Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia
Edited by Ashis Kumar Samanta Shaikh Mohammad Bokhtiar Mohammad Younus Ali
SAARC Agriculture Centre A Regional Centre of South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) BARC Complex, Dhaka Bangladesh Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia. SAARC Agriculture Centre and ICAR-National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology conducted the Regional Expert Consultation Meeting on “Identification of Best Practices in Livestock Feed and Fodder production and Management” during 21st to 23rd May, 2019 in Bengaluru, Karnataka, India.
Edited by Ashis Kumar Samanta, Senior Programme Specialist Shaikh Mohammad Bokhtiar, Director Mohammad Younus Ali, Senior Technical Officer December, 2019 © SAARC Agriculture Centre 2019. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically, mechanically, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. Published by SAARC Agriculture Centre, BARC Complex, Farmgate, New Airport Road, Dhaka 1215, Bangladesh (http//www.sca.org.bd). A catalogue record for the book is available from the SAARC Agriculture Centre Library, BARC Complex, Farmgate, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
ISBN: 978-984-34-7647-0
Citation: Samanta, Ashis Kumar, Bokhtiar, Shaikh Mohammad and Ali, Mohammad Younus (Editors). Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia. SAARC Agriculture Centre, Dhaka, Bangladesh, Pp 280. This book contains the country paper, invited paper and proceedings of the SAARC Regional Expert Consultation Meeting on “Identification of Best Practices in Livestock Feed and Fodder production and Management” held from 21st to 23rd May, 2019 in Bengaluru, India and jointly organized by SAARC Agriculture Centre, Dhaka, Bangladesh and ICAR-National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology in Bengaluru, Karnataka, India. The experts for the country paper presentation were the representative of their respective government of SAARC Member States. Other experts invited for technical paper presentation delivered talks in their official capacity from the host country. The opinions expressed/ images used/ tables presented in this publication are those of the authors and do not imply any opinion whatsoever on the part of the SAARC Agriculture centre, specifically regarding the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities.
Cover design: Ms. Sanjida Akhtar Printed by: Momin Offset Press, Dhaka, Bangladesh Price US$ 50 for SAARC Member States US$ 80 for rest of the world
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Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia
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iv Foreword
Livestock occupies significant niche on the socioeconomic fabric among all South Asian countries since time immemorial. The primary function of livestock is to provide safe and healthy food for the human society after due contemplation to food safety, consumer awareness, animal welfare, and environment. In fact, livestock farmers of South Asian region could feel proud because they laid the foundation for making the region as natural habitat of numerous world’s best breeds of livestock species including buffalo, cattle, sheep, goat and poultry. Often, the productivity of livestock is adversely affected owing to inadequate quantity or quality of feeds and fodder. Furthermore, the expenses on account of feed and fodder shares 65 to 70% of the total expenses of livestock. Hence, any strategy on cutting down the cost of livestock feeding with sustained productivity is expected to ensure higher economic returns. As the livestock in South Asia is primarily owned by small and marginal farmers, it has strong potential to make platform for achieving multiple SDGs such as ‘no poverty’, ‘zero hunger’, ‘good health and well-being’, ‘gender equality’, ‘reduced inequalities’. As a result, South Asian livestock population is growing at faster rate than rest of the world and it becomes the important driver of the growth engine of regional economy. Often, the growth of any sector is trailed with numerous challenges. Inadequate availability of livestock feeds and fodder becomes one of the greatest challenges faced by the current South Asian livestock farmers. Under the above backdrop, the SAARC Agriculture Centre carried out the Regional Expert Consultation Meeting on “Identification of Best Practices in Livestock Feed and Fodder production and Management”. The book is the outcome of country paper presentation, sharing of successful technology with fellow Member States, future need of livestock particularly on the issues of feeds and fodder. I hope the recommendations emanated from the regional expert consultation meeting coupled with adoption of successful nutritional technologies among livestock farmers of South Asian region could pave the way for inching up the productivity to meet the growing demands of livestock origin products. “Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia” is published with the aim to have in-depth analysis of feed and feeding practices among Member States to guide the policy makers, developmental agencies, livestock cooperatives for taking necessary steps towards sectoral improvement. I convey my sincere thanks to ICAR- National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Bangalore, India for hoisting the program and SAARC Member States for nominating the participants. I would like to appreciate Dr. Ashis Kumar Samanta and his team for their outstanding works in publishing this book.
Dr. S.M. Bokhtiar Director SAARC Agriculture Centre
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vi Contents Page No. Chapter 1 An overview of South Asian Livestock Production 1 Ashis Kumar Samanta Country Paper Chapter 2 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in Bangladesh 10 Mohammad Mohi Uddin Chapter 3 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in Bhutan 40 Kuenga Namgay Chapter 4 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in India 64 Raghavendra Bhatta, S. Anandan and K. Giridhar Chapter 5 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in Nepal 101 Grishma Neupane Chapter 6 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in Pakistan 129 Muhammad Musa and Muhammad Iqbal Mustafa Chapter 7 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in Sri Lanka 181 W.M.P.B. Weerasinghe
Invited papers Chapter 8 Alternate Feed Resources and Technologies for Their 207 Safe Usage in Livestock Feeding N. K. S. Gowda, S. Anandan, K. Giridhar, S. B. N. Rao and K. S. Prasad Chapter 9 Feeding Strategies for Profitable Dairying 224 V. Sridhar and Bhupendra Phondba Chapter 10 Strategies to Improve Fodder Production in India 234 K. Giridhar, N.K.S. Gowda and S. Anandan Chapter 11 National Feed Inventory Development: Methodology 247 and Challenges S. Anandan and K. Giridhar Chapter 12 Current Status and Challenges of Indian Poultry Feed 256 Industry A. Natarajan Chapter 13 The Future of Animal Feed Sector in India 267 Dinesh T. Bhosale Chapter 14 Brief report of the Expert Consultation Meeting 272 Ashis Kumar Samanta
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Chapter 1 An Overview of South Asian Livestock Production
Ashis Kumar Samanta Senior Programme Specialist – Livestock SAARC Agriculture Centre BARC Complex, Farmgate Dhaka-1215, Bangladesh The South Asian region is represented by eight countries namely Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka. Currently, the region is inhabited by 1.89 billion human population over the landmass of 5.2 million square kilometre. Numerically, it represents approximately 25% of global population over the 3.5% of the world’s land surface area. Since the beginning of the twenty first century, the region has showcased itself as one the fastest growing economic zone in front of the rest of the world. As per the prediction of World Bank for 2019, the real term GDP growth rate in South Asia is estimated to be 7.5% for India, 7.3% for Bangladesh, 6.0% for Nepal, 5.7% for Maldives, 5.4% for Bhutan, 3.5% for Sri Lanka, 3.4% for Pakistan, and 2.4% for Afghanistan. On the highway of South Asian economic development, transformation of livestock sector has been taken place not only to meet the spectacular increasing demands of animal sourced food (meat, egg, milk and milk products), but also to support millions of poor and marginal farmers for ensuring food and nutrition security, livelihood and prosperity, health and welfare and natural resource management. As the economy grows, the purchasing power of consumers also parallelly advances leading to the demand of high valued products particularly animal sourced foods. Livestock is central pillar to the livelihoods of rural people living in South Asian region and is strategically important to the region’s food and nutritional security and economic prosperity. It shares approximately 29% (ranges from 8 to 56%) of the agricultural gross domestic product (GDP) in different Member States of South Asia and has the potential to deliver both the agricultural-led growth and the socio-economic transformation as envisioned by the respective governments (Enahoro et al., 2019). In fact, population growth, urbanization, enhanced purchasing power coupled with globalization continue to fuel the “livestock revolution” in South Asia and offers opportunities to the primary livestock producers to be linked with the global market. Eventually, the livestock value chain system of South Asia is stirring up the production to meet the growing demands and adapting to satisfy the changing consumer’s choice of an increasingly well-off and urbanized people. Nevertheless, such kind of higher growth-linked
1 SAARC Agriculture Centre production sector offers not only the opportunities, but also trails with multiple challenges. Availability of feeds and fodder is one of the greatest challenges on the backdrop of South Asian livestock revolution in addition to other issues such as production sustainability, environmental pollution (greenhouse gas emission), antimicrobial resistance (AMR), food safety, animal welfare, inadequate healthcare facilities, unavailability of adequate number of vaccines, transboundary animal diseases, weak value chain and inadequate market access by primary producers etc. The research advancement of biological sciences particularly livestock sciences has given innumerable achievements to the sector for the benefit of the human society. On the road of scientific development, recently a newer technology has emerged out, popularly known as “animal-free product” (Tedeschi et al., 2017). Livestock researchers concerned with the plight of millions of stake holders presume it as one of the emerging and alarming challenge. The path breaking technology aims to produce animal products without involving animals. The justification of “animal-free product” researchers is that the technology is able to address the greenhouse gas emission, excretion of nutrients into the environment as well as other associated challenges faced by the livestock sector currently. Albeit, the principle lies on pharmacological and nutrition research, but there is further need of through investigation to validate the nutritious efficacy of those “animal-free products” as well as its impact on human health following long term and regular consumption. The issues of organoleptic attributes and chemical characteristics of “animal-free products” towards its wider acceptability among people are yet to be resolved. The greatest question is that removing of livestock from “animal-free products” to solve fewer problems may lead to pushing out millions of stake holders from the established food production system. This may further jeopardize the livelihood and food security of millions small and marginal livestock farmers, the most underprivileged and vulnerable community of the society.
Food security and livestock Food security occurs when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences to ensure an active and healthy life. Albeit, there is a virtual stagnation in the number of undernourished people in entire Asia and the pacific region, nevertheless, the South Asia continues to witness progress towards the reduction in the number of undernourished people (FAO, 2018). In spite of that, the current undernourished population in South Asia is approximately 277.2 million; representing 14.8%. Similarly, malnutrition (stunting, anaemia, compromised immunity, impaired cognitive
2 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia development) is also one of the greatest challenges among South Asian population. Animal sourced foods (milk, meat, egg or their processed products) are rich in protein, energy as well as essential micronutrients (vitamin B12, riboflavin, calcium, iron, zinc and various essential fatty acids), which are hard to obtain in suitable amounts from plant sourced foods. Therefore, livestock contributes to food security on all scales. Evidently, livestock rearing by any class of society at rural or urban landscape ensures healthy and nutritious diets and generates household incomes in addition to creation of employment opportunities. At national and regional levels, it supplies nutritious, affordable and safe animal sourced foods to the people. Livestock wealth of South Asia Since the date of civilization, livestock acts as an integral part of the people’s life as evidenced from the numerous archaeological evidences across the multiple locations of South Asian region. Albeit, livestock plays few roles (food/ clothes/ transport) during those early days of civilization, nevertheless, it currently reshapes into demand driven, organized bio-factory after due contemplation to food safety, consumer awareness, health consciousness to serve multiple purposes of present generation. The diverse agroclimatic conditions coupled with committed efforts of local people further propels to the development of world’s best breed of different livestock species; buffalo: Murrah, Surti, Mehsana, Bhadawari, Toda and Nili-Ravi; cattle: Tharparker, Gir, Red Chittagong, Vechur, Red Sindhi, and Sahiwal; goat: Black Bengal, Barbari, Beetal, Sirohi and Jamunapari; sheep: Malpura, Chokla, Deccani, Marwari and Garole; poultry: Aseel, Danki, Kadaknath, Nicobari and Chittagong. Therefore, the South Asian region is fortunate enough to be the habitat for numerous breeds of livestock that are evolved as a result of adaptation to the particular agroclimatic conditions. Even though, the productivity per animal is low, but the numeric values of South Asian livestock wealth are enormous and it is comprised of 273 million cattle, 153 million buffalo, 126 million sheep, 271 million goat, 10 million pig, 1.8 million camel, 1427 million poultry. Country wise livestock population of South Asian countries is presented in Table 1. Importance of feed and fodder The term ‘animal feed’ denotes to the diverse range of animal edible material including feed ingredients (roughage: dry, green or conserved fodder in the form of silage or hay, concentrate: individual ingredients or their mixture), micronutrient, feed additives, pellet and mash feed, pet foods, total mixed ration, and feeds of other companion and laboratory animals.
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Table 1 Livestock wealth of SAARC region Country Population in number Cattle Buffalo Sheep Goat Pig Poultry Camel Afghanistan* 2854000 -- 18018000 10445000 -- 14543000 481000 Bangladesh@ 24086000 1485000 3468000 26100000 -- 337998000 -- Bhutan# 303250 550 10444 42689 18185 1118178 -- India $ 192490000 109850000 74260000 148880000 9060000 851810000 250000 Maldives^ ------215027 -- Nepal! 6430397 3174389 612884 11225130 870197 47960000 -- Pakistan% 46100000 38800000 30500000 74100000 -- 152180000 1100000 Sri Lanka? 1000880 283550 10389 287190 95120 21275820 -- Total 273264527 153593489 126879717 271080009 10043502 1427100025 1831000 (number) Total 273.26 153.59 126.87 271.08 10.04 1427.1 1.83 (million) Global 1491.68 200.96 1202.43 1034.40 967.38 24856.22 34.82 (million) (FAO 2017) SAARC 18.31 76.42 10.55 26.21 1.03 5.74 5.25 share (%) of world * Based on Central Statistics Organization, Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (2013-14) @ Based on Livestock Economy at a glance, DLS (www.dls.gov.bd) # DOL, Ministry of Agriculture and Forest, Bhutan (2017) $ Livestock census (2019), Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry & Dairying, Government of India ^ Country report on the state of animal genetic resources, Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture and Marine resources (2004) ! Livestock statistics of Nepal, Ministry of Livestock Development, Government of Nepal (2017) % Pakistan Economic Survey (2017 -18) ? Department of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka (2017)
Among the different species of domestic animals, ruminants and pseudo- ruminants are known for their ability to convert the human inedible and unpalatable materials (straw, grass, stovers, tree leaves, agro-industrial wastes and by-products) into high valued livestock products (meat, milk, wool, leather) through the fermentative action of microflora inhabited at the foregut of the gastrointestinal tract i.e. rumen and reticulum (only rumen for pseudo- ruminant). The demands for animal sourced protein has increased several folds owing to the population growth, increased disposable income by growing middle class people, health consciousness of modern population, and over growing social media. It necessitates for intensive research on balanced
4 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia ration, breed improvement, veterinary healthcare, management etc. To match the nutritional requirement of genetically improved high producing animals, concept of balanced (manufactured/ homemade) feeding has emerged. Keeping in mind the feed quality and safety, the feed manufacturers makes the balanced ration or balanced concentrate mixture in such way so that animals are capable to produce according to their genetic potential in addition to maintenance of health and optimum reproductive efficiency. Albeit, many livestock farmers heavily invest on acquisition high genetic potential stocks, but their productivity and overall performance are often constrained by the poor-quality feed or unbalanced dietary regime. The feed is the key pillar of livestock sector, irrespective of the scale of production (small holder or organized unit). Hence, its quality and quantity determine the productivity and finally profitability from livestock unit (ABS TCM Ltd, 2013). The feed represents 60 to 70% of the total cost of livestock farming. Ideal dietary regime ensures livestock unit to perform as per the genetic merit, reduces burden of veterinary healthcare, produces safe food, guarantees optimum reproductive performance. The fodder (roughage) is the most valuable, but cheapest form of feed for dairy farming and small ruminant production. Unlike the feeding practices of western countries, the livestock (cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat) of South Asia primarily relies on agricultural crop residues (straw and stovers), shrubs and tree leaves, roadside grasses, grassland/ pastureland, kitchen wastes to meet the roughage requirement. In order to keep healthy and productive, the ruminant animals require both roughage and concentrate in correct proportion according to their age, body weight, level of production, physiological status. In fact, the crop residues are lower in energy (40% TDN), poor in protein (3 - 4% crude protein and zero digestible crude protein) along with lower vitamins and available minerals resulting into unpalatability and lower dry matter intake and are unable to support even the maintenance requirement of animals. This culminates into lower productivity of South Asian animals. Nevertheless, the crop residues are rich in neutral detergent fibre (particularly cellulose), which is very essential to maintain the fat levels of milk. Often, the dairy animals of western countries suffer from low milk fat syndrome because of inadequate levels of fibre in the diet of their animal. On the other side, green fodder (either leguminous or non-leguminous) is considered as mainstay of dairy production as it maintains long, healthy and productive life by virtue of its richness in terms of protein, energy, available minerals and vitamins along with its succulent characteristics. Fundamentally, a dairy unit (either small or large) needs regular and uninterrupted supply of green fodder round the year for sustaining its productivity in profitable way. Owing to the priority of South Asian farmers for cereal crop production, very
5 SAARC Agriculture Centre limited land is allocated for fodder production. This causes a huge shortage of green fodder in most of the South Asian countries against the requirement. Further, existing agroclimatic condition does not permit round the year fodder production leading to emergence of lean/ scarcity periods twice in a calendar year. Therefore, organized dairy unit or intelligent farmers opt for fodder conservation in the form of silage or hay to overcome the challenges of lean/ scarcity period as well as to sustain the animal’s productivity even during summer months. In case of ruminant animals, fibre or roughage component has immense significance as it maintains the functionality of the gastrointestinal tract through promoting growth and multiplication of cellulolytic or hemicellulolytic microflora (both bacteria and fungi). Unlike non-ruminants, ruminant animals derive 70% of their energy requirement from volatile fatty acids; which are primarily produced from the fermentative action of rumen bacteria over the neutral detergent fibre i.e. cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin. The standard dietary regime of dairy animals should contain at least 18% crude fibre. As the animals of South Asian region are raised on crop residues or grazing, the diet is adequately rich in crude fibre.
Role of woman on livestock production In South Asian region, the responsibility for household food security lies on woman and it is more so among underprivileged class of people, whose livelihood is linked with livestock. Most of the livestock production associated activities such as fodder collection, chaffing, feeding, cleaning of animals and shed, cow dung fuel (for cooking), healthcare management, milking, value addition, disposal of milk is primarily taken care by women (Shafiq, 2008; Patel et al., 2015). As a result, it empowers woman for judicious spending at micro level, particularly on education and nutrition of children, building of capitals, and savings for unwarranted expenditure during emergency. Evidently, it reminds the livestock researchers to twist the technologies to make it fit for women for better performance at the grassroot levels. Therefore, the livestock related various extension training programmes such as ration balancing, cattle shed management, calf management, silage making, hay preparation, leaf meal production, clean milk production, veterinary first aid, farm yard manure (FYM) production, pregnancy diagnosis, oestrus detection, deworming needs to be woman centric (Jadav et al., 2014). Evidently, such steps of woman centric livestock extension activities or training will strengthen the woman force with advanced knowledge and skills for further accelerating the growth of livestock sector in South Asia.
6 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia
Genesis Forecast indicates that if the current growth trend of livestock sector continues, it may be difficult to meet the expected demands of animal sourced foods during 2050. This may lead to development of critical shortfall on the supply of livestock origin foods particularly milk, meat and eggs, leading to negative impacts on household food and nutritional security in South Asia. Albeit, the global livestock production from rest of the world may play vital role to meet the shortfall in South Asia, but that may be trailed with draining of huge foreign exchequer, loss of employment opportunities, weakening of local production system, and reduced household income. Under these regional perspectives, the meeting between Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) and SAARC Agriculture Centre (SAC) strongly recommended to coordinate and lead the expert consultation meeting on “Identification of best practices in livestock feed and fodder production and management” among the Member States to formulate the appropriate livestock feeding Strategy for the region that will boost the livestock growth. In response to the decision of the Programme Committee of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), a regional multi- stakeholder expert consultation meeting was held during 21st to 23rd May, 2019 at ICAR – National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology (ICAR-NIANP), Bengaluru, India for country status paper presentation, in depth situation analysis and assessment, consultations, experience sharing of successful nutritional interventions and road ahead against nutritional challenges for sustainable livestock growth in South Asia. This resulted into the identification of issues pertaining to livestock feed and fodder of South Asia: inadequate feeds particularly green fodder and concentrate, unavailability of quality fodder seed, higher cost of balanced concentrate mixture/ pellet feeds, fodder conservation, weak value chain, antimicrobial resistance, weak veterinary extension service, lifesaving feed formulation for natural calamity affected areas, SAARC Feed Bank etc. Additionally, most of the South Asian livestock is maintained on extensive system of management and owned by small/ marginal/ landless farmers. Obviously, their risk coping ability is limited and reluctant to integrate advanced technological interventions within their livestock production system because it involves additional expense.
Road ahead Since centuries, the South Asian livestock sector has faced numerous challenges and will continue to face newer barriers with the opening of many opportunities on the highway of faster development in coming days. The primary focus in the past was improving the productivity and efficiency of
7 SAARC Agriculture Centre livestock. It has resulted into profound operational changes in the livestock production sector; namely transformation from smallholder mixed farming to factory style specialized production system, conventional feeding strategy to balanced feeding which results into enormous growth of feed manufacturing, outbreak of disease to mass vaccination as preventive measures, thatched housing to concrete housing with proper ventilations and lighting, daily production and consumption to consumption and marketing of surplus through cooperative networks etc. Albeit, the current objective of livestock sector in South Asia is also productivity enhancement, nevertheless, few more are being added even at small scale production unit in view of changing global scenario with respect to consumer preferences, health consciousness, animal welfare and environment. The livestock feed and fodder play a significant role as it shares approximately 60 -70% of the total cost of dairy, goat, sheep, pig, poultry production. Furthermore, South Asian livestock production (cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat) is interweaved with crop production in such way that agricultural crop residue (unfit for human consumption and disposal problems) generated from the latter becomes essential input to the former for the production of high valued livestock products such as meat, milk, wool, leather etc. Evidently, it solves the problem of agricultural waste disposal generated from crop production system. Under the changing scenario in South Asia, swelling demands of high valued livestock sourced products coupled with struggling supplies of feed and fodder may create stressful environment in front of the small holder livestock producers i.e. small and marginal farmers. Nevertheless, small holder livestock farmers will be successful to overcome those incoming challenges through integrating the scientific interventions in the production system in balanced way. Nevertheless, several indicators exhibit scope for further optimization of the productivity and competence of livestock production at both scales i.e. small holders and organized farming. Newer scientific interventions emerged from gut microbiology, metabolomics, functional food science, feed processing, fodder production, pasture management, nanotechnology and ICT might create the platform of technologies suitable for the safe food production from the South Asian livestock to match the growing demands of health-conscious people. In nutshell, the future strategies will ensure coordinated actions at regional, national, state, division, district, block and village levels to promote synergy in addressing the critical issues of feed and fodder availability to bring out tangible actions that will lead to the realization of the full potential of the livestock sector towards food and nutrition security and sustainable economic development.
8 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia
References World Bank. 2019. The World Bank in South Asia: Overview. www.worlbank.org/en/region/sar/overview. Accessed on 22nd September, 2019. Enahoro, D., Mason-D’Crozb, D., Mul, M., Rich, K.M., Robinson, T.P., Thornton, P., and Staal, S.S. 2019. Supporting sustainable expansion of livestock production in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa: Scenario analysis of investment options. Global Food Security. 20: 114 - 121. Tedeschi, L.O., deAlmeida, A.K., Atzori, A.S., Muir, J.P., Fonseca, M.A., and Cannas, A. 2017. A glimpse of the future in animal nutrition science. 1. Past and future challenges. Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia. 46:438 - 451. FAO. 2018. Asia and the Pacific: Regional overview of food security and nutrition – Accelerating progress towards the SDGs. http://www.fao.org/3/CA0950EN /ca0950en.pdf. Accessed on 23rd September, 2019. ABS TCM Ltd. 2013. Study on the Kenyan Animal Feed and Fodder Sub-sectors. www.dialogkenya.info/docs/RES- KenyaFeedIndustryPolicyRegulatoryIssues--2013.pdf. Accessed on 22nd September, 2019. Shafiq, M. 2008. Analysis of the role of women in livestock production in Baluchistan. Journal of Agriculture and Social Sciences. 4:18 – 22. Patel, S.J., Patel, M.D., Patel, J.H., Patel, A.S., and Gelani, R.N. 2016. Role of women gender in livestock sector: a review. Journal of Livestock Science. 7:92 - 96 Jadav, S.J., Durgga Rani, V., Mudgal, S., and Dhamsaniya, H.B. 2014. Women empowerment through training in dairy farming. Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research. 33:147 - 253
9 Chapter 2 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in Bangladesh Mohammmad Mohi Uddin1 and Amrin Akter2 Department of Animal Nutrition Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh Bangladesh 1Associate Professor and Head, 2IDRN Research Fellow
Introduction The recent structural change in the economic development which has been transforming from low income to middle income country might have consequences on the changing livestock farming practices to cope with this pace of the development. The livestock sector was considered as the integral part of agriculture, which has also been under transformation toward commercial livestock production. Appropriate feeds and feeding system are the major drivers for livestock development. Within livestock feeding system, feeds and fodder production plays a key role to enhance the productivity. The livestock feed, feed nutrition and feeding management in Bangladesh is highly prioritized due to number of reasons: 1. Feed is the foundation for efficient livestock production and linked with: Ø Major inputs and outputs Ø Highest cost item in total livestock production Ø Land use changes, feed-food-bio-fuel competition Ø Contribution to water footprint and carbon footprint 2. Identify feed vis-à-vis nutrient balances: surplus or deficit 3. Make better use of available feeds 4. Decision on local and external trading of feed commodities 5. Spatial and temporal assessments of current and forecasted feed resources to cope with increasing feed prices 6. Efficient feed management strategies in relation to feed resource availability 7. Provide in-sights for designing Feed regulatory policy
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The livestock population and population dynamics, growth trend and its productivity are highly correlated with the available feeds, fodder production and its management. The livestock, particularly large ruminants, are found to exhibit limited growth except poultry during recent past. The livestock population along with outlook for 2030 is depicted in Table 1. It is clearly evident that poultry population is dominant compared with ruminant, which is quite usual. The concerned for this report is the ruminant livestock particularly dairy and beef, which is the major utilizer of the feeds and fodder in Bangladesh. Table 1 Livestock population in Bangladesh: current population and outlook 2030 Livestock Base year Outlook Species 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030 Cattle 23.1 23.3 23.6 23.9 24.2 24.37 24.49 24.62 24.75 24.88 25.01 Buffalo 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.50 1.51 1.52 1.53 1.54 1.55 Sheep 3.0 3.1 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.60 3.67 3.74 3.80 3.87 3.95 Goat 24.1 25.3 25.6 25.9 26.3 26.51 26.76 27.01 27.27 27.52 27.78 Total 51.7 53.2 54.0 54.7 55.5 55.98 56.43 56.89 57.35 57.82 58.29 Ruminant Chicken 234.7 249.0 261.8 275.2 289.3 296.08 303.05 310.17 317.46 324.93 332.57 Duck 44.1 47.3 50.5 54.0 57.8 59.51 61.31 63.17 65.09 67.07 69.11 Total 278.8 296.3 312.3 329.2 347.0 355.59 364.36 373.35 382.56 392.00 401.67 Poultry Total 330.5 349.5 366.3 383.9 402.6 411.57 420.79 430.24 439.91 449.82 459.96 Livestock Source: DLS 2019 and estimation for outlook is based on expose data and taking CAGR growth rate from 2010-2018 and IDRN dairy sector database 2018 was used for outlook The overall ruminant growth rate is 0.8% where the growth for cattle is 0.53% which is lower than even 0.71%. The outlook for cattle, however, shows substantial increase both cattle (2.7%) and buffalo (3.6%). This growth is mainly from the increase of beef animals (beef cattle and beef buffalo) and much less on dairy cattle where the growth for dairy cattle is below 1%. Within agriculture, livestock plays a diversified role in the process of economic development of Bangladesh to uplift the rural livelihoods in most of the developing countries (Upton, 2004; Caceres, 2010) with a direct contribution of 13.46% to the agricultural GDP and a growth rate of 3.47% (Table 2) which is lower than the overall national GDP growth (7.9%), and providing 23% of total employment. This is particularly important for the rural poor, including the functionally landless, many of whom regard livestock as a main livelihood option. About 50 percent of people rely on livestock to some extent for their livelihood (Ser-Od et al., 2008).
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Table 2 Contribution of Livestock to national GDP (2018-2019) Indicators % contribution Contribution of Livestock in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Constant Prices) 1.47% GDP growth rate of Livestock (Constant Prices) 3.47% GDP volume (Current prices) (Crore Taka) 43212 Share of Livestock in Agricultural GDP (Current prices) 13.46 Source: DLS, 2018
Within livestock, dairy animals are very important to the economy and perform multiple functions including provision of food, valuable animal protein, nutrition, income (e.g. sources of daily cash income), savings, manure, transport and other social as well as cultural functions. Dairying allows the poor, landless and smallholder producers to exploit common property resources, such as roadsides, open grazing areas and water bodies. Dairy development, therefore, has been seen a strong tool to increase income and developing village micro-economy (Shamsuddin et al., 2007). Among several factors, further development of dairy sector has been driven forward if the adequate and good quality feeds are available through the year with an affordable price. During the last few decades, Bangladesh has achieved a structural transformation and the livestock sector is transforming from subsistence to business-oriented production system. Albeit, the country has achieved self- sufficiency in food grain production, but deficiency exists in terms of livestock products particularly milk and milk products. Agriculture is considered as the main occupation for rural people, where about 20% people are directly, and 50% people are partly depending on agriculture. It is noteworthy to mention that approximately 5.6 jobs are created per 100 kg milk produced. The most widely used definition of food security is access by all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life (FAO, 2006). Bangladesh is considered as food secured country in terms of grain production, but while considering nutritional security, Bangladesh is still behind to secure animal protein for all people in terms of milk, meat and egg. This is reflected in the country’s demand and supply situation of animal products which is depicted in Table 3.
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Table 3 Demand, production, availability and deficiency of milk, meat and eggs (2018-19) Products Unit Demand Production Availability (%) Milk m ton/year 15.20 9.92 64.8 Meat m ton/year 7.23 7.51 103 Egg billion number 173.26 171.10 99.89
Source: DLS, 2018 The Bangladesh is self-sufficient in meat and close to self-sufficiency in egg, wherein, milk is highly deficit in the country (36.2%). In terms of contribution to GDP, the livestock sub-sector has good growth providing 1.47% to the national GDP which is depicted in Table 2. Given with the current livestock population, its dynamic changes and potential to contribute to economic development and rural livelihood, this manuscript is aiming at providing the latest feeds and fodder resources and their management in Bangladesh.
Common feeds and fodder available in Bangladesh Classification of available feeds Feeds are the most important constituents for animal production, which accounts the largest proportion of cost of the livestock production unit. Forages are edible parts of plants, other than separated grain, usually with substantial contents of cell walls. They are suited for utilization by herbivorous animals that have the capacity for microbial digestion of cell wall constituents (cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin etc) (Wilkins, 2000). Forages are the most important feed resource for ruminants worldwide, whether fed as pastures, forage crops or conserved hay, silage or haylage. The concentrate feeds and agro-industrial by-products are used in animal production to meet the requirements of the animals. Feedstuffs used for livestock mainly divided into two major groups i.e. roughages and concentrates. To meet the nutrient requirement of the animal and to get the desired output from animal, it is very much important to know about the nature and type of feeds and fodder, nutrient composition, feeding strategies etc. The feeds and fodder that are used in Bangladesh for animal production is given in the Table 4.
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Table 4 Classification of available feedstuffs based on nutrients Groups Feedstuffs Energy Sources Roughage Straws, hay, maize stover, green grass, forage, grass pellets, grass silage, bagasse, aquatic plant, Other fibrous crop by-products. Grain & grain by- Maize, wheat, rice, barley, oat/milo, jowar, wheat bran, rice bran, kheshari products bran, dubli bran, mushkalai bran, gram bran, musur bran, rice polish, rice polish (Deoiled), molasses, fats and oils, mango seed kernel, sal seed meal, dried potato meal, cassava meal. Protein Sources Vegetable Sesame (Til) oil cake, mustard oil cake, rapeseed cake, sunflower cake, cottonseed cake (gossypol free), groundnut cake, groundnut cake (De- oiled), soybean meal, copra (coconut) meal, maize gluten meal. Animal Fish meal, meat meal, blood meal, dried skim milk, silk worm pupae, feather meal, meat and bone meal, shrimp meal, poultry by-product meal, poultry hatchery by-product meal, offal meal. Dried leaf meal Duckweed meal, lucerne meal, berseem meal, leucaena leaf meal, groundnut leaf meal Minerals Bone meal, dicalcium Phosphate, limestone powder, oyester shell powder, common salt, egg shell powder. Vitamins Natural feed sources, manufactured sources Waters Surface water, underground water, fountain water, rain water, distilled water etc. Others Brewers grains, dried yeast and yeast sludge, dehydrated poultry waste, fish liver oils/fish oils. Source: Bangladesh Standard and Testing Institute (BSTI), 2013
Chemical composition of and nutritive value of locally available feeds in Bangladesh To meet the nutrient need of the animal and to get the desired output from animal, it is very much important to know about the feeds and fodder, the nutrient composition especially the chemical composition, nutritive value and other composition. This is very much helpful for evaluation of feed quality and formulation of balanced ration for livestock. The top 10 feeds and fodder that are used in Bangladesh for animal production based on their source nutrient (energy, protein) and Agro-industrial by-product is given in the Table 5, 6 and 7. In Bangladesh, all category of feeds is not sufficiently available for animals in all the year round. About 90-95% people use dry roughages (rice straw) as basal feed for the cattle ration. Wheat bran, mustard oil cake, rice polish, broken rice, rice straw, compound feed, roadside grasses and unconventional feeds, tree leaves are the common source for nutrition for the farm animals in Bangladesh.
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Table 5 Commonly available energy rich feed ingredients and their chemical and nutritional composition Proximate composition on DM basis Nutritive value on DM Cell wall constituents on Sl. DM basis DM basis Feed No. % CP CF% EE% NFE% Total DCP TDN ME ADF NDF Lignin% % ash % % % MJ/Kg % % 1 Rice straw 89.5 3.9 35.9 1.4 44.0 14.9 0.30 43.00 1.96 53.60 74.70 8.20 2 Wheat straw 90.2 3.7 38.9 1.6 48.6 8.6 0.30 44.00 1.15 51.80 76.20 9.70 3 Dhal grass 19.9 6.7 25.2 2.4 49.8 16.0 2.90 52.00 8.08 37.3 67.2 4.8 4 German grass 19.0 8.5 33.3 2.1 -- 12.7 1.90 64.1 8.16 39.1 68.7 5.2 5 Maize grass 22.1 7.1 26.9 1.6 57.0 7.4 4.40 66.00 9.4 38.28 62.32 6.75 6 Napier grass 19.7 10.2 33.0 2.4 43.3 11.1 6.30 55.00 8.32 31.70 61.0 4.20 7 Para grass 22.2 10.8 29.3 2.3 46.9 10.7 6.10 56.00 8.1 30.63 64.40 4.35 8 Rice grain 89.0 9.1 1.0 1.4 44.8 7.8 6.80 80.00 3.03 2.1 6.2 0.5 9 Maize grain 88.4 8.9 2.3 3.2 82.10 1.6 4.40 66.00 2.24 3.40 9.50 0.90 10 Full fat 89.2 42.1 6.3 16.2 29.3 3.9 37.40 94.00 3.89 13.10 19.50 1.20 soybean The energy rich feed ingredients consist mainly of roughages and some whole grain. Dry straw is mostly used as animal feed. Though the rice straw which is used as the basal feed for the cattle in Bangladesh, its nutrient composition is poor. The use of green fodder and whole grains are limited. Among the different grain used, the full fat soybean is mostly used for cattle as energy rich feed which has also appreciable amount of protein content. The whole maize grain is mostly used by the poultry industry.
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Table 6 Commonly available protein rich feed ingredients and their chemical and nutritional composition Proximate composition on DM basis Nutritive value on DM Cell wall constituents on Sl. DM basis DM basis Feed name No. % CP CF% EE% NFE% Total DCP TDN ME ADF NDF Lignin% % ash % % % MJ/Kg % % 1 Alfa-alfa 21.2 20.2 25.0 3.1 40.9 10.9 15.10 60.00 2.50 35.83 43.64 9.45 2 African 25.6 25.9 13.7 4.5 48.2 7.7 4.51 59.00 2.19 ------Dhaincha --- Cowpea plant 15.0 18.0 26.1 2.5 39.4 14.0 13.40 60.00 9.7 37.29 49.78 11.11 4 Ipil-Ipil leaf 26.4 24.3 14.1 5.1 46.2 9.9 15.10 56.00 2.93 25.4 40.9 10.8 5 Keshari grass 18.2 19.2 25.7 1.7 36.7 16.8 -- -- 1.85 7.1 20.1 1.3 6 Coconut meal 90.2 22.0 13.7 9.0 47.7 9.2 19.40 83.00 2.87 ------7 Cotton seed 88.0 19.9 26.6 9.8 38.2 5.4 13.70 78.00 3.05 19.90 30.80 7.60 meal 8 Mustard oil 88.0 35.60 11.50 8.50 30.50 9.0 21.20 72.00 3.03 ------cake 9 Soybean meal 89.4 48.2 6.8 5.5 32.4 7.1 40.40 85.00 3.39 6.20 9.80 0.50 10 Til cake 82 46.50 8.34 5.04 27.85 11.02 ------
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Table 7 Commonly available agro-industrial by-products as animal feed and their chemical and nutritional composition Proximate composition on DM basis Nutritive value on DM Cell wall constituents on Sl. DM basis DM basis Feed name No. % CP CF% EE% NFE% Total DCP % TDN ME ADF NDF Lignin% % ash % % MJ/Kg % % 1 Sugarcane 66.6 3.0 40.6 0.7 46.5 9.3 0.25 65.00 2.66 38.20 67.0 7.50 bagasse 2 Bone meal 92.5 17.5 3.5 5.2 8.1 65.7 ------(cow) 3 Fish meal 81.4 44.7 1.7 7.9 16.8 28.8 55.50 76.00 3.11 4 Feather meal 92.1 85.7 0.9 6.7 1.2 5.5 13.3 6.5 55.8 5.5 5 Meat and bone 91.8 48.9 3.4 10.8 10.9 26.0 -- -- 2.03 ------meal 6 Molasses 74.8 3.1 0.0 0.3 85.5 10.3 1.40 84.00 3.57 0.20 0.40 0.00 7 Rice polish 89.5 13.5 3.5 14.6 57.7 10.6 10.30 91.00 3.38 1.2 4.8 0.8 8 Poultry offal 92.3 60.2 -- 27.9 -- 10.6 -- -- 24.4 ------meal 9 Poultry by 93.7 82.2 -- 11.2 -- 5.1 ------product meal 10 Wheat bran 89.3 14.6 9.7 4.4 66.4 4.9 11.90 71.00 2.51 15.50 42.50 3.0
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Current status of fodder production and management in Bangladesh Common fodder grown in Bangladesh There are substantial number of fodder varieties available in Bangladesh. Fodder again sub-divided into perennial, seasonal, leguminous, and others (medicinal, aquatic, tree leaves). The most common fodders along with its scientific name are presented in Table 8. Table 8 Common fodder available in Bangladesh SL Name of the fodder Scientific name No Perennial fodder 1 Napier Grass / Elephant Grass Pennistum purpurium 2 German grass Echinochora spp. 3 Para grass Brachiaria mutica 4 Dhal grass Hymenachne amplexcaulis 5 Signal Grass Brachiaria decumbens 6 Splendida grass Setaria splendid 7 Andropogon grass Andropogon aciculatus Seasonal 8 Maize grass Zea mays 9 Oat grass Avena sativa 10 Jumbo Grass Andropogan sorghum 11 Jowar Grass Sorghum bicolor (L.) Leguminous 12 Matikalai grass Indian Vetch 13 Khesari grass Lathyrus sativus 14 Cow pea grass Vigna unguiculata 15 Soybean grass Glycine max 16 Ipil ipil Leucaena leucaephala 17 Dhaincha leaves Sesbania sesban Medicinal 18 Plantain Plantago lanceolata 19 Neem leaf Azadirachta Indica
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Fodder production and land used in fodder production Fodder production is gaining importance at the farm level and also farmers are becoming more interested towards allocating lands for fodder production. Provision of green fodder at the daily ration is a pre-requisite factor for enhancing milk production. According to the available reports, the major feed ingredients fed to the dairy cattle are rice straw, although green grass is partially used in different region and production systems (Uddin et al., 2013). The share of rice straw in total ration is substantially higher (46 to 67%) compared to green grass (23 to 33%) and concentrates (8 to 17%). Except in the intensive production system, dairy cattle are underfed (based on total DM intake/day) against the recommended amount of 10 kg DM/day based on 3.5% to their live weight (Khan et al., 2009). This is due to the high price of concentrates, inadequate availability of green fodder and above all, the strong influence of seasonal variation on fodder availability. The influence of seasonality on green grass availability and milk yield across the production systems is also observed in the country. The higher green grass availability and corresponding the higher milk yield is found highest during the period of January to April (Winter and Spring) for all three production systems, followed by the lowest in May-August (Summer and Monsoon) and moderate for September to December (Autumn and Late Autumn). The highest production in winter and spring is due to the fact that just after disappearance of monsoon, the farmers cultivate fodder on own fellow land as well as embankments of the river sides. As a result, plenty of fodder is available in these periods. The lowest fodder availability and milk yield across the production system occurs during the Monsoon because all the cultivable land is inundated. This implies that augmenting green fodder production is the effective way of increasing milk production. Green fodder is the mainstay of livestock production as it maintains long healthy and productive life of animals along with reduction in the cost of production. It is the most important feed ingredient for enhancing the productivity of farm animals. Therefore, quality fodder production is the key momentum. An expert estimation based on the total land data; it is found that only negligible amount of land is solely allocated for fodder production in Bangladesh. Nevertheless, the scenario has now been changing toward more allocation of lands for fodder cultivation, especially among the dairy entrepreneurs. The total use of land for fodder production, its potentially available and its actual use is presented in Table 9.
