated with preventing the clogging of, or having to unclog water intake pipes. Contact: Kenton M. Stewart, Dept. of Biological Sci., State University of New York, Buffalo, NY; (716) 645-2898, [email protected]
27 November 15, 1999 Ecosystem Modeling in Saginaw Bay Joe DePinto, University at Buffalo, and Vic Bierman, Limno-Tech, Inc., are collaborating to develop an ecosystem model for Saginaw Bay that includes nutrients, five phytoplankton classes, two zooplankton functional groups, PCBs, three age classes of zebra mussels, and soon to include two type of benthic primary producers (benthic algae and macrophytes). Sponsoring Organization: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Great Lakes National Program Office. Contact: Joe DePinto, [email protected]
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28 Assessment Grade 8
ECOSYSTEMS
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.III.5.MS.6
If possible, have students read In the Next Three Seconds by Morgan. This book takes a look at common human activities and their impacts on our world. Students then should read the following statement:
In the next three seconds, 93 trees will be cut down to make the liners for disposable diapers.
Students should brainstorm ways that the use of disposable diapers has impacted our world. Next, present the following scenario to the students:
In light of this statement, a new law has been proposed in Lansing banning the use of disposable diapers.
Students will receive a card from the teacher indicating the role of a community member they will take, such as:
• Aileen, diaper manufacturer • Samantha, K-Mart manager • Juan, Peter Pan Nursery School director • Hitoshi, hospital nurse • Sam, owner of Sam’s Septic Service • Maria and Jose, parents of newborn triplets • Jamal, Green Peace member • Bonnie, XYZ Waste Disposal worker • Dee-Dee, owner of Dee-Dee’s Diaper Delivery Service
Students must prepare a two-minute speech reflecting their character’s point of view, either supporting or opposing this law. Students will present their speeches to the legislative body in Lansing (or a social studies class).
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.III.5.MS.6 Criteria Apprentice Basic Meets Exceeds Accuracy of Presents one Presents two Presents three Presents four or reasons supportive argument supportive arguments supportive arguments more supportive for position. for position. for position. arguments for position. Quality of Delivers a speech Delivers a speech Delivers a speech in Delivers a thorough, speech with inaccurate or that provides an effective, well-supported incomplete thoughts. information but is engaging manner. arguments that difficult to follow at entertains the times. audience. Accuracy of Incorporates a visual Incorporates a visual Incorporates a visual Incorporates multiple visual aid(s) product that product that product that visual products that inaccurately displays ineffectively displays effectively displays display several some aspect of the some aspect of the some aspect of the aspects of the position. position. position. position.
29 Earth/Space Science Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL: Eight Topic: Geosphere Grade Level Standard: 8-3 Analyze the geosphere.
Grade Level Benchmark: 1. Explain the surface features of the Great Lakes region using the Ice Age theory. (V.1.HS.1)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information Resources
Central Question: What surface evidence found in the Great Lakes supports the Ice Age theory?
1. Glacial Carving Ontario Explorer -Great Lakes small fish tank http://www.interlog.com/~cola slope-loose bed of sand and gravel utti/ExploreOntario/GreatLake fan s.html dry ice-salt place dry ice on-slope fan behind the ice record what is seen-use time line 24 hours, 48 hours, 72 hours, conclusion Natural Processes in the Great Lakes 2. Have students create a Great Lakes time line in which http://epa.gov/glnpo/atlas/glat- they plot geologic and climate changes that take place. ch2.html
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary: glacial, remnants, Canadian Shield, lowlands, shorelines, basin, drumlins
30 Great Lakes [MAIN] [Start Here] [Map Index] [Quick Index] [Advertising Here]
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Overview The Great Lakes are the spine of Ontario. They span more than 1200km east to west and the area surrounding the lakes is home to 25% of the population of Canada. The lakes are the largest fresh water bodies on earth. Between them nearly one-fifth of the entire planets fresh water supply is stored. The total surface area of the lakes is 245,000 sq. kilometres, the same size as Great Britain.
While eight U.S. states border on the Great Lakes, Ontario is the only Canadian province to touch their shorelines. Lake Michigan is the only lake solely within the boundaries of the United States. While twenty-five million American's live within the Lake's basin, only eight million Canadian's habitate the immense shoreline.
31 The lakes are truly immense. The largest, Superior is at the head of the system. From here it's waters and Michigans mingle at Michilimackinac. Lake Huron and Georgian Bay discharge through Lake St. Clair into Erie. Erie's shallow waters pour over Niagara Falls, emptying into Lake Ontario, which empties into the St. Lawrence seaway.
Formation of the Lakes The lakes were formed when the last ice age ended. Immense lakes of water pooled at the edge of the Canadian shield and collected in a gigantic lake system that marks the boundary of the granite of the shield and the surrounding terrain. The lakes in order from the furthest north are: Great Bear Lake, Great Slave Lake, Lake Athabaska, Lake Winnipeg, The Great Lakes.
The Canadian Shield is the central core of the continent. An ancient outcropping of granite it is an eerie landscape of rolling rugged hills. The shield touches the coastline of Lake Superior, Lake Huron, and the outlet of Lake Ontario. South of the shield is the lowlands of the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence valleys. Rolling or flat terrain; there is a distinct contrast between the topography of the southern and northern half of the province.
Each lake has a distinct character to it. Superior being the largest and most northern is very cold. Swimming in the lake is an invigorating experience even in the hottest summers. Lake Huron's temperature is more moderate especially near shore, but again is generally chilly. Lake Erie offers the warmest waters of all the lakes, but can become very tempestuous very rapidly. Drownings have been common off the sand spit parks in the lake due to complacency.
The total shoreline of the great lakes is 17,000 kilometres (10,000 miles). To put this in perspective this distance is close to three times the east/west width of Canada itself. It would take a year, walking a 10 hour day to pace the shoreline.
32 The lakes contain 23,000 cubic kilometres of fresh water. This would form a cube of water 30 kilometres (18 miles) on edge were it put all in a single container.
Further information on individual lakes can be found within these links. These links connect to Dive-Into-The- Net Lake Superior Lake Huron Lake Erie Lake Ontario Hudsons Bay
SITE INDEX: [MAIN MENU] [American Visitors] [World Wide Visitors] [Canadian Visitors] [MAP INDEX]
http://www.interlog.com/~colautti/ExploreOntario/GreatLakes.html
33 TWO
Geology
The foundation for the present Great Lakes basin was set about 3 billion years ago, during the Precambrian Era. This era occupies about five-sixths of all geological time and was a period of great volcanic activity and tremendous stresses, which formed great mountain systems. Early sedimentary and volcanic rocks were folded and heated into complex structures. These were later eroded and, today, appear as the gently rolling hills and small mountain remnants of the Canadian Shield, which forms the northern and northwestern portions of the Great Lakes basin. Granitic rocks of the shield extend southward beneath the Paleozoic, sedimentary rocks where they form the 'basement' structure of the southern and eastern portions of the basin.
34 With the coming of the Paleozoic Era, most of central North America was flooded again and again by marine seas, which were inhabited by a multitude of life forms, including corals, crinoids, brachiopods and mollusks. The seas deposited lime silts, clays, sand and salts, which eventually consolidated into limestone, shales, sandstone, halite and gypsum.
During the Pleistocene Epoch, the continental glaciers repeatedly advanced over the Great Lakes region from the north. The first glacier began to advance more than a million years ago. As they inched forward, the glaciers, up to 2,000 metres (6,500 feet) thick, scoured the surface of the earth, leveled hills, and altered forever the previous ecosystem. Valleys created by the river systems of the previous era were deepened and enlarged to form the basins for the Great Lakes. Thousands of years later, the climate began to warm, melting and slowly shrinking the glacier. This was followed by an interglacial period during which vegetation and wildlife returned. The whole cycle was repeated several times.
Sand, silt, clay and boulders deposited by the glaciers occur in various mixtures and forms. These deposits are collectively referred to as 'glacial drift' and include features such as moraines, which are linear mounds of poorly sorted material or 'till', flat till plains, till drumlins, and eskers formed of well-sorted sands and gravels deposited from meltwater. Areas having substantial deposits of well- sorted sands and gravels (eskers, kames and outwash) are usually significant groundwater storage and transmission areas called 'aquifers'. These also serve as excellent sources of sand and gravel for commercial extraction.
Geologic Time Chart. The Great Lakes basin is a relatively young ecosystem having formed during the last 10,000 years. Its foundation was laid through many millions of years and several geologic eras. This chart gives a relative idea of the age of the eras
35 As the glacier retreated, large volumes of meltwater occurred along the front of the ice. Because the land was greatly depressed at this time from the weight of the glacier, large glacial lakes formed. These lakes were much larger than the present Great Lakes. Their legacy can still be seen in the form of beach ridges, eroded bluffs and flat plains located hundreds of metres above present lake levels. Glacial lake plains known as 'lacustrine plains' occur around Saginaw Bay and west and north of Lake Erie.
As the glacier receded, the land began to rise. This uplift (at times relatively rapid) and the shifting ice fronts caused dramatic changes in the depth, size and drainage patterns of the glacial lakes. Drainage from the lakes occurred variously through the Illinois River Valley (towards the Mississippi River), the Hudson River Valley, the Kawartha Lakes (Trent River) and the Ottawa River Valley before entering their present outlet through the St. Lawrence River Valley. Although the uplift has slowed considerably, it is still occurring in the northern portion of the basin. This, along with changing long-term weather patterns, suggests that the lakes are not Layers of sedimentary rock eroded by static and will continue to evolve. wind and wave action are revealed in these formations at Flower Pot Island at the tip of the Bruce Peninsula in Canada. (D. Cowell, Geomatics International, Burlington, Ontario.) Climate
The weather in the Great Lakes basin is affected by three factors: air masses from other regions, the location of the basin within a large continental landmass, and the moderating influence of the lakes themselves. The prevailing movement of air is from the west. The characteristically changeable weather of the region is the result of alternating flows of warm, humid air from the Gulf of Mexico and cold, dry air from the Arctic.
In summer, the northern region around Lake Superior generally receives cool, dry air masses from the Canadian northwest. In the south, tropical air masses originating in the Gulf of Mexico are most influential. As the Gulf air crosses the lakes, the bottom layers remain cool while the top layers are warmed. Occasionally, the upper layer traps the cooler air below, which in turn traps moisture and airborne pollutants, and prevents them from rising and dispersing. This is called a temperature inversion and can result in dank, humid days in areas in the midst of the basin, such as Michigan and Southern Ontario, and can also cause smog in low-lying industrial areas.
Increased summer sunshine warms the surface layer of water in the lakes, making it lighter than the colder water below. In the fall and winter months, release of the heat stored in the lakes moderates the climate near the shores of the lakes. Parts of Southern Ontario, Michigan and western New York enjoy milder winters than similar mid-continental areas at lower latitudes.
36 In the autumn, the rapid movement and occasional clash of warm and cold air masses through the region produce strong winds. Air temperatures begin to drop gradually and less sunlight, combined with increased cloudiness, signal more storms and precipitation. Late autumn storms are often the most perilous for navigation and shipping on the lakes. In winter, the Great Lakes region is affected by two major air masses. Arctic air from the northwest is very cold and dry when it enters the basin, but is warmed and picks up moisture traveling over the comparatively warmer lakes. When it reaches the land, the moisture condenses as snow, creating heavy snowfalls on the lee side of the lakes in areas frequently referred to as snowbelts. For part of the winter, the region is affected by Pacific air masses that have lost much of their moisture crossing the western mountains. Less frequently, air masses enter the basin from the southwest, bringing in moisture from the Gulf of Mexico. This air is slightly warmer and more humid. During the winter, the temperature of the lakes continues to drop. Ice frequently covers Lake Erie but seldom fully covers the other lakes.
Spring in the Great Lakes region, like autumn, is characterized by variable weather. Alternating air Winter on the lakes is characterized by alternating masses move through rapidly, resulting in frequent flows of frigid arctic air and moderating air masses cloud cover and thunderstorms. By early spring, the from the Gulf of Mexico. Heavy snowfalls warmer air and increased sunshine begin to melt the frequently occur on the lee side of the lakes. (D. snow and lake ice, starting again the thermal layering of Cowell, Geomatics International, Burlington, the lakes. The lakes are slower to warm than the land Ontario.) and tend to keep adjacent land areas cool, thus prolonging cool conditions sometimes well into April. Most years, this delays the leafing and blossoming of plants, protecting tender plants, such as fruit trees, from late frosts. This extended state of dormancy allows plants from somewhat warmer climates to survive in the western shadow of the lakes. It is also the reason for the presence of vineyards in those areas. Climate Change And The Great Lakes
At various times throughout its history, the Great Lakes basin has been covered by thick glaciers and tropical forests, but these changes occurred before humans occupied the basin. Present-day concern about the atmosphere is premised on the belief that society at large, through its means of production and modes of daily activity, especially by ever increasing carbon dioxide emissions, may be modifying the climate at a rate unprecedented in history.
The very prevalent 'greenhouse effect' is actually a natural phenomenon. It is a process by which water vapor and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere absorb heat given off by the earth and radiate it back to the surface. Consequently the earth remains warm and habitable (16°C average world temperature rather than -18°C without the greenhouse effect). However, humans have increased the carbon dioxide present
37 in the atmosphere since the industrial revolution from 280 parts per million to the present 350 ppm, and some predict that the concentration will reach twice its pre-industrial levels by the middle of the next century.
Climatologists, using the General Circulation Model (GCM), have been able to determine the manner in which the increase of carbon dioxide emissions will affect the climate in the Great Lakes basin. Several of these models exist and show that at twice the carbon dioxide level, the climate of the basin will be warmer by 2-4°C and slightly damper than at present. For example, Toronto's climate would resemble the present climate of southern Ohio. Warmer climates mean increased evaporation from the lake surfaces and evapotranspiration from the land surface of the basin. This in turn will augment the percentage of precipitation that is returned to the atmosphere. Studies have shown that the resulting net basin supply, the amount of water contributed by each lake basin to the overall hydrologic system, will be decreased by 23 to 50 percent. The resulting decreases in average lake levels will be from half a metre to two metres, depending on the GCM used.