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Table 9 Area under fodder production and its potential contribution to nutrient availability
Characteristics Area Potentially available Alloca Actually used tion
DM CP ME Area DM CP ME As DM CP ME Yield feed t/ha/Y g/kg MJ/kg 1000 1000 t 1000 t 10^9 (%) 1000 t 1000 t 10^9 DM DM ha MJ MJ Napier 50.24 102 8.3 3.3 164.4 16.8 1.4 100 164.4 16.8 1.4 Para 12.8 108 8.1 0.7 8.4 0.9 0.1 100 8.4 0.9 0.1 German 15.7 85 8.2 0.7 10.3 0.9 0.1 100 10.3 0.9 0.1 Dhal 11.15 67 8.1 0.7 7.3 0.5 0.1 100 7.3 0.5 0.1 Maize 10 71 9.4 1.0 9.8 0.7 0.1 100 9.8 0.7 0.1 Cowpea 3 180 9.8 0.3 1.0 0.2 0.0 100 1.0 0.2 0.0 Source: IDRN feed database 2018 Evidently, the highest order of DM yield is observed in Napier (a perennial fodder) and mostly cultivated in all over Bangladesh. From several field visits, it was found that farmers mostly use hybrid Napier and Napier Pakchong variety. The later one is relatively new in Bangladesh and have been spreading rapidly at farm level across the country.
Packages of practices and disposal of fodder The general trend for fodder production in small and marginal cases is not a common practice, rather they are mainly concerned to feed their cattle by utilizing tethering system in fallow land, road side grass, cut and carry system (Uddin, 2018). The cultivation of green grass production is not well synchronized, and it is still on the decision by the famers. Land is virtually scarce, that prevents farmers to allocate land for fodder production. In spite of those odds, there is recent trend in fodder production and farmers are being motivated on fodder production. The average land size of the typical dairy farms in Bangladesh is 0.3 ha /farm, including homestead land. Until today, farmers mainly cultivate some portion of arable land (1-10%) for partial fodder production (IFCN Dairy Report, 2018). The green grass production and its marketing is also gaining popular particularly in selected region. The norther region (Sirajagonj, Bogrua and Southern region such Sathkhira) is a good example of good fodder market. Although, not significantly but a number of cases, entrepreneurship has been developed for green fodder production and its marketing. Most of the farmers (85%) cultivate green fodder for their own livestock, particularly dairy and to limited extent for beef cattle production. About 12% of the farmers produce their own fodder and also sell their fodder to other livestock users and the rest
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(3%) farmers mainly involved in green fodder production and sell in the direct market as source of their income. The development of fodder market in the context of current livestock, particularly dairy development bears significant importance for enhancing the dairy and beef cattle production in Bangladesh. An overview on fodder market development is outlined through Fig. 1.
Entrepreneurs/ Increased industry production
Stakeholder Feeding to dairy, involvement fattening beef cattle, sheep, goat
Fodder producer Middle men Fodder user
Fodder marketing
Fig. 1 Development of fodder market and entrepreneurship in Bangladesh Feeding systems In Bangladesh, agro-ecological zones (AEZ) are mostly based on climatic variation and described for crop production. Since crop by-products are used by livestock, crop and livestock production are closely integrated. However, variations in livestock feeding are more dependent on seasons than AEZ. In order to make realistic features of the feeding systems, it is assumed that AEZ has a minimal influence on feed ingredient choices. Khan et al. (2009) have reported three distinct seasons prevailing in Bangladesh, namely as dry (February to May), wet/monsoon (June to September) and winter (October to January). The feeding systems in Bangladesh vary according to production systems, purposes of rearing livestock and poultry, availability of feed ingredients for all kind of livestock (cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, chicken and ducks) and market prices. In order to simplify, all feeds are categorized into three major groups: (i) grasses (ii) crop residues and (iii) grain and grain by-products; which are mostly used in Bangladesh (Khan et al, 2009; Sultana et al, 2014). The overview of feeding systems based on the use of different feed ingredients and seasons to capture salient features of the feeding system are depicted in Table 10.
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Table 10 Major feed ingredients used by livestock and poultry in different seasons Feed type Examples Livestock Season Crop residues (CR) Rice straw, wheat straw, pulse Large ruminants Year round straw, maize straw; potato leaves Oil seed cakes / Sunflower seed cake Large ruminants, Year round meals (OSK) Rape seed oil cake small ruminants Mustard oil cake and poultry, pigs Coconut cake Soybean whole (extruded) Grains (G) Rice; broken rice Mostly Poultry Year round wheat; maize Pulses Oilseeds Cotton seeds whole Soybean whole (roasted) Grain by-products Rice polish All livestock and Year round (GBP) Wheat bran poultry Pulses bran Roots and tubers Sweet potato Small ruminants, Early hot (RT) rabbits summer Root and tuber by- Radish leaves Small ruminants Winter products (RTBP) Other by-products Fish meal Poultry (fish Fish meal (OBP) Sugarcane tops meal, molasses) (year-round), Sugarcane bagasse and large Wet summer Molasses ruminants Banana leaves Grasses (GR) Dhal grass Large ruminants Winter and Napier grass early hot Sun hemp summer Para grass German grass Legume forages Berseem Large ruminants Winter and (LF) and non- Alfalfa early hot legume forages Green maize summer Green oat Forage trees (FT) Green dhaincha Large ruminants, Wet summer (Sesbania seban) small ruminants Other by-products Mango kernel Cattle Hot and wet (F) Pineapple waste summer Jackfruit seeds and skin
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Fodder conservation in Bangladesh The production of green fodder in Bangladesh is increasing, but not at the rate of requirement. However, a strong seasonal availability is dominant feature of green fodder; which is characterized by flush season and lean/ scarcity period. Scarcity of feed resources is a common problem in Bangladesh that would limit the livestock production. The scarcity may appear owing to flood, drought, cyclones, tsunami apart from the usual lean period, particularly during monsoon. Thus, the conservation of green fodder is highly recommended during the flush season in order to combat scarcity period of fodder availability. The fodder scarcity is linked with multiple factors, viz., loss of standing crops due to submerging in flood water, damage of stored dry roughage (due to water soaking followed by fungal growth causing loss of digestible nutrients), washing away of dry roughage stored in open space (by aggressive currents of flood water), damage of stored feed ingredients/ grains (by water soaking followed by fungal growth resulting in loss of nutrients and production of harmful/toxic metabolites), pollution of water with dung, urine, debris and other wastes, limited growth of plants (due to weather vagaries). Out of the several methods, two methods of fodder conservation are widely practiced all over the world including Bangladesh, although with different magnitude and adoption rate depending the context of livestock farming and availability of green fodder. These are: silage and hay.
Silage Silage is the preserved pasture. It consists of green forage or crop residues and by-products preserved by fermentation retaining high moisture in a silo for use as succulent fodder during periods of feed scarcity. The processes of making silage is termed as ensiling. The crops suitable for silage making are essentially belong to non-leguminous fodder crops rich in soluble carbohydrates, namely maize, oats sorghum, pear millet, cultivated grasses etc. Tropical grasses grown in Bangladesh are inherently low in soluble carbohydrates. Therefore, silage made from those lower soluble sugar containing grasses lead to poor quality of silage.
Steps of silage making Silo The structure that is used for fodder conservation in the form of silage is termed as silo. It may be “kaccha” or “pucca” or “bin” or “plastic” silo; depending upon the needs of farmers, financial status, fodder availability, number of animals, agro-climatic condition. Small and marginal farmers
23 SAARC Agriculture Centre could go for “kaccha” silo and essentially should use plastic sheet before putting any chaffed fodder. A commonly used type and size is a small pit silo of 1.75 × 1.75 × 1.75 meters. Medium and rich livestock farmers can opt for “pucca” silo of ‘pit’ or ‘trench cum bunker’ type for conserving large quantity of green fodder. Besides, ‘plastic bag – small (25 kg) or jumbo (150 kg)’ and ‘plastic can’ could also be used for silage making as these are being tested and tried as alternate ‘silo’. Albeit, the biochemical reaction completes within three to four weeks to turn green fodder into lactic acid rich silage, but it is routinely fed to animals approximately 60 to 70 days of after conservation. This way the silage would have optimum fermentation and least chance of aerobic deterioration.
Preparing the fodder The quality of silage depends upon the quality of fodder that is being ensiled. It is often told: “Quality in, quality out”. The quality of fodder again depends upon harvesting time, stage of growth, weather etc. The fodder should be harvested at appropriate time i.e. when its soluble sugars content is high and of course on sunny day in order to avoid excess moisture content. Immediately after harvesting, fodder is transported from the field to the place of chaff cutter for chaffing (mechanical or electrical chaff cutter). If the fodder is left out longer in the field, it may get too dry, or it may get rained on- and both of these will lead to undesirable fermentation leading to poor quality of silage production. Further, the longer the grass is left uncut, the higher the loss of nutrients. The crops should contain 30-35% dry matter and 65-70% moisture level at the time of ensiling. This level of moisture will create conducive fermentation environment for optimum growth and multiplication of anaerobic microbes which are essential for good quality silage. It is noteworthy to mention that, excess moisture often leads to growth of putrefactive bacteria responsible for butyric acid production from the soluble sugars of green fodder. In case, dry matter contents is lower than recommended level, the fodder is often subjected to wilting to achieve targeted dry matter for ensuring good quality silage.
Chaffing Chop into small pieces about 2 cm in length. Chopping make it easy to compact the silage and to remove the air. Chopping forages too long makes compaction difficult and air will remain trapped in the silage resulting in heating and spoilage. Compacting of silo pit will improve and speed up the fermentation process.
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Filling the silo Fill the material into solo layer by layer. This removes the air inside the silo. Silo should be filled up continuously in one day. Seal the silo quickly with plastic to keep oxygen out. Filling delays will result in excessive respiration and aerobic fermentation by undesired bacteria leading to poor quality silage. Further, presence of air leads to growth of fungal growth and multiplication, which in turn makes silage unfit for feeding to animals. Complete removal of air during filling of pit/ plastic can/ plastic bag/ trench cum bunker silo with chaffed fodder ensures growth and multiplication of lactic acid producing bacteria within short period from the soluble carbohydrates. As a result, the pH of silage declines rapidly. Once pH becomes acidic due to production and accumulation of lactic acid, it prevents growth of putrefactive bacteria and moulds and enables silage of better quality.
Evaluation of silage quality Once silage is ready, it should be evaluated for its quality before feeding. It can be done either by organoleptic test or by chemical analysis. The principle of organoleptic test relies on colour, odour, frangibility and visible mould growth. Appearance of greenish yellow or yellowish green colour of silage is highly desirable. Blackening of silage colour is undesirable as it results from fermentative action of undesirable bacteria. The good quality silage always emits sweet lactic acid smell. On the contrary, butyric emits foul smell and it is undesirable in case of silage. It results due to fermentative action of Clostridium spp. or E. coli over soluble sugars of green fodder in the presence of oxygen. Additionally, each and every fragment of silage should be separable. In case, fodder is conserved with optimum levels of dry matter, it leads to good quality silage. Further, there should not be any visible mould growth over the silage. It often happens on the top layer of silage and it should be discarded during opening of the silage. Therefore, the quality of silage depends upon several attributes; such as chemical composition of fodder, presence of foreign materials (soil or other poor-quality fodder), kind of fermentation (anaerobic/ aerobic), chaff length (< 2cm), sealing of silo, etc. Nevertheless, the quality of silage is chemically evaluated through assaying the concentration lactic acid, acetic acid, butyric acid, pH, ammonia nitrogen, Fleig Index etc.
Feeding the silage to livestock Silage can be fed as a source of roughage either on its own or with other fed sources. Fermentation could be finished anywhere from 2 weeks to about 45 days. The quality of the ensiled products depends on the feeding value of the material ensiled and on the fermentation products present, as well as on the
25 SAARC Agriculture Centre types of acid and the amount of ammonia. Silage making is useful only if the ensiled product is of good quality i.e. well preserved and of high digestibility and protein content.
Purpose of silage making The principal raw materials for silage making is the quality green fodder. As there is shortage of green fodder in Bangladesh, the adoption of silage is quite low, although there is an increasing awareness among the livestock famers for making silage. Two main patterns of silage in Bangladesh: own consumption and commercial production. There are also some few numbers who operates silage entrepreneurship on commercial basis. The automated baled silage maker is also available in Bangladesh, which indicates that Bangladesh will move toward more silage technology in near future. This would, however, require dissemination of the silage preparation technology in more user friendly and convenient way. The research done by Khandarker and Uddin (2013) showed that concrete silo pit is better technology for preserving silage for longer time, but pit silage becomes a cost-effective silage preparation technique. The other research done by Saifullah and Uddin (2018) on the different methods of silage preparation who concludes that silage preparation by using plastic drum is the most effective way for silage preparation. The good quality silage can be prepared using maize with traditional bamboo system in rural areas which is cost effective and optimize feed intake and rumen fermentation (Khaleduzzaman et al., 2016).
Hay Hay is the grasses or legumes that are harvested, dried and stored as 85-90% DM and most of the nutrients are retained including carotene. The crops which have soft and pliable stem are used for making hay. Annual and perennial grasses and the leguminous fodder like lucerne, berseem, cowpea, matikalai, soybean, alfalfa etc. and some non-leguminous fodder like timothy, oats, and barley are also used for hay making. Early cut leguminous crops are the most suitable for making good quality hay. Hay making could be done by various methods including field drying, controlled drying, moist aerobic storage.
Field drying This method depends on the vapour pressure between the environment and the plant tissue. At the beginning of the drying process, the water loss is higher which progressively declined as drying progressed. The final DM of
26 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia the hay depends on the crop species, crop maturity and weather condition prior to cutting.
Controlled drying It could be done either by barn hay drying or high temperature dehydration. The partly dried hay is taken into store from field and air is passed through the mass via a ducting system, using a fan which is normally powered by electricity or above ambient temperature, and the hay is dried over a period of 3-4 weeks. During this period, forage will dry progressively from the source of air, and drying fronts will progressively move outwards from this source. The design of the system must be such that moulding and deterioration of hay does not occur before particular zones of the forage are dry. In case of high temperature dehydration process, the forages are cut and loaded without wilting into a batch dryer and then dried by air heated to about 1000 C.
Moist aerobic storage In this method, the ammonia gas is used to improve the feeding value. When ammonia is applied up to 4% by weight to moist hay, it results in lower microbial activity and reduced storage loss. Some studies showed that urea could be used with ammonia. The urea is broken down rapidly to ammonia, and that moist hay could be stored successfully in aerobic and anaerobic conditions following the application of urea at 60 gm per kg forage DM.
Feed budgeting The increasing demand for livestock products is driven by the population growth, urbanization and income growth and it is offering the opportunities for increasing livestock productivity (Uddin et al., 2009, FAO, 2012). Provision of adequate and quality feed to livestock is a pre-requisite factor for increasing livestock production (Khandaker et al., 2012). Accurate assessments of total feed requirement, availability and the supply gap for Dry Matter, crude protein and metabolizable energy are very important issues for understanding country’s overall livestock feed situation. This implies that for making strategic decision on annual feed budgeting for dairy and beef cattle, it is necessary to estimate the country’s overall demand supply situation (e.g. feed balance). The estimation of feed balance (% DM basis) provides information on the annual feed availability and demand for livestock. However, the estimation of feed balance is quite challenging as this require substantial database on total livestock population, different age category, proportion of dairy and non-dairy cattle, specific nutrient requirement, feed production, availability, chemical composition, total export, import of feed
27 SAARC Agriculture Centre ingredients. Against this, Bangladesh like developing countries is lacking such type of database, although there has been substantial effort that has been made by the government and university. The establishment of Integrated Dairy Research Network (IDRN) under the Department of Animal Nutrition of Bangladesh Agricultural University is a way forward for mitigating the data shortage of the country. Taking this challenge, feed balance was calculated based on the individual feed ingredient data which is then further calculated using the method of FAO (2012). The feed balance of the country for livestock is depicted in Table 11. It indicates Bangladesh produces 119 million-ton Fresh Matter, while 109 million ton is available for livestock feed use. A total of 44.08 Million ton Dry Matter (DM), 3.32 Million ton Crude Protein (CP) and 244 million MJ is produced. The availability is lower than requirement in Bangladesh (Uddin et al., 2015, Khan et al., 2014).
Comparison of feed balance studies in Bangladesh The comparative analysis for dry matter availability, requirement and balance is depicted in Table 12. The variation could be due to the methodological differences, different allocation factor and different sources of chemical composition. This could be used for future study to combine both and make a systematic study in Bangladesh. As a part of this, National Agricultural Technological Project (NATP) under Programme Based Research Project (PBRG) has taken initiatives to update the current feed resources which could be way forward for updated and precise study. Segregating this to roughage and concentrate, it is quite clear that roughage is the major share of the feed base for livestock in Bangladesh, which is reported by both group of researchers. Table 13 shows the roughage and concentrates share to the national requirement.
ICT used in feed/ fodder production and marketing The development of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is playing a key role at the era of modern digital age all over the word. Bangladesh is placing as frontier and has become a role model for ICT development in all sectors of the country. The ICT development has given tremendous opportunity to make access to information to all people and reduce the information asymmetry. In order to enhance the adoption of the ICT in Agriculture, the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock has taken a step forward under the umbrella of “National Information and Communication Policy 2015”, which is based on the government strong willing to make “Digital Bangladesh” (MoFL, 2019). The policy has strong vision on to
28 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia ensure production of safe, adequate and quality animal protein through the application of ICT in livestock sector by 2021. This has short (2017), Medium (2019) and Long term (2021) goal to make best utilization of the policy recommendation on ICT. The overview on ICT use in livestock with particular emphasis on livestock feeds and feeing management are depicted in Table 14 Table 11 Total feed production and availability (DM, CP and ME) to livestock in Bangladesh Feed resource Production, Production, DM available CP available to ME available fresh DM to livestock livestock to livestock (1000 tones) (1000 tones) (1000 tones) (1000 tones) (MJ) (1000 tones) 1. Crop Residues Rice straw 40 250 36 628 18 314 549 64 098 Wheat straw 1 600 1 456 728 22 1 566 Maize straw 3 000 2 730 1 638 66 6 388 Potato leaves 17 037 4 259 3 833 153 12 267 2. Oil seed 847 771 694 215 6 397 cakes/meals 3. Pulses 270 243 219 35 1 531 4. Grains Rice 39 078 34 779 696 56 4521 Wheat 1 600 1 424 142 20 926 Maize 1 000 890 89 8 579 Other cereals 2.82 2.4 0.24 0.1 1.56 5. Grain by- products Rice polish 3 220 2 898 232 32 1159 Rice bran 2 818 1 522 213 213 6542 Wheat bran 78 69 5.5 1 23 Broken rice 4 025 29 851 2 388 239 1719 Pulses bran 657 858 46.8 7 281 6. Other by- products Sugarcane tops 4 491 4 087 3 065 41 32 449 Sugarcane 4 491 4 087 3 065 41 32 449 bagasse Molasses 281 2 1.6 0.2 17 Banana leaves 706 141 113 5.6 1 121 7. Grasses Green grass 34 650 8 316 8 316 1 580 68 856 8. Sweet potatoes 782 391 156 28 782 9. Mango kernel 181 127 127 13 695 Total 119989 109368 44082 3325 244368
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Table 12 Feed balance calculation for dry matter, crude protein and metabolizable energy
Particulars Khan and Sarker (2014) Uddin et al. (2015)
DM CP ME DM CP ME (1000 tones) (1000 tones) (MJ) (1000 tones) (1000 tones) (MJ)
Availability 56081 1051.19 397224 44082 3325 244368
Requirement 73800 3640.93 457265 63 806 8 235 594 997
Balance -17719 -2590 -60041 -19724 -4910 -350629 (1000 tons)
Balance (%) -24.0% -71.1% -13.1% -30.9% -59.6% -58.9%
Table 13 Feed balance: nutrient requirement and supply from roughage and concentrates
Particulars Khan and Sarker (2014) Uddin et al. (2015)
Total DM Roughage Concentrate Total DM Roughage Concentrate (1000 tones) (1000 tones) (1000 tones) (1000 tones) (1000 tones) (1000 tones)
Availability 56081 51056 5189.7 44082 39072 5010.14
Requirement 73800 49200 24608 63806 42537 21269
Balance -17719 1856 -19418.3 -19724 -3465 -16259 (1000 tons)
Balance (%) -24.0% 3.8% -78.9% -30.9% -8.1% -76.4%
.
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Table 14 Overview of ICT development agenda under Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock (MoFL) for short, medium and long- term basis SL Area of ICT work Primary Implementation Expected output Short Medium Long-term No Unit ü ü 1 Establish a data center of the Ministry Ministry and all company/ • Risk and cost reduction to run the data of Fisheries and Livestock at the department center National Data Center established in BCB ü ü 2 Livestock veterinary services, Department of Livestock • People will get all the services of livestock production and management related Services at home, through sms at free of cost advises via mobile SMS at free of cost ü ü 3 Farm based database development for Department of Livestock • Safe meat production will be easy. safe production of chicken meat and Services • Will contribute in animal protein egg production Prevention of diseases will be easier ü ü 4 Online based registration and renewal Department of Livestock • Registration and renewal will be easier at of dairy farms Services low cost within a short time • it will help in easy monitoring of the farms as well as safe food supply will be easier ü ü 5 Online based registration and renewal Department of Livestock • Registration and renewal will be easier at of goat farms Services low cost within a short time • It will help in easy monitoring of the farms as well as safe food supply will be easier Continue to next page
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Continue from previous page SL Area of ICT work Primary Implementation Expected output Short Medium Long-term No Unit ü ü 6 Online based registration and renewal Department of Livestock • Registration and renewal will be easier at of sheep farms Services low cost within a short time • It will help in easy monitoring of the farms as well as safe food supply will be easier ü ü 7 Online based beef fattening farm Department of Livestock • Beef fattening will be possible at low cost database development Services and within a short time • The monitoring of the farms and safe meat production will be easier ü ü 8 Registration and renewal of Department of Livestock • Registration and renewal in low cost and registration for livestock feed Services in a short time period production, processing, storage and • Possibility for easy monitoring marketing (category-1) ü ü 9 Registration and renewal of Department of Livestock • Registration and renewal in low cost and registration for livestock feed import, Services in a short time period export, storage and marketing • Possibility for easy monitoring (category-2) ü ü 10 Registration and renewal of Department of Livestock • Registration and renewal in low cost and registration for livestock feed selling Services in a short time period (category-3) • Possibility for easy monitoring ü ü 11 Database development for semen Department of Livestock • Planning for semen production and production, distribution and use Services distribution when required • Data storage for breed development will be easier Continue to next page
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Continue from previous page SL Area of ICT work Primary Implementation Expected output Short Medium Long-term No Unit • ü ü 12 Database development for government Department of Livestock Proper management of Govt. livestock farm and its production related report Services farm publish (dairy farm, goat farm, poultry • Monitoring of these farms farm) • ü ü 13 Database development for disease Department of Livestock Control and prevention of disease identification (CDIL and FDIL) Services • Safe milk, meat and egg production • ü ü 14 Database development for Livestock Department of Livestock To get data easily related to feed nutrient feed and their nutrient composition Services composition • Safe meat production will be easier • ü ü 15 Computerized system for disease Bangladesh Livestock Livestock rearing by interested farmer’s control and training for the Research Institute • Information about different disease entrepreneurs and interested farmers prevention system for animal rearing • People will show interest for animal husbandry • ü ü 16 Automation of website for high Bangladesh Livestock Increase capability for research quality feed Research Institute • Farmers will be able to know easily from the website • ü ü 17 Database development for high Bangladesh Livestock Farmer will be able to know easily about yielding fodder and their distribution Research Institute the high yielding fodder importance among farmers • Will be interested to cultivate them • ü ü 18 Database development for sustainable Department of database Identification of suitable technology for development of livestock and fisheries for livestock the farmers and lunching in the website and • Livestock production will be accelerated extension through distribution of leaflet, folder, book Source: MoFL, 2019
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Evidently, it indicates that the government has made appropriate decision on application of ICT. There is a number of implications of this policy which has eventually accelerate the development of ICT not only in management of feeds and fodder, but also different other areas of livestock management. The growth rate for adoption of ICT is growing faster in Livestock as the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock has been making their best effort to materialize the full benefit of the ICT through the Department of Livestock Services (DLS). The fodder production and marketing are not yet integrated with modern digital system, however practiced mainly by mobile and facebook based mechanism. The development and utilization of Internet and Communication Technology (ICT) in all sector of the Agriculture is the key agenda for the government digital Bangladesh. Substantial effort has been made to progress toward digital Bangladesh. However, digital Bangladesh implementation process is much faster in crop sector, where in livestock sector is coping pace with another sector. The dynamic in livestock sector has been started which has been reflected by the government recent approval of Mega project on Livestock and Dairy Development Project (LDDP). This has implication on the use of ICT on livestock development. Among several activity of livestock farming, feeds and feeding management plays central role, where in formulation of balanced ration is the top most priority for enhancing milk, meat and egg production. The application of the ICT has been visualizing the use of modelling-based software or excel based software is for ration formulation. The development of Feed Master is one bright example for ICT use in livestock (BLRI; 2019). The main use of the “Feedmaster” is on ration formulation, weight calculation, some management issues on adequate housing, vaccination management by providing a template for vaccination calendar, specific management tools and emergency contacts. However, the ration formulation which is linked with feeds and feeding management. This ICT based apps are still on validation phase and need to be tested across farms types, farming system and price changes. This is static modelling where it can be improved through dynamic modelling that can be based on real farm data and could be more user-friendly. The other example of ICT use with the Rural Development Academy in Bangladesh, Bogura, where ICT based livestock has been taking place. The development of database, data generation process and livestock feeding are being incorporated. However, the level of efficiency and its full benefit to be materialized need time. The application of ICT in marketing of fodder is also not yet visualized. Considering the current growth and development of ICT in Bangladesh, the days are not so far when ICT will play central role in fodder production,
34 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia processing, advertisement, ration formulation and providing information on to access the right market.
Commercial feed manufacturing The feed industry in Bangladesh is little more than a decade old, catering mainly for the needs of the poultry and aquaculture sector due to growing demand for these feeds (Table 15). The inception of producing compound feed for cattle followed the profitable agri-business of poultry and aqua-feed sector. An increasing trend in the development of feed industry in terms of number of feed mills, amount of compound feed produced per year and annual turnover is observed for most of the feed mill in Bangladesh. Recently the compound feed for dairy and beef fattening is also increasing faster than any other time due to higher demand of the beef cattle as the ban of import of beef cattle from India. The use of the compound feed is also increasing for dairy cattle although there has less impact on increasing the market for dairy. Introduction of Total Mixed Ration could be a way forward for enhancing dairy production in Bangladesh. Table 15 Compound feed production and its trend in Bangladesh Production of livestock feed (million ton) Year Broiler Layer Fattening Dairy Total 2018 1.58 0.66 0.35 0.15 2.74 2019 1.64 0.72 0.39 0.17 2.92 2020 1.7 0.78 0.44 0.19 3.11 2021 1.79 0.86 0.49 0.22 3.36 2022 1.83 0.93 0.53 0.23 3.52 2023 1.92 1.01 0.58 0.26 3.77 2024 2.02 1.13 0.68 0.29 4.12 2025 2.53 1.41 0.85 0.36 5.15 2026 3.16 1.77 1.06 0.45 6.44 2027 3.95 2.21 1.33 0.57 8.06 2028 4.94 2.76 1.66 0.71 10.08 2029 6.18 3.46 2.08 0.89 12.60 2030 7.73 4.32 2.60 1.11 15.76 Source: DATABD.COM (data updated: 11.10. 2019), excluding fish feed
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Evidently, there is a clear growth for compounded feed manufacturing in Bangladesh for both poultry and ruminant animals. The total compounded feed production in Bangladesh is 2.74 million ton excluding the fish feed. The total fish feed production is about 23%. The top 7 feed mill produces about 59% of the total compounded (Table 16). Table 16 Market share of top 7 feed industry in compounded feed production in 2018 Manufacturer name Production (Million ton) Nourish 0.37 Quality 0.25 Paragon 0.22 Aftab 0.18 CP 0.19 Provita 0.19 ACI-Godrej 0.22 Total (top 7) 1.62 Others 1.13 Total 2.74 Looking into the share of the different compound feeds, which corresponds to 95% of the total compound feed is produced for poultry and only about 5% for dairy and beef (Fig. 2).
5.5%
12.8%
24.1% 57.7%
Broiler Layer Fattening Milk
Fig. 2 Share of individual feed in total compound production in the country
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Conclusion There is a growing demand for livestock products which are increasing due to increasing in population growth, rise in absolute income and increase in urbanization and will continue until 2030. The production of livestock cannot keep pace in relation to its demand due to the fact that growth of livestock products is lower than demand growth. Feed is the foundation of the livestock production, with feed costs generally accounting for up to 70% of the cost of animal production. Livestock feeds and fodder production and its management has direct impact on reproduction, health and welfare and safety of animal products. Ensuring access to feed in sufficient quantity and quality is therefore among the key and strategic priorities for livestock sector development. Considering this, the present endeavour has provided a comprehensive overview on overall livestock population, its growth pattern and their contribution to GDP and food security. The importance of the feeds and fodder in enhancing livestock production are well addressed. The detail overview on locally available feeds and fodder, their conservation process, total feeds supply and demand (thus demand gap), compound feed production and finally the use of Information of Communication Technology (ICT) in the livestock feeds and fodder were discussed. The key message from this study is that data generation and making precise decision on livestock feeding is highly constrained as there is no standard livestock (feed, dairy) database in the country. With the help of government from SARRC countries might come together to emphasis on database development where individual country could contribute to this initiative. This would lead the livestock development for Bangladesh.
References Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute (BLRI). 2019. Feed Master Apps. Available at: http://apps-blri.org/feedmaster_english/ration/ration_input. Accessed on 9th November, 2019. Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). 2012. Conducting national feed assessment by Michael B. Coughenour and Harinder PS Makkar, FAO Animal Production and Health Manual No. 15. Integrated Dairy Research Network (IDRN). 2018. Dairy farm and Dairy Sector Database. IDRN, Department of Animal Nutrition, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh. International Farm Comparison Network Dairy (IFCN) Dairy Report. 2018. Better understanding of dairy in the world. www.ifcndairy.org.
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Khaleduzzaman, A.B.M., Al-Mamun, M.A., Kabir, M.A., Bilkis, T., and Hazary, M.E.H. 2016. Low-cost forage preservation and evaluation in relation to Nutrient intake, digestibility and rumen fermentation characteristics of indigenous cross bred cattle. International Journal of Recent Scientific Research. 7: 12220 – 12226. Khan, M.J., Peters, K.J., and Uddin, M.M. 2009. Feeding strategy for improved dairy cattle productivity in small holder farm in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Journal of Animal Science. 38:67-85. Khan, K.S., and Sarker, N. 2014. Feeds and feeding of livestock in Bangladesh: performance, constraints and options forward. Bangladesh Journal of Animal Science. 43: 1-10 Khandaker, Z.H., and Uddin, M.J. 2013. Cost-effective preservation technique of green fodder and its impact on quality of silage. Livestock Research for Rural Development. 25: 70. Khandaker, Z.H., Uddin, M.M., Sultana, M.N., and Peters, K.J. 2012. Effect of rumen degradable protein (RDP) supplementation on intake, digestibility and microbial protein synthesis of cattle in a straw-based diet in Bangladesh. Tropical Animal Health and Production. 44: 791-800. Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock. 2019. https://mofl.gov.bd/site/page/7be3037e- 96df-49d9-9756-9c114c77e8ea/ICT-Related-Activities. Accessed on 9th November, 2019. Saadullah, M. 2001. Smallholder dairy production and marketing in Bangladesh. In: Smallholder dairy production and marketing-opportunities and constraints. Proceedings of South-South workshop held at National Dairy Development Board, Anand, India. Pp 13 – 16. Saifullah, K.B., and Uddin, M.M. 2018. Effect of different methods of silage preparation on quality of the silage. MS dissertation, Department of Animal Nutrition, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensngh-2202, Bangladesh. Ser-Od, T., Hussain, M. M., and Dugdil, B. 2008. Improved Market Access and Smallholder Dairy Farmer Participation for Sustainable Dairy Development. Animal Production and Health Commission for Asia and the Pacific and Food and Agriculture Organization (APHCA-FAO) Project report presented in Asia-Pacific Smallholder Dairy Strategy Workshop, Chingmai, Thailand. Shamsuddin, M., Alam, M. M., Hossein, M. S., Goodger, W. J., Bari, F. Y., Ahmed, T. U., Hossain, M.M., and Khan, A. H. M. S. I. 2007. Participatory rural appraisal to identify needs and prospects of market-oriented dairy industries in Bangladesh. Tropical Animal Health and Production. 39: 567-581. Sultana, M.N., Uddin, M.M., Riddout, B, G., and Peters, K.J. 2014. Comparison of water use in global milk production for different typical farms. Agricultural Systems. 129: 9-21.
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Uddin, M.M., Sultana, M.N., and Peters, K.J. 2013. Participatory Rural Appraisal to characterize dairy production systems in Bangladesh. Livestock Research for Rural Development. 25:29. Uddin, M.M., Sultana, M.N., Brümmer, B., and Peters, K.J. 2012. Assessing the impact of dairy policies on farm-level profits in dairy farms in Bangladesh: Benchmarking for rural livelihoods improvement policy. Journal of Reviews on Global Economics. 1:124-138. Upton, M. 2004. The role of livestock in economic development and poverty reduction. Pro-poor Livestock Policy Initiatives Working Paper No. 10. Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome, Italy.
39 Chapter 3
Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in Bhutan
Kuenga Namgay Chief Livestock Officer Department of Livestock Royal Government of Bhutan
Introduction Bhutan is an agrarian country with majority of population (62.2%) living in rural areas practicing subsistence to semi-commercial agriculture including livestock (NSB, 2017). Overall, about 90% of the rural Bhutanese population keep livestock of one kind or the other (MoA, 2009). The husbandry of these animals is either well integrated into the cropping system or engaged in seasonal transhumance synchronized in a way that different species occupy different agro-ecological zones at different times of the year with changing temperatures. The raising of livestock forms a crucial component of the mixed farming system in south Asia because the animal manure contributes to soil fertility and, therefore, enhances crop production (Thomas et al., 2002). Similarly, in Bhutan, livestock form an integral part of the agricultural system, contributing not only to soil fertility and draught power, but also to the diet of farmers. The current population of livestock and poultry birds in Bhutan is presented in Table 1. The population of cattle, sheep & goat, pigs, and poultry birds increased 5.7%, 28.27%, 58.34%, 107.69% respectively between 2013 – 2018. However, population of buffalos and horses decreased 20.4 % and 24.63%, respectively. Table 1 Livestock and poultry population (in number) Year 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Ruminant Cattle 348990 347497 349977 353491 354086 368916 Buffalo 691 574 586 532 550 550 Sheep 49181 59642 53393 50790 53133 63085 & Goat Pseudo- Horse 22692 21221 20253 18890 18211 17103 ruminant Mono- Pig 15373 14204 15727 15324 18815 24342 gastric Poultry 551185 550715 638501 1038553 1118178 1144746
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The Department of Livestock, since the first FYP in 1960s, started livestock development to increase self-sufficiency level of livestock and poultry products in Bhutan. Several activities from improving animal breeds through supply of inputs with exotic blood inheritance to extension services and farmers’ training were implemented to boost domestic production of livestock and poultry products. Similarly, farmers have adopted exotic breed of cows, birds, and pigs, amongst others, in order to enhance production of meat, dairy products and eggs in the market. Jersey cattle are particularly popular among Bhutanese farmers who keep cows. Livestock products, such as meat, milk, dairy products and eggs, constitute a major component of Bhutanese diet. Over the years with rising income, many people are increasingly adding these items to their diet. The trend of milk consumption in Bhutan from 2008 to 2015 is presented herewith (Fig. 1). 60000 50000
40000 30000
equivalent) 20000
10000 Milk qty MT (Fresh milk 0 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Domestic Import Consumption
Fig. 1 Milk production, import and consumption trend While domestic production has increased modestly, there has been a substantial increase in the import of livestock products into Bhutan in response to rising demand (Table 2). The increase in imports, especially meat products, is because the majority of Bhutanese are Buddhist and carry strong sentiments against killing (Tshering, 2008). Therefore, there is little slaughtering within Bhutan and almost all of the meat is imported, mostly from India. Moreover, more Bhutanese are changing their eating habits and including more meat, eggs and milk in their diet. This, undoubtedly, is improving their health status with the inclusion of more energy and protein sources in their diet, but also leading to rise in life style related diseases such as hypertension and diabetes. The population of Bhutan has reached 7,27,145 in 2017 (NSB, 2018) and is growing at the rate of 1.3% per annum, resulting into greater demands of food in future, including livestock products.
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Table 2 Import of livestock products in Bhutan
Items Quantity imported (MT) Value of import (Million BTN)
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Pork 2316.08 2165.86 2242.13 1879.98 1869.80 313.47 314.10 327.87 293.44 276.72
Chevon 85.20 35.48 27.70 30.15 34.09 17.41 11.30 10.06 10.53 10.90
Chicken 1006.60 1302.19 1369.27 1474.50 1584.47 116.65 166.07 173.87 185.21 205.09
Meat products Meat Beef 4432.91 3743.69 4112.19 3470.76 3120.31 552.42 505.15 566.76 497.39 447.55
Milk 3756.37 3753.92 3092.89 4179.39 3071.79 542.01 630.04 630.61 705.79 517.87
Butter 307.99 238.94 215.00 201.47 207.29 65.74 61.14 62.07 63.32 68.16 Dairy Dairy products Cheese 981.75 928.60 1014.80 1276.02 1303.67 288.63 323.44 357.58 451.52 511.13
Honey 19.49 24.90 34.40 42.77 38.84 3.49 4.87 7.01 8.32 7.99
Total value 3912.82 4030.11 4150.83 4231.52 4062.41
The contribution of livestock to national economy In Bhutan, agriculture, livestock and forestry sub-sectors are grouped under one Ministry and referred to as Renewable Natural Resources (RNR) sector. Despite the RNR sectors importance to livelihood of majority of the Bhutanese population, share of RNR sector to national GDP has declined over the years. Similarly, the contribution from livestock to the national GDP has also fallen from 4.024% (2012) to 3.89% (2016). The RNR sector’s share to GDP has significantly declined from being the leading sector with 56% in 1980 to 42.2% in 1993 (Dorjee, 1995) and around 17% in 2016 (NSB, 2017). It clearly shows the declining trend of RNR’s contribution to GDP, including that of livestock (Table 3). Table 3 Share of RNR sector in national Gross Domestic Product Sector 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Overall RNR 16.99 16.18 16.77 16.67 16.52 Crops 9.98 9.18 10.06 10.10 9.95 Livestock 4.02 4.11 4.07 3.97 3.89 Forestry and Logging 2.99 2.89 2.64 2.60 2.68
Source: Bhutan RNR Statistics (2017) The general decline in RNR sector’s contribution is, however, not in its gross terms but because of the increased size of the economy and booming construction sector with the establishment of several hydropower dams. Statistics show that the gross share of GDP from RNR sector, as well as the livestock sub-sector, is increasing (Table 4).
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Table 4 Gross contribution of RNR sector to national GDP (million Nu.)
Sector 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Overall RNR 16894 16889 20050 22008 24565
Crops 9926 9580 12029 13340 14795
Livestock 3994 4290 4869 5239 5779
Forestry and Logging 2974 3019 3152 3431 3991
Source: RSD (2017) The contribution from the livestock sub-sector has increased by about 44.7% from Nu. 3994 million in 2012 to Nu. 5779 million in 2016 (RSD, 2017). Therefore, livestock has a great potential in contributing to pro-poor rural livelihood development, poverty alleviation and contributing to achieving the country’s development philosophy of Gross National Happiness.
The livestock production system in Bhutan Cattle production system In Bhutan, the local breed (commonly known as Siri, Nublang or Thrabam), a Bos indicus type cattle and Mithun (Bos frontalis) crossbreds make up the majority of livestock population (Dorji, 2011). Thrabam and Mithun crossbreds (Mithun x Thrabam) make up 38.18% of total bovine population excluding yaks (Table 5). Thrabam and Mithun crossbreds are very hardy breeds and can easily be raised in an extensive system. The milk production of pure Thrabam breed is low, but when crossbred with Mithun, the crossbreds display higher hybrid vigor, milk production, butter fat content, as well as in draught ability. Crossbreds of European dairy breeds, particularly jersey crossbreds are gaining popularity and found in the peri-urban areas of both temperate and sub-tropics, while in remote rural areas local cattle constitute the predominant breed. All the domestic ungulates in Bhutan are reared in pastoral systems, grazing in crop fields and communal pastures or forests. Most of the local cattle and all of the yaks are reared through transhumance pastoral system.
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Table 5 Livestock population in 2018 and their proportion (excluding poultry, dogs and cats) Species Number Percentage Siri or Thrabam cattle 112063 24.35 Mithun Crossbred cattle 63640 13.83 Jersey and Brown Swiss Crossbred 111857 24.32 cattle Yaks 41463 09.00 Other livestock 131185 28.50 Total 460208 100.00 Source: DoL, 2018 Four major livestock systems can be identified: 1. Sedentary mixed farming system, 2. Local circular migration, 3. Vertical cattle based transhumant agro- pastoralism, and 4. Alpine yak transhumant pastoralism.
Sedentary mixed farming system The sedentary system is more common in the subtropics and mid-altitude zones where cattle are either grazed in the forests around the villages or in their fields after crops are harvested. This system is more commonly found in rural areas or in peri-urban areas and similar to mixed farming systems found in other countries of the global south. Some people are now practicing sedentary stall-feeding system, particularly in peri-urban areas, with exotic breed crossbreds. The animals are brought home in the evening and usually tethered in the field or housed to collect their waste. The main source of livelihood for these farmers is from crop farming. Only small numbers of cattle, usually the crossbreds with European dairy breeds, are kept in the peri-urban areas whereas in remote areas local indigenous breeds are kept. Many of these farmers are not necessarily totally dependent on livestock as they have either larger crop fields, fruit trees or some alternative livelihood. However, cattle do form a major source of cash income for the peri-urban farmers.
Local circular migration The local circular migration system involves maintaining larger herds of cattle and practicing circular migration around the village and the fields. The main source of livelihood for these farmers is crop farming, although, major cash generation is often from the sale of livestock produce. The animals are brought to farms after crops are harvested to make use of crop residues and
44 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia weeds as well as to fertilize the field. The herds move from one place to the other in pastures around their village but do not move to other districts. These villages are usually located in remote areas and do not enjoy the luxury of the market, and access to extension services is also difficult. Predominant breed of cattle raised in this system are local breeds such as Siri or Mithun crossbreds.
Vertical cattle based transhumant agro-pastoralism The vertical cattle based transhumance is synchronized with alpine yak system, such that, in winter when yaks descend to temperate pastures, cattle move further down south to sub-tropical pastures, and then ascend to temperate pastures as yaks retreat back to alpine pastures in summer (Ura, 2002). Most of these local cattle and all of the yaks are reared through transhumance agro pastoral system grazing in rangelands. Cattle involved in this system migrate inter-district, north to south and vice versa. This system, however, is seriously impacted by Land Act of Bhutan 2007 which foresees cessation of inter-district movement of cattle. This system has declined drastically in the last decade due mainly to the Land Act 2007 and partly contributed by labor shortage, development and climate change.
Alpine yak transhumant pastoralism The yak transhumant pastoralism is found in alpine regions with hardly any agricultural land for crops. The yak herders are mainly dependent on yaks and yak products. In the high altitude of Bhutan, especially the alpine region, rearing yaks form the mainstay of the highlanders. These alpine yak herders live a pastoralist life and depend almost entirely on the rearing of Yaks. They move their yaks to an alpine altitude as high as 5000 m in summer (Fig. 2, 3), and drop down to as low as 3000 m in winter, in tandem with both rainfall and the availability of pasture upon which yaks can graze. The summer pastures are grazed from June to September, and winter pastures from November to March (Gyamtsho, 1996). Yaks are mainly kept for high value yak meat, locally known as yaksha, as well as for butter, cheese, fibre and hides. Yaks also contribute draught power and are used as a means of transportation during migration, as well as providing a portage service for tourists (Gyamtsho, 1996).
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Fig. 2 Yak grazing at highlands
Fig. 3 Highlanders milking yak
46 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia
Rearing yaks is part of Bhutanese culture and has been practiced primarily by the bjop communities for centuries. Yak herders play an important role in preserving Bhutanese culture and environment. These yak herders hardly own any agricultural land for crops and many either herd for elite families living in urban areas or rent pasture rights from these families. The yak herders are mainly dependent on yaks and yak products. They usually keep only yaks with a few sheep and goats. Now many of these yak herders make good amount of annual income from collection and sale of Cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis). However, the presence of cordyceps is not uniform and it is not present in some mountains, thus making yak an important source of income for them.
Poultry production system Poultry production happens in two ways; backyard farms and more organized semi-commercial to somewhat commercial farms.
Backyard poultry production system In the backyard poultry production system, the number of birds could range from 3 birds to 10 to 15 birds. This mostly comprises of native poultry species. However, the local poultry birds are on a decline and some farmers keep improved breed birds of similar manner in their backyard. These birds are raised in free ranging in the back-yard feeding on spilled grains, insects, plants etc., with little whole grain supplementation.
Semi-commercial / commercial poultry farms Many farmers especially in the southern Bhutanese practice semi-commercial to commercial level poultry production with flock sizes ranging from 50 – 50,000 or more birds. These farms usually use commercial strain of birds and are usually operated in deep liter system as battery case system is banned in Bhutan to enhance the welfare of these birds. They use commercial feed with conventional poultry production equipment. The DoCs for these farms are supplied by government owned commodity Centre’s or input supply farms. These commodity Centre’s or input supply farms import parent stocks from Australia, New Zealand and India depending of breed preference. Poultry industry is popular in southern Bhutan owing to lack of religious sensitivities amongst the population of non-Buddhist faiths. Amongst the population of Buddhist faith, there is strong sentiment or reservation, when the spent hen has to be culled. Although, some people initially took up poultry and started making good money during the onset of bird flu and ban on import of poultry products, they later closed their farms in northern Bhutan
47 SAARC Agriculture Centre after realizing that they have to cull the spent hen. Owing to such sensitivities they have not been able to capitalize on poultry production as they did in the south.
Pig production system In much of the Bhutanese population with Buddhist faith, backyard pig production has reduced drastically after the Buddhist monks and some animal life saving groups /NGOs – commonly called Tshethar tshogpas, started advocating people on the sins of killing (slaughtering pigs). These groups also started buying those animals from the point of slaughter or sometimes closing the farm for good. Though traditionally each rural household used to rear a pig to be slaughtered during annual ritual for family wellbeing, these traditions have now disappeared and prefer to buy pork from the market. Much of pork is imported from Nepal and India. The existing pig industry though on small scale, from 10 – 50 sow level farms, like that of poultry are located in the southern part of Bhutan amongst population of non-Buddhist faith. Currently, there are three government owned pig farms. Bhutan is at the verge of transitioning towards white breeds from colored breeds. Colored breeds such as landrace and large white are being introduced from Fennor Asia, Thailand. The GGP and GP farm, Regional Pig Breeding Centre at Yusipang in Thimphu has capacity for about 4000 pigs. In future National Pigs Research and Development Centre in Gelephu and Regional Pig and Poultry Breeding Centre, Lingmethang, will phase out the colored breeds and act as multiplier farms from which the piglets will be produced and distributed to farmers for fattening or further breeding at farmers level.
Small ruminant’s production system Goat and sheep production are just emerging as an organized system. Although in the past there has been development in sheep production with import of Merino and Comeback sheep.
Common feed resources in Bhutan The major source of roughage for grazing animals in Bhutan is from natural pastures. Cattle including yaks and buffaloes graze in natural pasture in an agro- pastoral system. Yaks and cattle in particular graze mostly in the rangelands. Both rangelands and natural pastures including the ones inside the forests are loosely termed as Tsamdro or Tsadrog in Dzongkha.
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Tsamdro or Tsadrog Globally, rangelands are poorly defined (Lund, 2007). The term is quite synonymous with the Bhutanese term tsamdro, which literally translates to pasture (Dorji, 2011), and covers alpine and sub-alpine meadows (Gyamtsho, 1996), to temperate and sub-tropical grasslands, shrublands and forests’ under-storey (Gyaltshen and Bhattarai, 2000). There is much ambiguity in the words tsamdro, rangeland and forest, with no clear definition. The Forest and Nature Conservation Act of Bhutan 1995 defines forest as;
"Forest" means any land and water body, whether or not under vegetative cover, in which no person has acquired a permanent and transferable right of use and occupancy, whether such land is located inside or outside the forest boundary pillars, and includes land registered in a person's name as Tsamdrog [also spelt as tsamdro] or Sokshing [woodlot for collection of leaf litter] (RGoB, 1995).
This definition of forest includes all types of land that are not used for crop cultivation whether or not it has a tree cover, and all grazing resources held either with private or communal grazing rights. Literally, all tsamdros then fall under forest category. Therefore, when forest and pasture areas are cited as 72.5% forest cover and 3.9% pastureland (PPD, 2008), there is either double counting or under counting. Considering that yaks graze in alpine and sub- temperate pasture, and cattle graze in temperate and sub-tropical open areas, as well as forests, all falling under tsamdro classification, accounting pastureland as 3.9% of the total land area (PPD, 2008) is highly underestimated (Ura, 2002). Forest use and agricultural systems, particularly cattle-based systems, have evolved as an inalienable part of a holistic agricultural system in Bhutan (Giesch, 2000; Guenat, 1991). The livestock professionals believe forest grazing has a symbiotic relation between livestock and the forest (Roder et al., 2001). However, this age-old integrated system is often criticized by the foresters who view it as a livestock management system that is detrimental to the environment (Moktan et al., 2006; Moktan et al., 2008; Norbu, 2002; Roder, 2002; Roder et al., 2002; Tshering, 2005). Forests are an important grazing resource for transhumant agro-pastoralists and other livestock keepers in Bhutan. About 20 - 24% of the total dry matter requirement for cattle in Bhutan is estimated to come from forest grazing (Roder et al., 2002), making forests an important source of roughage for ruminants and horses (Fig. 4).
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Fig. 4 Mid altitude fodder tree
Many farmers who keep exotic crossbreds of cattle have now developed improved pastures. The most common improved forages (Fig. 5) grown are Oat, Cocksfoot, Italian rye, Ruzi, Paspalam, Stylo and White clover. Plantation of Napier, particularly Pakchong from Thailand has also picked up. Fodder trees also form important source of roughage during the lean season. Additionally, crop residues, most commonly rice and wheat straws
50 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia and maize stovers are used to supplement roughage. In terms of concentrates, maize, rice bran, mustard cake, DDGS (dried distillers’ grain soluble) and wet brewers’ grains are commonly used locally.
Fig. 5 Fodder oat in farmer’s field
Current status of country’s fodder production In 2017 Bhutan had 19,889 acres of improved pasture, inclusive of both temperate and tropical species. Common forage crops grown in Bhutan are Maize and Oat. Tubers such as Swede, Fodder beet and Turnips are also grown in smaller quantities. Ficus (roxburghi and cunia) are commonly grown in mid-altitude to sub-tropical zones. Willow trees (Salix babylonica) are also available and is promoted as protein supplement. Glyiricidia and Lucaena (leucocephala and diversifolia) are also available and are being promoted.
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Fodder plantations Fodder development through plantations is one of the fastest forage propagation methods being practised in Bhutan. Forage materials are planted by using slips, stem cuttings and seedlings instead of sowing seeds. Commonly used fodder species propagated through these methods are Napier – Pakchong (Fig. 6), Paspalum and Ficus trees such as Willow, Ficus, Glyricidia. Towards the end of 2018 there were 2,343.50 acres of forage developed through plantations. These plantation forage including fodder trees form main source of green for animals in winter (Table 6).
Fig. 6 Young Pakchong Napier ready for harvest
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Table 6 Improved pasture coverage in Bhutan Dzongkhags Temperate Sub-tropical Fodder Fodder Fodder pasture pasture plantation oat naize Bumthang 527.2 0 0 21.42 3 Chhukha 23 40.25 0 110 0 Dagana 0 32.5 0 27.42 8.66 Gasa 145.8 1.5 0 22.28 35 Haa 412.7 54.78 0 185.7 6 Lhuntse 70.5 8.4 0 88.5 0 Mongar 82 175.45 0 71.4 5 Paro 48.57 0 0 15.2 48 Pemagatshel 45.2 106.6 0 38.42 0 Punakha 3 10 10 314.28 0 Samdrupjongkhar 0 50 0 0 0 Samtse 0 100.03 0 86.22 11.11 Sarpang 0 134.69 0 0 0 Thimphu 93 0 0 152.8 88.17 Trashigang 130 399 0 385.7 13.3 Trashiyangtse 0 138 0 43 0 Trongsa 2 122.2 0 228.5 116.2 Tsirang 0 31.8 0 25.7 0 Wangduephodrang 30.5 0 0 502.7 50 Zhemgang 0 24 0 51.57 0 Total 1613.47 1429.2 10 2370.81 384.44 Source: NRDCAN, DoL
Winter fodder development Winter poses serious challenge for raising livestock as there is severe shortage of feed and fodder during this season. Bhutan faces winter fodder shortage from mid-February to mid-April, especially in high altitude areas. One of the ways to resolve this issue is growing of winter fodder. During these months, farmers are encouraged to grow fodder Oat, forage Maize, and tuber crops (Swede, Fodder beet, Turnip and Radish) to supplement green/fresh diet for the livestock. Oat, grown mainly in September/October provide greens for livestock till April months as they can give at least three cuttings with good fertilizer application and irrigation. Forage Maize is grown in March and harvested in July for making silage and again in August and harvested in December for direct feeding as well as for making silage making.
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Commercial contract forage production Given the acute shortage of green fodder in winter, there is an opportunity to grow fodder commercially, conserve it during summer and sell it during winter to those with farmers facing shortage of fodder. Non-livestock keepers with land also take advantage of this scheme. Farmers in the south form groups, and grow fodder, conserve (Fig. 7) and are sold to the livestock keepers in winter.
Fig. 7 Commercially produced silage in plastic bag Legume production Legume production, although, has been part of fodder production during the earlier fodder development projects in 1990s, however, has not picked up as expected. In the temperate regions, clover has been introduced with exotic grass species. Clover, wherever it has been introduced, particularly in Bumthang district, grows abundantly on its own, almost like a weed. Legume production in the sub-tropics has not been as successful as clover. Stylosanthes spp. does better than any other species of legumes. Realizing the importance of legume fodder in keeping down cost of feeding as we try to increase stall feeding with dairy crossbreds, the livestock sector has planned to pursue production of legume in the 12th FYP. NRDCAN will pursue production of legumes in their centres as well as promote aggressively in farmers’ field in collaboration with district staff.
Fodder conservation Conserving fodder for winter from the excess production in lush season is crucial. Conservation methods include making hay, silage and production of enriched straw block for highlanders’ livestock.
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Hay making Excess forage available during summer is conserved as hay, standing hay, and silage for feeding livestock in lean season. Hay is usually made from grass and oats and occasionally from maize. Hays are made with no mechanization and is mostly made from grasses, legumes and fodder oats. Except for rice straw which is being bought by cattle keepers and highlander yak pastoralists in winter, hay is made usually for consumption by own cattle and not sold to outsiders. Silage making Silages are made with grass mixtures (both temperate and tropical), Maize, Oats, Willow leaves and twigs. Silages usually are made in deep trenches constructed with concrete and covered with plastics, and weighed down with stones or planks. The grasses are chopped and filled inside the silo tank/ trench and pressed down by stepping or stomping on it, removing air and are covered with plastics before stones are kept on top of it (Fig. 8). Some farmers from the southern parts of Bhutan have started producing silage in bags (Fig. 9) and sell it to farmers from the north during winter. The Department of Livestock through the NRDCAN and district extension service Centre’s training and educate farmers on different fodder production methods, harvesting and conservation, and feed formulation including making Total Mixed Ration (TMR). Farmers are provided with subsidy in purchasing chaff cutters and silo tank construction materials.
Fig. 8 Woman processing silage
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Fig. 9 Plastic bag enisling
Total mixed ration formulation The Department staff at NRDCAN and Regional Livestock Development Centres (RLDC) in collaboration with district staff have attempted for TMR with locally available resources and fed to the dairy cows. The initial trials with making TMR and feeding in some backyard farms reflected encouraging results, particularly milk production. Results indicate feeding TMR in backyard farms almost double the milk production, while it did not make significant difference in organized farms. This indicates perhaps the organized farms are already feeding their cows optimally and are being able to get better milk production. The major achievement of this trial is in the smallholder farmers’ field. However, to convince farmers and make them able to adopt TMR practice, the government Centre’s will need to conduct the trail for longer duration with much hand holding. Additionally, the chopping machines need to be made available at affordable price or free of cost. The mineral premixes should be readily available in the extension Centre’s or pharmacies. The NRDCAN and RLDCs should make concerted effort along this line to improve per animal productivity.
Nutrient enriched straw blocks The National Research and Development Centre for Animal Nutrition (NRDCAN) is promoting nutrient enriched straw blocks (Fig. 10 and 11) for the benefit of the highlanders. Highlanders are used to buying huge quantities
56 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia of rice straw from paddy farmers and transport it to high altitude mountains to feed their yaks and horses during winter. This is not very efficient as dry straws are bulky with little nutrient value. NRDCAN has been promoting technology in production of nutrient enriched pressed straw blocks to minimize volume and increase efficiency of their winter roughage for their yaks and horses. The adoption of this technology is yet to pick up.
Feed Blocks: Alternative Feed for Highland Livestock Feed Block: Compressed/cubed block of straw/stover enriched with molasses, oil cakes, minerals and vitamins.
Benefits • Reduced bulkiness • Easy storage and handling • Easy transport • Complete alternative feed
Contact National Research Centre for Animal Nutrition (NRCAN), Bumthang, Department of Livestock Phone: 03-631135/481, Fax: 03-631227
Fig. 10 ToT Educational Materials. Fig. 11 Straw blocks
Crop residue enrichment Crop residues form one of the main sources of roughage for livestock during lean season. In Bhutan, main crop residues are paddy and buckwheat straw, maize and millet stover. These are fed during winter. Currently, some 360,000MT of crop residues are being produced yearly, about 79% of which are used for feeding livestock. These crop residues are of nutritionally poor quality and cannot provide adequate nutrient to livestock. These are often, therefore, enriched with urea and molasses to improve nutritive value. Enriched crop residues contribute significantly to meeting feed requirement during winter months. NRDCAN estimates about 60% of the straw and stovers are enriched with molasses and urea and fed in the winter. In terms of technology promotion and extension support, electrical chaff cutters and tuber choppers are provided to farmers on a cost sharing basis. These are meant especially for fodder conservation. Silo pit constructions are also promoted with provision of cement and CGI sheets.
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Dry matter availability The total dry matter availability is calculated at 806,524MT per year. However, total requirement is estimated at 335,562LU*2740kg/LU/yr = 919439.88MT, thus there is a shortage of 113913.88MT or 0.34MT DM per year. Table 7 DM availability vs requirement Dry matter production Dry matter requirement DM from improved pasture = DM for 1LU = 2.74MT/year 59,667MT DM from forage crops= Total Livestock Units = 335,562* Maize = 6857MT Oats = 17,142MT Fodder trees = 23,868MT Natural pasture = 326,894 MT Concentrate feeds = 84,096MT Total DM production = 806,524MT DM availability/ LU = 806,524/335,562 = 2.40MT Shortage 2.74- 2.40 = 0.34MT/LU per year *Excludes monogastric The population projection of livestock (Table 8) shows that livestock population, excluding monogastric is expected decrease to 3,23,260.38 LU by 2030 from the current 3,35,562LU. This is because buffalo and horse population has been on constant decline over past decade. This draws a declining trend which has led to decreased overall population projection. However, horse population may continue to decline, but the buffalo population is expected to increase because of government intervention. Table 8 Livestock population projection to 2030 Livestock 2015 2016 2017 2018 2030 Total LU Cattle 349977 352743 353306 368916 395411 296558 Buffalo 586 532 550 550 280 209.67 Small ruminants 53393 50228 52452 63085 77571 19393 Equine 20253 18804 18150 17103 9466 7099.66 Total LU projected 323260.38 Cattle population alone is projected to increase to 3,95,411 equivalents to 2,96,558 LU by year 2030. This means by 2030, cattle alone will require 8,12,568.92MT DM/year. The current available DM availability will not even suffice for cattle alone. The livestock sector will then need to strategize and plan accordingly to meet the demand of increased population by then.
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One of our main strategies is to increase productivity per animal by increasing productivity per unit land. Unlike other countries we do not have the luxury of land as most of the land is located in steep terrain or are under forest or are already developed for other infrastructures. In the 12th FYP, the Animal Nutrition Division under the Department of Livestock has planned to develop 23146 acres of improved pasture, 586 acres of legumes pastures, 3467.6 acres of winter fodder to meet the demands of quality forage for the domesticated ungulates by year 2023.
ICT used in feed/fodder production and marketing ICT tools used in country include some of feed formulation software including MS Excel, mostly by livestock staff. Farmers hardly use any software. One feed company uses some software, while others use only MS Excel. Farmers in general do not use any software except mobile phones to communicate. Some government livestock staff use Linear programming (Solver) for concentrate feed formulation, while others use Feedwin program (Netherlands) dairy ration. Many use MS Excel based feed formulation formula. Currently proximate analysis, aflatoxin and phosphorus tests can be done in the National Research and Development Centre for Animal Nutrition (NRDCAN) laboratory in Bumthang. For amino acids analysis, samples are outsourced. The NRDCAN laboratory is in the process of procuring HPLC through FAO TCP project and expected to undertake amino acid and antibiotics analysis very soon. Commercial feed manufacturing There are currently four main commercial feed mills in the country. While Karma Feeds in Pasakha, Chhukha, a sister company of Karma Groups is the biggest and oldest one established sometime in 1980s, the others are fairly new and on small scale. Karma feeds, the biggest feed manufacturing company, produces about 200 MT/per day, comprising of compounded feeds for cattle, pigs, birds and recently fish, either as mash or pellets. The other three are fairly new establishments at a small to medium scale. The remaining three have the capacity of 32MT, 16MT, and 8MT per day, respectively. Together the four feed mills have combined capacity to produce 256MT/day. While Karma Feeds markets their feed through agents, throughout the country, Pema/BMG feeds (two branches with same proprietors) targets central south and eastern Bhutan. Both the feed companies supply feeds to either farmers, through retailers or are supplied to government farms after winning the annual tender.
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Challenges The challenges Bhutan faced in the field of animal nutrition is lack of concerted focus on livestock farming. There is still not much of specialized farming and much of the farming is subsistence mixed farming, thus, not being able to infuse systematic scientific management system. The importance of Animal Nutrition has still not been understood by local farmers. Many of the people who raise livestock practice extensive system of farming as opposed to high input intensive system. Therefore, although number of animals with exotic blood of various levels have increased over the years, productivity per animal is still low. This is mainly attributed to poor nutrition management. There is lack of sufficient ingredients available in the country. The little quantity available is highly priced and thus hinders its usages for compounded feed manufacturing. There is also no fish feed production in the country, especially for trout or cold-water fish. The government system of tendering and asking quotation, when asked from neighboring Indian states makes it very expensive and often below required nutrient standards. There is also an issue of poor human resource capacity in animal nutrition. Currently, there are only four officers trained in animal nutrition, two in the headquarters and two in the Animal Nutrition Research and Development Centre. The Centre for Animal Nutrition is, otherwise, run by some 12 staff with a general degree or diploma in Animal Science. There are no personnel with specialized knowledge in pasture agronomy and laboratory skills. These issues are compounded by poor research system, in general, for animal production including animal nutrition. Owing to this poor research system, Bhutan has not been able to generate fodder technologies such as suitable germplasms, feeding regimes, etc., suitable for Bhutanese condition. Finally, the center for animal nutrition also lacks adequate nutrient analysis laboratory equipment and analysis software. Recommendations Given the weakness faced by Bhutan in advancing animal nutrition science both in terms of human capability and technology, we are looking outward into making collaborative support and seeking assistance from neighboring countries, regional partners, international and regional institutions such as ICAR, SAC and ILRI, to name a few. We would like to collaborate with these institutions to advance in animal nutrition with human resource development, develop or adopt suitable technology, share fodder germplasm, conduct collaborative research, improve feed quality through quality monitoring with proper laboratory facility and techniques.
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SAARC, particularly SAARC Agriculture Centre (SAC), could organize trainings on feed manufacture and quality testing for Member States. Feed industry in Bhutan is emerging, though within a limited market. These small feed industries need trained personnel who could set up small laboratories within their feed plant premises to test and do quality control of their feeds as well as the feed ingredients coming in. There government staff as well as personnel working for these small industries need to be trained on feed formulation, feed manufacturing and laboratory analysis techniques for quality control. Also, in order to ease transfer and sharing of animal and feed & fodder germplasm within the SAARC member countries, SAARC should include animal and feed & fodder germplasm while signing agreements such as the upcoming ‘seeds without border’ agreement. Such initiatives will benefit Member States from results and outcomes of research and development in other member countries, rather than re-inventing the wheels on their own. One of the immediate needs is for an experience sharing or exposure visit for staff from cold water fishery, DoL HQ and NRDCAN to cold water fish feed production Centre’s in northern India. This would familiarize us with the kinds of equipment needed, place to source, suitable size of plant needed and how to move ahead in establishing the cold-water fish feed mill in Haa. References Dorjee, K. 1995. An analysis of comparative advantage and development policy options in Bhutanese agriculture. Doctor of Technical Sciences Dissertation, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich. Dissertation ETH No. 11080. Dorji, K. 2011. Rangeland Tenure Transfer: An Analysis of Policy and Legal Issues in Bhutan Consultancy report, Thimphu, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests. Pp. 120. Giesch, C. 2000. Evolution of the forest uses and their impact on the forest structure with regard to sustainability in central Bhutan. Dissertation for Doctor of Technical Sciences. Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, Zurich. Guenat, D. V. 1991. Study of the transformation of traditional farming in the selected areas of central Bhutan: The transition from subsistence to semi-subsistence, market oriented farming. Dissertation for Doctor of Technical Sciences. Technical Sciences. Swiss Federal Institute of Technology. Zurich. Gyaltshen, T., and Bhattarai, B. N. 2000. Cattle migration system of western Bhutan: a case study. Paper presented at the Fourth Meeting of Temparate Asia Pasture and Fodder Network (TAPAFON), Peshawar, Pakistan. http://193.43.36.103/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/pasture/peshawarproceedings/catt lemigration.pdf.
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Gyamtsho, P. 1996. Assessment of the condition and potential for improvement of high altitude rangelands of Bhutan. Doctor of Natural Sciences PhD Dissertation, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich. Lund, H. G. 2007. Accounting for the world's rangelands. Rangelands. 29: 3-10. MoA. 2009. RNR sector 10th plan (2008 - 2013); enabling farming communities to overcome poverty. Moktan, M.R., Norbu, L., Nirola, H., Chhetri, D.B., Rai, T.B., and Rinchen. 2006. Migratory cattle grazing: an ecosystem approach to livelihood. Bhutan Journal of Renewable Natural Resources. 2: 18-28. Moktan, M.R., Norbu, L., Nirola, H., Dukpa, K., Rai, T.B., and Dorji, R. 2008. Ecological and Social Aspects of Transhumant Herding in Bhutan. Mountain Research and Development. 28: 41-48. NRDCAN. 2018. Achievements of Animal Nutrition (Feed and Fodder) Developments Activities in the 11th Five Year Plan. Department of Livestock, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests. Royal Government of Bhutan. Namgay, K., Millar, J.E., and Black, R. 2017. Dynamics of grazing policy and its impact of migratory cattle herders in Bhutan. The Rangeland Journal. 39: 97- 104. Namgay, K., Millar, J.E., Black, R., and Samdup, T. 2014. Changes in Transhumant Agro-pastoralism in Bhutan: A disappearing livelihood? Human Ecology. 42: 779-792. Namgay, K., Millar, J.E., Black, R., and Samdup, T. 2013. Transhumant Agro- pastoralism in Bhutan: Exploring contemporary practices and socio-cultural traditions. Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice. 3: 13. Namgay, K. 2014. Transhumant agro-pastoralism in Bhutan: Does it have a place in the 21st Century? PhD Desertataion. Submitted to Charles Sturt University, NSW, Australia. Norbu, L. 2002. Grazing Management in Broadleaf Forests. Journal of Bhutan Studies. 7: 99-129. NSB. 2017. Population and housing census of Bhutan. Thimphu: National Statistics Bureau, Royal Government of Bhutan. NSB. 2018. Statistical Year Book of Bhutan. Thimphu: National Statistics Bureau. Royal Government of Bhutan. PPD. 2008. Compendium of Renewable Natural Resources Statistics. Thimphu: Policy and Planning Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Royal Government of Bhutan. RGoB. 1995. The Forest and Nature Conservation Act of Bhutan 1995. Thimphu: Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Royal Government of Bhutan. Roder, W. 2002. Grazing Management of Temperate Grassland and Fallows. Journal of Bhutan Studies. 7: 44-60. Roder, W., Gratzer, G., and Wangdi, K. 2002. Cattle grazing in the conifer forests of Bhutan. Mountain Research and Development. 22: 368-374.
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Roder, W., Wangdi, K., Gyamtsho, P., and Dorji, K. 2001. Feeding the herds:Improving fodder resources in Bhutan. ICIMOD Publication. Kathmandu, Nepal. RNR Statistics Division (RSD) 2018. Bhutan RNR Statistics 2017. Ministry of Agriculture and Forests. Royal Government of Bhutan. Thomas, D., Zerbini, E., Parthasarathy Rao, P., and Vaidyanathan, A. 2002. Increasing animal productivity on small-mixed farms in South Asia: A systems perspective. Agricultural Systems. 71: 41-57. Tshering, N. 2008. Livestock production: Social, Religious and Economic Aspects. Department of Livestock. Thimphu, Bhutan. Tshering, P. 2005. The Interaction of Grazing and Competition in the Conifer Forest of Bhutan. Master of Science in Mountain Forestry, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna. Ura, K. 2002. The herdsmen's dilemma. Journal of Bhutan Studies. 7:1-43.
63 Chapter 4 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in India
Raghavendra Bhatta1, S. Anandan2 and K. Giridhar2 ICAR-National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology Adugodi, Bangalore 560 030, Karnataka, India 1 Director; 2 Principal Scientist
Introduction Animal husbandry, dairying and fisheries activities contribute significantly to the socio-economic development of the country and national economy. They play a significant role in generating employment in the rural areas, besides providing livelihood security among the landless, small farmers and women. They also contribute to the food basket, nutrition security, and household income of the farmers. Livestock ensures that farmers are insured against vagaries of nature like recurring droughts and crop failures. Farmers of marginal, small and semi-medium operational holdings (area less than 4 hectare) own about 87.7% of the livestock and development of livestock sector would be more inclusive. India is endowed with the largest livestock population in the world. As per the last census (2012), India has 190.9 million cattle, 108.7 million buffalo, 65.1 million sheep, 135.2 million goats, 10.3 million pigs and 729.2 million poultry in the country (Annual Report, 2018). Livestock production is intrinsically linked to agriculture and they supplement and complement each other and both are crucial for national food security. Livestock and poultry play a vital role in improving the socio-economic conditions of rural masses. According to estimates of the Central Statistics Office (CSO), the value of output from livestock sector at current prices was about 6399 billion Indian Rupees (INR) during 2016-17, which is about 4.6% of the value of national economy and 25.8% of the agriculture contribution. The value of output of milk is 6144 billion INR in 2016-17, which is higher than the value of output of paddy and wheat. The value of output from meat group as per the estimates of CSO at current prices in 2016-17 was 1945 billion INR. The value of output from poultry meat and egg was 871 and 296 billion INR, respectively, for the year 2016-17. The livestock sector also contributes to export in spite of the fact limited number of livestock enterprises function in the country on commercial basis. Total export earnings from livestock, poultry and related products were 457.77 billion INR during 2016-17 (BAHS, 2018).
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Production and per capita availability of milk, meat and eggs India is a large country and globally ranks first in the population of cattle, buffalo and goats, second in sheep, fifth in chicken and sixth in duck population. The production of major livestock products and the per capita availability for various major livestock products for the year 2017-18 is summarized (Table 1). Table 1 Production and per capita availability of livestock products Commodity Production Per capita Recommended (million tons) availability dietary levels Milk 176.3 375 g/d 300 g/d Meat 7.7 5.98 kg/annum 10.95 kg/annum Eggs (numbers) 95.2 billion 74 eggs/annum 180 eggs/annum In spite of being a major producer of milk, meat and eggs, with the exception of milk, per capita consumption of meat and eggs is below the recommended levels of 11kg /annum and 180 eggs/annum respectively and we need to improve production not only to achieve the dietary recommended levels of the existing population but also cater to the rapidly growing population. Sustaining the present population of livestock with the available feed resources and catering to the growing demand for livestock products triggered by the increasing income levels and changing food habits of the growing population is going to be a major challenge. In view of the multi-faceted role of livestock in promoting livelihoods, poverty alleviation, nutritional security, crop husbandry and its impact on land, water and environment, there is a greater need for efficient resource management of the livestock sector. This involves assessing the potential availability of feed resources and devising ways and means of using these resources by livestock optimally without compromising the long-term ability of the natural resources to sustain the production.
Livestock production systems Dairy is the largest sector in terms of the economic value and the quantum of feed consumed. This is followed by the poultry, aqua, small ruminants and other minor sectors like pigs, equines, camels etc. Unlike commercial poultry sector where the production and feeding systems are uniform across the entire country, the dairy, aquaculture and small ruminant production systems vary widely across the regions and add to the diversity of feed use.