Large declines in lake levels would create large-scale economic concern for the commercial users of the water system. Shipping companies and hydroelectric power companies would suffer economic repercussions, and harbors and marinas would be adversely affected. While the precision of such projections remains uncertain, the possibility of their accuracy embraces important long-term implications for the Great Lakes.
The potential effects of climate change on human health in the Great Lakes region are also of concern, and researchers can only speculate as to what might occur. For example, weather disturbances, drought, and changes in temperature and growing season could affect crops and food production in the basin. Changes in air pollution patterns as a result of climate change could affect respiratory health, causing asthma, and new disease vectors and agents could migrate into the region.
The Hydrologic Cycle
Water is a renewable resource. It is continually replenished in ecosystems through the hydrologic cycle. Water evaporates in contact with dry air, forming water vapor. The vapor can remain as a gas, contributing to the humidity of the atmosphere; or it can condense and form water droplets, which, if they remain in the air, form fog and clouds. In the Great Lakes basin, much of the moisture in the region evaporates from the surface of the lakes. Other sources of moisture include the surface of small lakes and tributaries, moisture on the land mass and water released by plants. Global movements of air also carry moisture into the basin, especially from the tropics.
Moisture-bearing air masses move through the basin and deposit their moisture as rain, snow, hail or sleet. Some of this precipitation returns to the atmosphere and some falls on the surfaces of the Great Lakes to become part of the vast quantity of stored fresh water once again. Precipitation that falls on the land returns to the lakes as surface runoff or infiltrates the soil and becomes groundwater.
Whether it becomes surface runoff or groundwater depends upon a number of factors. Sandy soils, gravels and some rock types contribute to groundwater flows, whereas clays and impermeable rocks contribute to surface runoff. Water falling on sloped areas tends to run off rapidly, while water falling on flat areas tends to be absorbed or stored on the surface. Vegetation also tends to decrease surface runoff; root systems hold moisture-laden soil readily, and water remains on plants.
38 Surface Runoff
Surface runoff is a major factor in the character of the Great Lakes basin. Rain falling on exposed soil tilled for agriculture or cleared for construction accelerates erosion and the transport of soil particles and pollutants into tributaries. Suspended soil particles in water are deposited as sediment in the lakes and often collect near the mouths of tributaries and connecting channels. Much of the sediment deposited in nearshore areas is resuspended and carried farther into the lake during storms. The finest particles (clays and silts) may remain in suspension long enough to reach the mid-lake areas.
Before settlement of the basin, streams typically ran clear year- round because natural vegetation prevented soil loss. Clearing of the original forest for agriculture and logging has resulted in both more erosion and runoff into the streams and lakes. This accelerated runoff aggravates flooding problems.
Thousands of tributaries feed the Great Lakes, replenishing the vast supply of stored fresh water. (D. Cowell, Geomatics International, Burlington, Ontario.) Wetlands
Wetlands are areas where the water table occurs above or near the land surface for at least part of the year. When open water is present, it must be less than two metres deep (seven feet), and stagnant or slow moving. The presence of excessive amounts of water in wetland regions has given rise to hydric soils, as well as encouraged the predominance of water tolerant (hydrophytic) plants and similar biological activity.
Four basic types of wetland are encountered in the Great Lakes basin: swamps, marshes, bogs and fens. Swamps are areas where trees and shrubs live on wet, Long Point Marshes, Lake Erie. (D. Cowell, organically rich mineral soils that are flooded for part Geomatics International, Burlington, Ontario.) or all of the year. Marshes develop in shallow standing water such as ponds and protected bays. Aquatic plants (such as species of rushes) form thick stands, which are rooted in sediments or become floating mats where the water is deeper. Swamps and marshes occur most frequently in the southern and eastern portions of the basin.
39 Bogs form in shallow stagnant water. The most characteristic plant species are the sphagnum mosses, which tolerate conditions that are too acidic for most other organisms. Dead sphagnum decomposes very slowly, accumulating in mats that may eventually become many metres thick and form a dome well above the original surface of the water. It is this material that is excavated and sold as peat moss. Peat also accumulates in fens. Fens develop in shallow, slowly moving water. They are less acidic than bogs and are usually fed by groundwater. Fens are dominated by sedges and grasses, but may include shrubs and stunted trees. Fens and bogs are commonly referred to as 'peatlands' and occur most frequently in the cooler northern and northwestern portions of the Great Lakes basin.
Wetlands serve important roles ecologically, economically and socially to the overall health and maintenance of the Great Lakes ecosystem. They provide habitats for many kinds of plants and animals, some of which are found nowhere else. For ducks, geese and other migratory birds, wetlands are the most important part of the migratory cycle, providing food, resting places and seasonal habitats. Economically, wetlands play an essential role in sustaining a productive fishery. At least 32 of the 36 species of Great Lakes fish studied depend on coastal wetlands for their successful reproduction. In addition to providing a desirable habitat for aquatic life, wetlands prevent damage from erosion and flooding, as well as controlling point and nonpoint source pollution.
Coastal wetlands along the Great Lakes include (Canada Centre for Inland Waters, Burlington, Ontario.) some sites that are recognized internationally for their outstanding biological significance. Examples included the Long Point complex and Point Pelee on the north shore of Lake Erie and the National Wildlife Area on Lake St. Clair. Long Point also was designated a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. Wetlands of the lower Great Lakes region have also been identified as a priority of the Eastern Habitat Joint Venture of the North American Waterfowl Management Plan, an international agreement between governments and non-government organizations (NGOs) to conserve highly significant wetlands.
Although wetlands are a fundamentally important element of the Great Lakes ecosystem and are of obvious merit, their numbers continue to decline at an alarming rate. Over two-thirds of the Great Lakes wetlands have already been lost and many of those remaining are threatened by development, drainage or pollution.
Groundwater
Groundwater is important to the Great Lakes ecosystem because it provides a reservoir for storing water and slowly replenishing the lakes in the form of base flow in the tributaries. It is also a source of drinking water for many communities in the Great Lakes basin. Shallow groundwater also provides moisture to plants.
As water passes through subsurface areas, some substances are filtered out, but some materials in the soils become dissolved or suspended in the water. Salts and minerals in the soil and bedrock are the
40 source of what is referred to as 'hard' water, a common feature of well water in the lower Great Lakes basin.
Groundwater can also pick up materials of human origin that have been buried in dumps and landfill sites. Groundwater contamination problems can occur in both urban-industrial and agricultural areas. Protection and inspection of groundwater is essential to protect the quality of the entire water supply consumed by basin populations, because the underground movement of water is believed to be a major pathway for the transport of pollution to the Great Lakes. Groundwater may discharge directly to the lakes or indirectly as base flow to the tributaries.
Lake Levels
The Great Lakes are part of the global hydrologic system. Prevailing westerly winds continuously carry moisture into the basin in air masses from other parts of the continent. At the same time, the basin loses moisture in departing air masses by evaporation and transpiration, and through the outflow of the St. Lawrence River. Over time, the quantity lost equals what is gained, but lake levels can vary substantially over short-term, seasonal and long-term periods.
Day-to-day changes are caused by winds that push During storms, high winds and rapid changes in water on shore. This is called 'wind set-up' and is barometric pressure cause severe wave conditions at usually associated with a major lake storm, which shorelines. (D. Cowell, Geomatics International, may last for hours or days. Another extreme form Burlington, Ontario.) of oscillation, known as a 'seiche', occurs with rapid changes in winds and barometric pressure.
Annual or seasonal variations in water levels are based mainly on changes in precipitation and runoff to the Great Lakes. Generally, the lowest levels occur in winter when much of the precipitation is locked up in ice and snow on land, and dry winter air masses pass over the lakes enhancing evaporation. Levels are highest in summer after the spring thaw when runoff increases.
The irregular long-term cycles correspond to long-term trends in precipitation and temperature, the causes of which have yet to be adequately explained. Highest levels occur during periods of abundant precipitation and lower temperatures that decrease evaporation. During periods of high lake levels, storms cause considerable flooding and shoreline erosion, which often result in property damage. Much of the damage is attributable to intensive shore development, which alters protective dunes and wetlands, removes stabilizing vegetation, and generally reduces the ability of the shoreline to withstand the damaging effects of wind and waves.
41 Great Lakes Hydrograph. The Hydrograph for the Great Lakes shows the variations in water levels and the relationship of precipitation to water levels.
The International Joint Commission, the binational agency established under the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909 between Canada and the U.S., has the responsibility for regulation of flows on the St. Marys and the St. Lawrence Rivers. These channels have been altered by enlargement and placement of control Wind Set-up is a local rise in water caused by works associated with winds pushing water to one side of a lake. deep-draft shipping. Agreements between the U.S. and Canada govern the flow through the control works on these connecting channels.
The water from Lake Michigan flows to Lake Huron through the Straits of Mackinac. These straits are deep and wide, resulting in Lakes Michigan and Huron standing at the same elevation. There are no artificial controls on the St. Clair and Detroit Rivers that could change the flow from the Michigan-Huron Lakes system into Lake Erie. The outflow of Lake Erie via the Niagara River is also uncontrolled, except for some diversion of water through the Welland Canal. A large percentage of the Niagara River flow is diverted through hydroelectric power plants at Niagara Falls, but this diversion has no effect on lake levels.
Studies of possible further regulation of flows and lake levels have High lake levels and severe weather concluded that natural fluctuation is huge compared with the influence conditions can cause damage to of existing control works. Further regulation by engineering systems unprotected properties. Above, could not be justified in light of the cost and other impacts. Just one shoreline damage to the southern inch (two and a half centimetres) of water on the surface of Lakes shore of Lake Michigan. (U.S. National Parks Service, Indiana Michigan and Huron amounts to more than 36 billion cubic metres of Dunes National Lakeshore.) water (about 1,260 billion cubic feet).
42 Lake Processes: Stratification And Turnover
The Great Lakes are not simply large containers of uniformly mixed water. They are, in fact, highly dynamic systems with complex processes and a variety of subsystems that change seasonally and on longer cycles.
The stratification or layering of water in the lakes is due to density changes caused by changes in temperature. The density of water increases as temperature decreases until it reaches its maximum density at about 4° Celsius (39° Fahrenheit). This causes thermal stratification, or the tendency of deep lakes to form distinct layers in the summer months. Deep water is insulated from the sun and stays cool and more dense, forming a lower layer called the 'hypolimnion'. Surface and nearshore waters are warmed by the sun, making them less dense so that they form a surface layer called the 'epilimnion'. As the summer progresses, temperature differences Layering of lake water as it warms in summer can prevent the dispersion of effluents from tributaries, increase between the layers. A thin middle layer, or causing increased concentration of pollutants near the 'thermocline', develops in which a rapid transition shore. (University of Wisconsin, Extension Service.) in temperature occurs. The warm epilimnion supports most of the life in the lake. Algal production is greatest near the surface where the sun readily penetrates. The surface layer is also rich in oxygen, which is mixed into the water from the atmosphere. A second zone of high productivity exists just above the hypolimnion, due to upward diffusion of nutrients. The hypolimnion is less productive because it receives less sunlight. In some areas, such as the central basin of Lake Erie, it may lack oxygen because of decomposition of organic matter.
In late fall, surface waters cool, become denser and descend, displacing deep waters and causing a mixing or turnover of the entire lake. In winter, the temperature of the lower parts of the lake approaches 4° Celsius (39° Fahrenheit), while surface waters are cooled to the freezing point and ice can form. As temperatures and densities of deep and shallow waters change with the warming of spring, another turnover may occur. However, in most cases the lakes remain mixed throughout the winter.
43 Lake Stratification (Layering) and Turnover. Heat from the sun and changing seasons cause water in large lakes to stratify or form layers. In winter, the ice cover stays at 0°C (32°F) and the water remains warmer below the ice than in the air above. Water is most dense at 4°C (39°F). In the spring turnover, warmer water rises as the surface heats up. In fall, surface waters cool, become denser and descend as heat is lost from the surface. In summer, stratification is caused by a warming of surface waters, which form a distinct layer called the epilimnion. This is separated from the cooler and denser waters of the hypolimnion by the thermocline, a layer of rapid temperature transition. Turnover distributes oxygen annually throughout most of the lakes.
The layering and turnover of water annually are important for water quality. Turnover is the main way in which oxygen-poor water in the deeper areas of the lakes can be mixed with surface water containing more dissolved oxygen. This prevents anoxia, or complete oxygen depletion, of the lower levels of most of the lakes. However, the process of stratification during the summer also tends to restrict dilution of pollutants from effluents and land runoff.
During the spring warming period, the rapidly warming nearshore waters are inhibited from moving to the open lake by a thermal bar, a sharp temperature gradient that prevents mixing until the sun warms the open lake surface waters or until the waters are mixed by storms. Because the thermal bar holds pollutants nearshore, they are not dispersed to the open waters and can become more concentrated within the nearshore areas. Living Resources
As an ecosystem, the Great Lakes basin is a unit of nature in which living organisms and nonliving things interact adaptively. An ecosystem is fueled by the sun, which provides energy in the form of light and heat. This energy warms the earth, the water and the air, causing winds, currents, evaporation and precipitation. The light energy of the sun is essential for the photosynthesis of green plants in water and on land. Plants grow when essential nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen are present with oxygen, inorganic carbon and adequate water.
Plant material is consumed in the water by zooplankton, which graze the waters for algae, and on land by plant-eating animals (herbivores). Next in the chain of energy transfer through the ecosystem are organisms that feed on other animals (carnivores) and those that feed on both animals and plants (omnivores). Together these levels of consumption constitute the food chain, or web, a system of energy transfers through which an ecological community consisting of a complex of species is sustained. The population of each species is determined by a system of checks and balances based on factors such as the availability of food and the presence of predators, including disease organisms.
44 Every ecosystem also includes numerous processes to break down accumulated biomass (plants, animals and their wastes) into the constituent materials and nutrients from which they originated. Decomposition involves micro-organisms that are essential to the ecosystem because they recycle matter that can be used again.
Stableecosystems are sustained by the interactions that cycle nutrients and energy in a balance between available resources and the life that depends on those resources. In ecosystems, including the Great Lakes basin, everything depends on everything else and nothing is ever really wasted.
The ecosystem of the Great Lakes and the life supported within it have continuously altered with time. Through periods of climate change and glaciation, species moved in and out of the region; some perished and others pioneered under changed circumstances. None of the changes, however, has been as rapid as that which occurred with the arrival of European settlers.
When the first Europeans arrived in the basin nearly 400 years ago, it was a lush, thickly vegetated area. Vast timber stands, consisting of oaks, maples and other hardwoods dominated the southern areas. Only a very few small vestiges of the original forest remain today. Between the wooded areas were rich grasslands with growth as high as 2 or 3 metres (7 to 10 feet). In the north, coniferous forests occupied the shallow, sandy soils, interspersed by bogs and other wetlands.
The forest and grasslands supported a wide variety of life, such as moose in the wetlands and coniferous woods, and deer in the grasslands and brush forests of the south. The many waterways and wetlands were home to beaver and muskrat which, with the fox, wolf and other fur-bearing species, inhabited the mature forest lands. These were trapped and traded as commodities by the native people and the Europeans. Abundant bird populations thrived on the various terrains, some migrating to the south in winter, others making permanent homes in the basin.
It is estimated that there were as many as 180 species of fish indigenous to the Great Lakes. Those inhabiting the nearshore areas included smallmouth and largemouth bass, muskellunge, northern pike and channel catfish. In the open water were lake herring, blue pike, lake whitefish, walleye, sauger, freshwater drum, lake trout and white bass. Because of the differences in the characteristics of the lakes, the species composition varied for each of the Great Lakes. Warm, shallow Lake Erie was the most productive, while deep Superior was the least productive. Double-crested Cormorants occupy an island in Lake Erie. (Earth Images Foundation, St. Catharines, Ontario.)
Changes in the species composition of the Great Lakes basin in the last 200 years have been the result of human activities. Many native fish species have been lost by overfishing, habitat destruction or the arrival of exotic or non-indigenous species, such as the lamprey and the alewife. Pollution, especially in the form of nutrient loading and toxic contaminants, has placed additional stresses on fish populations. Other human-made stresses have altered reproductive conditions and habitats, causing some varieties to migrate or perish. Still other effects on lake life result from damming, canal building, altering or
45 polluting tributaries to the lakes in which spawning takes place and where distinct ecosystems once thrived and contributed to the larger basin ecosystem.
Information herein is provided by the U.S. EPA Great Lakes National Program Office. Its use and reference is unlimited, upon condition that the source is correctly attributed. Thank you. The Great Lakes Atlas is also available on line. http://epa.gov/glnpo/atlas/glat-ch2.html
46 Assessment Grade 8
GEOSPHERE
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.1.HS.1
Using as many examples as possible, each student will prepare and deliver a speech to convince an interested friend, who hasn’t had Earth Science, that continental glaciers once covered Michigan.
Students may include a well-labeled illustration.
Five examples of evidence supporting Ice Age theory:
The deposit of unsorted sediments (till) all over Michigan could only have been left behind by glaciers, since mass wasting cannot operate near hilltops. Parallel scratches on bedrock were created when glaciers dragged rock against rock. Kettle lakes are depressions formed in glacial deposits created by melting ice blocks. Moraine ridges are generally parallel to Great Lakes shorelines, suggesting that ice advanced out of lake basins. Large boulders of igneous or metamorphic origin left in sedimentary regions (erratics) are too large and widespread to have been moved any other way.
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.1.HS.1 Criteria Apprentice Basic Meets Exceeds Explanation of Explains the Explains the Explains the Explains and relationships relationship for relationship for relationship for illustrates the between surface one to three four examples of five examples of relationship for feature and examples of evidence. evidence. five examples of glaciation evidence. evidence.
47 Earth/Space Science Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL: Eight Topic: Geosphere Grade Level Standard: 8-3 Analyze the geosphere.
Grade Level Benchmark: 2. Use the plate tectonics theory to explain features of the earth’s surface and geological phenomena and describe evidence for the plate tectonics theory. (V.1.HS.2)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information Resources
Central Question: What evidence says that the earth’s outer layer is composed of large moving processes?
1. Place a tub/bucket filled half way with water at each http://interactive2.usgs.gov/lea student work station. Next to the containers you will rningweb/teachers/faults.htm have 4-6 different sized, shaped, and weighted pieces of wood. One piece of wood will be placed in/on the surface of the water at a time. Place one washer at a time on the blocks of wood until the wood sinks or dumps the washers. Repeat these steps until each piece of wood has been tested. The water represents the earth’s crust. The blocks of wood represent the tectonic plates. The washers symbolize the stress that causes the plates to move different ways.
2. “A Model of Three Faults”
Activity is attached
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary: floating, crust, mantle, strike-slip, boundary, divergent boundary, convergent boundary, plate tectonics, stress
48 A MODEL OF THREE FAULTS
BACKGROUND One of the most frightening and destructive phenomena of nature is a severe earthquake and its terrible aftereffects. An earthquake is a sudden movement of the Earth, caused by the abrupt release of strain that has accumulated over a long time. For hundreds of millions of years, the forces of plate tectonics have shaped the Earth as the huge plates that form the Earth's surface slowly move over, under and past each other. Sometimes the movement is gradual. At other times, the plates are locked together, unable to release the accumulating energy. When the accumulated energy grows strong enough, the plates break free. If the earthquake occurs in a populated area, it may cause many deaths and injuries and extensive property damage.
Today we are challenging the assumption that earthquakes must present an uncontrollable and unforecastable hazard to life and property. Scientists have begun to estimate the locations and likelihoods of future damaging earthquakes. Sites of greatest hazard are being identified, and designing structures that will withstand the effects of earthquakes.
OBJECTIVE Students will observe fault movements on a model of the earth's surface.
TIME NEEDED 1 or 2 Class periods
MATERIALS NEEDED • Physiographic map of the world (per group) • Crayons or colored pens • Scissors • Tapeorglue • Metric ruler • Construction paper • Fault Model Sheet (included)
INSTRUCTIONS 1. Have students work in pairs or small groups. 2. Display the fault models in the classroom after the activity. 3. An excellent world physiographic map showing the ocean floor, can be obtained from the National Geographic Society.
49 EXPLORATION PHASE – PART 1 1. You may wish to introduce this activity by asking students: a. Can you name a famous fault? b. What happens when giant fractures develop on the Earth and the pieces move relative to one another?
2. Illustrate compressive earth movements using a large sponge by squeezing from both sides, causing uplift. Using a piece of latex rubber with a wide mark drawn on it, illustrate earth tension, by pulling the ends of the latex to show stretching and thinning.
3. Have students construct a fault model using the Fault Model Sheet. Instructions to students: a. Color the fault model that is included according to the color key provided. b. Paste or glue the fault model onto a piece of construction paper. c. Cut out the fault model and fold each side down to form a box with the drawn features on top. d. Tape or glue the corners together. This box is a three dimensional model or the top layers of the Earth’s crust. e. The dashed lines on your model represent a fault. Carefully cut along the dashed lines. You will end up with two pieces. You may wish to have your students tape or glue a piece of construction paper on the side of two fault blocks along the fault face. This will help with the demonstration. Note that an enlarged version of the fault block model can be made for classroom demonstrations. 4. Have students develop a model of a normal fault. a. Instructions to students: Locate points A and B on your model. Move point B so that it is next to Point A. Observe your model from the side (its cross- section). Have students draw the normal fault as represented by the model they have just constructed.
CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT – PART 1 1. Ask the following questions: a. Which way did point B move relative to point A? b. What happened to rock layers X, Y, and Z? c. Are the rock layers still continuous? d. What likely happened to the river? the road? the railroad tracks? e. Is this type of fault caused by tension, compression, or shearing?
2. Explain that this type of fault is known as a normal fault.
3. Have students label their drawing “normal fault”.
50 4. Many normal faults are found in Nevada. This is because Nevada is located in a region called the Basin and Range Province where the lithosphere is stretching.
EXPLORATION PHASE – PART 2 1. Have students develop a model of a thrust fault. Instructions to students: a. Locate points C and D on your model. Move Point C next to point D. Observe the cross-section of your model. b. Have students draw the thrust fault as represented by the model they have just constructed.
CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT – PART 2 1. Ask the following questions: a. Which way did point D move relative to point C? b. What happened to rock layers X, Y, and Z? c. Are the rock layers still continuous? d. What likely happened to the river? the road? the railroad tracks? e. Is this type of fault caused by tension, compression, or shearing?
2. Explain that this type of fault is known as a thrust fault.
3. Have students label their drawing “thrust fault”.
4. An example of a thrust fault is the fault in which the Northridge earthquake occurred. The thrusting movement raised the mountains in the area by as much as 70 cm.
EXPLORATION PHASE – PART 3 1. Have students develop a model of a strike-slip fault. Instructions to students: a. Locate points F and G on your model. Move the pieces of the model so that point F is next to point G. b. Have students draw an overhead view of the surface as it looks after movement along the fault.
CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT – PART 3 1. Ask the following questions: a. If you were standing at point F and looking across the fault, which way did the block on the opposite side move? b. What happened to rock layers X, Y, and Z? c. Are the rock layers still continuous? d. What likely happened to the river? the road? the railroad tracks?
51 e. If the scale used in this model is 1 mm = 2m, how many meters did the earth move when the strike-slip fault caused point F to move alongside point G? (Note that this scale would make an unlikely size for the railroad track!) If there were a sudden horizontal shift of this magnitude it would be about five times the shift that occurred in the 1906 San Andres fault as a result of the San Francisco earthquake. f. If this type of fault is known as a strike-slip fault.
2. Explain that this type of fault is known as a strike-slip fault.
3. Have students label their drawing “strike-slip fault”.
4. Explain to students that a strike-slip fault can be described as having right or left-lateral movement. If you look directly across the fault, the direction that the opposite side moved defines whether the movement is left-lateral movement. If you look directly across the fault, the direction that the opposite side moved defines whether the movement is left-lateral or right-lateral. The San Andreas fault in California is a right-lateral strike-slip fault.
APPLICATION PHASE 1. Explain that faults are often (but not always) found near plate boundaries and that each type of fault is frequently associated with specific types of plate movements. However, you can probably find all types of fault movement associated with each type of plate boundary. a. Normal faults are often associated with divergent (tensional) boundaries. b. Thrust faults are often associated with convergent (compressional) boundaries. c. Strike-slip faults are often associated with transform (sliding) boundaries.
2. Ask the following questions: a. What kind of faults would you expect to find in the Himalaya Mountains? b. What kind of faults would you expect to find along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge? Why? c. What kind of fault is the San Andreas Fault? Is California likely to “fall off in the Pacific Ocean”? Why?
3. Explain that not all faults are associated with plate boundaries. Explain that there is a broad range of faults based on type, linear extension, displacement, age, current or historical activity and location on continental or oceanic crust. Have students research examples of non-plate boundary faults.
4. Explain to students that the stresses and strains in the earth’s upper layers are induced by many causes: thermal expansion and contraction, gravitational forces, solid-earth tidal forces, specific volume changes because of mineral phase transitions, etc. Faulting is one of the various manners of mechanical adjustment or release of such stress and strain. 5. Have students research and report on the types of faults found in your state?
52 EXTENSION 1. Have students identify the fault movements in the recent Loma Prieta, California earthquake.
2. Have students research the fault histories and recent theories concerning the Northridge, California Earthquake, the New Madrid, Missouri, and the Anchorage, Alaska fault zones.
COLORING KEY • Rock Layer X - green • Rock Layer Y - yellow • Rock Layer Z - red • River -blue • Road -black • Railroad tracks - brown • Grass -green
U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA, USA URL http://interactive2.usgs.gov/learningweb/teachers/faults.htm Earth science questions: Earth Science Information Center Page contact: Learning Web Team USGS Privacy Statement USGS Child Privacy Policy Last modification: 22 March 2001
53 FAULT MODEL SHEET
54 Assessment Grade 8
GEOSPHERE
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.1.HS.2
Each student will be given a world map including epicenter locations along with magnitude and depth to hypocenter data. "Hypocenter" is a modern alternative to "focus," the place underground where the slippage actually began. The teacher will assign a particular plate to each student. The student will analyze that plate’s boundaries and distinguish between tensional and compressional boundaries.
Note: A tensional plate boundary is characterized by shallow hypocenter, lower magnitude quakes. A compressional boundary involving an ocean plate is often a subduction zone where quakes are arranged in deepening bands under the continent and where magnitudes tend to be greater.
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.1.HS.2 Criteria Apprentice Basic Meets Exceeds Analysis of data Identifies one: Identifies two: Identifies all Identifies and either type of boundary and three: types of explains with the boundary, depth either depth of boundary, depth aid of a diagram of hypocenters, or hypocenters or of hypocenters, the relationships magnitudes. magnitude. and magnitude of between type of quakes. boundary, depth of hypocenters, and magnitude of quakes.
55 Earth/Space Science Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL: Eight Topic: Geosphere Grade Level Standard: 8-3 Analyze the geosphere.
Grade Level Benchmark: 3. Explain how common objects are made from earth materials and why earth materials are conserved and recycled. (V.I.HS.3)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information Resources
Central Question: Is recycling necessary for naturally occurring materials?