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Large ruminants In India, small scale mixed crop-livestock farming is the common and most dominant form of animal husbandry. For small and marginal farmers, animal husbandry is based on family labor using residues and by- products of crops grown on their own land as feed and serve as a substantial source of income and employment. In near future, this system may continue as most sustainable livestock system in the country. Ruminant livestock husbandry has been a major component of Indian animal-agricultural systems since time immemorial. The major ruminant production systems are: Peri-urban, Urban, Rural and Transhumance. Cattle, buffalo, sheep and goat are the preferred animals. In peri-urban systems, dairy animals are reared in the peripheral areas of large cities and the milk is carried to the cities for sale. Urban systems comprise dairy units of 10–50 cows and buffaloes. It is common to find these systems in and around Delhi, Mumbai, Calcutta, Bangalore and other large cities. Rural and transhumance systems are practised in and around villages, where community grasslands and forests are the major feed sources. In peri urban and rural systems, milk is transported to the cities for sale. Co- operatives have become very common and effective methods for collection and sale of milk. Small scale mixed crop livestock farming is the common and most dominant form of animal husbandry in India. Peri-urban and urban livestock production systems contribute significantly to milk production, and they are typically located in and around metro cities, where milk is sold, but are facing problems due to expansion of cities, limited space for storing dry fodder and environmental concerns. Feeding systems in smallholder dairying are primarily based on grazing of native pastures of low nutritive value. In India, cattle and buffalo are usually fed on crop residues such as cereal straws and stovers. These are supplemented with small quantities of grass available from scanty grazing, or from cut and carry system. Generally, very little or no concentrate is fed to the growing, working, pregnant and dry animals. Only lactating cows and buffaloes are supplemented by-product concentrates such as, oil cakes, cereal bran, and milled pulses, for supporting milk yield. Additionally, we have a very small proportion on extensive system, where the animals are predominantly reared on grazing with marginal supplementation during lean periods. However, this system is gradually diminishing and it is being taken over by mixed crop livestock systems. Intensive system of dairying is picking up in peri urban areas and few areas where the animals are stall fed with quality balanced feeds. With the growing demand for milk and commercialization of dairy sector there is a gradual increase in the intensive system of production although they still constitute a small proportion of whole dairy sector.
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Over the years, there has been a perceptible change in total livestock population and their composition. The buffaloes and crossbred cattle population has been increasing gradually, while the male population of cattle and buffaloes have been decreasing due to mechanization in agriculture and dwindling feed resources. Composition of dairy rations would vary depending on agro-climatic region, season and lactation stage and generally in semi extensive systems grasses from grazing may constitute 15-30%, crop residues 66-70%, cultivated forage 5-8% and concentrates 2-5% (Ranjhan, 1997). In most parts of the country, there is shortage of feed and fodder. The gap between supply and demand of concentrate, green and dry fodder in India is mainly due to the large population of livestock and the limitations to increase the area under fodder and high priority for food grains and other cash crops. There are different feeding systems for the various livestock rearing practices. In peri-urban and urban systems, the livestock are mostly tethered. Green fodder is purchased from nearby rural areas and transported to the farms. This practice is largely based on crop residues mainly sorghum, maize, pearl millet, rice and wheat straw. Animals are also fed home mixed or commercial concentrates according to milk yield. The rural system involves free grazing of community grazing lands and forests, supplemented with green fodder cultivated in the farmer`s fields. While the urban and peri urban systems comprise mostly milking cows and buffaloes, the rural herds have mixed species of goats, sheep, cattle and buffalo with large proportion as unproductive animals. Unlike major developed countries, the growth in India’s milk production has been achieved without substantially altering the structure of small-scale dairy production. Indian dairy farmers are predominantly small-holder producers with a majority of them owning less than two hectares of land and one to three animals. In developed countries, dairy animals are fed on large quantities of green fodder, silage, hay, grains, oil cakes /meals, bran etc. However, in India, dairy animals are largely fed on the by-products of crops grown for human consumption. These include straws/crop residues, agro-industrial by- products and oil cakes/meals. India’s production system is based on crop by- products with very little grains and green fodder / silage and dairying is the only source of livelihood for millions of small, marginal and landless farmers. In the order of priority, available good quality feed resources are fist allocated to lactating animals followed by dry-pregnant animals, dry animals, heifers, growing calves and non-productive animals.
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Small ruminant sector Small ruminants provide much needed livelihood support to the landless and marginalized farmers and hold considerable potential for commercialization. The focus should be to adopt semi-intensive/ commercial production systems, up- gradation of native germplasm for rapid growth backed by improved reproductive technologies, enhanced feed supply and better health care. Livestock in India derive major part of their energy requirement from grazing, agricultural byproducts and crop residues. The major limiting factors in improving sheep and goat production is diminishing feed supply from grazing lands especially in the states of Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Himachal and the whole of the northern hill region. Traditionally sheep and goats are raised under Transhumance/Migratory system with established migratory routes. Higher stocking rates, excessive grazing pressure, change in plant composition of grazing areas and reduced biomass availability have rendered the migratory system of rearing difficult to sustain. Unlike the dairy cattle and buffaloe production systems, rearing of small ruminants is quite traditional and mainly extensive type. However, intensive feeding systems around urban areas are coming up to cater the ever-increasing demand for meat especially during the festival demand. The ruminant feeding system vary widely and can be broadly categorized into the three broad production systems -extensive, semi intensive and intensive systems based on the level of inputs. The share of different species under the three major systems is presented (Table 2). Table 2 Distribution of ruminants and monogastric animals under different feeding systems Systems Extensive Semi intensive Intensive /stall system systems feeding Local Cattle 80 % 10% 10% Crossbred cattle nil 60% 40% Buffalo 60% 20% 20% Sheep 80% 18% 2% Goat 85% 13% 2% Poultry Commercial nil nil 100% (layers & broilers) Non commercial 95-96% 3-4% nil (local and backyard) Pigs 80-85% 10-15% 1%
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Monogastric animals Among monogastric animals, Poultry sector is the largest and has two major systems – commercial and non-commercial/backyard, where the feeding systems are diverse. In commercial sector, the birds are fed on scientific lines with balanced compound feed. The compound poultry feed contains mainly maize and soybean and several other ingredients in small proportion. The non- commercial sector mostly comprises of native/local birds that are hardy, low producers and capable of surviving on minimum inputs in the form of kitchen waste and scavenging. Of late the concept of backyard poultry combining the improved production potential and the hardy nature of native/local birds are catching up and this semi-commercial system is being promoted by several governments and NGOs to promote livelihood and income of the rural poor. The share of noncommercial poultry is declining (current share is less than 10%) and replaced by commercial poultry raising. The implication of noncommercial poultry on the feed resource use is very negligible as the birds mostly thrive on scavenging. Next to poultry, piggery is an important sector mostly limited to north eastern states and few pockets of the country. The feeding systems are essentially of two types i) Scavenging with or without supplementation and ii) semi intensive systems that combine scavenging and supplementary feeding of home grown, kitchen waste, bran, oilcakes tubers etc.
Production and productivity of major commodities Livestock production India is a major producer of livestock products and is ranked first in milk, in top five producers of poultry meat and eggs and largest beef exporter globally. Livestock production index includes meat and milk from all sources, dairy products such as cheese, and eggs, honey, raw silk, wool, and hides and skins. In 2016, livestock production index for India was 152.7 index. Between 1967 and 2016, livestock production index of India grew substantially from 25.5 to 152.7 index rising at an increasing annual rate that reached a maximum of 6.39 % in 1981 and then decreased to 2.01 % in 2016. Production of major products over the period of two decades is presented in Table 3. There has been a continuous increase in the production of milk, meat and egg. Production of milk, meat and eggs have increased by almost 3.6, 4.6 and 5.0 folds during the last two decades.
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Table 3 Production of milk, meat, eggs and wool over the years Year Milk (MMT) Meat Eggs Wool (‘000 tons) (million eggs) (million kgs) 1986-87 46.1 1,630 17,795 40.1 1992-93 58.0 3,950 22,929 38.8 1997-98 72.1 4,626 28,689 45.6 2003-04 88.1 5,898 40,400 48.5 2009-10 116.4 4,500 60,267 43.1 2015-16 155.5 7,000 82,929 43.6 2016-17 165.4 7,400 88,139 43.5 Source: Animal Husbandry Annual Report (2017-18)
Compound annual growth rate of milk and eggs over the last six decades is presented in Table 4 and the eggs has been growing at a faster rate than the milk in the recent decade and this has been made possible due to rapid growth of poultry sector in an organized way and the tremendous productivity gains in production achieved by a combination of superior germplasm, feeding and management. Table 4 Compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of milk and eggs year Milk (CAGR%) Eggs (CAGR%) 1951-61 1.64 4.63 1961-74 1.15 7.91 1974-81 4.51 3.79 1981-91 5.48 7.69 1991-2001 4.11 5.67 2001-11 5.22 5.58 2011-18 5.43 6.07 Source: BAHS (2018)
Consumption trends in the animal products vis a vis the human population over the last two decades is presented in Table 5. Milk, butter, poultry meat and egg consumption has been increasing in spite of the fact that the population has also been increasing Total per capita consumption of major products like milk, meat and eggs has been increasing over the period (FAOSTAT, 2019).
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Table 5 Trends in Indian human population and consumption (kg/cap/year) of different animal products Animal Product 1993 2003 2013 Milk 40.5 46.57 52.81 Butter/ghee 1.24 2.34 3.03 Total meat 4.23 4.08 3.69 Bovine meat 2.26 1.75 0.81 Mutton and chevon 0.68 0.63 0.58 Poultry meat 0.66 1.14 1.88 Pork 0.49 0.43 0.28 Egg 1.23 1.70 2.58 Milk+ meat +egg 45.96 52.35 59.08 Human Population (billions) 0.93 1.09 1.29 Source: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/CL Accessed on 7th May, 2019
Milk Milk is the single largest agricultural produce and is more than the combined value of rice and wheat in India. India is the largest milk producer globally, although, the average productivity of animals is much low. The information pertaining to the milk production, per capita consumption, milch animals’ population and their productivity over the recent years is presented in Table 6. Total milk production has been increasing steadily and this has been due to the combined effect of increase in the national milch heard population and also the productivity per animal. Indigenous buffaloes are largest contributors (Fig. 1) to the milk production (35%) followed by crossbred cattle (27%), desi buffaloes (14%), indigenous cows (10%) and goats (4%) (BAHS, 2018). Table 6 Milk production data over the recent years (2011-2018) 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 Total milk production (million tons) 127.9 132.4 137.7 146.3 155.5 165.4 176.3 Per capita availability (g/day) 290 299 307 322 337 355 375 Animal Numbers (1000 heads) Crossbred 12294 12642 13755 14147 15411 15962 16761 Desi 31881.52 31870.92 31035.49 31801.94 31752.98 33165.62 34143.53 Buffalo 38193.67 38638.94 39286.20 39725.23 41190.08 42569.46 43187.60 Total herd 82369.9 83152.27 84077.46 85674.39 88354.69 91697.71 94092.79 Average productivity (kg/d) Crossbred 6.97 7.02 6.78 7.15 7.45 7.51 7.71 Desi 2.27 2.36 2.50 2.54 2.74 2.84 2.93 Buffalo 4.71 4.80 4.91 5.15 5.09 5.23 5.47 Total herd 4.25 4.36 4.49 4.68 4.65 4.76 4.95 Annual growth rate % 4.97 3.54 3.97 6.27 6.27 6.38 6.62
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2017-18 47.15 36.48 86.26 6.17
5.75 2016-17 43.78 34.32 81.27
2015-16 41.93 31.71 76.46 5.38
2014-15 36.9 29.5 74.7 5.2 Crossbred 2013-14 33.9 28.3 70.4 5.1 Desi 4.9 2012-13 32.4 27.4 67.7 Buffalo
4.8 Goats 2011-12 31.3 26.7 65.4
0 50 100 150 200
Fig.1 Share of milk by different species (106 tons) % Source- Basic Animal Husbandry statistics (2018) (http://dahd.nic.in/)
Meat Meat production has increased significantly in the last two decades in India and India is emerging as the world’s largest bovine meat exporter. India has competitive advantage in the export of buffalo meat due to its strategic location with the meat importing countries. There has been increase in the herd size of buffaloes due to milk production and meat is a byproduct of dairy industry. Further poultry broiler sector is growing at a tremendous rate and contributing significantly to the total meat production. The meat production is mainly contributed by the poultry sector followed by small ruminants, large ruminants (cattle & buffalo), and pigs. Poultry contributes to almost 50% of the meat production followed by buffaloes (19%), goat (14%), sheep (8%), pig (5%) and cattle (5%) (BAHS2018). Total meat production, growth rate and productivity of different species is presented in the Table 7.
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Table 7 Trends in meat production, growth rate, numbers and productivity of different species
2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17* 2017-18
Meat production (million tons)
5.5 5.9 6.2 6.7 7 7.4 7.7
Annual growth rate %
13.25 7.87 4.24 7.31 4.92 5.21 3.66
Source Number Meat Numbers Meat Numbers Meat Numbers Meat Numbers Meat Numbers Meat Numbers Meat s (000) (000 (000) (000 (000) (000 (000) (000 (000) (000 (000) (000 (000) (000 tons) tons) tons) tons) tons) tons) tons) Cattle 3040 285.9 3192 327.0 3195 333.2 3114 314.3 3263 329.3 3320 337.9 3410 350.2
Buffalo 8450 974.8 9015 1103.8 9735 1164.3 12560 1537.6 13161 1611.0 12198 1450.9 11318 1431.0
Sheep 30629 396.4 34165 441.14 32324 431.8 36476 463.50 38217 485.53 43268 556.4 46216 602.8
Goat 85865 908.3 87606 941.16 88137 970.4 82254 899.94 86182 942.91 92251 1041.1 93917 1042.9
Pig 11873 458.8 11750 453.05 12071 486.0 10619 369.89 11126 387.55 12304 468.8 10903 395.97
Poultry 1970334 2483.1 2161054 2681.6 1266844 1916.6 2285572 3115.0 2394702 3263.8 2297770 3463.6 2544298 3766.9 Basics of Animal Husbandry statistics (2013, 2015, 2017, 2018)
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Egg India is the one of the leading producers of eggs in the world and as per the recent estimates globally, it is ranked as third largest producer. Tamil Nadu, Andhra and Telangana are the major egg producing states. The total egg production, per capita availability and the productivity of eggs over the last seven years is presented (Table 8; Fig. 2). Table 8 Total egg production, growth rate and average productivity of laying birds 2011- 2012- 2013- 2104-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 12 13 14 Egg production (billion numbers) 66.45 69.73 74.75 78.48 82.93 88.10 95.20 Per capita availability (numbers/annum) 55 58 61 63 66 69 74 Annual growth rate of egg production % 5.4 4.9 7.2 5.0 5.7 6.3 8.0 Average egg yield (number/layer) Backyard Comme Backyard Comme Backya Comme rcial rcial rd rcial Desi 110 128 96 119 108 115 fowl Improv 166 207 221 247 259 268 146 274 226 282 ed fowl Desi 113 147 100 166 109 158 duck Improv 105 116 124 152 193 191 131 192 178 200 ed duck
0.26 0.91 11.8 Desi fowl
Improved fowl
86.99
Fig. 2 Percent contribution of different species of laying birds (2017-18)
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Agro ecosystems The country has been classified into to six major agro-ecosystems as per classification under National Agricultural Technology Program of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research as under: 1. Arid ecosystem 2. Coastal ecosystem 3. Irrigated ecosystem 4. Rainfed ecosystem 5. Hilly and Mountain ecosystem 6. Island ecosystem Geographical distribution across the regions, production systems in relation to the cropping pattern, which has a major influence on the feed resources availability is presented in maps with legends (Fig. 3)
Fig. 3 Geographical distribution and production system with regard to cropping pattern
Characteristics of the agro ecosystem with salient features in relation to the livestock rearing is furnished in Table 9.
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Table 9 Agro ecosystems and its characteristics Ecosystem Characteristics
Arid Hot and cold region occupying an area of nearly 62 million ha ecosystem (approximately 19 % of the total geographical area of the country). The region has high water deficits and erratic rainfall. Droughts marked by long, dry spells are common. The harsh arid region supports a large livestock population- nearly 34 % of total livestock population of the country. Availability of adequate feed resource for livestock is a major constraint. Coastal Forms a very valuable resource community, supporting the ecosystem livelihood of several million rural poor. Apart from aquaculture, agriculture, agro-forestry and silviculture are the agro-based activities of the ecosystem. Livestock rearing is an integral part and characterized by high crossbred cattle population especially in Kerala. Poultry production is predominant in coastal region of Tamil Nadu. Irrigated The impact of the green revolution has been most evident in this ecosystem ecosystem. Collectively, irrigated agriculture accounts for 37 % of the country’s arable land and provides 55 % of total agriculture production. Livestock rearing is very prominent and characterized by animals with high production potential. Stagnation of crop yields and decline in factor productivity are of major concern in the region. Further enhancement of production/ productivity of livestock in this ecosystem are a challenge.
Rainfed Although rainfed agriculture occupies about 63 % of the total ecosystem cropped area, it contributes only 45 % of the country’s agricultural production. Coarse cereals, pulses, oilseeds and cotton are the major crops of the ecosystem. Efficient utilization of feed resource for increasing production/ productivity is a major challenge. Hilly and Covers the North Western Himalayas (NWH) and North Eastern mountain Himalayas (NEH) regions of India. The climatic variations, ecosystem slopping land, smallholdings, absence of irrigation and productivity of crops at a subsistence level are the major characteristics of the ecosystem. In the livestock sector, NWH region is characterized by the special practice of migratory system of grazing. Island The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and the ecosystem Lakshadweep islands in the Arabian sea are the two distinct major regions of the ecosystem. Both agricultural and livestock production systems are poorly developed in the region.
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Livestock population The Livestock Census is being conducted in the country periodically since 1919-20. The Livestock Census usually covers all domesticated animals and headcounts of those animals are being carried out during a specific time period. So far, 20 such censuses have been conducted in participation with State Governments and UT Administrations. The last i.e. 20th Livestock Census of India is published in October, 2019. Livestock census is a vital tool for the planners and development agencies and it helps in proper understanding of the trends in population dynamics across regions and helps in planning meaningful interventions. Trends in the population changes of different species are presented in Table 10. Table 10 Growth in livestock population over the years (million heads) Census Cattle Buffalo Sheep Goat Pig Poultry year Crossbred Indigenous Total 1987 12.6 162 175 71.8 43.4 84.2 09.7 275 1992 15.2 189 204 84.2 50.8 115.3 12.8 307 1997 20.1 178 198 89.9 57.5 122.7 13.3 347 2003 24.7 160 185 97.9 61.5 124.4 13.5 489 2007 33.1 166 199 105.3 71.6 140.5 11.1 648 2012 39.7 151 190 108.7 65.1 135.2 10.3 729 2019 50.4 142.1 192.5 109.8 74.2 148.9 9.0 851.8 Source: Various census reports, DAHD, Govt. of India
The overall livestock population increased from 387 in 1987 to 535.78 million heads in 2019. There was a significant change in the composition of livestock species over the years. This is due to changing production systems with greater emphasis on productive animals and demand for livestock products mainly milk, meat and eggs. The population of crossbred cattle increased from 12.6 million to 50.42 million, an increase by 4 folds, buffaloes increased by 52%, while the indigenous cattle population showed a decline of 12.2% during the same period. As the need for draft declined, milk received higher focus. Population of meat purpose animals like small ruminants (sheep by 71 %, goats by 76.8 %) and poultry (3 folds) increased significantly during the same period. These changes in composition of livestock species with emphasis on productive functions like milk, meat and eggs have significant implication on the requirement of feed resources both in quantitative and qualitative terms.
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Salient features of 20th Livestock Census The 20th livestock census was launched in October 2018 by the concerned Ministry of Government of India to enumerate various species of animals (cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, mithun, yak, pig, horse, pony, mule, donkey, camel, dog, rabbit, and elephant)/ poultry birds (fowl, duck, and other birds) owned by the households, household enterprise/ non-household enterprises of the entire country applying advanced technology i.e. android based mobile application developed by the National Informatics Centre, Ministry of Electronics & IT. The 20th livestock census covered 6.6 lakhs villages and 89 thousand urban wards all over India encompassing 27 cores of households and non-households. The salient upshots of the 20th livestock census is: Ø Indian livestock population stands on 535.78 million; an increment by 4.6% over the previous census. Ø Total bovine (cattle, buffalo, mithun, yak) population of the country is 302.79 million. Ø The total cattle population is 192.49 million; out of which indigenous/ nondescript is 142.11million and crossbred is 50.42 million Ø The buffalo population is 109.85 million; displaying an increase of 1% over the last census. Ø The sheep population stands at 74.26 million; indicating an increase by 14.1% as compared to last census. Ø The population of goat in India is 148.88 million; reflecting an increase by 10.1% over the last census. Ø The pig population declined by 12.03% and it is 9.06 million Ø The mithun population in country is 3.9 lakhs; an increase by 30% over the previous census. Ø Yak is another livestock which is declined by 24.67%. The current population is 58 thousand. Ø The camel population is 2.5 lakhs; declined by 37.1% over last census. Ø The population of donkey is 1.2 lakhs; declined by 61.23% as compared to the last census. Ø The number of horses and ponies is 3.4 lakhs; declined by 45.6% over the last census. Ø The total poultry in India is 851.81 million; out of which commercial poultry is 534.74 million and backyard poultry is 317.07 million.
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Ø Species wise share to the total population: cattle – 35.94%, goat – 27.80%, buffalo – 20.45%, sheep - 13.87%, pigs – 1.69%. Mithun, horses, ponies, mules, donkeys, and camels jointly contribute 0.23% of the total livestock. Ø Among the states of India, highest population of livestock is endowed to Uttar Pradesh, followed by Rajasthan, Madya Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Telangana, Karnataka and Gujarat.
Feed resources Agriculture is the main occupation in India, engaging about 60% of the population. Feed resources in the country are mainly derived from the agriculture, mostly in the form of crop residue (straws and stover) and the byproducts like bran, husk oil cakes etc. Green fodder is mainly obtained from cultivated pastures (<5% of the cropped area), permanent pastures and grasslands (12.8 million hectares), 15.6 million hectares of waste land, Forests, and their associated grasslands and fodder trees (Mishra, 2005). One of the notable characteristics of the Indian ruminant livestock sector is that, almost its entire feed requirement is met from straw, stovers, crop byproducts, grasses, weeds and tree leaves and grazing (Dikshit and Birthal, 2010). Crop residues with low nutritional value are incapable of supporting higher production. Crop residues constitutes the major bulk of ration and consequently, larger numbers of livestock are kept for producing the required milk and meat. However, this trend is changing gradually with improvement in feeding and breeding using better feed sand animals to achieve the desired level of production. Unlike crop and livestock production that are reported regularly, we do not have an agency to report on the feed resources availability over the years. Most of the data pertaining to livestock feed availability is based on the estimates using appropriate conversion ratios of crop byproducts from grains production data and the biomass production potential from different land categories using the land use statistics published by the Ministry of Agriculture. The availability of crop residues, greens and concentrate in India for the period 1970 to 2014 was estimated and forecasted for the next 20 years by using autoregressive models (Table 11), based on 40 years of historical data on crop production and land use patterns (Suresh et al., 2015).
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Table 11 Assessment and forecasting the livestock feed resources in India on dry matter basis (in million tons) Feed 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 resources Dry fodder 160.8 159.8 240.5 278.5 296.2 319.6 322.4 329.7 334.3 338.4 360.2 385.7 409.4 Concentrates 18.5 18.3 30.9 40.1 44.8 47.2 48.1 48.8 49.5 50.2 53.6 57.4 61.2 Greens 120 125 137 146 136 143 139 138 131 134 133 135 135 Total DM 299 303 408 465 477 510 509 516 514 523 546 578 606 TDN 155 157 211 242 248 265 265 268 267 272 284 300 315 DCP 14.7 15.0 19.4 22.4 22.8 24.1 24.0 24.1 23.8 24.3 25.1 26.4 27.5
There has been a constant increase in the overall feed resources at the national level over the years. The overall dry matter availability increased from 300 to 524 million tons between 1970 and 2015, increasing by 1.75 folds and the increase was mainly contributed by dry fodder and concentrates. Availability of dry fodder and concentrates is mainly derived from the crop production data. The dry fodder and concentrates availability increased simultaneously, indicating their strong linkage to crop production. However, the availability of greens improved only marginally (120 to 135 million tons) as allocating land and water for food and cash crops has always received higher priority compared to the fodder crops.
Crop residues These are generally defined as feedstuffs, which are bulky and contain more than 18 % fibre. Crop residues comprise straws and stovers obtained after harvesting the crops. In India, of the total 526.9 million tons of dry matter available, 65 % is accounted by crop residues. The cropping pattern within the ecosystem primarily determines the composition of crop residues available in the region. Paddy straw accounts for the major crop residue followed by sugarcane and wheat in India. Coarse cereal straws viz., sorghum, bajra, maize and millets are the predominant crop residues available in Arid and rain fed ecosystems. In contrast, fine cereal straws of rice and wheat predominate in irrigated, hilly and mountain and coastal ecosystems. Crop residues are the major feed resource for feeding of livestock across all ecosystems. This scenario is not expected to drastically change in near future. Crop residues in general are characterized by high fiber content, higher lingo- cellulose complex and deficiency of critical nutrients, mainly the protein. Due to their low nutritional quality except for the legumes, crop residues by large can at best meet maintenance requirement of animals. These have to be supplemented with other protein legumes or oil cakes to support productive animals meet their requirement.
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Concentrates Concentrates as feed ingredients are less bulky, contain less than 18 % fiber and are rich in energy yielding nutrients. Concentrates comprise of cereal grains and their byproducts, oil seeds and their byproducts and animal products. The total concentrate availability is around 50 million tones. Although the contribution of concentrate ingredients to the overall dry matter availability is only around 10 %, concentrates have a major role in fulfilling the nutrient requirement of productive animals. A considerable variation is seen in potential availability of concentrate ingredients across different agro- ecosystems. Of the total concentrate ingredients, more than 80 % come from rainfed and irrigated ecosystems and rest is contributed by other ecosystems. Amongst the concentrate ingredients, oil cakes account for largest share, followed by bran and chunnies. Majority of the total oilcakes are available from rainfed ecosystem comprising of groundnut, soya, sunflower and mustard cake. In contrast, the major oilcake in the Irrigated ecosystem is rapeseed and mustard. In coastal ecosystem coconut-cake is the major oilcake. Rice and wheat bran form a major portion of concentrates in all ecosystem except rainfed, where coarse cereal grain crops are predominant. All cereal grains are mainly cultivated for food purpose and the only exception is maize where it is mainly cultivated for feed purpose and more than 50% of the cultivated maize grain is used in poultry feed. A distinct pattern in allocation of concentrate ingredients is also seen across different production systems and different categories of animals within the production system itself. Of the total available concentrate ingredients, majority of it is used by the poultry and dairy sector. Commercial poultry is reared exclusively on concentrates. In the large ruminant production system (cattle and buffalo), concentrates are first allocated to productive animals based on their production potential. Non –productive animals are sustained mostly on roughages. The small ruminants (sheep and goat) are mostly dependent on grazing for their sustenance and consume least amount of concentrates. Only where stall-feeding is practiced, a limited amount of concentrate is offered to sheep and goats. Another emerging sector is the aquaculture, which also compete for the concentrate ingredients. As per the Alltech global feed survey for the year 2019, India produces a total of 38.7 million tons of compound feed of which broiler (13 MT) and aqua (2.1 MT) feed production account for fourth and third rank globally. In the absence of published official information on India’s animal industry data, market sources report that more than half of the total market is accounted by the commercial feed industry. The commercial feed industry is mainly dominated by poultry (70-75 percent), followed by aquaculture (10-12
81 SAARC Agriculture Centre percent) and dairy cattle (10-15 percent). Although Indian dairy is large, it is dominated by small farmers having 2-4 cows/buffaloes, which are mainly fed farm feed mixes and only lactating cows/buffaloes are fed the feed mixes. Feed Industry sources report that maize and soybean meal are the major commodities used for commercial compound feed and rest is supplemented by coarse grains, bran, husk and other oilseed meals. Limited quantities of Dried distillers’ grain soluble (DDGS) obtained as byproduct of grains-based distillery is also being used in poultry feed. Breakup of the commodity wise in the concentrate feed based on market reports is presented in Table 12. Table 12 Usage of Grains, Oil Meals and Other Feed Ingredients (Million Tons) Commodity Quantity Comments Maize 13.5- 14.5 Largely commercial feed for poultry and aquaculture sector Wheat 4.5-4.8 Largely farm feed mixes and commercial feed for dairy sector Coarse grains 2.0-2.5 Largely farm feed mixes and some for commercial feed for all sectors Soybean 4.4-4.8 Largely commercial feed for poultry and Meal aquaculture sector Cotton Seed 3.8-4.0 Largely farm feed mixes and some for commercial and Meal feed for dairy sector Rapeseed 2.8-3.0 Largely commercial feed and some for farm feed Meal mixes for all sectors Peanut Meal 1.3-1.5 Largely commercial feed and some for farm feed mixes for all sectors Other Oil 0.7-0.8 Largely commercial feed and farm feed mixes for Meals all sectors Wheat Bran 2.5-3.0 Largely farm feed mixes and some commercial feed for dairy sector DDGS 0.2-0.3 Compound feed for poultry sector Total 36.0- 38.0 Compound feed accounts for about 55-60 percent of the total share Source: GAIN report, 2108
According to industry sources, India’s poultry, cattle and aqua sectors are emerging as main growth drivers of feed industry and the feed industry is growing at a CAGR of 5-7%. The demand side is likely to exceed the supply growth rate and gap is likely to expand in the coming years and in all
82 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia probability Indian feed industry may import feed ingredients in 3-5 years (GAIN, 2018). Along with the improvement in the feed availability, livestock sector is also growing parallel and the growth in the livestock sector is ahead of the growth in crop sector. As an effect of this mis-match in the growth rates, feed demand is exceeding supply and feed deficit is one of the major factors slowing down the livestock growth. To a great extent, the deficit is being taken care by selectively feeding of the productive animals especially in the dairy sector and underfeeding the non or low producers and making best use of a number of alternate feeds and agro by products. Feed balance reported by different agencies tend to differ due to differences in the methodology and also the lack of authentic information on the feed resource availability and the diversified production systems where the feeding practices and resources vary widely making it difficult to work out the feed balance. An estimate by Ravi Kiran et al. (2012) reported a deficit of dry fodder, green fodders and concentrates to an extent of 33, 25 and 47% assuming that all feeds are fed as per the standard nutritional requirement. However, the deficit scenario changes, if the available feed resources are allocated to productive animals as per their requirement and the remaining nonproductive animals are fed only 60% of the standard requirements (Table 13). The status in changed scenario for dry fodder, green fodder and concentrates is surplus of 2 and deficit of 4 and 13% respectively. Table 13 Status of feed resources availability vis a vis the requirements (Ravi Kiran et al., 2012) 2011 Availability (MT) Dry fodder Green fodder Concentrates 358.3 641.3 53.2* All animals fed 100% of the requirements Requirement (MT) 475.0 800.0 78.0 Deficit/surplus % -32.6 -24.8 -46.8 Productive animals fed 100% and nonproductive animals fed only 60% Requirement (MT) 350.0 670.0 60.0 Deficit/surplus % +2.3 -4.5 -12.9 *Estimate may be lesser due to exclusion of non-conventional feed resources
Best practices in fodder and feed management Efficient practices in feed and fodder management are key to improving productivity and profitable livestock enterprise. This has greater relevance in
83 SAARC Agriculture Centre market-oriented production systems, where, every input in feed and fodder matter as feeding alone constitutes 60-80% of the production cost. Further best practices in feed and fodder management are very context specific and what works for one situation may not necessarily work in another situation as the genetic potential of the animal, type of feed resources, labor input, market price varies widely across the locations. Green fodder is an economical, palatable and digestible source of nutrients for the livestock. As per the land use statistics (2014-15), published by Department of Economics and Statistics, GOI, the area under fodder crops cultivation is about 9.12 million hectare in India. The meager acreage coupled with low productivity are the major causes for considerable shortage of green fodder for the livestock. In 2015, the green fodder availability in India was estimated to be 599 million tons, with a deficit of around 25% (Ravi Kiran et al., 2012). The fodder production from common property resources also declined due to problems like encroachment, overgrazing and poor maintenance. Lack of comprehensive grazing-cum-fodder and pasture management policies and suitable nodal agency to coordinate and steer grassland and fodder development program in India resulted in degradation and diversion of grazing lands. Alleviating the fodder shortage and enhancing its nutritional value would lead to a substantial spurt in livestock output. The gains from other interventions, including breed improvement and efficient livestock husbandry can be realized fully, only when the animals are fed properly. Some of the best practices that were tested adopted at field level with encouraging results are described below.
Promotion of drought tolerant, multi-cut forage varieties Crops such as sorghum and bajra can tolerate low rainfall conditions better. The new improved perennial varieties of sorghum like CoFS-29 and CoFS- 31 are tolerant to drought as well as temporary water-logging conditions. These varieties can give at least 2 cuts even under rainfed conditions, if sown in early part of June. Once established, these two varieties can produce green fodder for at least 3 years. A number of farmers cultivated these two varieties with the seeds provided by ICAR-NIANP in several districts of Karnataka and obtained green fodder yield of about 70 tons per hectare from two cuts under purely rainfed conditions and over 160 tons from five cuts, with supplemental irrigation. Similarly, in case of pearl millet, Baif bajra-1 variety performs well in dry lands and give 2 or 3 cuts for green fodder. The other merit is that it is a dual-purpose variety and so, after taking one cut for fodder, it can be allowed to mature to provide 10 to 12 quintals of grain along with 30 quintals of stover per hectare. BAIF, a prominent NGO of India, reported 84 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia improved green fodder production with Baif bajra-1 (Fig. 4) at several locations in Maharashtra. To ensure better feeding, protein rich (about 20% CP) perennial legumes like hedge Lucerne (Desmanthus virgatus) that gives 6 to 8 cuts per year were also promoted (Fig. 5).
Fig. 4 Multi-cut pearl millet variety, Baif bajra-1
Fig. 5 Hedge Lucerne plot
Replacement of old fodder varieties with new high yielding varieties Under irrigated conditions, several dairy farmers in Karnataka were cultivating the old variety of hybrid Napier bajra NB-21, since long and
85 SAARC Agriculture Centre getting about 120 tons of green fodder per hectare in 6 to 7 cuts per year. Stem cuttings of better varieties like Co-3 (Fig. 6), Co-5 and Sampoorna were distributed and the farmers were encouraged to try them across the state by NIANP, IGFRI Southern Regional Research Station, Dharwad and several KVKs. By adopting these varieties, the annual green fodder production improved by 33% to over 160 tons per hectare. Similar exercise was taken up by ILRI with the support of ICAR-NIANP under the project on 'Feed and fodder production in different agro-climatic zones and its utilization for of Odisha' during 2017 and 2018. Sampoorna variety performed exceedingly well across Odisha state.
Fig. 6 Co-3 variety of hybrid Napier bajra
Azolla Azolla is an aquatic fern, rich in crude protein (about 23% of dry matter), essential amino acids, vitamins as well as minerals. Field evaluation of Azolla as supplemental feed on the milk production and economics was done in different states. The dry matter content of Azolla varied between 4.7 and 5.2 % and the crude protein from 22.9 to 23.5%. Azolla supplementation@ one kg (fresh) per day for 7 weeks improved the mean daily milk production from each cow by 0.6 liters, and milk fat from 3.3 to 3.5. The supplementation of Azolla improved monthly income from milk sale by over 500 INR per cow.
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This low-cost technology was adopted by several small livestock holders across India (Fig. 7, 8).
Fig. 7 Azolla production in PVC pond
Fig. 8 Azolla production in cement rings
Promotion of fodder trees Providing top feeds from the trees will help to bridge the deficit of green fodder. They are hardy, perennial and ensure year-round availability of feed
87 SAARC Agriculture Centre material for the livestock. In dry regions, their utility is much more vital. Trees such as Sesbania (Fig. 9), Subabul, Gliricidia, Melia etc. perform well even in dry lands. The normal farmers' practice of lopping only the side branches, and allowing the uninterrupted growth of main stem, reduces the yield. Instead, main stem is to be pruned to a height of 5 feet, when the trunks of fodder trees are about 1.5 to 2 inches in diameter. After the first lopping, subsequent harvests can be done at an interval of around 60 days. Improved performance of dairy animals as well as small ruminants with the top feeds was noticed in several villages under the improved livelihood program of National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP), funded by the World Bank.
Fig. 9 Sesbania plot in Chitradurga district, Karnataka
Silage in plastic drums The small holder farmers find it difficult to maintain milk production during lean periods due to limited green fodder availability. Hence, conserving the excess green fodder produced during flush season is essential. To overcome the problems of small holders to adopt traditional silage making such as the need for large storage pits, huge quantity of forage and heavy equipment, ICAR-NIANP tested silage making in plastic drums in 10 drought prone villages of Chitradurga district under NAIP livelihood project (Fig. 10). The main problem with polythene silage bags is that they are prone to the damage by rodents and even a small hole will spoil the silage stored and make the bags unfit for re-usage. The drums are most durable and easy to handle. 105 to 110
88 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia kg of silage can be made in each drum of 200-liter capacity. Small dairy farmers purchased 8 to 10 plastic drums, prepared 800 to 1000 kg of silage and ensured adequate green fodder feeding during the summer months. Feeding of 4 to 5 kg of silage to a lactating cow (in addition to traditional practice of dry fodder + concentrate) during the summer months improved milk yield by 0.8 liters per day. The field testing revealed that, with silage feeding for 4 lean months, the net profit per cow will be over 1500 INR. After the adoption of this technology, the quantum of milk procurement by dairy society did not slump even during the summer season.
Fig. 10 Silage preparation in plastic drums
Chaffing of green fodder Chaffing of green fodder is seldom practiced in the Southern states of India. Manual chaff cutters costing about 900 INR were field tested under NAIP livelihood project (Fig. 11). The usage of chaff cutter reduced green fodder wastage by 1100 kg per farmer, saving 3,200 INR per year on the cost of feeding. Chaffing also helped to extend the availability of green fodder by about 50 days beyond the flush season.
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Fig. 11 Usage of manual chaff cutter
Some of the interventions in feed management have worked very well in Indian context and some of the practices that were successful and few of those which weren’t very successful but have good potential are listed with a brief description.
Ration balancing program (RBP) This program was introduced by NDDB under the national dairy plan program sponsored by the world bank. The program involved advisory services on balanced ration directly to farmers at his doorstep utilizing the locally available feed resources. Village-based resource personnel were trained through notebook/android tablet to use the software that determines the optimum level of nutrients. It allows to make the best use of locally available feed resources to meet the nutrient requirements of different animals as per its milk production potential and the physiological status. Village based resource person would interact with the farmers to provide the advisory services in local language and record the data for the animals provided with the identification tags. So far more than 30,000 villages have been covered and over 2.4 million animals have benefitted under this program (Sridhar, 2017). RBP increased the milk production and decreased the cost of feeding resulting in higher net daily income by 10–15 percent for small scale farmers
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(one-two cows and/or buffaloes). Fat Corrected Milk yield per kg of feed dry matter intake (milk production efficiency) for cows improved from 0.58 kg to 0.78 kg after RBP implementation. Corresponding values for buffaloes before and after ration balancing were 0.53 and 0.66 kg/kg (FAO, 2012). Balanced feeding achieved through RBP affects the cost of milk production, milk yields, fat percentage, lactation yields, and nutrient efficiency and also reduces enteric methane emissions by 12-15 percent per liter of milk. Implementation of RBP at the grass-roots level will enhance resource use efficiency, improve livestock productivity and profitability and decrease the release of environmental pollutants (FAO, 2012). Large scale replication and implementation in developing countries with support from the government and development agencies could help in improving milk production with limited feed resources.