1. Make a list of 10 items the students use everyday and group them into man made vs. naturally occurring.
2. Compare and contrast the prices and costs of new versus recycled products.
3. Paper—Is recycling necessary/beneficial for the year “20_ _”?
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary: land development, renewable and non-renewable resources
56 Assessment Grade 8
GEOSPHERE
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.1.HS.3
Each student will create a written, oral, visual, or multimedia presentation including the following information:
1. How the chosen object is made from Earth materials 2. How the material is conserved and/or recycled 3. Location of mines 4. Chemical composition of resource 5. Physical form of ore (color, density of ore, and texture)
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring For Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.1.HS.3 Criteria Apprentice Basic Meets Exceeds Information on Presents brief Describes mine Describes mine Describes mine material description of location(s) or location(s) and in location(s), form mine location(s) form of material. what form of material, and or form of material is found. geologic origin of material. ore. Processing of Describes one: Describes two: Describes mining Describes mining material mining process, mining process, process, refining process, refining refining process, refining process, process, and process, and or forms of or forms of forms of energy forms of energy energy required. energy required. required. required at each step. Recycling/ Describes Describes Describes Describes conservation of methods of methods of methods of methods and costs material recycling or recycling and recycling, of recycling, conservation. conservation. conservation, and conservation, and alternative alternative materials. materials.
57 Earth/Space Science Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL: Eight Topic: Geosphere Grade Level Standard: 8-3 Analyze the geosphere.
Grade Level Benchmark: 4. Evaluate alternative long range plans for resources use and by-product disposal in terms of environmental and economic impact. (V.1.HS.4)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information Resources
Central Question: What is the long range effect of use and disposal of various natural resources?
1. Have students design an efficient public transportation system from the chosen city map given by a teacher (bus/underground train).
2. Role play towns people, city council, and recycling company in scenario that people do not want recycling/dumping sites near homes. City council needs money and the company cannot find a better deal.
3. Compare and contrast (round table discussion) that list alterative resources. Make lists for and against resources, reusable costs, and efficiency.
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary: raw materials, solar energy, solid and toxic waste, biodiversity, cost efficiency, conservation, incinerator, fuel efficiency
58 Assessment Grade 8
GEOSPHERE
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.1.HS.4
Each student will write a letter of inquiry to a local industry identified as a polluter on the EPA website and ask for information regarding pollution control methods they now employ to ensure compliance with EPA rules and regulations.
Note: It is suggested that the content portion of the rubric below be weighted at twice the value of the written or presentation portions.
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.1.HS.4 Criteria Apprentice Basic Meets Exceeds Effectiveness of Explains topic Explains topic Explains topic Explains topic presentation with minimum with basic with good with a thorough understanding, understanding, understanding in understanding in little or no some creativity, a creative manner a creative manner creativity, and no and some visuals. using visuals. using customized or poor visuals. visuals. Content of Meets one or two Meets any three Accurately Accurately presentation of the following of the following identifies site, identifies site, accurately: accurately: pollutant, pollutant, identifies site, identifies site, pollution type, pollution type, pollutant, pollutant, and pollution and explains pollution type, pollution type, control measures. pollution control pollution control pollution control measures. measures. measures. Correctness of Uses correct Uses correct Uses correct Uses correct letter (pass/fail) grammar, grammar, grammar, grammar, business letter business letter business letter business letter format, and format, and format, and format, and clearly states clearly states clearly states clearly states request. request. request. request.
59 Earth/Space Science Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL: Eight Topic: Hydrosphere Grade Level Standard: 8-4 Analyze the hydrosphere.
Grade Level Benchmark: 1. Identify and describe regional watersheds. (V.2.HS.1)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information Resources
Central Question: What are the characteristics of the watershed in which you live?
1. H.O.M.E.S. stands for (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior) Great Lakes exercise on a map.
2. Create graphs and charts of toxic and pollution levels in each of the Great Lakes in the past; 50, 100, and 150 years.
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary: Great Lakes Region, basins, reservoir, dam, drainage basin, tributary, runoff
60 Assessment Grade 8
HYDROSPHERE
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.2.HS.1
Provided with a map of your county emphasizing the surface streams (rivers, creeks, etc.), lakes, and ponds, each student will complete the four tasks listed below:
1. Draw arrows on each stream indicating the direction of flow of streams, lakes, and ponds 2. Draw drainage divides (lines where water on either side of the divide line flows in different directions, to different watersheds) 3. Name watersheds according to the largest stream that flows out of the county 4. From the internet, compare/contrast your watershed map with watersheds identified by the USGS database
Note: A stream is a general name for all rivers, creeks, runs, tributaries, etc. A tributary is a stream that flows into another stream.
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.2.HS.1 Note: Because the map will be specific to the region, the total number of streams, drainage divides, and watersheds will vary. Therefore, specific numbers could not be indicated on the rubric but could be added at any time by a teacher to allow for adaptation to a specific area or region. Criteria Apprentice Basic Meets Exceeds Completeness of Meets one: Meets two: Meets three: Identifies flow contents identifies flow identifies flow identifies flow direction, divides, direction, divides, direction, divides, direction, divides, watersheds, watersheds, watersheds, watersheds, matches USGS matches USGS matches USGS matches USGS watershed watershed watershed watershed boundaries. boundaries. boundaries. boundaries.
61 Earth/Space Science Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL: Eight Topic: Hydrosphere Grade Level Standard: 8-4 Analyze the hydrosphere.
Grade Level Benchmark: 2. Describe how many human activities affect the quality of water in the hydrosphere. (V.2.HS.2)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information Resources
Central Question: How does water quality change as streams flow from its head waters through its watershed?
1. Water purification test of tap, drinking fountain, bottled and purified (tap-boiled) water.
2. Water taste test of tap, drinking fountain bottled, and purified (tap-boiled) water.
3. Lab – take 5-6 full glass of water. Add 1 cup of either; motor oil, vegetable oil, salt, rock salt, or ink. See which substances settle faster/slower and become thick or stay loose once settling.
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary: purify, purification, filtration, and chlorination
62 Assessment Grade 8
HYDROSPHERE
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.2.HS.2
The teacher will provide each small group with a map of an unfamiliar watershed that notes industries, farms, and any other point sources of pollution. The students will be given the following scenario:
Imagine that a large concentration of a single pollutant (e.g., DDT, mercury, liquid agricultural waste, etc.) is released into the environment at a single point in the watershed.
What effects will the pollutant have?
Each group will trace the flow of pollutants, predict concentration levels, and describe the impact the pollutant might have on living things at different locations in the watershed. Each group will present this information to the class.
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.2.HS.2 Criteria Apprentice Basic Meets Exceeds Completeness of Explains all Explains one Explains two Explains all presentation components, but component, components, components: all are leaving two leaving one downstream flow, incomplete: incomplete: incomplete: pollutant downstream flow, downstream flow, downstream flow, concentration pollutant pollutant pollutant downstream, and concentration concentration concentration impact on living downstream, and downstream, and downstream, and organisms impact on living impact on living impact on living downstream. organisms organisms organisms downstream. downstream. downstream.
63 Earth/Space Science Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL: Eight Topic: Atmosphere and Weather Grade Level Standard: 8-5 Examine atmosphere and weather.
Grade Level Benchmark: 1. Explain how interactions of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere create climates and how climates change over time. (V.3.HS.1)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information Resources
Central Question: What changes in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere cause climates to change?
1. Keep temperature log of areas for one week and compare (near water, away from water, and higher on a hill or lower in a valley) in your local area.
2. “Direction and Speed of Weather” http://www.coollessons.org/W eather9.htm
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary: high/low pressure, barometer, thermometer, Celsius, Fahrenheit, green house effect, el niño, la niña
64 DIRECTION AND SPEED OF WEATHER
Do storms move in a pattern or are they random?
Use Radar Summary from Intellicast/WSI Corp. , Radar Loop from Intellicast/WSI Corp., the US Loop Satellite Map from Yahoo! Weather, or Radar Sumary from the Weather Channel to note storms as they move across Canada, the continental United States, Mexico and the Caribbean. Or use the Radar Plots from Unisys in which you can choose radar images for the past twelve hours.
Please follow these directions:
1. Obtain a weather map handout from your teacher. 2. Choose two sections of storms, one over the United States and one over the Caribbean (perhaps south of Florida and north of Puerto Rico or Cuba). 3. Find out where these storms were hours ago using the links above. Mark the positions of the storms on the weather map. Do this by putting a number 1 inside of a circle to mark the position of the storm over the U.S. 4. Repeat this for the storm over the Caribbean by putting a number 1 inside of a square to mark the position of the clouds/storms. 5. Mark the later positions of the storms you are tracking in both locations using a number 2, etc. 6. Draw a line on the weather map connecting the circles showing the direction the clouds/storms over the U.S. 7. Repeat this for the clouds/storms over the Caribbean (near Cuba) by drawing a line on the weather map connecting the squares.
What is your conclusion? Do the clouds/storms move in a pattern or do they move randomly? If they do move in a pattern, what is the pattern?
65 How fast does weather move?
Use the lesson for "Watch out radar! Here comes a speeder!" to find out how fast weather moves.
This unit was developed by Bill Byles, Staff Development Coordinator, Teaching & Learning Academy, Memphis City Schools and a co-founder of internet4classrooms.com It is used here with permission.
Copyright © 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001 Richard Levine
This site is for non-profit, educational use only. If you have any comments, questions or resources you would like to see added to these pages, contact Richard Levine, Cool Lessons, Educational Technology Consultant, [email protected] http://www.coollessons.org/Weather9.htm
66 WebGuide An Internet based lesson
A lesson built around a single Internet Site
Subject: Earth Science or Math Grade Level(s): 6-8 Lesson Title: "Watch out radar! Here comes a speeder!" Internet Site Title: United States RadarLoop by Intellicast.com Internet Site URL: http://www.intellicast.com/LocalWeather/World/UnitedStates/ RadarLoop/
Site Description: This site as a loop of seven images which cover a span of six hours. Each time the image changes, an hour has passed. When you first get to the site you will have to scroll down so you can see the entire contiguous US map. Notice the top left corner of the map has the time and date in GMT (Greenwich Mean Time). Each time that the image changes you will see the time increase one hour. During months during which Daylight Saving Time is in effect, the Central time zone is five hours earlier on a clock (six during Standard Time). Colors are explained on the bottom left corner of the map. You will occasionally see weather events develop and spread across an area. Usually you will be able to see some line of weather that moves across an area during the six hour time span.
Site Purpose: You are looking for a weather pattern that moves across the map. Most movement will be from west to east. Watch several loops of the map until you can locate some line of clouds that moves across an area. Look for areas with yellow or red. Mark a clear starting point for that line and a clear finish point. If the event breaks up or stops before the entire six hours pass, use only a portion of the six hour span. Count the number of times the image shifts. That will be how many hours pass. Your starting and finish points will allow you to calculate distance. Knowing what distance an object moved in what time period will allow you to calculate the speed of the object.
Lesson Introduction: You will work in groups of three. Someone in your group should have an outline map of the US before going to this site.
Final Product or Task: You will use an Excel spreadsheet, or pocket calculator, to calculate the speed with which a line of thunderstorms moved across a given state. Your results and to be reported with a one-page Word document on which you have inserted an image from the Internet. Your group will present a report of the area you chose to the class, using the saved image of your radar loop. Make a prediction where the weather feature you were watching will be in six hours, and defend your prediction to the class.
67 Lesson Description: Open the US Radar Loop site using the URL given above. Assign a different portion of the map on your computer screen to each group member. Watch several loops of the Doppler Radar map until you identify a place where a clear pattern emerges. If more than one looks promising, your group should come to an agreement about which one will be used. Mark the map while watching the film loop. Do not trust memory to mark the map later. Also make a notation of the colors involved in the line of weather that you were watching. Save the image of the loop you are watching. This can not be saved to a disk, it is too large. Save the file to the shared folder, remember to rename the film loop. When your group has marked the two map points, move to the center where larger maps are located.
As exactly as possible, determine the number of miles between the starting and finish points. Use the smaller map to pinpoint two spots on a larger map. Measure the number of centimeters (to the nearest tenth) between the two map points. Using the scale of the map, determine distance between the two points. As an example; if one centimeter equals 20 miles, a distance of 15 centimeters on the map is equal to 300 miles.
Calculate the speed of the line of weather.
Move back to a computer and report the results of your calculations. Include the part of the country where this happened, report the speed of the weather and indicate how severe the weather was (remember the colors?). Make a prediction as to where the line will be in six more hours. Include an image with your report. Be sure all three group members names are on the report, then save it to the shared folder for evaluation.
Open your radar loop from the shared folder before starting your report to the class.
Conclusion: In a previous lesson we learned that fast moving cold fronts push warm air up rapidly producing turbulent air, large powerful thunderstorm, and sometimes even tornadoes. Knowing the speed with which a front is approaching, you may be able to warn family members about approaching weather problems. Even slow moving events can be used. If you know how far the event moved in six hours, you can predict when it will arrive at your location. In the winter you might even predict if snow will arrive early enough to close school before it starts. Consult this site from time to time, and notice the kind of patterns that develop.
WebGuide template provided by Internet4Classrooms http://www.internet4classrooms.com/webguide_template_example.htm
68 Assessment Grade 8
ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.3.HS.1
The teacher will present the following scenario to the class:
Assume that the Earth’s rotational axis is tilted so that the North Pole always directly faces the Sun.
Each student will write a list of predictions that describe the altitude of the Sun, the length of the day, seasonal changes, and temperature conditions that would result on such an Earth.
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.3.HS.1 Criteria Apprentice Basic Meets Exceeds Predictions of Predicts one Predicts two Predicts three Predicts all four changes component: components but components but components: altitude of the leaves two leaves one altitude of the Sun, length of the incomplete: incomplete: Sun, length of the day, seasonal altitude of the altitude of the day, seasonal changes, and Sun, length of the Sun, length of the changes, and temperature day, seasonal day, seasonal temperature conditions. changes, and changes, and conditions. temperature temperature conditions. conditions.