Area specific mineral mixtures A large number of livestock in the tropics suffer from deficiencies or imbalances in mineral nutrition. Dietary mineral deficiencies result in failure of the mineral homeostasis mechanism affecting the productive and reproductive potential of the animal (Fig. 12). ICAR-NIANP along with selected agricultural Universities and NGO under the All India Coordinated Research project undertook a massive exercise of documenting the baseline status of mineral content of feeds, fodders and blood of the animals. Using the baseline data and considering the requirement of essential minerals and the feeding practices using the most limiting minerals effecting the production and reproduction they formulated area specific mineral mixtures (ASMM) for different regions of the country. The efficacy of the ASMM was evaluated under field conditions in dairy cattle and buffaloes and the results showed that AMM was very effective in improving the reproductive disorders in dairy cattle and buffaloes across Karnataka (Selvaraju et al., 2009), Andhra Pradesh (Devasena et al., 2009), Orissa (Mohapatra et al.,2012), Gujarat (Garg et al., 2008), Uttar Pradesh (Kumar et al., 2012), Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Assam, West Bengal etc.
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Table14 Mineral deficiency across the states in India
State Mineral deficiency
Arunachal Pradesh Na, K, Mg, Cu, Mn Assam Ca, P, Mg, Cu Sikkim Ca, P, Cu, Mn Tripura Ca, P, Cu, Zn, Mn
West Bengal Ca, P, Cu, Zn, Mn Bihar P, Mg, Cu, Zn, Mn Utter Pradesh Ca, P, Cu, Zn, Mn, I
Uttaranchal Ca, P, Cu, Co Madhya Pradesh P, Zn, Mn, Fe Rajasthan Ca, P, Cu, Zn
Gujarat Ca, P, Zn Punjab Ca, P, Cu, Zn Haryana Ca, P, Cu, Zn, Mn
Himachal Pradesh Ca, P, K, Cu, Zn Maharashtra Ca, P, Mg, Cu, Zn, Fe Karnataka Ca, P, Mg, Cu, Zn Kerala Ca, P, Mg, Cu, Zn, Mn Tamil Nadu Ca, P, Cu, Zn, Co Andhra Pradesh Ca, P, Cu, Zn, Mn Odisha Ca, P, Cu, Zn, Mn
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Fig. 12 Map of India showing the deficiency of critical minerals While some of the agricultural universities in the state of Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Assam are producing and selling within the state, few of the institutes like NIANP in Karnataka, CIRB in Haryana, CIRG in Uttar Pradesh has successfully commercialized the technology through milk federations and private enterprises. Among the commercialization of ASMM, Karnataka milk federation is the best example as they have adopted this technology successfully since 2000 and they continue to produce and market it through their cooperative societies throughout the state. KMF is the first Federation in the country to introduce Area-specific Mineral Mixtures, under the technical guidance of NIANP. An impact study of the commercialization of ASMM technology (Fig. 13) to KMF by NIANP has revealed that the impact on animal production and reproduction when quantified in monetary terms is around 8000 million INR.
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Fig. 13 ASMM marketed by Karnataka milk Federartion for different regions within the state through cooperatives
Bypass nutrients Ruminants like cattle, buffalo sheep & goat by virtue of their digestion process are inefficient in using quality proteins and high fat diets. To protect the quality protein from degradation and minimize the interference by high fats diets in reducing fiber digestibility, the concept of bypass nutrients i.e., bypass or protected proteins and fats concept has been introduced successfully. Bypass protein feeds are routinely being produced by several dairy cooperatives and private feed millers to fulfill the growing demand for quality feeds by high producing cattle and buffaloes. Milch cattle and buffaloes during the early stages of lactation are in negative energy balance and the animals due to limited rumen capacity and energy density of diets cannot consume sufficient energy to support milk production and other physiological process leading to loss of production and body condition score. Bypass fats by virtue of their high energy density can be an ideal choice for fulfilling the energy needs of high yielders in early lactation. Bypass fat supplement is being manufactured by several private feed industries and by Indian Immunological a sister concern of NDDB and marketed across the country to cater the growing demand from high producing animals.
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Feed additives and supplements Poultry Industry in India has come a long way and the current feeding practices and productivity levels in India are on par with the best in the developed countries. This has been made possible by use of the best genetic material in layers and broilers, feeding practices and management. Among the feeding interventions, scientific feeding using least cost formulations and use of a number of feed supplements and additives have really helped the poultry sector in achieving the desired production and efficiency levels. Among the feed supplements and additives, the most important are synthetic amino acids, enzymes, toxin binders, chelated minerals, etc. Feed formulation with commercially available synthetic essential amino acids to meet broiler and layer requirements not only improves the overall amino acid balance, but allows for a reduction in dietary protein level and feed cost, while also improving the general performance of broiler and layer birds. Almost all the synthetic amino acids used in India are imported. Major consumption of amino acids has been observed within compound feed sector, which has been growing at a tremendous pace on account of rise in India's poultry sector. Rising demand for broiler feed is also propelling the demand for amino acids in the country. India Amino Acids Market is projected to cross USD 471 million by 2020. Feed costs are a major issue in the poultry sector and there is always a constant pressure to reduce production costs. Use of multienzymes in poultry diets helps in unlocking the potential nutritive value of feed without compromising bird performance and offer associated cost savings. Use of multi-enzymes allows greater flexibility in selection of feed ingredients and also minimizes environmental pollution by reducing the excretion of some elements such as nitrogen and phosphorus in poultry manure (Alagawany et al., 2018). Native cows with low production potential in the state of Tamil Nadu are traditionally fed on gruel based imbalanced feed. Gruel includes kitchen waste, table waste etc. Rumen microbes require readily fermentable energy, nitrogen, copper, cobalt and Sulphur to facilitate digestion of low-quality feed and fodder. Tamil Nadu University of Veterinary and Animal sciences (TANUVAS) developed an aqueous solution supplement to facilitate gruel- based diet. Supplementing 20 ml of TANUVAS GRAND supplement per day divided in two doses of 10 ml each increased milk yield by ½ to 1 liter daily. The cost of supplementing works out to be 1Rs/day against an income of Rs. 10 from the additional milk/day (http://www.tanuvas.ac.in/ mvc_nutrition_achieve.html). Most of the native milch cattle in developing countries are underfed and in rice-based production systems especially for countries like Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, where rice is the major staple cereal
95 SAARC Agriculture Centre supplementing critical nutrient similar to GRAND may have beneficial production response.
Fig. 14 TANUVAS GRAND supplement for dairy cattle
Potential technologies in feed and fodder management
Fodder blocks/Complete feed blocks With the growing demand for feed resources, there is lot of movement of feed resources including crop residues. Crop residues by virtue of their bulkiness and low density, handling and transport are costly. However, the demand for crop residues in urban areas and farms near big cities has necessitated transport over long distances as far as 300-400 km. Fodder blocks offers a potential means of addressing the limitation of handling by improving the bulk density and bulkiness. Karnataka milk federation has already set up three plants to produce fodder blocks to supply its dairy producers. Completed feed blocks is an improved version of this technology wherein concentrates, roughages, mineral mixtures with salt are blended together and compacted to produce complete feeds which can be fed as sole feed for animals (Fig. 15). This technology is well suited for urban and peri-urban farms and hill stations where all the inputs are procured and the farms find it difficult to balance the diets using the right mix of the ingredients. Few of the private firms based in Haryana, Telangana, Maharashtra, and Uttarakhand states (Poshak Feeds India Pvt. Ltd., Karnal, Miracle Foods and Feeds, Hyderabad, Pankaj Agrovet, Nandgaon, Amravati, Maharashtra, Maharashtra Agro Industries
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Development Corporation Ltd., Mumbai, Maharashtra , Uttarakhand Livestock Development Board, Dehradun, Samuel Cooperative Dairy Federation Ltd., Gujarat) tried this technology but the technology did not pick up due to the higher cost of the complete feed blocks. However, in future considering the rising demand for balanced feeds and costs of the feed ingredients, crop residues, labor and transport costs it is likely that this technology may work out cheaper.
Ingredients Percent
Sorghum stover 50-60
Bran/husks 20-25
Oilcakes 15-20
Molasses 6-8
Grains 4-6
Mineral, salt, urea 1-2
Fig. 15 Sorghum stover based complete feed block for dairy animals Strategic supplementation – This has been one of the most widely practice in feeding of livestock in most of the developing countries mostly necessitated by the limited availability of feed resources. Traditionally most of the dairy animals are fed on crop residues and grazing and supplemented with locally available brans, oil cakes, husks etc., to support the milk production in an economical way. However, over the years due to changes in the availability of grazing resources and improvement in genetic potential of the dairy animals, traditional feeding practices are no longer able to support the milk production. There is a need to approach the concept of strategic supplementation in a scientific way considering the energy, protein and mineral requirements vis a vis the available feed resource.
Alternate or unconventional feeds With the rapid development of the agro processing industries and the food processing industries a number of newer byproducts are being generated and many a times disposal of these waste becomes a problem. Some of these newer products can be used as feed resources and there are several such products
97 SAARC Agriculture Centre which are being used efficiently, while few of them are yet to be used. Fruit pulp and distillery waste are some of the major byproducts that are being generated in large quantities and are already being used locally due to limited shelf life and high moisture content. Some of the examples of newer feed resources include Areca leaf sheath in parts of north Karnataka, where paddy cultivation has been replaced by areca nuts- a commercial crop with high returns resulting in shortage of paddy straw for the dairy animals. As a result of this the farmers in these areas started buying paddy straw from neighboring districts and were paying high price of Rs 8-12 Rs/kg due to transport and high demand and found it uneconomical. ICAR-NIANP developed a patented technology to make use of areca sheath as alternate roughage source for paddy straw. Currently there are close to sixty such processing units set up by the Karnataka milk federation comprising of simple machinery chopping the areca sheath into chopped roughage to be used by the dairy farmers successfully utilizing their farm produce without relying on the costly paddy straw transported from neighboring districts and reducing the feeding cost.
Crop residues improvement Crop residues with the exception of legumes are poor in nutritive value and insufficient even to maintain the animals. By virtue of the largest feed resource constituting around 50% of the feed resources in developing countries, lot of research efforts in improving the crop residues through physical, chemical and biological treatments did not find favor with the farmers. Genetic improvement of crops in developing dual purpose crops with good and feed attributes is the best approach to achieve sustainable means of improving the nutritive value of crop residues. Recently using the second generation spin off technologies of chemical treatment developed by IICT and steam explosion by Nagarjuna fertilizers resulted in significantly improved the in vitro dry matter digestibility and it was confirmed by in vivo studies in sheep fed total mixed rations using chemically treated and steam treated straw. Live weight gain in chemical and steam treated rice straw incorporated TMR dies resulted in 3.7 and 2.4 times the body weight gain in sheep fed untreated straw (Blummel et al., 2018)
Conclusions India has only 2.4% of the land area and yet supports around 16% of the global human population. The competition for limited land and water resources is already intense for fulfilling the food demand of the rapidly increasing population. Sustaining large livestock population and catering to the growing demand for the livestock products is huge challenge and this calls for efficient use of natural resources through adoption of best practices in feeding and
98 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia management of livestock. While some of the best practices are highly context specific suited to a particular situation or production system few of them are context independent and works across the production systems. Some of the examples of context independent interventions are ration balancing, strategic supplementation, improvement of crop residues, improvement in agricultural productivity etc. Major problems associated with feeding livestock for optimum production is shortage of feed resources specially concentrates, high proportion of crop residues and imbalanced feeding. Crop productivity for most of the cereals, pulses and oilseeds in developing countries are low and improving the crop productivity through better varieties and crop management (fertilizer application, irrigation and pest control) can substantially improve the feed resources availability through crop residues and byproducts like bran, husk and oil cake and can contribute to narrowing the feed deficits. Crop residues are the major feed resources and any attempt to improve its utilization either through dual purpose crops or strategic supplementation can help in improving the livestock productivity. Current feeding practices especially in ruminants fail to exploit the existing genetic potential due to imbalanced feeding and ration balancing or strategic supplementation provides an option to balance the ration using the available feed resources in economical and efficient way leading to better productivity. Examples of context specific interventions include use of newer or alternate feed resources, area specific mineral mixture, complete feed blocks etc. Further along with the improved feeding practices, genetic potential of the animals and the health management should also be taken care as they together contribute to better productivity. In view of the scarce resources in terms of land, water and feed resources it has to be ensured that the targets are achieved through productivity driven approach rather than the number driven production. Better feeding practices should go hand in hand with the right breed and management to ensure that livestock remains in productive phase for a longer phase and the non-productive phase is kept to the minimum. Technological interventions should be ably supported by financial and institutional support through better infrastructure, capacity building and policy environment.
References Alagawany, M., Elnesr, S., and Farag, M.R. 2018. The role of exogenous enzymes in promoting growth and improving nutrient digestibility in poultry. Iranian Journal of Veterinary Research. 19(3): 157-164 Blummel, M., Sudharakan, D.S., Teymouri, F., Gupta, S.K., Sharma, G.V.M., and Ravindranath, K. 2018. Spin-off technologies from 2nd generation biofuel: Potential game changers for upgrading cereal straws and stovers for livestock feed in India. In: Datt, C., Savsani, H.H., Mohini, N., Mondal, G., Mani, V.
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and Chavda, M.R. (eds.). Nutritional Challenges for Raising Animal Productivity to Improve Farm Economy. Invited Papers of XVII Biennial Animal Nutrition Conference, Junagadh, India, 1-3 February 2018. Pp 74-81. Devasena, B., Ramana, J.V., Reddy, I.J., and Prasad, J.R. 2009. Effect of supplementation of area specific mineral mixture on reproductive performance of crossbred cattle- a field study. Proceedings of Animal Nutrition Association World Conference, February14-17, 2009, New Delhi, India. Pp. 235. FAO. 2012. Balanced feeding for improving livestock productivity – Increase in milk production and nutrient use efficiency and decrease in methane emission, by M.R. Garg. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 173. Rome, Italy. Garg, M.R., Bhanderi, B.M., and Gupta, S.K. 2008. Effect of supplementing certain chelated minerals and vitamins to overcome infertility in field animals. Indian Journal of Dairy Science. 61:181-184. Kumar, H., Bhooshan, N., Dass, R.S., and Nandi, S. 2012. Supplementation of area specific mineral mixture improves the reproductive performance in buffaloes – a field study. The Indian Journal of Animal Sciences. 82: 1245-1247. Mohapatra, P., Swain, R.K., Mishra, S.K., Sahoo, G., and Rout, K.K. 2012. Effect of supplementation of area specific mineral mixture on reproductive performance of the cows. The Indian Journal of Animal Sciences. 82:1558- 1563. Ranjhan, S.K. 1997. Feeding strategies for supporting higher livestock and poultry production. In proceedings of National Symposium on “Feeding Strategy for Eco-Friendly Animal Production in India” held at IVRI, Izatnagar from 14- 15 February, 1997. Pp. 74-78. Ravi Kiran G., Suresh K.P., Sampath K.T., Giridhar K., Anandan S. 2012. Modeling and forecasting livestock and fish feed resources: Requirement and availability in India. National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Bangalore, India. Pp 1-100. Selvaraju, S., Reddy, I.J., Gowda, N.K.S., Prasad, C.S., Ananthram, K., and Sampath, K.T. 2009. Effect of supplementation of area specific mineral mixture in improving reproductive efficiency in crossbred dairy cattle–a field study. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences. 79:599-601. Sridhar, V. 2017. Implementing a Ration Balancing Programme (RBP) in India. https://dairysustainabilityframework.org/wp- content/uploads/2017/11/Winning-Poster.pdf. Suresh, K.P., Ravi Kiran, G., Giridhar, K., and Sampath, K.T. 2012. Modelling and Forecasting Livestock Feed Resources in India Using Climate Variables. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences. 25: 462-470.
100 Chapter 5 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in Nepal Grishma Neupane Senior Livestock Development Officer Ministry of Land Management, Agriculture and Cooperatives Gandaki Province, Pokhara Nepal
Introduction Nepal, a landlocked agrarian country with population of 26.4 billion (CBS, 2012), lies along the slopes of the Himalaya between China and India with a land area of 147181 square km. It extends 800 km from East to West, and 144 km to 240 km from North to South, between 800 – 880 E and 260 - 310 N. The country borders India to the East, South and West and China to the North. The rapid increase in elevation from 66 m to 8848 m above the sea level in short span of South to North has created diverse agro-climatic and socio-economic characteristics. Politically, Nepal is divided into seven provinces. Ecologically, it is divided into three regions, the Terai, the Hills and the Mountains, which run almost parallel along East West axis. Likewise, five physiographical regions have identified; namely Terai, Siwaliks, middle Hills, high Mountain and high Himalayan region (Fig. 1). The characteristics of these physiographic regions are presented in Table 1.
Fig.1 Physiographic map of Nepal
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Table 1 Major characteristics of physiographic regions of Nepal Region Characteristics Terai Flat extension of the southern Indo-Gangetic plain Occupies 2,142,200 ha (14.4% of the total land) Altitudes range from 66 m to 300 m Warm sub-tropical climate Fertile alluvial soils Siwaliks Lies at the foot of the Mahabharat range Occupies 1,888,600 ha (12.7% of the total land) Altitudes range from 200 m to 1,500 m Sub-tropical climate (but, warm temperate in higher hills) Very rugged and unstable landscape (but, possess several inner valleys) Middle Hills Possess wide range of physiography Occupies 4,350,300 ha (29.5% of the total land) Altitude ranges from 800 to 2,400 m Warm sub-tropical to warm temperate climate Soils are extremely variable because of the differences in bedrock, geomorphology and microclimate Subtropical dense forest occupies the non-agricultural land Higher peaks receive occasional snow but lower parts receive occasional frost in the winter High Mountain Lies below the permanent snow line Altitude of this region ranges from 2,200 m to 4,000 m Occupies 2,899,500 ha (19.7% of the total land) Cool temperate to alpine climate Receives heavy to moderate snow in the winter Mountain slopes are very steep but there are some flat valleys as well High Himalaya Always covered by snow Occupies 3,447,500 ha (23.7% of the total land) Altitude ranges above 4,000 m Very steep mountains with active glacier systems Alpine and arctic climate Less than 1% of the region has soil and climate suited to crop production
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Livestock sector and the national economy The agriculture coupled with livestock is the major means of the livelihood for the majority of Nepalese people. It provides employment opportunities to around 65 percent of the total population (MoALD, 2018). The contribution of agricultural sector (agriculture, forest and fisheries) in total gross domestic product (GDP) is estimated to be around 26% in the FY 2017/18 as compared to 28.8% during the FY 2016/17 (MoF, 2018). Livestock, a sub sector of agriculture, contributes 11% to the GDP (MoLD, 2017). About 3.8 million households in Nepal are engaged in agriculture, which is about 70.56% of the total (5.4 million households). The farming families exclusively engaged in livestock farming are about 0.38 million, which accounts 3% of total farming households. Rest of the farming families keep at least a type of livestock (CBS, 2013). The livestock plays a vital role in the food security of Nepal. It is the only source of high value protein in the diet in the form of milk, milk products, meat and eggs. Its contribution to family nutrition, cash income, capital reserve at the time of financial risk etc., are highly valued. Livestock contributes to the income of farming household by two ways. Firstly, livestock directly provides farm cash income through the net sale of livestock and livestock products. Secondly, it contributes to forgone income within which livestock products for home use are included. The livestock accounts approximately 8.8%, 12.9% and 10.6% of total household income in the rural Tarai, Hills and Mountains, respectively (Maltsoglou and Taniguchi, 2004). Since then, it may have improved now because of increased influx of cash income due to better market access, extended road network and increased communication facilities. Dairy sector only has been supposed to flow 40 million Nepalese rupees daily to rural areas and creating more than 150,000 employment opportunities. Animals are the major means to convert plant produce into manure by digesting crop residues and forage crops. Animal dung when mixed with litter make it easier to decompose. Addition of decomposed animal manure helps to improve soil texture and fertility. But, economic allocation of relative revenue received from manure is mostly ignored. It is estimated that an adult large ruminant provides about four tones of farm yard manure (FYM) or about 10 to 13 kg of nitrogen per annum with traditional animal feeding and FYM preparation method (Paudel, 1992). Subedi and Gurung (1991) reported that six large ruminants are sufficient to provide required amount of FYM for one hectare of farm land under a rice - maize - wheat, a prevalent agricultural system, for one year.
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Animal dung is also being used as the source of alternative energy in rural areas. Small bio-gas plants of 2 cu m, 4 cu m, 6 cu m and 8 cu m are constructed in the household level. Data from Alternative Energy Promotion Center shows that 2,58,811 biogas plants are installed in Nepal. Average gas production of 6 cu m plant is 1.44 cu m (Karki et al., 2009) and 1 cu m biogas is equivalent to 0.45 Kg LPG (Ananthakrishnan et al., 2013). Technically, it is a well-known fact that biogas is an effective and feasible means of alternative energy and there is a potential of constructing 1.3 million biogas plants in Nepal (Gautam et al., 2009). If 1.3 million plants of 4 cu m size in average are being constructed, it will be able to produce about 1.25 million cu m biogas in a day, which is equivalent to 561.6 thousand kg LPG with worth of 54 million in current Nepalese market price. Thus, animal dung used for biogas plants provides economic benefit to the country by reducing the import of LPG. In addition, it also helps to mitigate global warming and climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emission. Wool is one of the livestock products and its production in 2017/18 was 595 MT in Nepal. Significant proportion of wool is imported for carpet production. Hand-knotted woolen carpet occupies second rank in the list of export commodities of Nepal and is traded to more than 40 countries. More than 0.5 million square meters of woolen carpet that worth 7,299 million Nepalese rupees, was exported in Fiscal Year 2016/17 (TEPC, 2017). Use of livestock as draught power is common in Nepal. Crop production and rural trade are two major areas where animal power is used. Oxen and male buffalo are used to pull cart in rural Terai region. Horses, mules and donkeys are used for transporting goods and supplies in the Hills and Mountain regions. In addition to equines, yak is also used as transport animal in the Mountain region.
Population of livestock The availability of livestock heads per capita or per unit of cultivable land in Nepal is one of the highest in Asia. MoALD (2019) shows that in the year 2017/18, there are 7.37 million cattle, 5.27 million buffalo, 0.8 million sheep, 11.64 million goats, 1.43 million pigs and 72.24 million poultry birds in Nepal (Table 2). The average annual growth rate of ten years' data shows that the growth of milking cow and buffalo is higher than the growth total population of cattle and buffalo; indicating the considerable improvement in number of dairy animals through breed improvement. In terms of average annual growth of animal population during the 10-year period to 2017/18, the highest has been recorded in poultry (15.98%), while negative/ lowest has been documented in duck (- 0.06%). Average growth rates for goat, pig,
104 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia buffalo and cattle were 3.77%, 2.81%, 2.26% and 0.28%, respectively. Nevertheless, the population growth rate for sheep was negative (- 0.05%). Table 2 Livestock population of Nepal in F/Y 2017/18 Animal Category Population (Year 2017/18) Average annual growth rate* Cattle 7376306 0.28% Buffaloes 5277819 2.26% Sheep 800749 -0.05% Goat 11647319 3.77% Pigs 1435369 2.81% Fowl 72245732 15.98% Duck 404670 -0.06% Milking cow 1039538 1.84% Milking buffaloes 1535948 2.66% Laying hen 12517558 4.43% Laying duck 186912 -0.41% * Average annual population growth rate is calculated using last ten-year data (MoALD, 2019) Animal population is not evenly distributed in all the provinces of Nepal. Cattle population is denser in province 1, whereas Population of buffalo, goat and pig is denser in province 5 (Table 3). Population of sheep is higher in Karnali province. Chicken is concentrated in province 3 with 53.2% of total population. Type of animals reared is almost similar in the same eco- zone through East West axis of Nepal. The provincial division of the country do not cover all the eco-zones as covered by previous system of division by development regions. By agro-ecological zone, total animal population is found denser in Terai, but more than half of the population of buffalo (50.43%), Sheep (71.33%), goat (56.34%) and pig (51.9%) is concentrated in mid-hills (Table 4). Table 3 Livestock population by provinces in F/Y 2017/18 Province Cattle Buffaloes Sheep Goat Pigs Fowl Duck Province 1 1948899 859686 76011 2026769 650209 9105408 87792 Province 2 1100900 780047 7736 1553440 95327 4303850 82962 Province 3 1051263 894453 75432 2056778 116449 38435143 49908 Gandaki 555174 718675 121072 1509622 182842 5779917 111491 Province 5 1145631 1170298 128036 2227563 311619 9535931 50897 Karnali 563594 335061 290189 1359890 44335 2098046 8009 Sudarpaschim 1010845 519599 102273 913256 34588 2987428 13611 Total 7376306 5277819 800749 11647319 1435369 72245723 404670
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Table 4 Livestock population by eco-zones in F/Y 2017/18 Species Eco-zones Total Mountain Mid-hill Terai Number % Number % Number % Cattle 436834 5.92 3562134 48.29 3377338 45.79 7376306 Buffaloes 253368 4.80 2661835 50.43 2362616 44.77 5277819 Sheep 101363 12.66 571148 71.33 128238 16.01 800749 Goat 950499 8.16 6562306 56.34 4134515 35.50 11647320 Pigs 117170 8.16 744931 51.90 573268 39.94 1435369 Fowl 1809780 2.51 23002886 31.84 47433058 65.66 72245724 Duck 10219 2.53 109216 26.99 285235 70.49 404670 Total 3679233 3.71% 37214456 37.52% 58294268 58.77% 99187957
Livestock farming system Rearing of ruminants in Nepal particularly depends upon the overall farming system (Fig. 2). The management of ruminants is governed by multiple factors like cropping intensity, forest resource availability, animal species and stage of production, farming system of the area, labor availability and number of animals owned per household. In Nepal, three traditional management systems are common namely transhumant, sedentary and stall- fed system.
Grazing lands Forest
Feed Feed Fuel, building materials and Uncollected dung food and urine
Farm household Compos t Food Manure, fuel Livestock Crop field Feed
Fig. 2 Relationship of farming system components
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Transhumant system Transhumance is a culture of livestock keeping evolved over generations as interaction between human and rangeland ecology. It is common in northern Nepal from East to West, along the foothills of the Himalayan range and Trans-Himalaya, where rhythmic movement of herds of yak, chauri, sheep, goat and horse occurs throughout the year (Pandey and Gyawali, 2012). Seasonal movement to high altitude alpine pastures for summer grazing and progressive downward movement and lying at mixed forest areas in winter is the main characteristics of transhumance system (Dong et al., 2009, Joshi, 1992). Yaks occupy an ecological niche at high altitudes (3000 – 5000 m), chauries move between 1500 and 4000 m, while cattle move between 2000 and 3000 m. In contrast, sheep, goats and horses are more adaptable and move between 1200 – 4000 m (Poudyal, 2008). Vegetation at higher altitudes is only accessible for summer grazing (July - September). Thereafter, herds are moved to lower areas in the winter (December - March). This system utilizes forage resources from the alpine pastures during the monsoon, and crop stubble and fallow land in the winter. During upward and downward migrations under growths in the forest region are the major forage source.
Sedentary System In this system, livestock make grazing on the areas nearby the villages and return back to shed in the evening. Animals spend half of their time on grazing. This system prevails in the lower altitudes of the hills (900 – 1000 m) and utilizes all the available forage in and around villages. The main grazing areas in the summer are scrubland and community grazing land around a village except agricultural fields under crops. Cattle, buffalo and goats are the main grazing livestock. Forages include: grazing in the forest, cultivated land after harvest, and fallow land; also crop residues from paddy, maize, millet, wheat, mustard, soybean and vegetables; grass gathered from terraces and forests; as well as tree fodder gathered from farmer-owned trees and forest trees. The grazing area is usually found degraded because of high grazing pressure, over trampling, loss of pasture cover and soil erosion with gully formation. In the evening and morning, when animals rest in the shed, crop by-products and tree fodder are offered in the winter and grasses and weeds from crop land are offered in the summer.
Stall-fed System This system is mainly found in the Terai, low hills (< 900 m) and peri-urban areas with milking buffalo and exotic or crossbred cattle. The system prevails
107 SAARC Agriculture Centre in the areas of intensive cultivation (three-crop cycle per annum), where the availability of crop by-products is adequate to feed animals in the winter. In addition to crop by-products, tree fodder, grasses and weeds from farm land are an important forage source. These animals are supplemented with concentrate feed including maize flour, rice bran and common salt.
Poultry farming Poultry sector is the fastest growing and industrializing livestock sector in Nepal with average annual growth of 15.98%. The national poultry flock includes chickens, ducks, pigeons and other birds that are kept in different production system. Generally, the indigenous breeds are reared under scavenging and semi-scavenging system that provides cash benefit to low income farming families by selling live birds and or eggs in addition to household consumption. Farming of commercial broiler, layer and parent flocks have been industrialized with improved bio-security level. The national scenario of the poultry sector is presented in Table 5. Table 5 Status of poultry production in Nepal Description Figure GDP contribution 4% Investment 80 billion rupees (Estimation) Employment creation 150000 World ranking in meat production 112 World ranking in egg production 92 Number of grandparent farm 1 Number of layer farm 1400 Number of broiler farm 20000 Number of ostrich farm 1 Number of hatchery industry 246 Number of feed industry 104 Number of egg production in a day 3500000 Number of broiler chick production in a 4000000 week Feed production in a day (MT) 4000
Livestock production and nutrition security Production of livestock products and their growth is encouraging (Table 6). Total milk production in 2017/18 reached 2,092,403 MT with average annual growth rate of 3.67 %. Only 14% of the total cattle population and 29% of the buffalo population are in milk at time. Buffalo milk shares 64% 108 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia in total milk production and it is 1.8 times higher than the share of cow’s milk. In 2017/18, total meat production was 346,179 MT with annual growth rate of 4.63%. Buffalo is the major meat source (53.5%), followed by goat (20.5%,), chicken (17.4%) and pork (8%). Hygienic processing and marketing are the major issues in the meat sector. In the same year, the egg production reached to 1,512,165 thousand with annual growth rate of 7.65%. Protein rich livestock products have played the significant role in nutritional security. Though, the situation of food and nutritional security is improving day by day, prevalence of undernourishment (PoU) in 2014-2016 in Nepal was 8.1%. Likewise, prevalence of stunting and wasting in children under five years of age was 37.1% and 11.3% respectively (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, and WHO, 2017). Enhancement of livestock production for additional supply of nutrient dense food must be one of the priority areas for betterment of the situation. While looking at the availability of livestock products, the consumption of milk is 71.7 liters, meat is 12.4 kg and egg is 50 per person per year. Availability of eggs has just crossed the recommended level of 48 eggs per person per year. But there is a notable gap between availability of other livestock products and recommended requirement. To fulfil the gap, the production should be increased in order to ensure availability of 91 liters of milk and 14 kg of meat per person per year through livestock development (MoF, 2018). Table 6 Production of livestock products in F/Y 2017/18 Livestock Products (Unit) Production Average annual growth rate* Milk production (mt.) 2092403 3.67% Cow milk 754126 5.22% Buffalo milk 1338277 2.98% Meat (net) production (mt.) 346179 4.63% Buffalo 185180 2.48% Mutton (sheep) 2754 -0.11% Chevon 70802 3.91% Pork 28214 3.19% Chicken 60122 21.89% Duck 280 -0.02% Egg production ('000 number) 1512265 7.65% Hen egg 1498024 7.80% Duck egg 14241 -0.61% Wool production(kg.) 594639 0.07% * Average annual growth rate is calculated using last ten-year data (MoALD, 2019).
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Common feeds The cost of livestock raising is mainly incurred in feed resources and accounts more than 60% of the total cost. About 35% of animal’s productivity is estimated to have been lost due to the poor feeding management (Maharjan, 2003). Availability of adequate feed resources, both quantitatively and qualitatively, is a serious constraint to increase animal production. In addition, cost of feed resources also determines the farmer's willingness to use as feeding resource. In general, feed resources can be divided into following groups:
1. Low quality roughages (natural pasture, crop residues) 2. High quality roughages (fodder crops, legumes, trees) 3. Agro-industrial by-products (oil meal, cakes and others) 4. Concentrates (compound feed of grains and agro-industrial products) 5. Supplements (vitamins, minerals and others)
In the conventional feeding regime, most of the feed energy supply for ruminants originates from rangeland, pastures and crop residues. Livestock feeding in Nepal is based largely on extensive grazing on natural pastures, and to some extent on forests, crop residues and fodder crops. But, the amplified trend of establishing livestock farms in peri-urban areas with hope of better market accessibility has increased the demand of high-quality roughages and concentrates. Annual production of compounded concentrate feed is about 900 thousand tons annually. But, feeds other than poultry feed (cattle, pig and fish) account only 10% of the total production. Most of the Nepalese farmers prepare feed for their animals in household level, mostly using domestic produce of corn flour, rice bran, wheat bran and other ingredients including seeds and oil seed cakes depending upon the availability. The major feed ingredients used as energy source and protein sources by small holder farmers with nutritional values are outlined at Table 7 and Table 8, respectively.
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Table 7 Common energy rich feed resources and their nutritive value S.N. Ingredients DM% T- CF CP TDN Ca P Energy Ash (MJ/kg) 1 Molasses 60.00 5.6 5.00 4.30 96.0 1.00 0.08 7.1 2 Rice grit 91.00 8.3 4.50 9.50 95.0 0.34 0.10 2.3 (Kanika) 3 Maize seed 90.00 6.7 4.24 8.00 84.0 0.20 0.10 3.5 4 Teosinte seed 85.60 7.4 8.30 8.20 80.0 0.20 0.10 2.2 (Makai chari) 5 Sorghum seed 90.00 8.3 10.20 14.20 85.7 0.50 0.20 3.1 (Junelo) 6 Barley seed (Jau) 90.00 8.1 11.40 10.10 86.0 0.10 0.30 2.8 7 Oat seed (Jai) 90.00 8.2 9.70 9.30 79.0 0.15 0.30 2.8 8 Finger millet 82.31 6.3 8.64 7.65 80.0 0.30 0.31 3.5 9 Wheat 90.00 7.7 2.95 10.4 92.3 0.30 0.08 3.3 10 Rice police 90.00 6.3 16.20 11.4 67.0 0.24 0.50 2.1 (Dhuto) Source: NARC (2019)
Table 8 Common protein rich feed resources and their nutritive value S.N. Ingredients DM% T- CF CP TDN Ca P Energy Ash (MJ/kg) 1 Fish meal 91.2 38.00 2.96 41.30 64.0 2.90 0.94 2.7 2 Ground nut 90.0 3.40 5.60 41.00 74.0 0.14 0.39 2.6 cake 3 Soybean cake 90.0 7.57 6.83 44.70 85.0 1.30 0.65 2.5 4 Sesame cake 90.0 7.76 11.30 32.00 78.0 0.60 0.69 2.2 (Til ko pina) 5 Sunflower cake 90.0 9.01 18.12 37.29 75.0 0.64 0.98 2.1 6 Cotton cake 90.0 10.50 12.00 28.00 72.0 0.30 1.28 1.6 7 Linseed cake 90.0 11.10 10.80 31.00 65.0 0.40 1.00 1.9 (Alash ko Pina) 8 Mustard cake 90.0 9.60 8.60 36.00 80.5 0.90 1.00 2.2 9 Cotton seed 90.0 9.70 14.40 18.10 88.8 0.50 0.40 3.2 10 Gram 90.0 8.40 10.80 24.00 80.6 0.30 0.40 2.8 Source: NARC (2019)
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Crop residues are the major feed resources and their use can not be expected to decline in the near future too. High fiber content, high ligno-cellulose complex and deficiency of critical nutrients, mainly protein limits the use of crop residues as maintenance type diet. supplementation of oil cakes along with crop residue helps to meet the requirement. Crop residues and milling products (agricultural byproducts) constitute the major sources of livestock feeds and account 44% of the total TDN supply in Nepal. The major crop residue and agricultural byproducts in use as animal feed are presented in Table 9.
Table 9 Crop residues and agricultural byproducts used as animal feed and their nutritive value
/kg)
(MJ Ash cellulose
.N. - CF CP - y S ADF NDF TDN DM% T Lignin Cellulose Ingredients Hemi Energ
1 Rice straw 86.64 12.10 25.00 4.00 65.00 0.65 69.05 49.06 9.11 19.99 39.95 2 Maize 89.31 4.41 30.40 4.78 63.00 0.67 69.76 53.72 7.77 16.04 45.95 Stover (Dhod) 3 Wheat 89.30 6.74 25.50 3.25 66.00 0.69 80.66 66.96 13.04 13.70 53.92 Straw 4 Barley 92.00 6.50 24.40 4.20 65.70 0.70 68.11 52.23 12.04 15.81 40.19 Straw(jai) 5 Wheat bran 92.40 6.30 11.64 9.30 70.23 1.23 70.13 62.34 12.22 7.79 50.12 (Chokar) 6 Brewers 90.00 8.30 27.72 17.58 70.40 2.60 43.50 41.61 38.45 1.89 3.16 grain(dry)
7 Cotton 40.50 12.70 32.50 12.60 66.30 2.10 81.27 66.97 13.35 14.3 53.62 stem (green) 8 Maize cobs 90.63 3.72 31.80 4.69 68.20 1.20 84.56 70.63 10.14 13.93 60.49 (Khosta) 9 Sugar cane 92.00 11.10 48.04 2.21 50.06 0.40 75.21 65.45 30.40 9.76 35.05 bagasse (Khosta) 10 Sugarcane 60.12 12.50 34.60 5.30 68.20 1.80 72.51 67.45 14.24 5.07 53.21 tops Source: NARC (2019)
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Current status of country’s fodder production Due to varied topography and climate, different types of forage species are found in Nepal. An estimate highlights that over 180 species are categorized as forage grasses and legumes among over 6500 species of flowering plants found in Nepal (MoFS, 1989). Improved forage and pasture development initiatives in Nepal date back to 1860 A.D. with introduction of white clover in Kathmandu valley. Thereafter, more than 50 species of annual and perennial legumes and non-legume forages have been introduced (Yadav, 2014). Despite more comparative benefits of forage cultivation over other common crops, Nepalese farmers are still reluctant to use arable, fertile and easily accessible land for perennial forage cultivation, although, they practice forage cultivation at limited scale. Forage Mission Program (FMP) was commenced on 2013 in 25 districts with the future provision to extend up to 45 districts to improve the feed and feeding of dairy animals along with breed improvement for higher production and productivity of milk.