69 Earth/Space Science Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL: Eight Topic: Atmosphere and Weather Grade Level Standard: 8-5 Examine atmosphere and weather.
Grade Level Benchmark: 2. Describe patterns of air movement in the atmosphere and how they affect weather conditions. (V.3.HS.2)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information Resources
Central Question: How do horizontal motions of the air vary and contribute to the type of weather?
1. Use resource to track high and low pressure systems USA Today Newspaper as well as fronts for one week.
2. Make weather vane to track the wind patterns around student’s home throughout the course of the day. Check the weather vane before school, after school, and before bed.
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary: fronts, jet stream, air masses, prevailing winds, anemometer, weather/wind vane, weather map
70 Assessment Grade 8
ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.3.HS.2
The teacher will present the following scenario to the class:
A group of meteorology students has already completed a study in which they compare the wind direction and temperature of many cities before and after a cold front passes. They wish to display their wind direction data on a wind rose diagram.
Each student will draw a likely wind rose diagram for all of those cities before the front passes and after the front passes. Each student will write a prediction of what changes in temperature might be expected due to a change in wind direction caused by the passage of the front.
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.3.HS.2 Criteria Apprentice Basic Meets Exceeds Identification of Identifies change Identifies wind Identifies wind Identifies wind wind direction in wind direction direction before or direction before direction before before and after with incorrect after front passage. (S-SW) and after (S-SW) and after the front compass NW-N) front (NW-N) front direction(s). passage. passage. Drawing of wind Names compass Names compass Names compass Names compass rose diagram direction. direction and direction and direction, before and after identifies wind identifies wind identifies wind the front passes direction. direction and wind direction and duration. duration, and explains effect of frontal speed on wind duration. Accuracy of Associates either Associates change Associates change Associates change predictions change in wind or in wind direction in wind direction in the wind change in with temperature with changes in direction with temperature with change (incorrect temperature (S- changes in frontal passage. association). SW = warmer, N- temperature and NW - cooler). explains how speed of frontal movement alters changes in wind direction and temperature.
71 Earth/Space Science Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL: Eight Topic: Atmosphere and Weather Grade Level Standard: 8-5 Examine atmosphere and weather.
Grade Level Benchmark: 3. Explain and predict general weather patterns and storms. (V.3.HS.3)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information Resources
Central Question: How can weather and storms be explained using common features found on a weather map?
1. Have students look at one weeks worth of weather, USA Today past occurrences on Monday. Have them try and predict the weather forecast for the week to come knowing what has already happened. Altitude and Temperature 2. What is the relationship between altitude and http://www.coollessons.org/W weather? eather1.htm
3. What is the relationship between latitude and Latitude and Temperature weather? http://www.coollessons.org/W eather2.htm
Activity is attached
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary: hypothesis, infer, theory
72 ALTITUDE AND TEMPERATURE
A radiosonde is released to investigate high altitude weather.
What is the relationship between the altitude of a place and it's temperature? Is there a pattern or is it random?
There are a few ways to approach this question. Please use one method:
Compare the temperatures of six weather stations located at various altitudes. 1. Try to choose weather stations close to the same time zone so that the stations are receiving approximately the same amount of sunlight. 2. Make a data table using a spreadsheet with the variables of "Altitude" and "Temperature". 3. Arrange the altitude of weather stations in ascending order. 4. Record the temperature of the corresponding stations. 5. Graph altitude and temperature.
For information on temperatures of various weather stations, use Unisys Weather Map (click on the picture of the map or the region you wish to look at),WW210 (scroll down and click on surface observations map of the U.S. or your local region) from the University of Illinois, and/or Florida State University Weather Charts. For information on the latitudes of various weather stations, use The Geographic Database or Geographic Names Information System (in the "Feature Name" box type the city; in the "State or Territory Name" box click on the down arrow and choose the state).
73 Compare the temperature on the ground to the temperature above the ground. 1. Make a data table using a spreadsheet with the variables of "Altitude (ft.)", "Upper Air Temperatures (F)". 2. Go to Unisys Weather Upper Air Plots. 3. On the right side, under "PLOTS",you will find 3000, 6000, 9000, etc. 4. Click on the plot 3000 ft. Find a weather station. Record the temperature. 5. Repeat for readings that are at 6,000 feet, 9000 ft., etc. above the surface stations you chose. Record the corresponding upper air temperatures. 6. Graph the altitudes and the temperatures.
What is your conclusion? Does the altitude of a place and it's temperature have a pattern or are they random? If there is a pattern, what is the relationship?
Copyright © 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001 Richard Levine
This site is for non-profit, educational use only. If you have any comments, questions or resources you would like to see added to these pages, contact Richard Levine, Cool Lessons, Educational Technology Consultant, [email protected]
Disclaimer: This site provides teachers, students and parents with these links simply as a starting point for them to explore the vast resources of the Internet. The sites that are listed within this page are individually responsible for the content and accuracy of the information found in their site. http://www.coollessons.org/Weather1.htm
74 LATITUDE AND TEMPERATURE
What is the relationship between the latitude of a place and its temperature?
Compare the latitude of five weather stations and the present temperatures of those stations. Try to choose weather stations close to the same longitude line so that the stations are receiving approximately the same amount of sunlight.
Make a data table using a spreadsheet with the variables of "Latitude" and "Temperature". Round off the latitude to the nearest degree and arrange the latitude of weather stations in ascending order. Record the temperature of the corresponding stations. Graph latitude and temperature.
For information on temperatures of various weather stations, use Unisys Weather Map (click on the picture of the map or the region you wish to look at), WW210 (scroll down and click on surface observations map of the U.S. or your local region) from the University of Illinois, and/or Florida State University Weather Charts.
For information on the latitudes of various weather stations, use The Geographic Database or Geographic Names Information System (in the "Feature Name" box type the city; in the "State or Territory Name" box click on the down arrow and choose the state).
What is your conclusion? Does the latitude of a place and its temperature have a pattern or are they random? If there is a pattern, what is the relationship?
Copyright © 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001 Richard Levine
This site is for non-profit, educational use only. If you have any comments, questions or resources you would like to see added to these pages, contact Richard Levine, Cool Lessons, Educational Technology Consultant, [email protected]
Disclaimer: This site provides teachers, students and parents with these links simply as a starting point for them to explore the vast resources of the Internet. The sites that are listed within this page are individually responsible for the content and accuracy of the information found in their site. http://www.coollessons.org/Weather2.htm
75 Assessment Grade 8
ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.3.HS.3
Students should be grouped by continents and will view a world map showing major landforms. Each group will prepare a short speech explaining why there are fewer tornadoes on other continents than on the Great Plains of North America.
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.3.HS.3 Criteria Apprentice Basic Meets Exceeds Accuracy of Provides Provides basic Provides good Provides a interpretation inadequate interpretations of interpretations of thorough and interpretation of the effect of the effect of accurate the effect of east/west blocking east/west blocking interpretation of east/west blocking mountains, mountains, the effect of mountains, suitable air mass suitable air mass east/west blocking suitable air mass source regions, source regions, mountains, source regions, movements of air movements of air suitable air mass movements of air masses, and degree masses, and degree source regions, masses, and degree of difference in air of difference in air movements of air of difference in air masses. masses. masses, and degree masses. of difference in air masses.
76 Earth/Space Science Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL: Eight Topic: Atmosphere and Weather Grade Level Standard: 8-5 Examine atmosphere and weather.
Grade Level Benchmark: 4. Explain the impact of human activities on the atmosphere and explain ways that individuals and society can reduce pollution. (V.3.HS.4)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information Resources
Central Question: What human activities produce pollution and how can we control air quality?
1. Discussion of Rain Forest: deforestation of the Amazon Rain Forest depletion of the ozone layer
2. Discuss the positive effects of car pooling; working from home on the environment.
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary: deforestation, smog, global warming, aerosol/spray, ozone layer
77 Assessment Grade 8
ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER
Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.3.HS.4
The teacher will present the following scenario:
A company that offers many jobs and other economic benefits makes a presentation to a community to get support to build a factory within that community. The factory will produce airborne pollutants (e.g., particulates, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, ozone, etc.).
Working in small groups, students will develop a list of pros and cons as to whether this industry is a viable addition to their community. Each pro and con listed must be described. Possible health effects of the pollutants must be described. Each group will provide a recommendation as to whether the factory should be allowed in their community and the reasons for the recommendation..
Note: Teachers may select one or more specific industries that may be realistically located in the students’ community. Already developed realistic scenarios are available on the web.
(Give students rubric before activity.)
Scoring of Classroom Assessment Example SCI.V.3.HS.4 Criteria Apprentice Basic Meets Exceeds Correctness of Identifies Identifies most Identifies all Identifies all pollutant pollutants and/or pollutants and/or pollutants and/or pollutants and/or identification health effects health effects health effects explains resulting poorly. correctly. correctly. health effects correctly. Correctness of Identifies some Identifies most Identifies all pros. Identifies and positive aspects pros. pros. explains all pros. Correctness of Identifies some Identifies most Identifies all cons. Identifies and negative aspects cons. cons. explains all cons. Completeness of Recommends a Recommends a Recommends a Recommends a recommendation course of action course of action course of action well-supported without support. with some support. with good support. course of action.
78 Science Processes Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL: Eight Topic: Science Processes Grade Level Standard: 8-6 Construct an experiment using the scientific meaning. Grade Level Benchmark: 1. Use the scientific processes to construct meaning. (I.1.HS.1-5)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information Resources
Central Question: What is the scientific method?
1. “Observing” Book: Science Process Skills, Dr. Karen L. Ostlund. pp. 76, 2. Observing Solid Mass. 77, 79, 81, 85, 90 Re-do experiment 1 except use a water bath and have a student from each group hold each object in their hand and place it in the water bath for one minute. Use solids; shale, limestone, ice, rock salt.
Activity is attached
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary: scientific method, procedure
79 Name ______OBSERVING 1. Use the senses of sight, smell, and touch to describe the mixture. Color: ______Texture: ______Shape: ______Odor: ______2. Poke your finger into the mixture quickly. Describe what happens. ______3. Poke your finger into the mixture slowly. Describe what happens. ______4. Tap the mixture in the pie tin with your fist. Describe what happens. ______5. Pick up some of the mixture and roll it into a ball. Describe what happens. ______6. Pour the mixture into the container. Describe what happens. ______
© Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. all rights reserved.
80 Science Processes Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL: Eight Topic: Science Processes Grade Level Standard: 8-7 Reflect on scientific processes.
Grade Level Benchmark: 1. Reflect on scientific processes in experiments/ investigations. (II.6.HS.1-6)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information Resources
Central Question: How do you record information?
1. “Investigating” Book: Science Process Skills, Dr. Karen L. Ostlund. pp. 99, 2. Use the census information given by local government 105, 106, 108, 111 and chart the population increase or decrease using both graphs (all types) and charts. Students will now know when and why certain data displays are used.
Activity is attached
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary: data table
81 Name ______INVESTIGATING 1. Problem: Which rubber band will stretch the most when 500 grams of weight are added? Design and conduct an investigation to help you find out. 2. Describe what you will do to find out which rubber band stretches the most when 500 grams of weight are added. ______3. Construct a chart to show your results.
Rubber Band Length before Length after Difference Width Weight Weight
© Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. all rights reserved.
82 Name ______
4. Graph the results listed in your chart.
Title ______
325 300 s t h
g 275 i e
W 250
g
0 225 0 5
h 200 t i w 175 s r e t 150 e m i l
l 125 i M
n 100 i
h c
t 75 e r t 50 S 25
1 2 3 4 5 6 Width of Rubber Band in Millimeters
5. Conclusion: Which rubber band stretches the most? ______6. What did you learn from this investigation? ______
© Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. all rights reserved.
83 Science Processes Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL: Eight Topic: Science Processes Grade Level Standard: 8-8 Use the scientific method for investigation.
Grade Level Benchmark: 1. Use the scientific method to communicate scientific knowledge gained through investigation.
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information Resources
Central Question: How do we use the Scientific Method?
1. Have students bring in a sealed shoe box with 5 items Sample products on hand: they have selected to put in it. Students will then pass crystals, different types of each shoe box around using the scientific method to rocks hypothesize what they believe is inside the box. After every student has gone, open each box and ask how and why the students made some of their assumptions.
2. Have students do a rock identification test. They will have four rocks. Some smooth, rough, large and small crystals, and different colors. They will them try and guess what type of rock it is based on their use of the scientific method.
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary: scientific method
84 Technology Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL: Eight Topic: Technology Grade Level Standard: 8-9 Choose the appropriate technological tool.
Grade Level Benchmark: 1. Use a variety of technology in scientific investigation/experiments.
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information Resources
Central Question: How do we use the Scientific Method?
1. Research: Write one page research paper based upon Computer Lab the materials found only on the Internet. Internet Capabilities
2. Create Documents: Write one page research project (2- 3 people per group) on how technology and pollution are/are not related.
3. Presentation: Poster project topics depicting one of the following: “Ecosystems, Geosphere, Hydrosphere, or Atmosphere and Weather.”
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary: Internet
85 Gender/Equity Worksheet
GRADE LEVEL: Eight Topic: Gender/Equity Grade Level Standard: 8-10 Describe the contributions made in science by cultures and individuals of diverse backgrounds. Grade Level Benchmark: 1. Recognize the contributions made in science by cultures and individuals of diverse backgrounds. (II.1.MS.6)
Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information Resources
Central Question: Who are some important scientist? Why?
Cells Hydrosphere Katherine Esau Eugenie Clark Ernest E. Just Sylvia Earle Ecosystem Matthew Fontaine Maury Rachel Louise Carson Atmosphere and Weather Grace Chow Margaret Lemone Aldo Leopold Warren Washington Geosphere Louise Arner Boyd Matthew Henson Robert Peary
Process Skills:
New Vocabulary:
86 LIFE SCIENCE: CELLS Katherine Esau (1898 - 1997)
EXPERT PLANT VIRUS RESEARCHER
In researching the effects of viruses on plants, Dr. Esau realized that she had to understand plant cell development–how cells differentiate and become specialized to carry out a particular function or process in the life of a plant.
Differentiation can be complicated, but it basically means trying to understand why one plant cell will develop to take part in one life process such as water storage, while another will develop to take part in a totally different life process such as transporting foodstuffs. This kind of Katherine Esau was born and raised in reasoning and study is called ontology. Dr. what was formerly known as Russia, or the Esau’s work contributed a great deal to our U.S.S.R. It was here that she was educated knowledge of the ontology of plants. through her first year of college. Then the Esau family migrated to Germany where She also realized that, in order to study she completed her undergraduate college plant viruses, she had to know a plant’s degree. In 1922, she and her family ontology because the first symptoms of a migrated a second time to the United States virus infection occurred in plant parts which of America. were still growing or developing. Further study showed that these viruses would Some time later, Katherine Esau began infect only certain cells. For instance, say a graduate studies at the University of particular virus only infects cells that store California (U.C.) in the field of botany. She water. By knowing how a cell develops completed her Ph.D. in 1931 and taught at (differentiates) in order to become a water- U.C. Santa Barbara. But, most of Dr. Esau’s storage cell, we can then accurately study research dealing with the effects of viral the effects of that virus infection. infection of plants, was performed at the Dr. Esau’s work led to the discovery of Experiment Station of the Agriculture a phloem.-limited virus; in other words, a Department on the Davis campus. virus which infects only a certain type of complex plant tissue. She also made a In order to conduct these kinds of significant contribution to the scientific studies, Dr. Esau had to first study normal community by showing that studying the plants in order to understand the kinds of ontology of an organism is important if we changes which occurred once plants are to understand the differences which became infected with a virus. Through this occur as a result of things such as viral work, Dr. Esau became an authority on the infection. structure and development of the phloem (plant tissue responsible for transporting References food from the leaves to the rest of the Modern Men of Science. 1966. McGraw- plant). Hill Book Company. NY. pp. 157-158.
87 LIFE SCIENCE: CELLS Dr. Ernest E. Just (1883-1941)
PIONEERED RESEARCHED ON THE LIVING CELL
excellence in zoology he displayed at Dartmouth, began teaching biology two years later. He also began work toward his Ph.D. at the Marine Biological Laboratory, located in Maine, in 1909. Summers were spent at the University of Chicago.
Just completed his zoology doctorate in 1916, some seven years later. Even before completing that degree, however, he was Despite all the contributions he was to widely praised for inspiring young Blacks to make to science, Dr. Ernest E. Just had to excel in school. fight to “keep aglow the flame within me,” even moving to Europe to escape the Just’s scientific endeavors dealt with racism he encountered in the U.S. the study of marine eggs and sperm cells, techniques for their study, the functions of Just was born August 14, 1883, in normal verses abnormal cells, and ways Charleston, South Carolina. His father, a they might relate to diseases such as dock worker, died when Ernest was only cancer, sickle cell anemia, and leukemia. four years old. In order to support Ernest Just’s theory that the cell membrane and his two siblings, their mother worked (surface) is as important to the life of a cell two jobs — as a school teacher and as a as its nucleus (center) was much ahead of laborer in the phosphate fields outside of its time. town. Young Ernest was forced to work in With the 1930's came recognition of his the crop fields. contributions to knowledge by the American science community. It was during this time At age 17, and with the courage and that Just was elected vice-president of the foresight of his mother, Ernest was sent American Society of Zoologists, elected a North to further his education. It is said that member of the Washington Academy of he had only $5 to his name when he left Sciences, and appointed to the editorial home. Upon reaching New York City, he boards of several leading science journals. first entered the Kimball Union Academy preparatory school, where he graduated But, for all Just’s success, he found valedictorian in spite of overwhelming himself alienated from large research racism. Dartmouth College was next. In institutions, major (White) universities and only three years, he earned degrees in both scientific organizations because of the color biology and history, and was the only of his skin. He hated being referred to as student to graduate magna cum laude (with the “Negro scientist” and detested feeling high honors). And, he was inducted into Phi “trapped by color” in a segregated United Beta Kappa, one of the most prestigious States of America. academic honor societies in this country. For these reasons, Just found himself In 1907, Ernest E. Just became an attracted to Europe. There, he was free to English teacher at Howard University in go to restaurants and the theater. The Washington, D.C. But, because of the European scientific community cooked to
88 his research, and not to his color, so Just spent much of his career at top laboratories in Germany and France.
Sadly, Ernest E. Just died of cancer in 1941, two years after returning to the United States.
Frank R. Lillie, a well-known scientist and friend of Just, described his life this way: “...despite his achievements, an element of tragedy ran through all Just’s scientific career due to the limitations imposed by being a Negro in America... That a man of his ability, scientific devotion, and of such strong personal loyalties as he gave and received, should have been warped in the land of his birth much remain a matter for regret.”
Books by Dr. E. E. Just
The Biology of the Cell Surface. Blakiston’s Publishing. Philadelphia, 1939.
Basic Methods for Experiments in Eggs of Marine Animals. Blakiston’s Publishing. Philadelphia, 1939.
References
“Scientific Ingenuity in the Bind of Racial Injustice.” J. Natl. Soc. Black Eng. vol 4. no. 3, February. 1989.
Dictionary of American Negro Biologist. eds. Rayford Logan and Michael Winston. W.W. Norton & Co., NY. 1982.
The Philadelphia Tribune. Dartmouth Starts E.E. Just Professorship. January 5, 1982.
Black Apollo of Science: The Life of Ernest Everett Just. Kenneth R. Manning. Oxford Univ. Press., NY. 1983.
89 LIFE SCIENCE: ECOSYSTEMS Rachel Louise Carson (1907-1964)
A CRUSADER AGAINST THE DANGERS OF PESTICIDES
Rachel Carson was raised in the towns of Springdale and Parnassus, Pennsylvania. It was here that she received her early education in the public school system, but it was her mother, Maria McLean Carson, who taught Rachel to love nature. She learned to appreciate birds, insects, and the wildlife in and around streams and ponds. So, even though Rachel’s first career goal was to become a writer, she later In her book, The Silent Spring, she told changed her mind and earned a B.A. in how DDT was poisoning parts of the food science from the Pennsylvania College for chain, and thus affecting all living things. In Women at Pittsburgh. She then enrolled in the food chain, all living things are Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, connected in some way. When any part of Maryland, where she received a master’s the food chain is harmed, we all are degree in zoology. harmed. The harm may not come in the Rachel Carson went on to work as an same ways or to the same degree, but all aquatic biologist with the U.S. Fish & living things are affected. Wildlife Service in Washington, D.C. Later, Pesticides can filter into waterways she became editor-in-chief of the bureau, through the soil and through improper responsible for issuing bulletins and leaflets storage and disposal methods. Once in the aimed at preventing the depletion of the water, they affect the aquatic life found in nation’s wildlife. Through her writings, these ponds and streams, rivers and the Carson wanted to make people aware of oceans. Then it is only a matter of time dangers to our environment such as before these pesticides begin to effect the pesticides. animals which prey on aquatic animals and Modern science has developed a plant life. variety of fertilizers for different purposes. For example, you can find fish with Some provide mineral nutrients necessary toxic levels of pesticides in their bodies. for plant growth. Others are made to kill a When birds eat these fish, they will also specific kind of insect or a variety of insects. become poisoned with pesticides. When Then there are the kinds of pesticides that they lay eggs, the shells are too fragile to kill other plants or weeds, which compete protect the unborn baby birds, or their with crops for mineral nutrients in the soul. babies may be deformed. We must also Even though fertilizers help increase the consider the animals and insects living on size and amount of crops, questions exist or near lands where pesticides are used. about their safety, both to nature and to They, too can get sick from eating these mankind. In general, fertilizers are safe. plants or other small animals (prey). But some fertilizers which contain pesticides Much of these contaminated lands are can also be dangerous. farms where our food is grown, where we Rachel Carson told the world about the get tomatoes, corn, wheat, beef, and pork. dangers of DDT, a pesticide widely used by And the list goes on and on. Ms. Carson farmers in the 1960's to control bugs. warned that we all needed to stop using DDT or many animals and plants would die.
90 Rachel Carson made us all aware that it is important to know what pesticides are being used and how they are used — for the sake of all living things.
References
Current Biography 1951. H. W. Wilson Company. Nov. 1951. New York. p. 12-13.
The Sea Around Us. 1951. Rachel L. Carson.
The Silent Spring. 1962. Rachel L. Carson.
“Soiled Shores” by Marguerite Holloway & John Horgan. American Scientific. Oct. 1991.
91 LIFE SCIENCE: ECOSYSTEMS Grace Chow
PROTECTING OUR CLEAN DRINKING WATER
Grace Chow works on developing better water treatment systems. She is involved with a number of projects designed to recycle sewage water in such a way as to put the water to good use not only people, but also other animals and plant life. It is hoped that sewage water treated in new ways can be re-used for things like the irrigation of farms, parks, and recreational areas, instead of using fresh water. That way, the limited amount of fresh water Grace Chow is a civil engineer whose available can be used for drinking. work centers on concerns for the environment. These concerns include questions like how we use what is available from nature in an efficient manner, how we can protect the environment in innovative ways, and how to develop new technologies and methods to achieve these goals. Environmental problems occur in a variety of ways. When the water level on a lake or a waterway is high, it can cause the shoreline to erode away. When we build anything along a shoreline, we must realize that both the materials used in the building process as well as those materials in use after a building is complete can filter into the nearby waterways. Also, that heavy rains alone can cause flooding and soil erosion. Cities build and maintain sanitary sewage treatment facilities designed to keep sewage (waste) water separate from drinking water. They are also designed to clean sewage from the water so that it can be reused. But, storms can cause these treatment plants to flood. When this happens, sewage water spills out into the rivers, streams, and other sources of clean water. Or, sometimes these facilities are designed wrong or operated in a careless manner. Then they can cause the same kinds of contamination of our clean water sources.
92 LIFE SCIENCE: ECOSYSTEMS Aldo Leopold (1887- 1948 )
FATHER OF MODERN CONSERVATION
Born In 1887, Aldo Leopold spent his the purpose of hunting. But the "true" nature boyhood years In Burlington, Iowa, and lover, he said, defined conservation in terms went on to attend Yale University's School of preserving our flora and fauna as much of Forestry where he earned his as possible. Leopold believed that professional degree. conservation was not only about prevention, but also using natural resources wisely. When Aldo joined the U. S. Forest Nature as a whole is a community of life Service in 1909, his views were quite including the soil, waters, fauna, flora and different from those around him. Leopold people. approached forest management from an ecological perspective. To his mind, forest management went beyond providing trees for industry. It should include watershed protection for the whole region from which a river receives its supply of fresh water, as well as grazing, fish and wildlife conservation, recreation and, of course, protecting land from the ravages of man.
In 1933, his treatise on Game Management led to a professorship at the One of Aldo Leopold's last conservation University of Wisconsin. There, he sought fights was over the Wisconsin's whitetail to educate and involve youth in matters of deer management laws. The deer herd ecology. He organized projects including there had gotten so large that it was eating counting nests, planting shelter belts, filling away the plant life faster than the land could feeding stations, warning poachers, and replace it. They were ruining the land. recording weather conditions year round. Whitetail fawns were starving to death, and bucks were not growing to maturity. Leopold also established some Leopold knew the answer to this conservation rules which he called problem—reduce the size of the deer Ecological Principles. These rules call upon population. us to do several things. First, to maintain soil fertility; second, to preserve the stability The deer had no natural predators in of water systems; and third, produce useful this region, so their numbers increased products. Fourth, he also called upon us to beyond a natural balance. Leopold's advice preserve our fauna and flora as much as as to lengthen the annual hunting season possible. (Fauna refers to the animals of a and allow the hunting of both bucks and given region and Flora refers to the plants fawns. (Fawns are not usually hunted.) of a region.) Conservationists did not like what Leopold advised, so the battles began. In Leopold's opinion, farmers and others interested in erosion prevention believed only in the first three conservation principles. The sportsman or hunter only believed in producing useful products for
93 Today, arguments are still being waged over what role people should take in preserving nature and the balance of nature. Is It our responsibility only to oversee and protect the lands and animals, or is it our duty to keep animal populations at controlled levels by allowing hunting? What should our role be when an animal population gets too large to be supported by the vegetation of the region? How much human intervention is too much?
Because he knew more about land ecology than any other person of his time, many principles of wildlife management in practice today were developed by Aldo Leopold and his co-workers. He had a rare understanding of the way biotic (life) forces interact, and the ways in which these interactions occur, affecting the life and landscape of America.
References
A Sand County Almanac and Sketches Here and There. Aldo Leopold. Oxford University Press. 1949, 1980.
A Sand County Almanac with other Essays on Conservation from Round River. Aldo Leopold. Oxford University Press. 1949, 1966.
Game Management. Aldo Leopold. Charles Scribner & Sons. 1933.1961.
"Leopold Helped Set the Course of Modem Conservation." Wisconsin Conservation Bulletin. Dec. 1954.
"Aldo Leopold Remembered." by Clay Schoenefeld. Audubon. May 1978.
94 LIFE SCIENCE: GEOSPHERE Louise Arner Boyd (1887-1972)
ARCTIC EXPLORER ON SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITIONS
As a youngster, Louise Arner Boyd was expected to be accomplished in activities like shooting and horseback riding. But Louise had greater adventures in mind—she dreamed of someday going to the North Pole.