Land use and land cover Land use and land cover (LULC) map of Nepal is shown in Fig. 3. LULC pattern can be changed over a period of time, which can affect the production as well as availability of feed resources. A study conducted by Uddin et al. (2018) reported that the significant changes in LULC pattern in Nepal in 2010 as compared to 1990 (Table 10). The most significant change can be observed in increased built up area and barren land by 65.5% and 52.5%, respectively. Concurrently, the grassland area has reduced by 26.8% and forest area by 7%. Agricultural land increased by 7.6% and shrub land by 4.5%. The increased areas of agricultural land and barren land have significantly increased the feed supply to the livestock as compared to 1990 and before. This may be one of the reasons for relative betterment of feed balance situation despite a significant increase in livestock population and production since then.
Area under forage cultivation In 2017, the area under improved forage cultivation was found to be 67,061 hectares. With continuous governmental effort, the share of improve forage production and pasture development in TDN supply have contributed only about 0.69 million MT (6.88%) out of total supply of 10.1 million MT; indicating a need of big push in the area of forage production.
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Fig. 3 Map of Nepal with land cover pattern Table 10 Changes in land use and land cover in Nepal in 1990, 2000 and 2010 Land Cover Area (hectare) Changes over Land category 1990 2000 2010 1990 Forest 6668336 6148401 6202809 -7.0% Shrub land 328142 346930 342986 4.5% Grassland 1728561 1379485 1264552 -26.8% Agriculture area 3753933 4096968 4039820 7.6% Barren area 1006831 1702002 1535851 52.5% Water body 81052 73051 72685 -10.3% Snow/glacier 1168741 974176 1255347 7.4% Built-up area 32916 47,499 54462 65.5% Total 14768512 14768512 14768512 Distribution of forage planting sets/slips/seeds, introduction of contract farming for forage seed production, subsidy in farm mechanization have contributed to increase the land coverage to some extent. Implementation of FMP have contributed significantly to increase the area under improved forage and pasture (Table 11). During the FMP period additional area under improved forage increased by 37,154 hectares (NAFLQML, 2019), which still need to be increased. Anyway, the coverage of summer annuals (teosinte, sudan and others) is estimated to be higher having about 42% share in TDN supply by improved forage and pasture crops. Napier, a perineal crop, accounts about 39% and oat, a winter crop, accounts about 8% (Table 12).
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Table 11 Year wise increase of area under improved forage production during FMP Year 2013/14 2014/15 2015/16 2016/17 2017/18 Total Area Covered 8,892 11,726 5,921 8,535 2,080 37,154 (hectare)
Table 12 Total DM and TDN supply from forage and pasture crops Total TDN Total DM Cultivat DM yield Production Description Species Production ed area (MT/ha) (MT) Quantity % Share (MT) by source Oat 14058 6 84348 53983 7.77% Winter Barseem 6031 6.4 38598 24702 3.56% Annuals Winter Vetch 241 3 723 427 0.06% Summer Teosinte, Sudan 27232 17 462944 291655 41.98% Annuals and other Joint Vetch 440 5 2200 1430 0.21% Stylo & Others 1010 15 15150 8030 1.16% Molasses & 180 4 720 374 0.05% Others Perennials Napier 7903 60 474180 270283 38.90% Broom 2480 9.5 23560 13665 1.97% Setaria, Mulato 1696 10 16960 11024 1.59% & others Clover, Ryegrass, Cocksfoot and Pasture 5790 4.8 27792 19176 2.76% protected native grasses and others Total 67061 - 1147175 694749 100.00%
Forage crops Improved forage and pasture include cultivated winter annual, summer annual, perineal and improved pasture fodder crops. Oat, berseem, cowpea and vetch are the most preferred winter forage, whereas, Teosintie and Sudan are favored summer annual forages. Napier, broom, Seteria, Stylo are the ideal perineal fodder for Nepalese farmers. White clover, rye grass and cocksfoot are most liked improved pasture species.
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Fodder Trees Fodder trees are referred as the trees bearing leaves and tender twigs palatable to cattle and other animals. Nepalese farmers have traditionally acquired considerable knowledge of fodder trees and their nutritional qualities (Mahato and Subb, 1988). Nutritional values of fodders are affected by species and season of growth. So, farmers prefer different species for different seasons, and animals to be fed. In dry season, fodder trees are indispensable resources of animal feed (Rana et al., 1999). In general, fodder tree leaves contain higher protein and calcium compared to grasses and straws (Rana et al., 1999) and a wide range of fodder trees have been utilized by the ruminants as a major source of feeding materials (Pandey and Osti, 1995). The fodder trees available at the mid hills of Nepal could be ranked (Table 13) based on four criteria, namely palatability, propagation easiness, growth rate and competition with agricultural crops (Dhungana et al., 2012). Table 13 Nutrient content of fodder trees grown mid hills S. Species Moisture Ash Crude Crude Crude Carbohyd N. (%) (%) Protein (%) Fat (%) Fiber (%) rate (%) 1 A. lakoocha 61.0 8.0 28.64 1.52 26.31 0.84 2 F. subinisa 59.8 11.5 24.88 1.82 30.07 1.98 3 F. roxburghii 66.4 11.5 18.13 2.34 26.31 1.63 4 F. semicordata 64.0 12.5 19.7 1.00 24.77 2.80 5 L. monopetala 66.0 5.0 26.7 1.14 30.72 1.16 6 F. lacor 67.1 4.0 17.61 1.91 42.07 9.83 7 M. odoratissima 54.2 5.5 15.54 2.84 41.39 21.92 8 F. glaberrima 66.6 14.0 17.11 1.24 27.40 1.05 9 B. hainla 61.3 8.5 25.16 3.22 26.95 1.82 10 F. hispida 59.0 17.5 21.11 1.05 23.03 0.34
Natural rangeland In Nepal, rangelands and pastoral development have been extended in high altitude, temperate, natural grass land, and alpine meadows to scrubland, forests, sub-tropical savannahs, roadsides, irrigation bonds, and marginal lands. Nepal's total rangeland is estimated to cover about 12% of the total land area. High Mountain and High Himalayan areas occupy about 79% of the total rangelands (LRMP, 1986) (Table 14). Livestock Master Plan
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(1993) and Pariyar (1998) have claimed that only about 37% of the Nepalese rangeland is accessible to livestock. The reasons behind are inaccessibility and physical constrains. Rockiness, stoniness and steepness of pasturelands in High Mountain region limit their accessibility. In addition, herders have no access in most of the national park areas. But, about 34.45% of the total rangeland is under the national parks (Yonzon, 1999). Table 14 Distribution of Rangeland in Nepal
Eco-zones Total Land Area Rangeland Area
Total Land % Area % of Total % of (Sq.Km) (Sq.Km) Land Rangeland
Terai 21422 14.55 496.6 0.34 2.92
Siwalik 18886 12.83 205.5 0.14 1.21
Mid-Hills 43503 29.56 2927.8 1.99 17.21
High 28895 19.63 5071.3 3.45 29.80 Mountain
High 34475 23.42 8315.4 5.65 48.87 Himalaya
Total 147181 100 17016.6 11.56 100 Source: Land Resource Mapping Projects, 1986
Native forage species are major sources of feed for grazing animals including wild ungulates. The Native forage species are also diversified comprising annual, perennial, creepers, climbers, scented, saprophytes and others. Common forages grow abundantly around the agricultural fields (Cynodon dactylon, Thysanolema maxima, Medicago falcata), inside or along the forest (Saccharum spotaneum, Impereta cylindrica) and at high altitude rangelands (Poa spp.). White clover, rye grass, paspalum and cocksfoot are the major improved forage species introduced in the pasture lands. LMP (1993) identified six types of forage vegetation. These are as follows: (a) Tropical: Phragmitis-Saccharum-Imperata type (b) Sub-tropical: Themeda- Arundinella type (c) Temperate: Andropogan type (d) Subalpine: Danthonia type (e) Alpine: Kobersia type (f) Steppe: Caragana type
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Productivity of rangelands is a relative term and it depends on many factors and varies tremendously from one area or region to another within the same ecological and topographical zone, and even in the same time frame. It is influenced by type of herbage species, ground cover, edaphic factors including the type and texture of soil and fertility, climatic factors particularly temperature and rainfall and its distribution and presence of undesirable plant species. Temperate pastures in general are more productive than tropical (Wilson and Minson, 1980). According to Pandey (1994), the productivity of natural rangelands of Nepal ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 ton DM/hectare in steppe, 2.0 to 21.5 ton DM/hectare in alpine, sub-alpine and temperate, 1.5 to 2.0 ton DM/hectare in sub-tropical and 3.0 to 4.0 ton DM/hectare in tropical rangelands.
Fodder conservation The availability of forage is in excess during the rainy season (June to October), but the nutritive value starts to decline rapidly after October and most of the animals remain underfed until the new forage flush season starts after June. During winter, there is practice of cultivating winter crops like oat, vetch and berseem in Terai and oat in mid hills region. But, the quantity of winter forage produced is not adequate. As a result, farm animals are primarily maintained on low quality roughage like rice/ wheat straw, maize stovers during winter and dry periods. The farmer attempt to compensate the forage deficit through supplementation of tree fodders, grains or grain by-products. The lactating animals are fed a special local diet Khole (cooked mixture of kitchen left over, corn/wheat flour, rice bran and/or oilseed cakes and with some common salt). In the mid hills and Terai, March to early June is considered as the most critical feed deficit months. During this period, animal ration is compromised with energy protein ratio, vitamins and mineral, resulting in to poor growth performance, lowering of productivity, longer inter-calving period and nutritional disorders like milk fever and ketosis (Paudyal, 2008). To overcome these problems, there exist opportunities of conserving the excess forage produced in rainy season by by ensiling or by making hay and improving the nutritive value of rice straw through urea treatment. But, the practice of conserving excess forage for the dry season and improving the nutritive value of straw by urea treatment are not common. With continuous effort by Department of Livestock Services (DLS), some commercial farmers of Terai have recently started the practice of making silage. Traditionally, hay making is practiced by limited high altitude farmers. Nevertheless, the quality of hay is poor due to delayed harvesting of crops.
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Straw Feeding of rice straw and wheat straw is common in Nepal. Rice is the main crop of Nepal and is cultivated through out the country. In 2018, area under rice cultivation was about 1,446,987 hectares (MoALD, 2019). The rice is often harvested, when the straw is relatively green and lay in the field for drying. Then, the harvest is threshed, the straw is treading upon by bullocks and finally stacked until feeding the animals. The practice of chopping and soaking the rice straw and finally mixing with some concentrates and or chaffed green forage is common in Terai, but not in hills and mountains. Similarly, wheat grain is harvested when the straw is golden and brittle. The common practice of manual reaping of wheat has been replaced by power threshing or by tractor-driven threshers that breaks the straw in 3 to 4 cm long pieces. The chopped straw is then heaped in roofed places or in mud plastered water proof tower silo like structure. A hole is made near the base of the silo to take out the required quantity of straw, which is then mixed with some concentrate and water before feeding to the animals.
Hay Hay, a conserved forage, is prepared by drying green forage under aerobic condition to increase the dry matter content more than 80%. It could be used to support ruminants during feed scarcity periods. Cultivation of forage crops for hay making in arable land is uncommon in Nepal. Some semi- intensive farms of mid hills and Terai, where the animal population pressure is high, are advocated to adopt hay making. So, cultivating forage crops like oat, cowpea, pea, berseem and centro as hay crops is growing in those areas. In high altitude areas there is a traditional practice of hay making. Generally, the surplus forage produced during the monsoon season in natural pasture is conserved as hay for feeding in long snowy winter. The common species available in natural pasture and used for making hay are Elymus spp., Festuca spp., Medicago falcata, Stipa, Bromus himalaicus Stapf., Chrysopogon gryllus, Cymbopogon schoenanthus, and Koeleria cristata. Among them, Elymus nutans and Medicago falcata, naturally occurring native species, are valued as forage and hay crops to pastoral systems at high elevations. The yak and sheep herders harvest surplus forage and make hay during August to September before starting the downward migration of the herds to lower elevations near the villages. The herders either store hay in enclosures at convenient locations along the migratory routes or bring down to the homestead depending upon the defined winter stay pattern of the herd.
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Silage Silage, conserved forage with retained nutrient content in succulent condition by anaerobic fermentation, helps to address the seasonal deficit of dry matter. The silage making technology was introduced in Nepal very early, but the adoption of this technique is still marginal among farmers. However, gradual increase in commercialized dairy farming and enhancement of farming knowledge among farmers has resulted the increase in use of silage as an important component of animal feeding in recent years. Previously, practice of silage making had adopted only in government operated farms. Nowadays, most of large-scale commercial farms have started to make silage in their own farm premises. The common forages preferred by Nepalese farmers for silage making are Maize, Sudan, Teosinte, Sorghum and Napier. Commercial production of silage has also commenced in some places privately or with assistance from government agencies. Establishment of large-scale silage producing industry in Palpa, Rupendehu, Chitwan, Bara and Sarlahi districts are some examples. A rough estimate shows that about 40 MT of silage is marketed daily in Nepal. In addition to this, some dairy farmers in Terai use significant quantity of silage produced in India. However, its share should not be significant in terms of total TDN supply. One important factor for the increase in commercial availability and use of silage is its relative price. The farmers of mid hills where the animal density is high, purchase rice straw from the Terai region to met the DM requirement. There is seasonal variation in the price of rice straw. In paddy harvesting season the cost of per unit rice straw is somehow cheaper than the cost of per unit silage. But in the other season, cost of rice straw exceeds cost of silage. After understanding the relative cost and nutrient content, the farmers are now shifting to silage instead of using rice straw.
Other technologies Other technologies mostly based on densification of straw with adding some other ingredients is gaining popularity. Small scale feed conservation and nutrient enrichment strategies like straw block, complete feed block, urea molasses mineral block (UMMB), hay balling, silage balling etc. have potentialities to reduce the dry season feed shortage. Straw blocks prepared by mixing and compressing 86 parts straw, 10 parts molasses, 1-part mineral mixture and 1-part salt could meet the maintenance requirement during the emergency situation (Pandey, 2014). Use of complete feed blocks containing mixture of concentrates and roughages with added minerals, has been grown as a better option for peri-urban farmers who have small land holding and always face the shortage of green forage but have better market access and good price for their fresh products. The practice of supplementing UMMB
120 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia is also spreading. UMMB supplementation has been found to increase the milk production and milk fat percentage, and decrease ruminal methane production by threefold (Upreti et al., 2015).
Feed balance situation Limited research and information in larger arena of the feeds and feeding resources are available in the national context. TDN based assessment is generally used in Nepal. A recent estimate made by Sing (2019), which is based on availability of resources and the animal population in the year 2016/17, is used for assessing the balance.
TDN availability Cultivation of improved forages for feeding livestock is less practiced in Nepal. Crop residues and milling products, forest and weeds provide major portion of TDN. Around 44 % of the TDN comes from crop residues and milling by products, whereas improved forages and pastures contribute only 6.88% to total available TDN (Table 15). The estimate shows that TDN contribution from forest, shrub land and grassland is higher in high hills, but TDN contribution from crop and milling by-products and improved forage crops is higher in mid hills and Terai. Rice straw is one of the major sources of diet, especially for large ruminants during winter and spring. Native grasses and farm weeds are used as major source of roughages during rainy season. Although the introduction of silage in livestock feeding started off more than three decades ago, adoption rate among farmers is still very marginal.
TDN demand Considering the livestock population of the year 2016/17, Singh (2019) estimated the national TDN demand of livestock, which is 12.25 million MT (Table 16). Cattle accounts the highest TDN demand followed by buffalo and goat.
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Table 15 TDN supply and sources by eco-zones Available TDN (MT)
Sources of Feeds % share Mountain Hills Terai Total by source
Forest (617984 hectare) 295981 1249404 524949 2070334 20.49% Shrub land (341809 64365 92561 20095 177021 1.75% hectare) Grassland (1253349 146658 39733 69136 255528 2.53% hectare) Farm weeds/forage from cultivated fields 145441 734121 647229 1526792 15.11% (4017873 hectare) Barren lands (1534681 63077 26352 2652 92081 0.91% hectare) Crop and milling by- 220195 1766423 2457026 4443645 43.98% products Improved forage and 31398 252724 410626 694749 6.88% pasture (67061 hectare) Commercial marketing of silage @40 MT/day, 4380 4380 0.04% 70% TDN Kitchen wastes 28767 171590 185295 385653 3.82% Grain supplementation @5% of total TDN 46906 204080 203536 454522 4.50% requirement in general
Total 1042789 4536989 4524925 10104705 100.00%
TDN supply (%) by 10.32% 44.90% 44.78% eco-zone Source: Adopted from Singh (2019)
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Table 16 TDN Demand in 2016/17 Population (young TDN requirement Livestock Species LU and adult) (MT)
Cattle 7302808 4236873 4780656 Buffalo, 5168809 2560020 2804792 Milk production NA 2496166 Yak/Nak 69346 49456 54154 Goat 10986114 687971 753328
Sheep 800658 45766 50113 Horse 68711 68874 75417 Pig 1291308 NA 584984
Poultry 68630638 NA 551529 Duck 392255 NA 8018 Fish, MT 56575 NA 97725
Total 12256882
TDN balance In reference to the estimated TDN demand and requirement, total TDN deficit in the year 2016/17 was 2152179 MT, which is 17.56% less than the demand (Table 17). Though, the gap between availability and demand is still wide, the TDN deficit was found improved than the estimate of - 30.9%, made almost three decades back. TDN assessment by eco-zones shows that all the eco-zones are deficit in TDN supply with higher value for hills (-22.5%) followed by the Terai (-15.39%) and mountain (-2.85%). In high hills, the contribution of forest and pastureland in TDN supply is higher. But in mid-hills and the Terai, crops residues constitute the major feeding source. Availability of feed resources is not uniform throughout the year. In rainy season availability will be at surplus but it is worse in winter and spring season.
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Table 17 TDN Balance Status by Eco-zone in 2016/17 High Feed Balance Mid Hills Terai Total hills TDN Available (MT) 1042789 4536989 4524925 10104703 TDN Demand (MT) 1073414 5835593 5347875 12256882 Demand Supply Balance 30625 1298604 822950 2152179 Percent Feed Deficit -2.85% -22.25% -15.39% -17.56%
Projection of TDN balance Projection of TDN balance has been made by Singh (2019) considering compound annual growth rate of livestock population and TDN supply through crops. Projected TDN requirement is estimated to be 15,597,950 MT in 2021/22 and 18,901,976 MT in 2026/27. Likewise, TDN supply is expected to be 11,221,901 MT and 12,865,507 MT in 2021/22 and 2026/27 respectively. The data provided shows that If no intervention is taken to expand the cultivation of improved forages, the feed deficit will reach 28% in 2021/22 and further 32% in 2026/27. Inclusion of the commercial birds in estimating the TDN requirement and absence of commercial feed in the supply side of the appraisal may have widened the demand and supply gap. In addition, it can be expected that deficit might not be worse as in the estimates because continuous efforts made by the three tiers of governments to expand cultivation coverage of improved forages and conserve surplus forages in rainy season is happening. The practice of conserving green grass in the form of silage, although still marginal, has started to take pace and even commercial production of silage in bulk volume has commenced in some places privately or in co-ordination with government agencies.
ICT used in feed/ fodder production and marketing ICT involves the conceptualization, design, development, evaluation and application of innovative ways and it can be effectively used in animal husbandry practices, with a primary focus on nutritional management. ICT based feeding management system is an emerging field which can contribute to the farmers to fulfill the gap of information and knowledge. In Nepal, rapid development in telecommunication sector has occurred and the number of mobile phone subscription is 40% higher than the total population (NTA, 2019). Similarly, the density of internet users has been increased to 51% and about 15 million peoples are using internet service (NTA, 2018). So, the android phone-based applications on fodder
124 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia production, feed formulation and rationing the animals have wider scope. Recently, some commercial firms and non-profit development organizations have promoted such applications. Livestock Feeding Support Tool (L-FST) is an example developed by Heifer International Nepal. Similarly, use of feedipaedia developed by Food and Agriculture Organization is increasing in Nepal. Local content and localization in such applications helps to extend the ICT benefits. For promoting the adoption of ICT tools, the government itself should become the ICT user. So, the three tires of government system practiced under the constitution must take the initiatives in respective activities.
Commercial feed manufacturing The numbers of dairy cattle, buffalo and poultry birds of improved breeds is increasing and they are replacing indigenous breeds of livestock and birds. The number of commercial dairy farms and poultry farms have increased particularly in peri-urban areas of Tarai and mid hills. The eventual growth of livestock population, specially the poultry birds and dairy animals, has increased the demand of commercially manufactured concentrate animal feed. To fulfill the need, 111 feed industries (6 exclusively cattle feed and rest poultry feed and others) have been established (NFIA, 2019). The technology adopted is mash feed milling and modern pellet milling. Altogether, about 40 billion Nepalese rupees have been invested in this sector. The industrial production of animal feed is 900 thousand tons annually and the poultry feed account 90 percentage of the total feed produced. There are 46 large scale pellet feed mills with total capacity of 5000 tons per day. But these are not operated in the full capacity and are producing about 3000 Tons/ day. Domestic production of raw feed ingredients is not enough to meet the industrial demand. Huge quantity of feed ingredients is imported annually and the import worth of the feed ingredients is about 16 billion Nepalese rupees in the fiscal year 2017/18. Yellow maize is used as the main source of feed ingredient and the feed industries utilize about 500 thousand tons of yellow maize of which 2000 tons is imported. Soybean (180 thousand tons per year), Sunflower and Meat and Bone Meal (27 thousand tons per year) are used as the major protein sources. The share of imported protein sources accounts about 99%. The ingredients like rice polish and marble grits are mostly used from the national sources. Feed supplement is another major component of compounded feed and its supply is solely dependent on the import that worth about 1.8 billion Nepalese rupees.
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References Ananthakrishnan, R., Sudhakar, K., Goyal, A., and Sravan, S.S. 2013. Economic Feasibility of Substituting LPG with Biogas for MANIT Hostels. International Journal of Chemtech Research. 5: 891-893. CBS. 2012. National Population and Housing Census 2011- National Report. Central Bureau of Statistics, Kathmandu, Nepal. CBS. 2013. National Sample Census of Agriculture, Nepal, 2011/12. Central Bureau of Statistics, Kathmandu, Nepal. Dhungana, S., Tripathee, H.P., Puri, L., Timilsina, Y.P., and Devkota, K.P. 2012. Nutritional Analysis of Locally Preferred Fodder Trees of Middle Hills of Nepal: A Case Study from Hemja VDC, Kaski District. Nepal Journal of Science and Technology. 13: 39-44. Dong, S.K., Wen, L., Zhu, L., Lassoie, J.P., Yan, Z.L., Shrestha, K. K., Pariya, D., and Sharma, E. 2009. Indigenous yak and yak-cattle crossbreed management in high altitude areas of northern Nepal: a case study from Rasuwa district. African Journal of Agricultural Research. 4: 957-967. FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO. 2017. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2017. Building Resilience for Peace and Food Security. Rome, FAO. Gautam, R., Baral, S., and Herat, S. 2009. Biogas as a sustainable energy source in Nepal: Present status and future challenges. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 13: 248-252. Karki A.B., Shrestha, J.N., Bajgain, S., and Sharma I. 2009. Biogas as Renewable Source of Energy in Nepal: Theory and Development, Kathmandu: Biogas Sector Partnership-Nepal (BSP/N), SNV/ Netherlands Development Organization. LMP. 1993. Livestock Master Plan. HMG Nepal/ADB/ANZDEC/APROSC, Kathmandu. LRMP. 1986. Land Resource Mapping Project (LRMP), Land Utilization Report, 1986. Kathmandu. Maharjan, B.L. 2003. Prospects of Feed Crops in Nepal: The Role of CGPRT Crops (No. 1438-2016-118900). Mahato, S.N., and Subba, D.B. 1988. Nutritional evaluation of fodders at Pakhribas Agricultural Centre, Dhankuta. Proceedings of the second meeting of the working Group of Fodder Trees, Forest Fodder and Leaf Litter (Editor: Robinson, P.J. FRIC). Forest Research and Survey Centre Babarmahal, Kathmandu. Occasional Paper No. 2/88. Pp 20-22. Maltsoglou, M., and Taniguchi, K. 2004. Poverty, Livestock and Household Typology in Nepal. ESA working Paper No. 04-15. FAO. MoALD. 2019. Nepalese Agricultural Statistical Information 2017/18. Retrieved on September 17, 2019 from https://www.moald.gov.np/publication/ Agriculture%20Statistics. MoF. 2018. Economic Survey 2017/18. Ministry of Finance, Kathmandu, Nepal.
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MoFS. 1998. Forestry Master Plan for Forestry Sector, Nepal. Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation. Nepal. MoLD. 2017. Livestock Statistics of Nepal. Ministry of Livestock Development; Planning Monitoring and Evaluation Division; Singha durbar, Nepal. NAFLQML. 2019. Annual Report 2017/2018. National Animal Feed and Livestock Quality Management Laboratory. Harihar Bhawan, Lalitpur. NARC. 2019. Annual Report of Animal Nutrition Division, NARC, 2017/18. Lalitpur, Nepal. NFIA. 2019. Nepal Feed Industries Association. Kathmandu, Nepal. NTA. 2018. Annual Report 2017/2018. Nepal Telecommunications Authority, Kathmandu Nepal. Pp 3. NTA. 2019. MIS report published by Nepal Telecommunications Authority, Kathmandu Nepal. Vol. 176. Pandey, L.N., and Gyawali, R. 2012. Constraints and Potential of Goat and Sheep Production under Transhumance Management System in the High Mountainous Regions of Nepal. Paper presented at Research and Development Strategies for Goat Enterprises in Nepal. Pp 92 – 101. Pandey, R. S. 1994. Opportunities for fodder and pasture development and promising species in Nepal. Proceedings of 2nd National Conference on "science and technology", held from 8th-11th June 1994, Kathmandu, Nepal. Pp. 8 – 11. Pandey, S. 2014. Utilization of agricultural byproducts through straw-based complete feed making technology. Proceedings of National Workshop on "Animal Feeds and Forages", held at Lalitpur on 14th July, 2014. Pp 115- 124. Pandey, S.B., and N.P. Osti. 1995. Chemical composition of different varieties of fodder trees. Nepalese journal of Animal Science. 1:17-27. Pariyar, D. 1998. Rangelands resource bio-diversity and some option for their improvements. National Biodiversity Action plan, Kathmandu. Paudel, K. 1992. Implication of forage and livestock production on soil fertility. Sustainable livestock production in the mountain agro-ecosystem of Nepal. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nation, Rome. Pp.155-170. Rana, R.S., Yano, F., Khanal, S.K., and Pandey, S.B. 1999. Crude protein and mineral content of some major fodder trees of Nepal. Lumle Seminar Paper No. 99/13, Lumle Agriculture Research Center, Nepal. Singh, S.B. 2019. Balance Sheet of Animal Feed and Forage Seed of Nepal and Impact Study of Forage Mission Program (Draft report). To be published by National Animal Feed and Livestock Quality Management Laboratory under Department of Livestock Services, Nepal. Subedi, K.D., and Gurung, G. 1991. Soil fertility thrust towards sustainable agriculture: experiences of Lumle Regional Agricultural Research Centre. In: Soil Fertility and Erosion Issues in the Middle Mountains of Nepal. IDRC. Ottawa, Canada. Pp 61–82.
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TEPC. 2017. A Glimpse of Nepal’s Foreign Trade (Statistical Presentation). Trade & Export Promotion Centre, GoN, Lalitpur, Nepal. Uddin, K., Abdul Matin, M., and Maharjan, S. 2018. Assessment of land cover change and its impact on changes in soil erosion risk in Nepal. Sustainability. 10: 4715. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124715. Upreti, C.R., Khanal, D.R., Aryal, S., and Bastola, R. 2015. Climate smart feeding package to improve on milk production with lowering methane production through urea molasses mineral block UMMB supplementation to dairy diets. Nepalese Journal of Animal Science. 1-10. Wilson, J. R., and Minson, D. J. 1980. Prospects of improving the digestibility and intake of tropical grasses. Tropical grasslands. 14: 253-259. Yadav, D.P. 2014. Animal feed supply situation in Nepal. Proceedings of National Workshop on "Animal Feeds and Forages", held at Lalitpur on 14th July, 2014. Pp 115-124. Yonzon, P. 1999. Biodiversity conservation of rangeland. In Proceedings of the third Meeting of Temperate Asia Pasture and Fodder Net Work, Pokhara, Nepal.
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Chapter 6 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in Pakistan
Muhammad Musa1 and Muhammad Iqbal Mustafa2 1 Deputy Director (Research), Ayub Agricultural Research Institute, Faisalabad, Pakistan 2 Institute of Animal and Dairy Sciences, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan
Introduction Pakistan is situated in southern part of Asia, in its north lies China, the Central Asian states and the Russian Federation, to the west is Afghanistan and Iran while to the east is India. Pakistan has four provinces namely Punjab, Baluchistan, Khyber Pakhtoon Khaw (KPK) and Sindh. Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan. It is one of the diversified countries of the world in terms of its culture, landscape, and climate. To the north of Pakistan is the highest mountain system of world, having its harsh climate. To the west are the fertile plains of Indus valley. While to the western and southern part exist the steaming deserts. Within its borders situate the Arabian Sea, best root of Asia; this sea moderates the climate of its southern parts. Pakistan is situated between the latitudes of 24° and 37° north and longitudes of 61° to 75° east, stretching over 1600 kilometers from north to south and 885 kilometers from east to west. It has a subtropical and semi-arid climate. The annual rainfall ranges from 125 mm in the extreme southern plains to 500 to 900 mm in the sub-mountainous and northern plains. The overall climatic conditions of the country are suited to grow almost all kinds of crop and livestock husbandry. The literacy rate of the country is nearly 40%. Urdu is the official language, whereas local languages and English are also used for education, trade, communication and other purposes. Pakistan's cultural heritage is very rich, inherited from the thousands of year's old Indus and Gandara civilizations. The total geographical area of Pakistan is 79.61 million hectares. Out of which only 59.32 million hectares have been surveyed. In 2010-11, about 27% of the geographical area (21.41 million hectares) was under cultivation, while total cropped area was 23.40 million hectares (Table 1).
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Table 1 Time series data of land utilization in Pakistan Item Area (million hectares) 1951-52 1971-72 1991-92 2001-02 2010-11 Geographical Area 79.61 79.61 79.61 79.61 79.61 Forest Area 1.40 2.72 3.47 3.80 4.23 Culture able waste 9.36 11.25 8.86 8.95 7.82 Current fallow 3.82 4.75 4.87 6.60 5.63 Cultivated Area 15.11 19.09 21.06 22.27 21.41 Net area sown 11.29 14.34 16.19 15.67 15.92 Sown more than once 0.94 2.26 5.53 6.45 7.48 Total cropped area 12.23 16.60 21.72 22.12 23.40 Source: Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan, 2012-2013
Livestock population and contribution to GDP In Pakistan, livestock sector includes a wide variety of animals: buffaloes, cattle, goats, sheep, poultry, camels, asses, horses and mules. The main economic purpose of livestock production is to convert intermediate capital markets into roughage, feed and fodder inputs for which there is a more direct correlation than for the number of animals itself. The share of livestock in the agriculture sector is significant due to its overall contribution. It is determined that milk, beef, mutton, poultry meat, eggs, wool, hairs, skins, hides, bones and fat are important livestock products, which increase the value of the growth trend. Milk is the single most important commodity of livestock sector in Pakistan. However, Pakistan ranked fourth in milk production worldwide after India, China, and USA. Over the years, livestock sub-sector has surpassed the crop sub-sector as the biggest contributor to value added in agriculture. Presently, it contributes 60.5% to the overall agriculture and 11.2% to GDP during 2018-19. Gross value addition of livestock has increased from Rs. 1,384 billion (2017-18) to Rs.1,440 billion (2018-19), showing an increase of 4.0% over the same period of last year. The importance of livestock sector can be realized from the fact that it is not only a source of foreign exchange earnings by contributing around 3.1% to the total exports, but also a source of 35-40% of income for over 8 million rural families and providing them food security by supplementing high value protein of animal origin. Despite the fact that livestock subsector could not attract large amount of investment due to its inherent subsistence and structural characteristics, this sector has shown a healthy growth of 4.0 % in
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2018-19 over the previous year of 2017-18. The estimated livestock population in Pakistan for the years 2016-2019 is given in Table 2. Table 2 Estimated Livestock Population (Million Nos) Species 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 Cattle 44.4 46.1 47.8 Buffalo 37.7 38.8 40.0 Sheep 30.1 30.5 30.9 Goat 72.2 74.1 76.1 Camel 1.1 1.1 1.1 Horse 0.4 0.4 0.4 Asse 5.2 5.3 5.4 Mule 0.2 0.2 0.2 Source: Ministry of National Food Security & Research. Estimated figure based on inter census growth rate of Livestock Census 1996 & 2006.
Poultry population and contribution to GDP Poultry sector is one of the most vibrant sub-sectors of livestock sector. The current investment in Poultry Industry is more than Rs. 700 billion in Pakistan. This industry is progressing at an impressive growth rate of 8 to 10% per annum over last few years. Pakistan has become the 11th largest poultry producer in the world with the production of 1,163 million broilers annually. This sector provides employment (direct/indirect) to over 1.5 million people. Poultry today has been a balancing force to keep check on the prices of mutton and beef. Poultry meat contributes 34% (1,518 thousand tones) of the total meat production (4,478 thousand tones) in the country. Poultry meat production showed a growth rate of 9.1%, whereas egg production showed a growth of 5.6% (19.0 billion Nos.) during 2018-19 as compared to previous year. Transformation of poultry production in controlled shed system is making a tremendous difference of quantity and quality of poultry production. There are now over 6,500 controlled environment poultry sheds in the country, which indicates that Pakistan poultry sector is moving in the direction of modernization and using advanced technologies. The estimated poultry population in Pakistan is given in Table 3.
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Table 3 Estimated domestic/rural and commercial poultry population (Millions Nos) Species 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 Layers 48.83 52.25 55.91 Broilers 961.50 1,057.65 1,163.42 Breeding Stock 11.80 12.39 13.01 Day old chicks 1,004.29 1,104.72 1,215.19 The figures for the indicated years are statistically calculated using the figures of 2005-06. Source: Ministry of National Food Security & Research. Importance to livelihood and food security Livestock can provide income, quality food, fuel, draught power, building material and fertilizer, thus contributing to household livelihood, food security and nutrition. Strong demand for animal-based foods and increasingly complex processing and marketing systems offer significant opportunities for growth and poverty reduction at every stage in the value chain. These new market opportunities and livelihood options face rapidly changing patterns of competition, consumer preferences and market standards; these may undermine the ability of small-holders to remain competitive. This should also be carefully managed to ensure that women and men have the same prospects in this rapidly changing sector. Policy reforms, institutional support and public and private investments are urgently needed to; i. Assist those small holders who can compete in the new markets ii. Ease the transition of those who will exit in the sector iii. Protect the crucial safety-net function performed by livestock for the most vulnerable households Food security exists when all people, always have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences to ensure an active and healthy life. However, approximately one in nine people suffer from hunger or are undernourished, and the number is starting to grow again. Most of these people live in LMICs (Lower-middle income countries), where approximately 13% of the population is undernourished. Micro-nutrients deficiencies affect some two billion people globally. Deficiencies in zinc, vitamin A and iron lead to stunting, anemia, compromised immune functions and impaired cognitive development. Animal-source foods are dense in essential micro-nutrients such as vitamin B12, riboflavin, calcium, iron, zinc and various essential fatty acids, which are difficult to obtain in adequate amounts from plant-based foods alone. Healthy nutrition is particularly important during the first 1000 days of life – during pregnancy, lactation and early childhood. Including even modest amounts of animal-source foods in diets adds much-needed nutritional value.
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Animal-sourced foods currently comprise 39% of protein and 18% of calorie intake worldwide, but this is not equitably distributed. Poor people in LMICs often do not consume enough animal-sourced foods, while others – particularly in high-income countries (HICs) consume in excess of their dietary needs. Livestock contribute to food security on all scales. At the household level, livestock keeping ensures healthy and nutritious diets and contributes to incomes. At community level, the sector creates employment opportunities. At national and global levels, it helps to provide the world’s population with sufficient and reliable supplies of nutritious, affordable and safe livestock-derived food (FAO).
Production and productivity The buffalo, cow, sheep and goat population of Pakistan is growing at a slow but consistent rate. As per Economic Survey of Pakistan (2010-11), population of buffalo, cows, sheep and goat were 31.7, 35.6, 28.1 and 61.5 million animals, respectively. The total beef and mutton production during this period were reported to be around 2327 thousand tones. Table 4 depicts the trend in red meat production from 2006 to 2015, showing thereby an increasing trend in total red meat production of 1998 thousand tones in 2006- 07, 2322 thousand tones in 2010-11 and 2816 thousand tones in 2014-15. On the other hand, it is evident from Table 4, that share of cattle meat has increased over time, while it remained almost static in the case of buffalo meat but reduced in the case of sheep and goat meat. The trend is similar in case of milk production (Table 5). Major milk supply is coming from buffalo, which is about 60%, the second major contribution is from cow, which provides about 35% and the goat contributes about 2% in the total milk supply. In the recent year, milk supply from cow is increasing, which is mainly due to the increase of crossbred animals in the country. Table 4 Trends in red meat production in Pakistan Type of 2006-07 2010-11 2014-15 Animals (000 tones) (%) (000 tones) (%) (000 tones) (%) Cattle 702 35.13 845 36.39 974 37.23 Buffalo 742 37.14 861 37.08 971 37.12 Sheep 207 10.37 220 9.47 235 8.98 Goat 347 17.37 396 17.05 436 16.67 Total 1998 100.00 2322 100.00 2616 100.00 Source: Livestock Census of Pakistan, 2006 & Pakistan Economic Survey, 2014-15
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Table 5 Trend in milk production in Pakistan (000 tones) Species 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Goat 759 779 801 822 845 867 891 Sheep 36 37 37 38 38 39 39 Cow 16,133 16,741 17,372 18,027 18,706 19,412 20,143 Buffalo 28,694 29,565 30,350 31,252 32,180 33,137 34,122 Camel 818 829 840 851 862 873 885 Gross 46,440 47,951 49,400 50,990 52,632 54,328 56,080 Production Source: Economic survey of Pakistan, 2016-17
Lack of awareness on part of farmer community It can be divided into six major areas that include; i. Knowledge of potential and profitable meat animal farming as a commercial business ii. Efficient farm practices that can improve meat productivity per animal iii. Awareness on feed availability and nutritional values for feedlot fattening of meat animals on the basis of the TMR technique iv. Awareness on hygiene, animal welfare and veterinary care matters v. Knowledge on development of meat-specific breeds and their development through natural mating and cross-breeding vi. Compliance to the international standards in the meat processing and marketing industry.