Louise Boyd’s father was a wealthy mining operator in California, and she had two brothers, both of whom died of rheumatic fever when she was a teenager. Her parents were also in poor health, but Louise led a very active outdoor life. ice. Boyd offered her crew, ship and By the time Ms. Boyd was 33, both her supplies to the Norwegian government to parents had died and she found herself help with their rescue mission. During this head of the Boyd Investment Company of time, she met several other polar explorers San Francisco, California. A prominent Bay who accepted her almost as a professional Area socialite, she enjoyed traveling to equal. After four months, the mission was England, France, Belgium, and all of called off. Survivors of the Nobile Europe. It was while on a Norwegian cruise expeditions were found; Raold Ammundsen that she saw some of the Arctic regions for was not. For her part, Louise Boyd was the first time. As in her childhood, Louise’s honored by the King of Norway and the sense of adventure surfaced once again. French government.
She read all she could about the region, On her third expedition in 1931, she was collected maps and photographic the first to explore the inner ends of Kind equipment, and organized her first Oscar Fjord (or Fiord), also called Ice Fjord, expedition. Louise chartered a Norwegian in Greenland. With good weather on her boat, the Hobby, and invited some friends side, she was able to travel farther north to accompany her. She then led a team of along the Greenland coast than any other six researchers on a venture which included American explorer before her. Boyd studied microscopic study of arctic flora and fauna. the geology and botany of the region, made magnetic observations, took depth Ms. Boyd took all the expedition’s soundings, mapped the East Greenland photographs and did much of the surveying. fjord region and also took lots of In fact, it is said that her expeditions were photographs. An impressed Danish uneventful because she planned them so government named this territory Miss Boyd thoroughly, anticipating any and all Land in her honor. problems that might arise. At the onset on World War II, the areas During preparations for her second visited by Ms. Boyd during the late 1930's expedition, Ms. Boyd learned that Raold became a part of the war zone when Ammundsen had disappeared searching for Norway and Denmark were invaded. At a group of Italian explorers lost in the polar that time, she was writing a book about her
95 findings in these regions, and the United The Coast of Northeast Greenland. Louise States government told her how valuable Boyd. American Geographical Society, these reports and photographs would be to 1949. the war effort — hers were the few accurate materials the government could use for Further Explorations of East Greenland. defense purposes. Louise Boyd, in Geographical Review, July 1934. The U.S. War Department enlisted Ms. Boyd as a technical adviser and selected her to lead an investigation of magnetic and radio phenomena in the Arctic waters. (All of her activities during the war were kept secret.) The Department of the Army rewarded her with a Certificate of Appreciation for “outstanding patriotic service to the Army as a contributor of geographic knowledge.” After the war ended, she was free to publish her book of the Denmark and Norway regions, and The Coast of Northwest Greenland was finally published in 1948.
In her sixties, Louise Boyd had one more dream: she wanted to fly over the North Pole. So, she chartered a plane and did it — the first privately funded flight over the region and the first such flight by a woman.
By the time she died in 1972, Ms. Boyd had spent almost every penny of her inherited fortune on explorations and scientific expeditions. But, Louise Boyd viewed these contributions to the welfare of the world as part of a great personal reward for reaching her goals, and a pleasure which she had thoroughly enjoyed.
References Christian Science Monitor. p. 15, June 19, 1959.
National Cyclopedia of American Biography current, vol. G (1943-46).
The Fiord Region of East Greenland. Louise Boyd. American Geographical Society, 1935.
96 EARTH SCIENCE: GEOSPHERE Matthew A. Henson (1866-1955) and Robert E. Peary (1856-1920)
CO-DISCOVERERS OF THE NORTH POLE
Of the many adventures in the Arctic, there is a story which is perhaps most famous of all. And, it forever intertwined the lives of two men – Matthew A. Henson and Robert E. Peary. These two joined forces in 1887 and spent some 20 years learning about travel and survival in the Arctic before they eventually reached the North Pole. Earlier expeditions were designed to explore the untouched Northern region of Matthew Henson Greenland, and these trips ultimately penetrated deeper inland than any before them. In 1891, Peary organized an expedition for the push north to prove Greenland was an island. During this trek, he also discovered what may still be the largest known meteorite, weighing some 90 tons. In his honor, the northern most section – free of the ice cap which covers most of Greenland – was named Peary Land. During the next 12 years, Peary and Matthew Henson’s North Pole expedition crew made several trips to Greenland. In doing so, they fine-tuned their survival skills, Robert Peary learning to live like the Eskimos. And, they managed to get closer and closer to the As a part of the expedition’s strategy, North Pole, their ultimate goal. Borup and Marvin were sent back early on It was 1909 when an extensive crew for additional supplies and fuel. Bartlett was organized to make the journey of all was sent ahead to set the trial north. The journeys. This group included Admiral weather, a major concern for a successful Peary, explorer; Matthew Henson, explorer mission, was good, with temperatures and weather meteorologist; Ross Marvin, ranging from 5 degrees Fahrenheit to 32 secretary and assistant; Dr. J.W. Goodsell, degrees Fahrenheit below zero. However, expedition surgeon; George Borup; Captain Borup and Marvin failed to return with the began the drive to the Pole, some 413 miles needed fuel. After a week’s delay, the through what has been termed “a white group pushed ahead anyway. Three days hell.” later, Henson was sent ahead to blaze a trail for five marches (each march was designed to be equivalent to 12 hours of travel), and Marvin and Borup finally arrived with the fuel.
97 At the end of each march, igloos were built, They decided to make five marches of men and dogs ate, and, of course, they 25 miles each. Barring bad weather, they slept. This plan worked well because when would be able to make it to their goal with crew members reached one of the camps at one final push forward at the end of the fifth the end of a march, fewer igloos would march. The crew moved ahead, often need to be built because some were pushing beyond their limits and receiving already there. Along the way, the crew minimal rest before starting out again. They made soundings of the arctic waters to made the five marches in about four days. measure their depth using piano wire with a Measurements showed them to be at 89 lead weight tied to the end. Unfortunately, degrees and 57 minutes, only three nautical Macmillan developed a bad case of frostbite miles from the North Pole, and Peary was on his foot and was sent back to Cape showing the wear from the journey. Columbia. Matthew Henson and his crew of Eskimos After two marches or so, the core group continued the lead, allowing Peary some caught up with Henson’s division which had time to recover. Not only did they reach the made camp to repair their sledges. Then, Pole, but Peary’s division went beyond it by after two more marches, Borup turned back about 10 miles. with his division – his job was done. He had Unfortunately, there has been a lot of carried his heavy sledge through the ice debate over the role Henson played during floes, but he lacked experience. And he, the journey, not to mention who actually too, had a case of frostbite. arrived at the North Pole first. Much of the One of the strategies for the long trip’s documentation indicates that Matthew journey was to allow some crew members Henson played a pivotal role in the survival to turn back so the core group could carry and success of the expedition team. Crew on with fewer worries about losing people, members were very dependent on weather time, and running out of food. data because the ability to predict storms This left a total of 12 men. Henson and was crucial to their survival. But, Henson Bartlett were sent forward to make their was not only the weather metrologist, he march and camp. Peary and the rest of the was also fluent in the language of the core group would follow 12 hours later. Eskimos, was a master sledge and dog When the core group arrived at camp, handler, and a craftsman who, along with Henson and Bartlett started out on the next the Eskimos, built and repaired many of march. Marvin was next to be sent back their igloos. after the expedition had reached a position A well-known story says that Admiral of 86 degrees and 38 minutes. The North Peary, when telling the rest of the world Pole was at 90 degrees. about their journey, left out Henson’s Here, the ice was level but treacherous. contributions and those of the Eskimos – It surged together, opened up, and ground indicating that he (Peary) was the “one” who against the open waters. After making it reached the North Pole first. beyond some bad ice floes, it was time for Needless to say, this caused problems Bartlett to turn back. He had hoped to between Henson and Peary which make it as far as 88 degrees but at 87 continued until their deaths. The saddest degrees and 48 minutes there were not part, perhaps, is that they likely admired enough supplies for his division to remain. one another and considered each other a At this point, the crew was 133 nautical friend. But, this lack of recognition by Peary miles from the Pole and had 40 days of hurt Henson deeply, especially coming from food left (50 if they used the dogs for meat). a friend. But, they not only had to make it to the The National Geographical Society Pole; they also had a return trip to think recognized Peary as an explorer and about. dubbed him founder of the North Pole. But Henson was never recognized by the
98 society, even in light of all the evidence of his critical role. Today, however, after lengthy debate, both are recognized as co-founders of the North Pole. Matthew Henson and Admiral Robert Peary are buried side-by-side in Arlington National Cemetery, with plaques commemorating their remarkable achievements.
References
A Negro Explorer at the North Pole. Matthew Henson. Arno press, New York, 1969.
To Stand at the North Pole: the Dr. Cook — Adm. Peary North Pole Controversy. William R. Hunt. Stein and Day, New York, 1981.
Peary, the Explorer and the Man. John Weems. Houghton Mifflin, 1967.
To the Top of the World: the Story of Peary and Henson. Pauline K. Angell. Rand McNally, Chicago, 1964.
Across Greenland’s Ice-field. Mary Douglas. Nelson, New York, 1897.
Discovery of the North Pole: Dr. Frederick A. Cook’s Own Story of How He Reached the North Pole Before Commander Robert E. Peary. James Miller ed.. Chicago 1901.
The Life of Matthew Henson. Joan Bacchus, Baylor Publishing Co. and Community Enterprises, Seattle, WA., 1986.
99 EARTH SCIENCE: HYDROSPHERE Eugenie Clark (1922- )
“THE SHARK LADY”
Society on the reproductive behavior of platies and sword tailed species. And, she conducted the first successful experiments on artificial insemination of fish in the United States.
The Office of Naval Research sent her to the South Seas to study the identification of poisonous fish. Here, she visited places like Guam, Kwajalein, Saipan and the Palaus. She explored the waters with the assistance of native people from whom she learned techniques of underwater spear- fishing. Through her work, she identified Eugenie Clark is originally from New many species of poisonous fish. York City. Her father died when she was only two years old, and she was raised by The United States Navy was so her Japanese mother. While at work on interested in this work that she was Saturdays, Mrs. Clark would often leave awarded a Fullbright Scholarship which took Eugenie at the Aquarium. Here, Eugenie her to Faud University in Egypt—the first discovered the wonders of the undersea woman to work at the university's Ghardaqa world. One Christmas, she persuaded her Biological Station. Here, she collected some mother to get her a 15-gallon aquarium so 300 species of fish, three of them entirely she could begin her own collection of fish. new, and some 40 poisonous ones. Of That collection broadened to eventually particular interest to the Navy was her include an alligator, a toad and a snake research on the puffer or blowfish type of —all kept in her family's New York poisonous fish. Hers was one of the first apartment. complete studies of Red Sea fish since the 1880's. When Eugenie entered Hunter College, her choice of a major was Eugenie received her Ph.D. from obvious—zoology. She spent summers at New York University in 1951. Her work has the University of Michigan biological station paid particular attention to the role nature to further her studies. After graduation, she plays in providing for the survival of a worked as a chemist while taking evening species as a whole —rather than each classes at the graduate school of New York individual member of a given species —and University and earned her master's degree special adaptations some animals have studying the anatomy and evolution of the made to escape their predators. Examples puffing mechanism of the blowfish. Next, include the chameleon which is capable of Eugenie went to the Scripps Institute of changing its color to blend in with its Oceanography in California and began surroundings, or the African ground squirrel learning to dive and swim underwater. which pretends it is dead because many animals will not eat the flesh of prey that is In the late 1940's, Clark began motionless or already dead. experiments for the New York Zoological
100 Eugenie Clark's most renowned work studied the shark, hence her nickname "The Shark Lady." And she has spent a lot of time speaking to groups about how sharks live in an attempt to lessen our fear of this creature.
References
The Lady and the Sharks. Eugenie Clark. Harper & Row, New York, 1969.
Lady With a Spear. Eugenie Clark. Harper, New York, 1953.
Artificial Insemination in Viviparous Fishes. Science. December 15, 1950.
101 PHYSICAL SCIENCE: MOTION OF OBJECTS Sylvia Earle (1879-1955)
DISCOVERED 153 SPECIES OF MARINE PLANTS
Later, in graduate school at Duke University, Sylvia realized that all of life is connected—that everything on earth is dependent upon everything else—and that everything depends upon plants. If the energy of the sun was not captured in plants through photosynthesis, there would be no animals and no human beings. She learned that the first link in the ocean’s food chain is marine plant life.
In 1964, Sylvia Earle took part in the International Indian Ocean Expedition. The only female among 60 males, she journeyed to Rome, Nairobi, Athens, and Sylvia Earle has spent her life observing various islands in the Indian Ocean. Future nature and admiring the beauty of the expeditions took her to three oceans where undersea world. As a child, Sylvia grew up she discovered several new varieties of on a small farm in New Jersey where she marine life, including a distinct red algae and her two brothers enjoyed exploring never seen before. She received her Ph.D. nearby woods and marshes. They would from Duke University in 1966. also take in sick and abandoned animals, and nurse them back to health. As the lead scientist of the U.S. Encouraged by her mother, Sylvia found the Department of the Interior’s Tektite natural world a constant source of program, Dr. Earle and an all-woman team fascination. of scientists and engineers went on a two- week research expedition. The team lived It was during family excursions to underwater near the island of St. John for Ocean City, New Jersey that the sea world the entire time. From their studies of opened up to her. Sylvia fished for eels and nearby reefs, 153 different species of crabs, grew to love the fresh salt air and to marine plants, including 26 never before respect the power of the sea. The Earles recorded in the Virgin Islands, were moved to the west coast of Florida when discovered. Unfortunately, however, these she was 12, so the Gulf of Mexico became discoveries went relatively unnoticed. her backyard and she began collecting sea Instead, the news media concentrated more urchins and starfish. on the fact that the research time was all female—labeling them “aquachicks” and Sylvia started first grade at the age of “aquababes.” five, so she was always the youngest in her class. Nevertheless, she made top grades Although this reaction upset Dr. Earle, all through school. She and her brother she did not stop moving forward. In 1977, were the first in their family to go to college, the National Geographic Society, the World and Sylvia was anxious to do well. Her Wildlife Fund, and the New York Zoological strongest interest lay in the study of Society sponsored an expedition to learn underwater plants and animals. about the humpback whale. Dr. Earle and
102 other scientists studied the whale’s Breakthrough: Women in Science. Diana mysterious and intensely resonant songs as Gleasner. Walker and Company, New well as their behavior. They also studied York, 1983. the barnacles, algae and parasites which live on the whale’s hide. Earle swam, side by side with these gentle giants.
Dr. Earle strongly believed that the more we know about the ocean, the more we will take care and preserve it. As for the whales, she says we must do more than just stop killing them; we must also protect the places in which they live.
While participating in the Scientific Cooperative Ocean Research Expedition, Dr. Earle not only made the longest and deepest dives ever recorded by a woman, but she also discovered a new genus of plants living at 250 feet below the surface. Another record-setting dive took place in 1979 when she was lowered 1,250 feet to the bottom of the Pacific Ocean off Oahu, Hawaii. This time she wore a suit of experimental design that resembled those used by astronauts. Here, she observed a small, green-eyed shark, a sea fan with pink polyps, and giant spirals of bamboo coral that looked like a field of bedsprings. These emitted a luminous blue light when she touched them.
Dr. Sylvia Earle is convinced that, if people could see what is happening to our oceans, they would not like it. She wants us to understand that what we do in one place ultimately affects everybody because the health of the whole world depends upon the health of our oceans.
References
Exploring the Deep Frontier the Adventure of Man in the Sea. Sylvia Earle. The Society, Washington, D.C., 1980.
Life with the Dutch Touch. Sylvia Earle. The Hague, Government Publishing Office, 1960.
103 EARTH SCIENCE: HYDROSPHERE Matthew Fontaine Maury (1806 - 1873)
PAVED WAY FOR SCIENTIFIC APPROACH
and Current Charts, and gave them to mariners free of charge in return for similar information from their own ships’ logs. As a result, he was able to develop a series of charts and sailing directions which gave a climatic picture of surface winds and currents for all the oceans.
As it turns out, Maury was interested in improving sea technology in order to show that sailing was superior to the steam propulsion engines being invented in the mid 1800's. He claimed that his charts Matthew F. Maury was the seventh child shortened sailing routes around Cape Horn of a family in Virginia which originally came at the southern tip of South America, thus to the U.S. from Ireland. In 1825, he joined making steamer-railroad routes to the west the U.S. Navy and served at sea until 1839 useless. when a stagecoach accident left him unable to return to sea duty. Maury was reassigned He was also involved in the field of to a post in Washington, D.C., where he marine micropaleontology. Around this became an advocate for naval reforms. time, U.S. Navy vessels were beginning to Southern expansionism and increasing make use of submarine telegraphy. They scientific study which could improve sea sounded (measured depth of) the North travel. He joined the Confederacy in 1861, Atlantic under Maury’s direction from 1849 and served in England for the Confederate to 1853. Using these findings, Maury Navy during the Civil War. prepared the first bathymetrical (deep sea sound) chart of contours located 1,000 Upon his return to the United States, fathoms under the surface. Maury went to work for the new National Observatory. But, he was not an Maury organized the Brussels accomplished astronomer and his Conference in 1853, but his efforts to unify shortcomings in the area caused problems. international weather reporting for both land Even though Maury was in charge of the and sea ran into opposition from a group he observatory for 17 years, his contributions had helped found — The American to astronomy were considered small. His Association for the Advancement of failures in astronomy may have been due, Science (A.A.A.S) in part, to the fact that he was mainly interested in improving navigation As happened before, Maury’s style of technology, so he was more concerned with promoting ideas as being more worthy and the earth and less with the heavens. important than others caused a problem. The A.A.A.S. felt that, just because Maury Maury used ships’ logs, which noted was qualified at sea observations, this did winds an currents, to chart general not make him a qualified meteorologist. So, circulation patterns of atmosphere and he was only able to organize uniform oceans. He began publishing these Wind weather reporting of sea conditions. Maury
104 meant well, but he had made errors and was unwilling to revise some of his theories. After his death, however, the system was extended to include both land and sea meteorology.
Matthew Maury’s most significant contributions may have come in the form of stimulating other researchers to improve their own theories and research. That’s because he was inflexible and refused to revise his own findings, even when other evidence proved contrary to his stated theories.
References
Ocean Pathfinder: A Biography of Matthew F. Maury. Frances Williams. Harcourt, Brace and World, New York, 1966.
The Physical Geography of the Sea. Matthew Maury. T. Nelson, New York, 1863.
The Physical Geography of the Sea and its Meteorology. Matthew Maury. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1963.
105 EARTH SCIENCE: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER Margaret Lemone (1946 - )
INVESTIGATING THUNDERSTORMS AND SQUALLS
sun’s radiation – they are cooler, therefore it is warmer near the ground, and cooler higher up in the atmosphere. Thunderstorms help spread out this heat energy to all layers of the atmosphere, thus cooling off the surface of the earth – sort of like nature’s air conditioner during the summer months. Lemone is also interested in a process called molecular conduction. Here, the warmer air near the earth’s surface moves upward toward the cooler air in such a way that heat is transferred upward. During this process, faster moving molecules of warmer air bump into the colder air’s slower molecules. This bumping causes the slower molecules to move a little faster, thus warming the colder air. But, this process of molecular conduction is slow –far too slow to prevent air temperatures from getting so high as to cause damage to Dr. Margaret Lemone is a meteorologist life forms like plants and people. who investigates how thunderstorms In order to cool off properly and become organized into lines, also called maintain reasonable temperatures, warm air squall lines. At the National Center for must be able to rise far up into the cooler Atmospheric Research, she also studies atmospheric regions. This is called ways in which these squall lines effect air convection, and is where the condition movement in the lowest part of the earth’s known as an unstable atmosphere enters atmosphere. the picture. “Unstable” simply means that a How do thunderstorms happen? small section of air is ready to rise high, if it Certain atmospheric conditions must exist is given a little push to get it moving — like for them to form. First, a fairly deep layer of starting a rock slide by tossing a single air in the atmosphere, about 10,000 feet or stone onto the side of a rocky hill. All those more, must be moist. Second, the other rocks begin to tumble because the atmosphere should be “unstable.” And, rocky hill is unstable. third, there should be few clouds in the An unstable atmosphere occurs when daylight sky, so the sun’s rays can heat the the difference between warm surface air ground and air near the ground (the low and the cold upper atmosphere is great. atmosphere). This is the same as saying that the rate of As the ground and lower layers of the temperature decrease is large. In order for atmosphere are heated by radiation from a parcel of this warmer air to rise, its density the sun, solar energy is absorbed by the must be less than the air surrounding it. ground and moist air near its surface. Then Warmer air tends to be less dense than the temperature rises. Upper layers of the cooler air. So it starts to rise in the same atmosphere do not absorb as much of the manner as an elevator.
106 To keep rising and increasing speed References (acceleration), then it must remain warmer and less dense than the air surrounding it. Thunderstorm Morphology and Dynamics. Once it meets air that is the same 2nd ed. Norman: University of Oklahoma temperature and density, it stops rising. Press, 1986. (The elevator stops.) The greater the rate of temperature The Thunderstorms. Louis J. Battan. New decrease, the faster it moves upward American Library, New York, 1964. (acceleration). As the air rises, heat is transferred upward and the temperature difference is reduced. When upward convection is powerful enough to reach heights of about 10 miles or so in the form of columns of air, we get very large convection clouds known as thunderstorms. In squall lines, we still have air that is moist and unstable. In this particular case though, the unstable moist air is concentrated along a narrow corridor. This atmospheric concentration is usually due to what is called a cold front. In a cold front, a large mass of cold air from the north moves southward, pushing aside the warmer air in its path. The cold air “wedge” forces warm air to rise. Because this warmer air meets the conditions of being moist and unstable, it can lead to the formation of thunderstorms. And, since the cold air is heavier than warm air and it is also stable, the “walls” of the corridor are maintained. Thunderstorms which form are confined to this corridor. The corridor and thunderstorms will move as the cold front wedge continues to move from north to south. Dr. Margaret Lemone’s research has taken her on airplane trips through numerous cloud systems, including thunderstorms and hurricanes, to help broaden our knowledge. Because of her work, we more clearly understand how thunderstorms are organized in lines, and how these clouds lines affect the air’s motion in the lowest part of the atmosphere.
107 EARTH SCIENCE: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER Warren Morton Washington (1936 - )
METEOROLOGIST WHO STUDIES THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
the sun emits energy and the earth and its atmosphere absorb that energy. Most of the sun’s energy covers the ultraviolet (UV), visible and near-infrared regions. Only a small fraction of this energy is intercepted by the earth.
In order for there to be some balance of energy flow, the earth itself emits energy back to space. However, the earth emits energy at longer wavelengths because it is much colder than the sun, and the sun emits energy at the shorter wavelengths. The earth’s emissions are in what are called Born in Portland, Oregon on August 28, thermal infrared regions. 1936, Warren Morton Washington went on to graduate from both Oregon State Here is where the earth’s atmosphere University with a B.S. degree in physics, comes into the picture. The atmosphere and from Pennsylvania State University behaves differently at different wavelengths. where he received his Ph.D. in Of all the solar energy entering the planet, meteorology. In fact, Dr. Washington was about 30% is reflected back to space by only the second Afro-American in history to clouds, the earth’s surface, and receive a doctorate in that subject. His atmospheric gases. Another 20% is research efforts were initially in the area of absorbed by atmospheric gases, mostly by meteorology, but more recently he has the ozone which absorbs energy in the UV studied the greenhouse effect and its and visible ranges. Water vapor and deterioration of our planet. carbon dioxide is absorbed into the near- infrared region. The earth’s surface As an introduction to the greenhouse absorbs the remaining 50% of the sun’s effect, we must understand that it is not emissions, so the surface of our planet entirely bad—the Earth is able to support becomes warmer. life because of the greenhouse effect. Without it, the Earth surface would measure Thermal energy emitted by the earth about 20°C below zero instead of 13°C seeks a different atmosphere—clouds, above zero. Problems with this natural water vapor and carbon dioxide—which are phenomena occur because of man’s stronger absorbers of radiation at the pollution and neglect, to the point where a thermal infrared wavelengths. So, the natural balance is getting more and more earth’s atmosphere is warmed as much by difficult to maintain. Basically, our biggest thermal infrared radiation from its surface concerns are with the gases that we add to as by the energy (radiation) from the sun. the atmosphere because these are increasing the warming effect. And, the atmosphere itself emits thermal infrared radiation. Some goes out into We all understand the general principle space, while the rest comes back toward that the earth is warmed by the sun—that the earth. Thus, the earth’s surface is
108 warmed not only by the sun, but also by the earth’s own atmosphere in the form of thermal infrared radiation. This is the naturally-occurring greenhouse effect.
The dangers to our atmosphere come with the many gases we emit during our everyday activities. These gases are very strong absorbers of thermal infrared radiation. And, as they accumulate in our atmosphere, the atmosphere is better able to absorb and emit them, so more energy is emitted downward to the earth’s surface than normal. The result is that the earth’s surface is warmed beyond what would normally occur, and its natural balance is disturbed.
This can lead to an atmosphere which holds more water vapor, which is itself a greenhouse gas, thus adding to the warming greenhouse effect. Snow and ice are good reflectors of solar radiation, so they help cool the planet. But, with a warmer earth, there is less snow and ice, and less reflection of solar radiation back to space. These, along with other environmental and climatic changes due to the build-up of greenhouse gases, add to warming effect of our planet and further upset the balance of nature.
Dr. Warren Washington is currently director of a division of the National Center for Atmospheric Research.
References
Greenhouse Effect and its Impact on Africa. London: Institute for African Alternatives, 1990.
Policy Options for Stabilizing Global Climate. Hemisphere Pub. Corp., New York, 1990.
Our Drowning World: Population, Pollution, and Future Weather. Antony Milne. Prism Press, Dorset, England; Avery Pub. Group, New York, 1988.
109 EARTH SCIENCE: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER Donald Glaser (1926- )
INVENTOR OF THE BUBBLE CHAMBER
In 1960, Dr. Donald Glaser was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his invention of the bubble chamber—a device to detect the paths of high energy atomic particles. As these ionizing particles were generated by particle accelerators, they traveled into the bubble chamber through a superheated liquid such as liquid hydrogen, deuterium, or helium. As these high energy particles passed near the nuclei of the Born in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1926, liquid’s atoms, there could be many Donald Glaser took up the study of both different reactions. mathematics and physics while in college. After completing his bachelor’s degree in In the simplest case, a high energy these subjects at the Case Institute of particle increased in energy and extra Technology, he earned a Ph.D. in particles were produced. Bubbles that mathematics and physics at the California formed in the chamber showed the path Institute of Technology in 1950. that particles traveled through the liquid. Photographs could then be taken, showing During the decade that followed, the these paths from many angles. scientific community was developing a giant particle accelerator, forerunner of today’s Dr. Donald Glaser’s work has provided modern supercolliders. Scientists using precise information about high energy these accelerators were generating high particles including masses, lifetimes, and energy particles, but they had no clear or decay modes never before available to reasonable way to study them. So, Dr. science. Glaser set about studying the properties of various liquids and solids which he thought References might make the observation of high energy particles more practical. The Principles of Cloud-Chamber Technique. J. G. Wilson. Cambridge Glaser was fascinated with the instability University Press. 1951. of superheated liquids. He reasoned that, if we greatly reduced the surface tension of a superheated liquid —increasing vapor pressure at the same time—we should be able to see ionizing radiation passing through the liquid in the form of bubbles. High energy particles (ionizing particles) produced by colliders are too small to be seen by the human eye, and too fast to be effectively detected. So, using the superheated liquid, scientists would be able to observe them and follow the particles’ paths.
110