Fodder production The livestock population is increasing at the rate of 4.2% per year and accordingly its feed requirements are also increasing. Regular supply of adequate and nutritious fodder is essential for the growth and development of livestock. Fodder crops are the main and cheapest source of feed for livestock. However, shortage of fodder production is the major limiting factor for livestock production in Pakistan. About 2% reduction in fodder area in each decade along-with two important fodder scarcity periods, one in winter months (November to January) and other in summer (May-June) further worsening the situation (Sajjad et el., 2019). Major fodder crops grown during winter include berseem, lucerne, oats, barley and mustard; while during summer, these are maize, sorghum, S.S. Hybrids, millet guar and cowpeas. At present, fodder crops are grown over 10.3 % of
134 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia the total cropped area of 22.6 million hectares. The province wise area and production of all fodder crops in Pakistan are given in Table 6. The Punjab province produces 83.6% of the total production of fodder crops in the country, followed by Sindh, KPK and Baluchistan, which produce 10.1, 4.3 and 2.0% fodder, respectively. The present fodder production is not sufficient to feed the existing livestock population in the country, and the situation is getting worst day by day. The area under various fodder crops in the country is estimated to be around 2.31 million hectares and annual fodder production is 51.92 million tonnes (Table 7 and 8). The average fodder production is 22.5 tonnes ha-1 (Agric. Statistics of Pakistan 2009-10), which is too low to meet even half of the maintenance requirements of the present livestock population in the country. The deficit estimate variously is 15-30% of the requirement in terms of nutrients. The shortage is larger if expressed in terms of digestible protein. In Pakistan mainly two types of livestock production practices are prevailing. i. Rural household, where animals are closely integrated with the rural subsistence economy using grown fodder comprising of all crops that are used as cut and carry livestock feed. ii. Large herds (mostly small ruminants) kept in rangelands, where livestock feed include all vegetation grazed and browsed by livestock, with particular reference to rain-fed flat lands, hill lands and rangelands. More than half of animal feed is coming from fodders and crop residues, 1/3rdfrom grazing of rangelands, waste-lands, canal banks, road-sides and the rest is from crops and their by-products (Table 9). Table 6 Province-wise area and production of fodder crops in Pakistan Province Area Production (000 ha) (% of total) (000 tones) (% of total) Punjab 1892.4 84.6 41170.3 83.6 Sindh 205.0 9.2 4980.7 10.1 KPK 104.8 4.7 2113.4 4.3 Baluchistan 33.7 1.5 970.7 2.0 Pakistan 2235.9 100.0 49235.1 100.0 (Total) Source: Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan 2010-11
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Table 7 Crop-wise area and production of kharif fodder crops in Pakistan Area Fodder Production Crop (Million Hectare) (Million Tones) Sorghum 0.41 6.31 Millet 0.11 0.76 S.S. Hybrid 0.10 1.42 Guar 0.21 3.05 Maize 0.09 0.96 Other Kharif Crops 0.41 6.12 Total 1.33 18.62
Table 8 Crop-wise area and production of Rabi fodder crops in Pakistan Area Fodder Production Crop (Million Hectare) (Million Tones) Berseem 0.71 22.61 Lucerne 0.13 5.32 Shaftal 0.02 0.81 Rape & Mustard 0.02 0.34 Other Rabi Crops 0.10 4.22 Total 0.98 33.3
Table 9 Contribution of different sources to feed livestock in Pakistan Sources Contribution (%) Fodder and crop residues 51 Forage/grazing 38 Cereal by-products 06 Post-harvest grazing 03 Oilcakes, meals, animal protein 02
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Package of improved production technology for better fodder yield Per unit area yield of fodder is important. From sowing to harvesting of the crop, improved production technology of different fodder is given in Table 10. Most farmers adopt mixed farming. Farmers in the crop production regions, whether small or large, produce not only the crops (major and minor crops, vegetables and fruits), but also maintain shade trees for fuel or timber; keep cattle or buffaloes for milk, and own goat/sheep and chickens. Livestock may provide a substantial proportion of the income. Table 10 Package of Improved Production Technology for Better Fodder Yield Green Fertilizer Seed rate Method of fodder Crops -1 Sowing time N-P-K (kgha ) sowing -1 yield (kgha ) -1 (tha ) st Broadcast 21 Sept- Berseem 20-25 in standing 22-115-00 125-150 end of Oct. water. Mid Oct.- 45 cm apart Lucerne 10-12 22-115-00 110-125 mid Nov. in lines. st 30 cm apart Oats 75-100 21 Sept.- 75-50-00 60-80 in lines. March- Sorghum 75-80 -do- 60-60-00 50-60 August 45 cm apart S.S. Mid Feb.- lines in -do- (60 kg N 25-30 120-130 hybrid mid Mar. good after each cut) moisture April- 30 cm apart Millet 12-15 60-60-00 40-60 August in lines Guar 40-50 April-July -do- 22-60-00 30-40 Cowpeas 30-35 March-July 45 cm apart 22-60-00 30-40 March- Maize 100-120 30 cm apart 60-60-00 60-70 August 60-60-00, FYM twice in a year. 30 28000 Mid- Mott 75cm x kg N in Cutting/root February- 80-200 grass 75cm November for slips August early summer production
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Fodder production system Fodder production system in Pakistan is as follows (Musa et al., 2013): i. Traditional fodder based multiple cropping Berseem – Rice, Oats – Rice, Wheat – Maize, Wheat – Sorghum, Wheat – Millet, Gram – Guar, Lucerne - Maize ii. New innovations in multiple cropping Inclusion of legume in cereal fodders like Oats-Cowpea, Oats-Jantar and Berseem-S.S. hybrid. iii. Potential of multiple cropping in fodder crops Fodder has potential of multiple cropping in almost all cropping zones of the country like summer fodder crops–wheat, winter fodders-rice etc. There is a need for round the year availability of fodders for livestock; therefore, berseem-S.S. Hybrid, Oats- S.S. Hybrid and mott-grass- berseem are the most appropriate options of mixed fodder cropping. iv. Province-wise major crop rotations with fodder Punjab Berseem – Rice, Oats – Rice, Wheat - summer fodders, Gram – Guar, Lucerne - Maize Sindh Summer fodders-Wheat, Berseem- Maize KPK Summer fodders-Wheat, Berseem-Sorghum, Berseem-Maize Baluchistan Summer fodders-Wheat, Berseem-Rice v. Province-wise practice of mixed cropping with fodder Punjab Berseem-Oats, Lucerne-Oats, Oats-Vetch, Barley- mustard, Wheat- mustard, Sorghum-Cowpea, Berseem-Orchards Sindh Berseem-Oats, Lucerne-Oats, Wheat- mustard, Berseem-Orchards KPK Berseem-Oats, Lucerne-Oats, Berseem-Orchards Baluchistan Berseem-Oats, Lucerne-Oats, Berseem-Orchards, Sorghum-Guar vi. Multiple Cropping with Fodder in Terms of Irrigation Irrigated areas Berseem – Rice, Oats – Rice, Wheat - Maize , Wheat – Sorghum, Wheat – Millet, Lucerne - Maize Rain-fed areas Gram – Guar, Wheat – Sorghum, Wheat - Millet
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vii. Microbial Aspects of Multiple Cropping Berseem-Maize, Berseem-Sorghum, Berseem-Rice, Gram-Millet, Wheat-Guar, Lucerne-Millet, Oats-Cowpea viii. Fodder Sowing in Fruits Punjab Citrus- Maize Fodder, Guava-Berseem Sindh Guava-Winter Fodder-Summer Fallow KPK Citrus (orange)- Maize Fodder Baluchistan Apple-Berseem Owing to the presence of pre-gastric fermentation chamber in the form of rumen, fodder is the natural feed of ruminants. Due to its increased digestibility and the availability of nutrients, there is a wide range of benefits of feeding fodder over grains and concentrates. By feeding fodder as the main feed to the animals, they become healthier and have long productive life and so also the profitable. Benefits of feeding fodder to the animals include: § Less manure due to increased digestibility of fodder § Boosted immune system § Increased longevity and lifespan § Earlier heat cycle § Improve fertility § Stimulated appetite during heat stress § Better behaviour and temperature § Less space requirement
Problems of green fodder shortage The problem of green fodder shortage occurred during two deficit periods have been recently solved by growing multi-cut fodder crops like S.S. hybrids, lucerne, mixtures of cereals and legumes and mott-grass to some extent. However, availability of improved seed of fodder crops is one of the major limiting factors in fodder crops production in the country. It is estimated that only 5 to 10% area of fodder crops is grown with improved seed. Considering the subject of improved seed production, it involves a number of interlinked systems; agro-climatic conditions, specific crop adaptation to environment, socio-economic and political factors including prices and marketing, crop management and production. Unfortunately, there is neither private nor government sector involved in the seed business of fodder crops in Pakistan
139 SAARC Agriculture Centre as it is in case of wheat, cotton, vegetables etc. Only 11% improved fodder seed is produced locally. The requirement is fulfilled either by importing seed from other countries and by purchasing from the sub-standard non-certified seed or produced by the farmers without any consideration of seed production guidelines. There is a great potential of domestic fodder crops seed production. Recently, a number of private seed companies have entered in fodder seed production in the country. For example, Jullundar Seed Company based at Arifwala; Younas Seed Corporation and Green Gold at Faisalabad are involved in domestic fodder crops seed production (Sajjad et el., 2019).
Factors for low fodder production § Feed scarcity § Feed quality § Highly degraded grazing lands § Erratic rainfall distribution § Large number of livestock § Limited understanding of farmers towards production and conservation of animal feed § Investment and cash flow required is increasing while revenue from milk is on decline § Unavailability of quality Fodder round the year due to seasonal fluctuations § Winter fodders have higher CP, but less energy; while, Summer fodders have less CP but more energy § No concept of “Feed Security” for animals, therefore farmer has to pay more for lower quality fodder during period of short supply thus making his business non feasible § Research on fodder production is unsatisfactory, therefore, dependence on imported fodder seed is increasing § Machinery for fodder preservation is costly as locally made machinery is not available § Growing pressure of human population § Shortage of irrigation water § Less and erratic rainfalls § Low priorities to fodder production § Imbalance uses of fertilizers § Improper management during two lean periods i.e. June-July and December-January
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Reasons of deficit of fodder seeds § In absence of reliable data on crop wise area under different fodder crops. It is difficult to estimate crop-wise/ variety-wise seed requirement § Fodder seed production is highly un-organized. Large public sector seed companies are focusing on production of food crop seeds. While organized private sector seed companies are focusing on high value low volume crop like vegetables, hybrids and GM crops. Few organized private companies are involved in production of sorghum-Sudan grass hybrid only
Solutions § Should adopt good techniques to improve the fodder production and fill the gap. With the increase in livestock, their feed requirement is also increasing. To increase production, we should find the new or good techniques § Increased production and availability of green fodder through propagating improved technologies
Mechanism to increase sale of fodder seeds § Milk unions (consumer) need to identify new varieties/ hybrids of fodder crops having higher production potential and suitable to their local agro- climatic condition § Create awareness among farmers about new varieties through live demonstrations/ village awareness programme/ extension mechanism § Identify source (Dairy cooperatives/ RFS /Public sector seed company/ private sector organized company) to supply certified fodder seeds as per your requirement § Milk unions/ federations should sign Agreement with the identified source/ supplier to produce and supply certified seed at least 2 years in advance § The agreement may be on partnership basis i.e. each seed pack should be written “Produced by —– Marketed by ——” and follow joint quality control. § Milk Federations/ unions (consumer) with the help of NDDB can facilitate execution of such agreements with the producer § Procure certified seeds in time and supply it to the Dairy Cooperatives well before sowing season § To push the sale suitable incentives may be given to Dairy Cooperatives / Secretary
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Objectives of fodder research program a. Coordination § Germplasm acquisition, evaluation and distribution § Provide mechanism for varietal testing & release (NUYT, VEC) § Establish national & international linkages § Joint research planning and monitoring b. Research § Breeding for higher fodder yield, quality and resistance against diseases § Standardized/refinement of improved production technologies § Conduct research on issues of national importance, documentation and dissemination of results c. Development/Services § Adaptability testing of exotic fodder crops hybrids § Seed production of improved varieties for dissemination to the farmers § Developmental/participatory research projects § Training/capacity building
Feed resources 1. Concentrate feeds Concentrates are high in energy and/or protein, low in fibre, and highly digestible. They are the expensive part of the animal feed and are used mostly in small quantities as supplements. These feeds include cereals, oil seeds and meals, cereals brans and polishing, molasses and sugar beet pulp. According to Habib and Siddiqui (1994), two local types of concentrates are common. • Energy-rich (carbonaceous) including cereal grains (wheat, maize, barley, oats, sorghum, rice), wheat bran, rice polishing, molasses (sugar cane and sugar beet molasses), sugar beet pulp • Protein-rich (proteinaceous) sources from plant origin include oilseed cakes namely cottonseed cake/ meal, mustard seed cake, sunflower cake, toria, sesame cake, and from animal origin are blood meal, fish meal, meat meal and feather meal. 2. Range resources Of the total 80 million hectare area of the country, 28 million are under cultivation, being 27 % of the total comprising irrigated (70 %) as well as rainfed (30 %) areas (Economic Survey 2003-04). 49 million are used for
142 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia grazing in the country, of which 9.7 million are in Punjab. Pakistan contributes both arid and mountainous rangelands. The area under range as % of total area are: Punjab 40 %, Sind 55 %, NWFP 60 % and Baluchistan 79 % (Quraishi et al., 1993). Rangelands are areas devoted to livestock production from natural or semi-natural vegetation. This vegetation includes shrub lands, grasslands and forests. The rangelands in Punjab extend from Pothowar ranges in the North to a vast Cholistan desert in the South extending up to Rahim Yar Khan. Keeping in view the total rangeland areas, these constitute the single biggest land use in the country. They are generally defined in a negative sense as areas being climatically or topographically unsuitable for economic cropping or sown pastures. Type and nature of the rangelands Ranges in the province spread over from alpine to temperate; Mediterranean ranges in the western mountains of Suleman Range; Arid and semi-arid desert ranges of Cholistan. (Mohammad 1989). Extreme climatic variations are the results of an extreme range in elevation and summer monsoon rains. Summers are extremely hot, while winters are mildly cold to very cold. Rainfall varies from 100 mm in the South to more than 1500 mm in the North. The central and southern plains of the province consist of fertile soils, but annual rainfall is low averaging less than 250 mm. Northern snow-covered mountains of the Himalayas, Hindu Kash and Karakorum ranges are the main source of runoff for the mighty Indus river and its tributaries. As a result, water from the Indus and its tributaries is used to develop the largest canal irrigation system of the world. Though high potential rangelands are well represented in the Northern regions of the province, extensive semi-desert or desert ranges in the province of the Punjab are also available. Most of the deserts in the province are man- made and have resulted from a long history of over grazing, miss-management and vegetation deterioration. As a result of continued un-wise range use, the current trend of retrogression is still progressing (Quraishi et al., 1993; Younas, 1997). 3. Non-conventional feed resources Non-conventional feed refers to those feeds which are not traditionally used in animal feeding but have the potential to be used as feed. There are many agro-industrial by-products and wastes available in the province, which have not yet found their way in animal feeding, such as by-products of the sugar industry, and cereal industry (straw and pods of soybean, chickpea, peanut, mustard and sunflower heads). In addition to the above, other crop by- products not currently used by farmers as feed have the potential for
143 SAARC Agriculture Centre incorporation in the diet of ruminants. However, these fibrous feeds need various physical or chemical or biological treatments for effective utilization.
Fodder preservation method Forages can be conserved to feed livestock during periods of shortage caused by limited pasture growth or inadequate pasture conditions or fed as a supplement. Conserved forages can take the form of hay, haylage, and silage. Although several methods have been proven as efficient ways to store and preserve forages, it is important, to keep this fact in mind: At best, conserved forages can rarely match the nutritive value of fresh forage because some losses of highly digestible nutrients (sugar, protein, and fat) are unavoidable during conservation and storage. Our goal in forage conservation is to focus on minimizing losses, which start immediately after cutting. When selecting a conservation method, a producer should consider the suitability of the forage for a given method, storage capability, weather conditions, and the intended use of the conserved forage. The selected conservation technique should maximize nutrient conversion efficiency and minimize production costs. Silage
Silage is the final product when forage of sufficient moisture (> ~50%) is conserved and stored anaerobically (oxygen free), under conditions that encourage fermentation of sugars to organic acids. The acidity generated by the organic acids (mainly lactic acid, but also acetic and propionic acids) and the lack of oxygen prevent the development of spoilage microorganisms. Three of the most critical factors for silage production are (1) rapid removal of air, (2) rapid production of lactic acid that results in a quick lowering of the pH (this is the result of adequate fermentation processes), and (3) rapid feed out once the silo is opened and exposed to air to avoid heating and spoilage. There are three types of silages, High moisture silage is ≤ 30% dry matter concentration. Medium moisture silage is 30% to 40% dry matter concentration. Low moisture silage (also called haylage, bale age, or wilted silage) is 40% to 60% dry matter concentration. Difference between silage and haylage The main difference between silage and haylage is the initial dry matter (DM) concentration level at which the forage is clipped and packed to achieve optimum anaerobic and fermentation conditions. Three different moisture levels can be achieved: high moisture silage (≤ 30% DM), medium moisture
144 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia silage (30% to 40% DM), and low moisture (wilted) silage (40% to 60% DM). Low moisture silage is referred to as haylage. When baled and wrapped, haylage is referred to as baleage. High moisture silages are more prone to potential seepage losses (that is, effluent or leachate from the silo), undesirable secondary fermentation (resulting in butyric acid, which results in a rancid smell), and high dry matter losses (silo shrink). On the other hand, preservation as haylage depends more on achieving adequate packing (high density) to maintain anaerobic conditions. Achieving high density at packing is more difficult in drier forage. Nevertheless, high density is critical in haylage to maintain anaerobic conditions because microbes are less active, and fermentation is lower in haylage than in higher moisture silage. Ensiling process Silage fermentation can be classified as either primary (desirable) or secondary (undesirable) (Pahlow et al., 2003). Primary fermentation is carried out by lactic acid producing bacteria and is classified as homofermentative (the one product of fermentation is lactic acid) and heterofermentative (multiple products of fermentation are lactic and acetic acids and ethanol). Secondary fermentation is carried out mainly by enterobacteria (which produce lactic, acetic, succinic, and formic acids, and ethanol), clostridia (produce butyric acid), and yeasts (produce ethanol). Lactic acid production is preferred over the other fermentation products due to faster and lower pH drop (stronger acid), and limited silo shrink. Shrink occurs from plant and microbial respiration, fermentation, runoff, and loss of volatile organic compounds. If anaerobic and acidity conditions are not met, silage is more prone to shrinking during storage compared to hay. Good fermentation should result in DM losses of less than 10%. Phases of silage fermentation 1. Aerobic This phase usually lasts for approximately one day. During this period, plant cells and microbes will metabolize sugars and starch in the presence of oxygen, generating heat in the process. Silage temperature is elevated to about 90 ℉, and water may be lost (as seepage) because of respiration and compaction. If anaerobic conditions are not achieved quickly, high temperatures (>120 ℉) and prolonged heating will occur due to the growth of unwanted aerobic bacteria, yeast, and molds that compete with beneficial bacteria for substrate. Therefore, it is critical to ensure good compaction, proper moisture, and good sealing, all of which lead to a rapid transition to anaerobic conditions.
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2. Fermentation Once anaerobic conditions are achieved, lactic acid bacteria and other anaerobes start to ferment sugars into lactic acid, mainly, and other organic acids to a lesser extent (such as acetic and propionic) that will drop the silage pH from about 6.0 to a range of 3.8 – 5. Alcohols such as ethanol will be generated too, but with no contribution to the acidification process. Rapid decrease in pH prevents breakdown of plant proteins and helps to inhibit growth of spoilage microbes. Consequently, lactic acid production is preferred to ensure a low silo shrink. The fermentation phase usually lasts from one week to more than a month, depending on crop and ensiling conditions. 3. Stable As long as anaerobic conditions are maintained, silage can be stable for months and up to years. However, under practical conditions, silage should be used within a year of its production. Slow entry of air through areas that were not properly sealed can slowly deteriorate material, thus silos should be constantly checked and maintained to avoid any potential break of seal integrity. 4. Feed-out Once a silo or bale is opened, it should be used as quickly as possible to avoid aerobic deterioration of the material. When oxygen becomes available in the ensiled material, yeasts metabolize the organic acids, which in turn cause the pH to increase, and further restarts the aerobic activity (such as molds), causing greater silage spoilage. The design of a typical silo face should allow for the daily removal of approximately 6 inches of face material (for reference, each 6inch daily removal is equivalent to one week of exposure to air). Silo opening should occur only after the fermentation phase has been completed (that is, after three to six weeks). The suggested approach is to wait approximately two to three months before opening a silo.
Management practices for making better silage Crop factors An ideal crop to be ensiled should have an adequate level of sugars (measured as water-soluble carbohydrates) to be fermented, low buffering capacity (that is, the resistance to changes in pH), and a stand with a dry matter concentration above 20% (McDonald et al., 1991). Corn is usually considered an ideal crop for ensiling because of higher water-soluble carbohydrates (WSC) compared to other forages and because dry matter concentration is usually about 30% to 35% when harvesting at milk stage. The concentration
146 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia of WSC is critical for fermentation and varies among crops. Minimum WSC concentration levels as a function of initial DM concentration and silage crops are shown in Table 11. Legumes have higher buffer capacity (resistance to allowing a drop in pH) and, therefore, require further wilting relative to other crops (35% – 45% DM) for adequate ensiling. In general, crop suitability for ensiling follows this order: corn, sorghum > ryegrass, orchard grass, fescue, small grains > switchgrass, bermudagrass > legumes. Table 11 Plant water-soluble carbohydrates (WSC) concentration required for adequate fermentation (lowest pH achieved) at various dry matter (DM) concentration levels (adapted from Pitt, 1990)
Dry matter concentration (%) Minimum initial WSC requirement (% of DM)
Alfalfa Grass Corn 20 25 19 14 25 21 14 10 30 17 10 7 35 14 7 5 40 10 5 4 45 7 3 — 50 6 2 — Range of WSC at harvest 4 – 15 10 – 20 8 – 20 (% of DM)
Harvest maturity
Harvest stages that optimize for yield, nutritive value, and fermentability of different crop and silo types are presented in Table 12. In the case of legumes, grasses, and cereals, maturity stage defines optimal harvest time and wilting is required in most cases to achieve the target DM concentration for ensiling. Corn, however, is different. Although examining the kernel milk line is always recommended, the decision of when to harvest should be made based on the DM concentration of the standing crop because it is ensiled directly afterwards.
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Table 12 Recommended stages at which to harvest various crops for silage Dry matter (DM) Management Crop Stage to harvest concentration at suggestions for harvest (%) ensiling Wilt to 30 – 50% Alfalfa Bud to 10% flower 15 – 30 DM Annual ryegrass, Wilt to 35 – 50% tall fescue, Boot to heading 15 – 30 DM orchard grass 1st cut: Pre-head (12-15" tall); Wilt to 40 – 50% Bermudagrass 18 – 30 Additional cuts: 4-5 DM weeks Direct cut. Use 32 – 40% and 33 – 38% 1/4-2/3 milk-line Corn 30 – 35 DM for bag and down the kernel tower silos, respectively Forage sorghum, sorghum-Sudan, Boot or soft dough 30 – 35 Direct cut millet Wilt to 35 – 45% Small grains Boot to soft dough 20 – 30 DM Switchgrass, Boot to heading 25 – 30 Direct cut Gama grass
Moisture Moisture concentration affects the rate and extent of fermentation. Forages should not be ensiled with more than 70% moisture (or less than 30% DM concentration) due to potential seepage losses and growth of undesirable bacteria (such as clostridia), which results in undesirable fermentation. Wilting is needed in most cases when ensiling grasses and legumes. As moisture decreases, less acidity is needed to inhibit undesirable bacteria that are more sensitive to low moisture than the desirable lactic acid bacteria. Low moisture is one of the factors that explain why wilting is beneficial for legumes and grasses. When wilting forages, adjust the mower-conditioner for a narrow swath, and then allow the swath to dry without further manipulation until the crop is chopped (Rotz, 1995). Research shows that this procedure minimizes field losses of the plant leaves, which are of higher nutritive value than stems. Recommended DM concentrations at harvest for different crops are included in Table 12.
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Particle size The optimal particle chop length is a balance between the particle size needed to achieve good compaction in the silo and the effective fiber requirements of ruminant livestock, especially lactating animals. The recommended theoretical length of cut (TLC) is 3/8 to 1/2 inch for unprocessed corn and legume silages, and 3/4 inch for kernel-processed corn silage (Muck and Kung, 2007). Sorghum silage should have a similar TLC to corn silage and grasses, and cereal silages should have a similar TLC to legume silages. Kernel processing is highly recommended when making corn silage to improve starch digestibility. Kernel processing should not be done, however, if whole plant DM concentration is less than 30% due to risk of increased seepage losses. Packing density Attaining a high density in a silo is important because it determines the porosity at which air moves into the silo and subsequently the amount of spoilage that occurs during storage and feed out. Silage density is influenced by DM concentration, TLC, and packing intensity. Different types of silos require different packing strategies and target densities for appropriate ensiling. In general, a shorter TLC and processing will result in higher silage densities due to a decreased stiffness of the material. Silage density recommendations are provided in the silo type section, and a general rule is to try to achieve a packing density of about 14 lbft-3. Sealing Good sealing with plastic sheets and concrete barriers will keep the carbon dioxide in and prevent oxygen from entering the silo. Care must be taken to seal any holes with UV-resistant tapes, especially in low-moisture silages where porosity is greater. Oxygen barrier film technology, compared to standard polyethylene films, has proven to further reduce DM losses and increase aerobic stability from the outer layers of silos. Additives Several types of additives are available that can be used for silage making (Table 13). Additives can help in every phase of silage making. Nevertheless, good harvesting practices are the main drivers of silage quality. In general, additives can be classified as stimulants or inhibitors of fermentation, and nutrient sources (Kung et al., 2003). Specific effects of additives include the following: • Provide fermentable carbohydrates • Inhibit undesirable types of bacteria and promote desirable bacteria • Furnish additional acids (such as propionic acid) directly to decrease pH
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• Modify moisture • Extend aerobic stability during feed out (bunk life) Table 13 Materials that provide energy sources for production of acids that preserve silage (Green and Mueller, 1995) Amount needed Material -1 (lb ton of silage) Ground corn, wheat, barley 100 – 200 Molasses 60 – 80 Dry citrus of beet pulp 100 – 200 Dry whey 30 – 50 Ground corn, wheat, barley 100 – 200 Silo types
Bunker and piles These silo types consist of a layer of concrete or asphalt to protect from soil contamination and a polyethylene plastic sheet covering the silage (sometimes the wall as well). The bunker silo is a variant with two or three concrete wall sides. This silo type is the least expensive but also has a large surface exposed to the air. Consequently, adequate lining of the inside walls with plastic is needed to avoid outer layer forage damage, in addition to the plastic sheet for the top. Sealing is most critical to ensure good preservation and forage quality. Plastic films must be at least 5 mm thick and be UV-resistant. Tires or gravel- filled bags must be used to keep plastic sheeting in place. Moreover, achieving at least 14 lb of DMft-3 is essential to minimize losses, whereas the best silos can achieve densities of 20 lb of DMft-3. The forage crop should be packed to form progressive wedges and maintain a minimum slope of 1 (rise) to 3 (run) to avoid tractor rollover. The forage should be spread in a thin layer (no more than 6 inches deep) as much as possible to aid the compaction process. Pressed bags Increasingly more used, pressed bags provide the advantage of flexibility in terms of storage and movement of stored silage. The bagging machine regulates silage density in the bag and achieving a smooth bag surface requires expertise. Pack as tightly as possible without creating an irregular surface (ripples), which creates air passages that can spoil much of the material being ensiled. Target density should be 14 lb of DMft-3to achieve good results. Use a clean hard surface on which to place the bag. This type of silo requires
150 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia constant checking of each bag’s integrity so that punctures are quickly fixed, and no air comes inside the silo. Towers Silage is filled by blowing the material through a pipe attached to the outside wall that ends in a distributor at the top of the tower silo. In concrete stave silos that unload from the top the unloader blows the silage through doors located in the side of the silo and down a chute. The density in this type of silo is determined by the weight of the material on top and wall friction. Consequently, material at the bottom needs to be ensiled at a high DM (35% to 40%) to prevent effluent release. The upper surface of the silo is exposed to the air, and spoilage can occur of up to 1 meter deep, which is discarded when emptying starts. The losses in DM during ensiling tend to be lower in tower silos compared to other types. Oxygen-limiting tower variants, primarily unloaded from the bottom, are available to limit spoilage even further. Advantages of silage making • Surplus green fodder abundantly available could be preserved as silage for feeding during lean/ scarcity season • The organic acids produced in the silage are similar to those normally produced in the digestive tract of the ruminants; so, digestibility of fodder increases • It eliminates wastage of the less favoured parts of the fresh fodder like stem because the animals consume entire plant • It is highly palatable • It cannot be destroyed by fire • It provides succulent feed particularly during dry periods, when the vegetation growth is dormant • It is more economical as compared to cut-and-carry prevailing system Quality of silage Good silage should have a mild, pleasant aroma, an acidic taste and a slightly greenish color. It should be free from sliminess and mold and have sufficient acid to prevent further action of microorganisms. Causes of poor silage These are different factors which may lower the quality of silage: a. Acid production If during silage making acid is not produced in sufficient quantity, it will stop the fermentation, and there will be putrefaction due to undesirable
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bacteria. Such bacteria will produce enzymes that will cause the breakdown of protein causing an off flavor and slimy silage. On the other hand, if there is production of acid in high quantity due to high proportion of sugar content, it will result in sour unpalatable silage. Such silage is not only unpalatable, but when fed in large quantity causes cattle to scour. b. Moisture content When there is high moisture content in fodder, the silage will not be packed well, and more air will be left in it. This will result in moldy silage. High moisture content causes undesirable fermentation to take place. In case of less moisture content there will be no proper fermentation. Hay making
Hay making turns green, perishable, forage into a product that can be safely stored and easily transported without danger of spoilage, while keeping losses of dry matter and nutrients to a minimum. This involves reducing its moisture content from 70 - 90% to 20 - 25% or less. Techniques for natural pasture, sown pasture and crops specifically cultivated for conservation at three levels of technology are considered: manual haymaking; simple mechanization with draught animal power or small tractors; and fully mechanized systems. It is, of course, possible to have some or all of the operations of hay making done mechanically under contract, provided that the fields are big enough to warrant it; this is feasible where the climate at harvest time can be relied on. In areas of uncertain climate, however, it is less suitable, since equipment must be on hand for each operation as the weather and condition of the hay dictates.
Types of hay Hay may be made in several forms, according to the conditions, its intended use and the level of technology. 1. Long hay. The traditional, age-old form of herbage, mown, turned and carted. 2. Chopped hay is an option where conditions for drying are good and systems highly mechanized; it is less bulky and better for mechanical handling, but must be conditioned, windrowed and collected with a forage harvester. 3. Baled hay. Originally baling was by hand (trusses or bottles), and then by stationary machines. It has been automated since the 1950s, with the introduction of the pick-up baler. Big bales which can be individually handled by a tractor-mounted front-end loader are now the main kind
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in large-scale farming; round bales are the simplest to make and most popular. Their shape sheds rain and resists water better than traditional bales. 4. Hand-trussed hay is widespread in manual haymaking, often as a means of reducing shattering. 5. Wafered and pelleted hay is dense and free flowing, so it is easy to transport, handle and store. Field units are available, but expensive; they are used for high-quality legume hay in climates which allow rapid drying. Losses are lower than with baling. 6. Dried grass i.e., herbage artificially dried at high temperatures, has been produced from time to time; the process allows conservation of a younger and higher quality material, but it is not currently economically attractive. 7. Barn-dried hay. Equipment for fan-assisted drying (with or without additional heat) is now available but is not widely used.
Drying process Moisture-loss is rapid at first, especially from the leaves, as the stomata are open. As the herbage wilts, the stomata close and water has to find ways out through the waxy epidermis of the leaves and stems. The moisture inside the stems takes longer to get out. With the coarser forages, some mechanical conditioning at the time of mowing is necessary if the crop is to dry evenly and in a reasonable time. The rate of drying, of course, depends on the weather: sunshine, wind and the moisture content of the air are the main factors. Drying should be done as quickly as possible to minimize losses. At mowing, the herbage will contain between 70 and 90% of moisture, and this will have to be reduced to between 12 and 20% before the hay can be stored safely. The safe moisture content will depend on a range of factors, including storage method; local climatic conditions; size of stacks or bales; where the hay is to be stored; and the nature of the crop. As a very rough guide, 25% moisture is recommended as a maximum for long loose hay; 20% for chopped hay and 5% for pelleted, cured hay. The swath is the mown forage lying in the field; the windrow is either made by raking one or more swaths together or formed directly by a mower- conditioner or windrower. After drying in the swath, further drying in the bale, stack, barn or field may be needed. The harvesting method used should match the rate and total amount of drying that can be expected in a swath or windrow. The quality of hay can be roughly assessed in the field both visually
153 SAARC Agriculture Centre and by handling, twisting a bunch if necessary. It should feel crisp and look bright. Bleached hay always indicates a badly weathered crop. The drying process in the swath is reviewed by Jones and Harris (1979). The stomata close soon after the herbage is mown. The amount of water to be removed is "roughly equivalent to that transpired by the crop in one day under the conditions of May and June in the south of England." There are two types of limitation to water loss; i. Those which restrict movement of water from plant tissues to the air immediately surrounding the plant within the swath, ii. Those which restrict the movement of water from the air within the swath to the ambient air. The most favorable conditions for drying are at the swath surface, where both radiation and air circulation are at a maximum. The requirements for drying are a supply of energy and a water vapor gradient decreasing from the evaporating surface to the ambient air; this varies throughout the swath. Within the swath, a microclimate develops which limits water loss. As drying progresses, the humidity gradient within the swath increases because density is reduced as water is lost, so more solar radiation can enter, and airflow is improved. Under British conditions, Jones and Harris (1979) recommend that if the weather is sunny the swath should be spread to get the full benefit of radiation; if conditions are dull but windy, then the swath should be set up for aeration. Again, under British conditions, Clark and McDonald (1977) found that in July there is limited evaporation from the swath from dawn to 09:00, high evaporation from 09:00 to noon, a decrease from noon to 18:00 because of decreasing available energy and increasing swath resistance, and evaporation is almost zero after 18:00.
Main operations in hay making Haymaking methods vary depending on crop and circumstances, but the main operations are more or less the same in all cases: • mowing, which may be combined with conditioning • artificial conditioning for rapid drying (an innovation, and only sometimes carried out) • turning and tedding to allow even drying of the swath, help dissipate heat and reduce the danger of mold development and fermentation • windrowing, i.e., putting the cut herbage into rows for further handling and collection, and sometimes also for protection at night. In hot arid
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conditions, windrowing protects the crop against shattering and bleaching • trussing or putting into cocks (small heaps) are intermediate stages of drying used in some manual systems • carting and storage, with or without baling. In traditional systems the cured long hay is carted and stored in stacks or barns. Baling before storage is much more common in modern, mechanized systems
Losses in hay making To keep losses and spoilage to a minimum, operator skill and experience is essential in giving the attention to detail which is necessary throughout the haymaking process. Much depends on the judgement and experience of the operator. The main way of minimizing loss is to dry the herbage as rapidly and as evenly as possible and handle it with care thereafter.
Causes of loss Fermentation, with losses beginning as soon as the crop is mown. Enzymatic oxidation of the sap and the activity of bacteria and molds on the crop surface cause losses, with generation of heat. If the crop is not aerated sufficiently to dissipate the heat, serious damage can occur. Turning and tedding must therefore be prompt and adequate.
Mechanical leaf loss occurs during tedding and field handling Leaching losses occurs if rain falls on the crop during the curing process. Re- wetting of partially dried hay is much more serious than rain on newly cut herbage and can cause both leaching and increased mold damage. Should rain be imminent on a partially dried crop, it should, if possible, be gathered into bigger windrows or cocks.
Mechanical loss This occurs during collection, transport and baling. Their severity depends partly on the skill of the operator.
Spoilage in the stack or bale is particularly dangerous, and can lead to the loss of the entire harvest, usually as a result of storing material which is at too high a moisture content in over-large units or poorly designed stacks which allow rain penetration or do not allow some ventilation. The ideal moisture content for stacking or baling depends on the crop and the site, and experience and field judgment must be the general guide. The farmer must judge by feel and make a decision in the light of the prevailing weather: when the herbage feels crisp in the hand and does not show moisture when twisted, it is probably at
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25 - 30% moisture and ready to bale. Moisture meters are not generally available nor convenient to use in the field, and taking a representative sample is not easy. Fine-leaved, thin-stemmed herbage dries most quickly; large coarse grasses with thick stems and nodes (e.g., Sudan grass) can still have a lot of juice in the stems after the leaves are quite dry. In extreme cases, the fermentation may raise temperatures to levels where spontaneous combustion occurs. Poorly cured or moldy hay, apart from losses, will lead to poor intake or refusal by stock, and may contain mycotoxins. Mold hay gives rise to the human disease known as "farmers' lung”. Wastage during utilization includes losses from opened stacks and poor feeding techniques.
Methods of hay making There are several processes for hay making which may be applicable or suitable under certain sets of conditions with different advantages and disadvantages 1. Ground or field curing method In this method, crop after harvesting is left in the field for drying under sunlight. The frequent turning is needed until the moisture in fodder remains 15%. Care should be taken that there may be minimum loss of leaves during drying. Advantages of this method are less involvement of cost, no need of any specific equipment, and convenience of preparing hay at the site of production. On the other hand, it is not possible to make hay during humid condition through this method. 2. Farm fences method In this method the forage after harvesting is spread over wire fencing or boundary wall of the farm. It is tilted once or twice before storage for proper curing. 3. Tripod or pyramid method drying The tripod is made of three wooden or iron pieces. The average height of this stand may be 2 to 3 meters. The network of ordinary rope or wire may be made over this framework. Grass is spread over the frame and is occasionally tilted by long stick or bamboo for even drying. In this method drying action is accelerated by increasing the total area of exposure to sun. There is minimum action of microbes in this method as there is no direct contact to soil.
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Advantages of hay making • There is availability of nutritious feed to the animal during the scarcity of fodder • Fodder can be preserved for longer period of time because due to lack of moisture content enzyme and microbial activities are stopped • The good quality legume hay may replace certain amount of concentrate in the ration, thus reducing the cost of production • The fodders can be harvested at the stage when there is maximum accumulation of nutrient in the plan.
Quality of hay • It should have a typical aroma of the of fodder from which it has been prepared • It should be free from foreign material like dust etc • This should possess reasonable green color, which gives a rough idea or the quantity of the precursor of vitamin A, the carotene • It should maintain leafiness of original fodder. The loss of leaves during the process will produce a poor-quality product • This should be palatable to animals. The poorly prepared hay generally is not readily accepted by the animals
Storage of hay In open environment hay can be stored in the following ways. • Hay-stack on ground • The chopped hay - In some places, hay is chopped before use. The limitation of chopped hay is that this cannot be stored in the open environment because of the heavy losses by wind and rains • The baled hay - The baling process makes the compact cubical bundles of the forages. This reduces the requirement of space in comparison to loose or chopped hay. The bales may be stored in open environment or in the barn • The wafers - For the preparation of wafers or compressed cubical form of hay, the long hay is chopped in to 3-5 cm length and then compressed it in the wafering machine • The pallets - The compressed product of hay after grinding is known as pallets. They are cylindrical compact masses of hay which are very palatable. Pelleting reduces feeding loss and storage space
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Crops used for hay making 1. Lucerne 2. Rhode grass 3. Sudan grass 4. Berseem 5. Oat Information and communication technologies
Applications of ICTs in livestock • Increasing efficiency, productivity and sustainability of small-scale farms • Information about livestock management and disease control, especially early warning systems, suitable breed, vaccination schedule, clean milk production, least cost feed formulation, any other scientific interventions to optimize production for maximizing profits • Up-to-date market information on prices for livestock products (milk, meat, egg), concentrate mixture, feed ingredients, mineral mixtures etc and consumer trends • Strengthen capacities and better representation of their constituencies when negotiating input and output prices, resource rights and infrastructure projects • Reduce social isolation, widen the perspective of local communities in terms of national or global developments, open up new business opportunities and allow easier contact with friends and relatives
Role of ICTs in livestock Information and Communicational Technology (IT) has several roles on livestock sector starting from decision support system to the trading of the products.
Major components of ICT Major components which are used in Pakistan for providing ICT services to the farmers are web portals, mobile applications on android phone, SMS and voice messages on simple phones, information kiosks, videos and video conferencing with the experts. Livestock experts are the key component in the whole process of disseminating information to the farmers. The ICT components may disseminate relevant, real, customized information to the farmers at appropriate time. Hence, ICTs provide a forum to reach masses
158 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia easily and to make global and local information easily accessible to the stakeholders. Information dissemination on livestock through modern ICT is cost effective, time saving and speedy. 1. Voice messages Voice messaging is an instant communication technology in which messages are transmitted via voice media. It stores voice messages in a voice mail, which can be accessed via a smart device or even a landline phone. Through this technology, farmers can send their problems or ask any information to livestock experts and get their feedback by using their cellular phones. 2. Mobile phone Mobile telephone technology has emerged as the foremost choice of the majority of the urban and rural people. Mobile phones are found as the most widely accessed tool among the farmers for communication and for accessing livestock related information particularly for the marketing of their produce. Researchers also reported that mobile phones are the most used ICT tool and highly accessible by the farmers. 3. Kiosk Kiosks is a machine which guide farmers through a text and audio mode on the various issues of livestock management such as feed formulation, balanced ration, vaccination schedule, clean milk production and health care practices. This technology was developed by an Indian Farmers Fertilizer Cooperative Limited after launching an application of “Agri kiosks” in 2003. This technology/machine provides a complete multilingual interface to support rural communities speaking Urdu, Punjabi, Pashto, Sindhi and Balochi. 4. Video and video conferencing Videos are documentaries on multiple topics of livestock sector i.e. formation of farmers cooperatives (milk, goat, sheep, poultry, egg, etc.), feed formulation with locally available feed resources, usefulness of balanced feeding, protection of livestock from parasite or disease, clean milk production, objectives of vaccination, care and management of newborn animals, usefulness of colostrum feeding, organic/ antibiotic free poultry production, climate resilient livestock production, etc. In Pakistan, the Agriculture Extension Department plays these videos on TV Channels in national and local languages to help farmers. These documentaries are programmed. These documentaries are also provided to farmers / stakeholders in the form of DVD’s on no profit and loss basis.
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5. Web portals A web portal is a specially designed website that brings information from diverse sources, like emails, online forums and search engines, together in a uniform way. Some webs portals having livestock related information are being run in Pakistan are given in Table 14. 6. SMS (Short Message Service) SMS is a text messaging service component of most telephone, internet, and mobile-device systems. It uses standardized communication protocols to enable mobile devices to exchange short text messages. 7. Voice mail messages A voicemail system is a computer-based system that allows users and subscribers to exchange personal voice messages; to select and deliver voice information; and to process transactions relating to individuals, organizations, products and services, using an ordinary telephone. The electronic devices used for communication can be regarded as electronic media. Important electronic media pertinent to agriculture include following: i. Radio ii. Television iii. Audio/Video Cassettes iv. Telephone v. Internet vi. Agri. help line vii. Mobile phone Table 14 Agricultural Web Portal available in Pakistan Web Service/ Mission and Organization Type Navigation Language Address Product statement
Toll free Management help line, of livestock, Social media dairy and Little bit Livestock & Campaign, poultry farms tough, Diary sheep goat and registration Govt. English, development show, development required
dept. vaccination, of new for feed Information genetic back desk, resources for
www.livestockpunjab.gov.pk Supportive livestock literature
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Telephone calls
Telephone calls are received, and feedback is given accordingly. Keeping in view the importance of livestock sector, Livestock and Dairy Development (L&DD) Department has also extended the facility of help line (like 0800- 78686) for providing livestock information to the needy farmers. Telenor Pakistan
Telenor Pakistan partnered with two provincial governments of Pakistan, Punjab and Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, to launch agricultural and livestock information services for farmers in Mardan and Bahawalpur covering only 3000 farmers. The initiative has not taken forward. In 2014, Telenor signed an MOU with the Government of KPK to provide agriculture and livestock information to farmers. In addition, farmers will be offered the Easypaisa platform to trade in agricultural commodities. Information will be provided via push SMS, voice recordings and small community gatherings (telenore.com). Requirement of livestock
Nutrient requirements for maintenance Maintenance requirement of nutrients (calculation based on NRC, 1988) for different livestock species in terms of protein and energy is presented at Table 15. Species wise maintenance requirement of both energy and digestible crude protein is highest in buffalo, followed by cattle, goat, sheep, donkey, camel and horses. In brief, the total maintenance requirement of different categories of livestock for entire Pakistan is 75.43 million tonnes of TDN and 7.57 million tonnes of digestible crude protein. Table 15 Annual total digestible nutrient (TDN) and digestible crude protein (DCP) requirements for maintenance Digestible Crude Total Digestible Animal units Animals Protein Nutrient (million #) (Million tonnes) (Million tonnes) Cattle 16.92 2.03 20.26 Buffalo 25.29 3.04 30.28 Sheep 4.98 0.6 5.96 Goat 10.98 1.32 13.14 Camel 1.36 0.16 1.63 Horse 0.65 0.08 0.78 Donkey 2.82 0.34 3.38 Total 60.00 7.57 75.43
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Calculated based on NRC (1988) nutrient requirements for maintenance of an animal unit daily (425 kg cattle); Total digestible nutrient /TDN (kg) =3.28; Digestible crude protein /DCP (kg) =0.329 Nutrient requirement for production The purpose of livestock rearing is to produce safe food for human consumption in addition to fulfilling of other purposes including ploughing, transportation etc. Annual total requirement of nutrients for different purposes is presented in Table 16. If summed the nutrient requirement for different purposes, the values come around 10.9152 million tonnes of digestible crude protein (DCP) and 90.361 million tonnes of total digestible nutrients (TDN). Table 16 Estimated annual total requirement of nutrients for livestock Requirements DCP (million tonnes) TDN (million tonnes) Maintenance 7.57 75.43 Production 2.93 10.46 Work 0.4152 4.471 Total 10.9152 90.361
Annual feed requirement of livestock The annual feed requirement of livestock in terms of green and dry fodder, concentrate mixture is presented in Table 17. The concentrate requirement for the livestock of Pakistan is estimated to be approximately 19.42 million tonnes. The requirement of dry and green fodder is approximately 102.85 and 33.35 million tonnes, respectively. Table 17 Estimated annual feed requirements of livestock in Pakistan Green Fodder Dry fodder Feed Concentrate diet (Million tonnes) (Million tonnes) requirements (Million tonnes) on DM basis on DM basis Maintenance 33.35 102.85 - Milk Production - - 14.95 Work - - 4.471 Total 33.35 102.85 19.42 Assumptions Green fodder contains on DM basis; TDN=57.7%; DCP=12.58%; Concentrate contain TDN=70%, DCP=20%; Dry roughage contains on DM basis TDN=44%
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Balance sheet for livestock nutrient requirement The balance sheet for energy and protein requirement of livestock is presented in Table 18. It clearly indicates deficiency of both digestible crude protein (DCP) and total digestible nutrient (TDN) at the tune of 38.1% and 24.02 %, respectively. Nevertheless, farmers allocate the feedstuff according to the production levels of the animals. This might be the reason for the increasing trend of livestock production in spite of severe deficiency of nutrients. Further, it emphasizes urgent need for identification of newer feed resources, exploration of agro-industrial byproducts, enhancement of nutrient utilization for ensuring sustainability of livestock production. Table 18 Balance sheet of annual nutrient requirements and availability for livestock in Pakistan Particulars TDN (million tonnes) DCP (million tonnes) Total Requirements 90.361 10.9152 Annual availability 69.00 6.756 Deficiency 21.36 4.159 Deficiency % 24.02 38.1
Recommendations The following recommendations are important to be undertaken for better feeding of livestock in the country. Fodder To improve the yield of fodder crop per hectare it is necessary that: 1. Superior fodders germplasm should be identified and propagated in the field. 2. Hybrid seeds either be imported or indigenously produced and distributed among the farmers. 3. With the seed provision, a complete package of agronomic practices should be transferred to the farmer. 4. Year-round fodder production systems should be devised according to the geographical conditions of the area. 5. Institutional integration is needed to get best out of fodder research stations. 6. Collaboration between crop and animal production sectors may improve the situation.
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7. Research facilities should be improved in the fodder research stations and a national policy for fodder production should be devised. 8. Infrastructure and inputs required for enhancing the fodder production should be provided to the farmer. 9. To train the farmer about fodder conservation, special workshops be held. 10. Evaluation of existing fodder crops through chemical methods and biological trials is required. 11. Legume and non-legume crop combination may improve the feeding status of livestock. 12. A proper documentation of fodder crop situation is important before all the measures. Range land Grasses, shrubs and tree leaves are the potential feed reservoir for livestock in Pakistan. It can be improved as follows: 1. Evaluation and identification of best local forage species should be undertaken. 2. Exotic varieties of grasses, which could tolerate heat and low moisture content be tested. 3. Water conservation techniques as if drip irrigation, plastic mulching, pitcher irrigation etc. could improve the range conditions. 4. Range management, conservation and improvement policies are required to be followed strictly. 5. Integration and collaboration between range management and livestock management departments is important to consider for betterment of range resources. 6. Involvement of local people through community organizations to prevent the deterioration of range resources should be undertaken. 7. Artificial reseeding, fertilization and other inputs could provide good results. 8. Rangeland act should be devised and implemented properly. 9. Artificial rain or water catchments areas should be developed to overcome the water shortage. 10. Allocation of funds to the rangeland department should be increased so that range research and rangeland condition could be improved.
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Agro-industrial by products Agricultural and industrial byproducts could contribute to a greater extent to meet the needs of animals in Pakistan. If the following steps are considered: 1. Chemical analysis and biological trials for evaluation of byproducts to see their potential for livestock feeding should be started. 2. Chemical, physical and biological treatments should be devised to improve the quality of byproducts. 3. Farmer training is required so that they can use cheaper feed resources. 4. Sugarcane pith could be used as an important nutrient source if steam treatment is done. 5. Molasses feeding through urea-molasses blocks and liquid supplements could minimize the existing nutrient deficiency for livestock. 6. About 376.23 MT of livestock dung is available in Pakistan which could be used for livestock feed after its recycling through chemical and biological methods. 7. Corncobs, cottonseed hulls, rice hulls could be used if proper treatment is done and awareness is created among the farmers. 8. Bakery, citrus industry and banana byproducts could contribute a lot to animal feed. General considerations 1. Proper coupling of nutrients at dietary, and digestive and cellular levels is required to reduce the gap between nutrient requirements and availability. 2. Proper documentation of available feed resources under different ecological zones should be undertaken. 3. Actual worth of existing livestock feed resources should be estimated through laboratory and biological trials. 4. Work is needed to estimate the nutrient requirements of local livestock breeds at different physiological conditions and under various climatic conditions. 5. Better feeding of livestock could be achieved if vertical expansion of livestock production is followed. 6. Government should start and encourage the private sector to develop cattle feed industry in Pakistan. 7. Livestock production projects like small dairy holding development should be extended to other areas and livestock production scientists are needed to be involved in livestock extension works.
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8. Urea and poultry litter as a source of NPN could help a lot to minimize the gap between protein availability and requirements of ruminants. 9. Ensiling and hay making systems should be devised and extended to the farmers according to local livestock production system.
References Anonymous. 1996 & 2006. Livestock Census. Statistics Division, Agricultural Census Organization, Ministry of National Food Security & Research, Islamabad, Pakistan. Anonymous. 2005-2006. Poultry Census. Statistics Division, Agricultural Census Organization, Ministry of National Food Security & Research, Islamabad, Pakistan. Anonymous. 2009-10 & 2012-2013. Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan, Economic Wing, Ministry of National Food Security and Research, Islamabad, Pakistan. Anonymous. 2010-11, 2014-15, 2016-17&2018-19. Economic survey of Pakistan. Finance Division, Ministry of National Food Security and Research, Islamabad, Pakistan. Clark, B.J., and McDonald, P. 1977. The drying pattern of grass swaths in the field. Journal of British Grassland Society. 32: 77-81. Green, J.T., and Mueller, P.J. 1995. Silage production. In Production and utilization of pastures and forages in North Carolina. Chamblee, D.S. and Green, J.T. (eds.) Tech. Bull. 305. NC Cooperative Extension, NC State University, Raleigh. Habib, G. and Siddiqui, M.M. 1994. Feeds and Feeding in Animal Husbandry. S I Shah (Editor), TIPAN Project of NWFP Agricultural University, Peshawar published by NBF, Islamabad. Iqbal, S. 1994. Animal Husbandry. National Book Foundation, Islamabad. Jones, L., and Harris, C.E. 1979. Plant and swath limit to drying. In: G. Thomas (ed) Forage Conservation in the 80s. British Grassland Soc. Occasional Pub. No. 11. pp. 53-60. Kung, L., Stokes, M.R. and Lin. C.J. 2003. Silage additives. In Silage science and technology, pp.305-360. D.R. Buxton, R.E. Muck, and J.H. Harrison, eds. ASA-CSSA-SSSA Publishers, Madison, WI. Mohammad, N. 1989. Rangeland Management in Pakistan. ICIMOD, PO Box 3226, Kathmandu, Nepal Muck, R.E., and Kung, L. 2007. Silage production. In Forages: the science of grassland agriculture, pp. 617-633. Barnes, R.F., Nelson, C.J., Moore, K.J. and Collins, M. (eds.). Blackwell Publishing, Ames, IA.
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Musa, M., Azad, A.K. and Gurung, T.R (eds.). 2013. Popularizing multiple cropping innovation as a means to raise crop productivity and farm income in SAARC countries (http://www.sac.org.bd/archives/publications/Multiple%20cropping.pdf) Pahlow, G., Muck, R.E., Driehuis, F., Elferink, S.O., and Spoelstra, S.F. 2003. Microbiology. In: Chap. 2, Silage Science and Technology. Agronomy. 42: 31-93. Pitt, R.E. 1990.The biology of silage preservation. In Silage and hay preservation, National Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service, Ithaca, NY. Pp. 5- 20 Quraishi, M.A.A., Khan, G.S. and Yaqoob, M.S. 1993. Range Management in Pakistan. Qazi Publications, 121-Zulqarnain Chambers, Ganpat Road, Lahore. Rotz, C.A. 1995. Field curing of forages. In Post-harvest physiology and preservation of forages, pp. 39-65. CSSA Publishers, Madison, WI. Sajjad, M., Zamir, S.I., and Ahmed, F. 2019. University of Agriculture, Faisalabad. (https://www.technologytimes.pk/constrains-fodder-production-pakistan/) Younas M. 1997. Rangelands and Animal Production: -constraints and options. Desertification Control Bulletin. UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. Volume.31:30-36. Younas, M. and Yaqoob, M. 2005. Feed resources of livestock in the Punjab, Pakistan. Livestock Research for Rural Development, Vol. 17, No. 2.
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Annexure 1 Proximate composition and energy values carbonaceous feed ingredients (on dry basis)
Cattle & Buffalo Sheep and Goat Feed Stuff DM CP EE CF MM NFE DP TDN DE ME TDN DE ME GE % % % % % % % % Mcal/kg % Mcal/kg Mcal/kg Bajra 90.90 10.55 4.67 10.00 3.11 72.67 5.70 77.20 3.40 2.79 81.40 3.59 2.94 445.47 Barley 91.40 10.21 2.68 7.26 2.67 77.37 5.39 77.20 3.40 2.79 83.40 3.68 3.01 4.30 Gram black 94.40 20.35 3.17 7.33 2.62 66.52 14.70 75.20 3.31 2.72 81.10 3.57 2.93 4.50 Gram large 91.70 18.43 2.62 6.87 3.05 69.03 12.94 75.20 3.32 2.72 81.40 3.59 2.94 4.41 Maize yellow (desi) 89.00 11.80 4.07 3.03 1.71 79.39 6.85 80.60 3.55 2.91 88.50 3.90 3.20 4.41 Maize white (desi) 89.36 11.25 4.80 2.98 1.69 79.29 6.35 81.30 3.58 2.94 88.90 3.92 3.21 4.44 Maize yellow (hybrid) 89.61 9.80 4.11 2.84 1.53 81.72 5.02 81.20 3.58 2.94 89.30 3.94 3.23 4.38 Maize white (hybrid) 89.45 10.44 4.92 2.79 1.47 80.19 5.60 81.70 3.60 2.95 89.30 3.94 3.23 4.43 Matri 96.00 30.04 1.53 8.47 6.49 54.69 23.60 70.00 3.08 2.53 74.80 3.30 2.70 4.47 Oats 91.94 9.52 6.31 14.68 4.45 65.04 4.76 75.10 3.31 2.71 75.20 3.32 2.72 4.47 Rice basmati 91.50 9.67 1.65 0.68 1.42 86.47 4.90 80.60 3.55 2.91 90.80 4.00 3.28 4.23 Rice begmi 91.13 9.37 2.26 0.75 1.77 85.85 4.62 81.00 3.57 2.93 90.80 4.00 3.28 4.25 Rice permal 91.20 8.40 2.19 1.17 2.87 85.36 3.73 80.40 3.55 2.91 89.50 3.95 3.24 4.18 Rice permal Russian 91.15 8.57 1.78 0.82 2.19 86.64 3.89 80.60 3.55 2.91 90.30 3.98 3.27 4.19 Sorghum (chari) 91.00 17.03 3.13 4.32 3.08 72.44 11.65 77.40 3.41 2.80 84.40 3.72 3.05 4.40 Sorghum (juar) 90.20 15.75 2.62 2.47 2.66 76.50 10.48 78.50 3.46 2.84 86.90 3.83 3.14 4.35 Wheat chenab 70 91.77 10.67 1.73 2.48 2.53 82.60 5.82 79.00 3.48 2.86 87.90 3.87 3.18 4.22 Wheat 591 91.70 13.02 1.22 2.16 2.80 80.81 7.97 78.10 3.44 2.82 87.30 3.85 3.15 4.22 Wheat Maxi Pak 91.62 14.09 2.15 2.80 2.18 78.77 8.95 78.50 3.46 2.84 87.20 3.84 3.15 4.32 Wheat SA 421 92.70 12.80 1.80 2.31 1.92 81.16 7.77 78.90 3.48 2.85 88.10 3.88 3.18 4.28
168 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia
Annexure 2 Proximate composition and energy values of protein rich ingredients
Cattle & Buffalo Sheep and Goat Feed Stuff DM CP EE CF MM NFE DP TDN DE ME TDN DE ME GE
% % % % % % % % Mcal/kg % Mcal/kg Mcal/kg Almond cake 93.02 39.68 11.29 5.47 8.52 35.07 32.43 89.50 3.95 3.24 88.30 3.89 3.19 5.02 Caster seed cake 93.10 28.12 8.05 21.16 6.23 36.41 21.83 68.50 3.02 2.47 74.20 3.27 2.68 4.85 Cotton seed cake (undec) 93.50 23.04 9.52 26.20 6.52 34.79 17.17 63.40 2.79 2.29 69.90 3.08 2.53 4.88 Cotton seed cake (dec) 92.70 39.59 5.61 9.49 7.64 37.67 32.36 79.80 3.52 2.88 81.10 3.57 2.93 4.77 Groundnut cake (undec) 91.70 24.75 5.78 18.43 5.89 43.95 18.74 68.50 3.02 2.48 73.90 3.26 2.67 4.62 Groundnut cake (dec) 93.95 40.50 4.36 7.29 5.96 45.24 33.20 83.40 3.68 3.01 89.10 3.93 3.22 4.90 Linseed cake 92.50 32.22 7.35 10.70 7.03 42.70 25.60 79.70 3.51 2.88 82.50 3.64 2.98 4.77 Poppyseed cake 92.80 32.48 11.00 12.82 9.75 42.62 25.84 83.60 3.69 3.02 91.50 4.03 3.31 5.23 Sunflower cake 91.90 30.47 16.20 26.66 7.40 19.26 23.99 69.70 3.07 2.52 72.90 3.21 2.63 5.34 Sesame cake 93.14 36.07 8.70 6.66 9.34 38.76 29.13 84.70 3.74 3.06 83.05 3.68 3.02 4.77 Rape seed cake 93.00 37.10 8.17 11.61 8.39 35.81 30.08 79.80 3.52 2.88 81.50 3.59 2.95 4.90 Maize oil cake 95.90 18.66 8.45 13.14 2.81 56.93 13.15 78.50 3.46 2.84 87.40 3.85 3.16 4.79 Sarsoon cake 93.20 32.30 13.52 11.37 9.01 33.80 25.67 84.00 3.70 3.04 83.80 3.70 3.03 5.04 Guar meal untoasted 91.30 47.86 6.57 7.78 6.90 30.89 39.96 83.80 3.69 3.03 84.10 3.71 3.04 4.98 Guar meal toasted 92.30 49.40 6.72 7.58 6.39 29.90 41.37 84.50 3.73 3.06 85.00 3.75 3.07 5.03 Corn gluten feed 20% 92.90 21.85 7.00 21.85 7.00 9.26 7.75 54.14 3.51 2.88 83.30 3.67 3.01 3.33 Corn gluten feed 30% 93.00 30.70 4.84 6.56 3.44 54.84 24.20 83.60 3.68 3.02 90.20 3.98 3.26 4.74 Continue to next page
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Cattle & Buffalo Sheep and Goat Feed Stuff DM CP EE CF MM NFE DP TDN DE ME TDN DE ME GE
% % % % % % % % Mcal/kg % Mcal/kg Mcal/kg
Corn gluten feed 50% 92.60 55.72 2.91 1.73 1.08 38.55 47.17 90.50 3.99 3.27 94.80 4.18 3.43 5.10 Corn gluten meal 60% 91.80 64.70 8.17 3.48 2.61 22.98 55.41 94.60 4.17 3.42 97.10 4.28 3.51 5.57 Maize bran 93.10 9.88 3.76 11.71 3.65 64.66 5.09 71.60 3.15 2.59 76.00 3.35 2.75 4.09 Rice bran 92.60 9.99 15.12 14.25 15.44 45.25 5.19 77.40 3.41 2.80 74.80 3.30 2.70 4.51 Rice polishing 92.60 12.36 15.82 4.16 11.66 52.37 7.37 89.90 3.96 3.25 85.40 3.76 3.09 4.52 Wheat bran 91.40 14.99 4.27 12.47 5.69 56.73 9.78 71.00 3.13 2.57 73.20 3.23 2.65 4.15 Matri 94.60 25.95 2.67 8.56 3.38 59.46 19.84 78.50 3.46 2.84 86.30 3.81 3.12 4.54 Swank 93.10 12.03 8.81 17.83 7.30 54.03 7.11 70.90 3.12 2.56 77.30 3.41 2.79 4.56 Berseem leaf meal 92.60 22.14 1.29 15.87 8.10 48.70 16.34 64.60 2.85 2.34 66.50 2.93 2.40 4.11 Lucerne leaf meal 90.10 23.84 2.33 30.96 5.55 37.51 17.12 51.40 2.26 1.86 60.80 2.68 2.20 4.58 Molasses 82.30 3.04 - - 10.33 86.63 - 80.50 3.55 2.91 84.70 3.74 3.06 3.67 Brewer’s yeast 92.80 44.40 0.43 - - - 36.78 64.90 2.86 2.35 21.06 0.95 0.78 2.58 Beet pulp 90.30 12.21 2.04 19.93 2.77 62.79 7.23 63.80 2.81 2.30 75.80 3.34 2.74 4.38 Maize germ cake 95.80 15.97 8.14 0.29 2.82 63.78 10.68 88.40 3.63 2.98 91.20 4.02 3.30 4.27
170 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia
Annexure 3 Proximate composition and energy values of animal origin feed ingredients
Cattle & Buffalo Sheep and Goat
Feed Stuff DM CP EE CF MM NFE DP TDN DE ME TDN DE ME GE
% % % % % % % % Mcal/kg % Mcal/kg Mcal/kg
Blood meal 91.80 72.98 1.98 1.74 6.21 17.10 - 88.90 3.92 3.21 86.10 3.79 3.11 5.14
Bone meal 94.20 25.05 1.86 1.54 66.35 5.09 - 57.70 2.54 20.08 6.85 0.30 0.25 1.89
Feather meal 95.30 83.84 1.89 1.11 7.97 5.14 - 89.80 3.96 3.24 83.50 3.68 3.02 5.24
Fish meal 93.20 53.86 7.19 1.18 22.10 15.66 - 85.80 3.78 3.10 70.10 3.09 2.53 4.45
Hoof and horn meal 89.70 18.95 5.24 2.79 6.24 66.89 - 85.80 3.78 3.10 90.80 4.00 3.28 4.41
Liver meal 92.90 64.91 1.85 1.83 6.89 24.54 - 87.60 3.86 3.17 85.30 3.77 3.09 4.97
Meat meal 95.80 50.63 9.08 2.45 24.74 13.65 - 84.70 3.73 3.06 66.90 2.95 2.42 4.43
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Annexure 4 Proximate composition and energy values of green fodders
Cattle & Buffalo Sheep and Goat Feed Stuff DM CP EE CF MM NFE DP TDN DE ME TDN DE ME GE % % % % % % % % Mcal/kg % Mcal/kg Mcal/kg Maize, early/full bloom 14.20 9.58 1.55 33.80 9.58 45.49 3.42 51.30 2.26 1.85 52.80 2.33 1.91 4.15 Maize milk stage 20.10 7.11 2.30 30.40 7.00 53.19 3.13 55.10 2.43 1.99 54.60 2.41 1.97 4.22 Maize dough stage 29.30 6.04 2.29 27.81 5.52 58.34 2.13 56.90 2.51 2.06 55.90 2.47 2.02 4.25 Maize mature stage 40.15 6.10 2.12 23.73 4.80 63.25 2.19 58.80 2.59 2.12 57.70 2.54 2.08 4.24 Bajra, early/full bloom 16.70 8.26 1.20 31.62 11.60 47.32 4.19 49.40 2.18 1.78 51.10 2.25 1.84 4.01 Bajra, milk/dough stage 29.50 6.08 1.73 30.40 8.20 53.77 2.17 52.90 2.33 1.91 53.20 2.34 1.92 4.14 Bajra, mature, wo ears 35.80 3.12 0.56 41.12 7.23 47.97 - 46.40 2.04 1.68 49.00 2.16 1.77 4.13 Sorghum, early/full bloom 14.40 9.51 2.22 32.92 12.50 42.85 5.35 50.30 2.21 1.82 50.80 2.24 1.84 4.06 Sorghum, milk/dough 30.00 6.20 1.67 31.67 9.20 51.26 2.28 51.40 2.26 1.86 51.90 2.30 1.88 4.10 Sorghum, mature stage 42.00 4.88 1.62 30.74 7.04 55.72 1.05 52.90 2.33 1.91 53.20 2.34 1.92 4.15 Moth, early/full bloom 16.00 19.88 2.06 24.94 15.31 37.81 14.99 54.70 2.41 1.97 56.10 2.49 2.04 4.05 Moth, milk/dough stage 21.50 17.39 1.91 28.50 15.20 37.00 12.68 52.20 2.30 1.89 54.10 2.39 1.96 4.03 Guara, early/full bloom 17.10 20.00 2.00 28.31 12.70 36.99 15.10 55.50 2.44 2.00 57.60 2.54 2.08 4.18 Guara, milk/dough stage 20.90 17.35 2.44 30.97 11.90 37.34 12.64 54.80 2.42 1.98 56.10 2.47 2.03 4.21 Swank, early/full bloom 15.80 10.57 1.65 30.19 17.40 40.19 6.34 46.70 2.06 1.69 48.20 2.12 1.74 3.83 Swank, milk/dough stage 12.30 7.97 2.34 31.42 14.77 43.50 3.92 48.60 2.14 1.75 48.70 2.14 1.76 3.94 Sarsoon, early/full bloom 15.30 20.26 2.16 18.75 16.08 42.76 15.34 56.70 2.50 2.05 57.70 2.54 2.09 3.99 Sarsoon, milk/dough 21.70 18.39 2.67 20.97 14.90 43.07 13.60 57.00 2.51 2.06 57.10 2.52 20.60 4.05 Mongi, early/full bloom 17.35 18.27 1.21 19.98 13.24 47.30 13.49 56.30 2.48 2.03 58.40 2.57 2.11 4.02 Continue to next page
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Cattle & Buffalo Sheep and Goat Feed Stuff DM CP EE CF MM NFE DP TDN DE ME TDN DE ME GE % % % % % % % % Mcal/kg % Mcal/kg Mcal/kg Mongi, milk/dough 22.10 17.31 1.76 20.59 15.32 45.03 12.60 54.90 2.42 1.98 56.20 2.48 2.03 3.96 Berseem, early vegetative 14.23 21.50 3.66 14.18 14.00 46.66 16.49 63.10 2.78 2.28 61.60 2.72 2.23 4.14 Berseem, early bloom 15.62 19.90 2.64 18.59 12.20 46.67 15.01 60.70 2.67 2.19 60.20 2.68 2.20 4.16 Berseem, full bloom 22.77 18.90 2.24 19.06 11.50 48.30 14.08 60.00 2.65 2.17 60.60 2.67 2.19 4.15 Berseem, late bloom 28.33 15.00 2.21 22.69 11.15 48.95 10.46 57.40 2.53 2.07 57.70 2.54 2.09 4.13 Lucerne, early vegetative 18.29 24.60 3.19 14.40 13.45 44.36 19.37 63.90 2.82 2.31 63.60 2.80 2.30 4.19 Lucerne, early bloom 24.26 22.83 2.68 19.03 10.10 45.36 17.73 63.40 2.79 2.29 63.90 2.82 2.31 4.30 Lucerne, full bloom 27.16 21.20 2.37 20.62 9.02 46.79 16.21 62.60 2.76 2.26 63.40 2.79 2.29 4.31 Lucerne, late bloom 30.10 16.38 2.22 23.18 9.76 48.46 11.74 58.90 2.60 2.13 59.40 2.62 2.15 4.21 Oats, early bloom 15.98 12.20 2.88 22.15 14.96 47.81 7.85 54.50 2.40 1.97 53.50 2.36 1.93 3.96 Oats, full bloom 22.10 8.98 2.30 22.25 12.38 51.84 4.86 52.50 2.32 1.90 51.90 2.29 1.87 3.89 Oats, milk stage 26.89 7.20 2.08 24.37 11.19 54.80 3.21 53.30 2.35 1.92 52.70 2.32 1.90 3.99 Oats, dough stage 33.84 6.38 3.07 27.48 10.40 52.67 2.45 54.30 2.39 1.96 52.50 2.31 1.90 4.10 Barley, early bloom 15.60 13.85 1.80 15.38 12.44 56.53 9.39 58.10 2.56 2.10 58.00 2.56 2.10 3.98 Barley, full bloom 20.37 10.80 2.48 21.31 12.57 52.84 6.55 55.60 2.45 2.01 54.80 2.41 1.98 4.00 Barley, milk stage 24.86 8.77 2.09 23.17 12.19 53.78 4.67 53.80 2.37 1.94 53.40 2.35 1.93 3.98 Barley, dough stage 29.20 6.71 2.09 29.49 10.45 51.26 2.75 52.00 2.29 1.88 51.90 2.29 1.87 4.06 Turnip tops, early bloom 9.70 13.81 3.92 14.23 14.64 53.40 9.35 60.10 2.65 2.17 57.00 2.51 2.06 4.00 Turnip tops, full bloom 16.50 13.88 3.82 15.45 12.36 54.49 9.41 61.40 2.71 2.20 58.50 2.58 2.11 4.09 Turnips 11.90 9.66 1.60 18.99 9.36 60.59 5.49 57.50 2.53 2.08 57.30 2.53 2.07 4.06 Sugarcane tops 33.50 6.20 1.60 29.50 9.10 5.60 2.28 52.20 2.30 1.89 52.60 2.32 1.90 2.15
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Annexure 5 Proximate composition and energy values of dry roughages
Cattle & Buffalo Sheep and Goat
Feed Stuff DM% CP% EE% CF% MM% NFE% DP% TDN DE ME TDN DE ME GE
% % % % % % % % Mcal/kg % Mcal/kg Mcal/kg
Wheat straw 92.75 2.59 1.18 41.31 12.18 42.73 0.00 43.00 1.89 1.55 44.80 1.98 1.62 3.96
Rice straw 92.82 3.06 1.18 35.55 11.79 48.42 0.00 45.70 2.01 1.65 47.00 2.07 1.70 3.94
Oats straw 89.80 4.90 2.45 39.51 10.27 43.99 1.18 49.10 2.17 1.78 49.20 2.17 1.78 4.18
Barley straw 90.00 4.22 1.78 41.67 9.44 42.89 0.59 46.70 2.06 1.69 47.90 2.11 1.73 4.13
Maize stovers 82.50 5.45 1.45 34.06 8.24 50.79 1.52 50.60 2.23 1.83 51.60 2.27 1.86 4.13
Sorghum stovers 85.50 3.74 1.29 34.03 11.11 49.82 0.18 47.30 2.08 1.71 48.30 2.13 1.75 3.97
Bajra stovers 85.00 4.00 1.41 36.23 10.29 48.06 0.40 47.40 2.09 1.71 48.50 2.14 1.75 4.03
Cottonseed hulls 90.20 4.66 1.23 51.55 3.88 38.69 0.97 46.80 2.06 1.69 49.70 2.19 1.80 4.41
Sugarcane bagasse 90.50 1.66 0.66 50.28 4.97 42.43 0.00 44.30 1.95 1.60 47.40 2.09 1.71 4.28
Maize cobs 90.50 1.66 0.55 36.46 2.76 55.56 0.00 48.80 2.15 1.76 50.60 2.23 1.83 4.13
Rice hulls 91.50 2.73 0.76 44.26 22.68 29.56 0.00 32.40 1.43 1.17 35.70 1.57 1.29 3.54
Berseem hay 85.60 18.46 2.45 31.31 12.27 35.51 12.93 54.80 2.42 1.98 56.30 2.48 2.04 4.22
Lucerne hay 87.50 18.86 2.28 33.14 11.43 34.24 13.27 54.60 2.41 1.97 56.60 2.50 2.05 4.26
174 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia
Annexure 6-a Chemical composition of fodder and other feed stuff
On Dry Matter Basis (%) Sheep/ Goats Cows/ Buffalos Protei ME DE TDN ME DE TDN DP Sugar Mineral Fibre Fat n DM Bajra 2.94 3.59 81.40 2.79 3.40 77.20 5.70 72.67 3.11 10.00 4.67 10.55 90.90 Barley 3.01 3.68 83.40 2.79 3.40 77.20 5.39 77.37 2.67 7.26 2.68 10.21 91.40 Gram black 2.93 3.57 81.10 2.72 3.31 75.20 14.70 66.52 2.62 7.33 3.17 20.35 94.40 Gram large 2.94 3.59 81.40 2.72 3.32 75.20 12.94 69.03 3.05 6.87 2.62 18.43 91.70 Maize yellow (desi) 3.20 3.90 88.50 2.91 3.55 80.60 6.85 79.39 1.71 3.03 4.07 11.80 89.00 Maize white (desi) 3.21 3.92 88.90 2.94 3.58 81.30 6.35 79.29 1.69 2.98 4.80 11.25 89.36 Maize yellow (hyb) 3.23 3.94 89.30 2.94 3.58 81.20 5.02 81.72 1.53 2.84 4.11 9.80 89.61 Maize white (hyb) 3.23 3.94 89.30 2.95 3.60 81.70 5.60 80.19 1.47 2.79 4.92 10.44 89.45 Matri 2.70 3.30 74.80 2.53 3.08 70.00 23.60 54.69 6.49 8.47 1.53 30.04 96.00 Oats 2.72 3.32 75.20 2.71 3.31 75.10 4.76 65.04 4.45 14.68 6.31 9.52 91.94 Rice basmati 3.28 4.00 90.80 2.91 3.55 80.60 4.90 86.47 1.42 0.68 1.65 9.67 91.50 Rice begmi 3.28 4.00 90.80 2.93 3.57 81.00 4.62 85.85 1.77 0.75 2.26 9.37 91.13 Rice permal 3.24 3.95 89.50 2.91 3.55 80.40 3.73 85.36 2.87 1.17 2.19 8.40 91.20 Rice permal Russian 3.27 3.98 90.30 2.91 3.55 80.60 3.89 86.64 2.19 0.82 1.78 8.57 91.15 Sorghum (chari) 3.05 3.72 84.40 2.80 3.41 77.40 11.65 72.44 3.08 4.32 3.13 17.03 91.00 Sorghum (juar) 3.14 3.83 86.90 2.84 3.46 78.50 10.48 76.50 2.66 2.47 2.62 15.75 90.20 Wheat chenab 70 3.18 3.87 87.90 2.86 3.48 79.00 5.82 82.60 2.53 2.48 1.73 10.67 91.77 Wheat 591 3.15 3.85 87.30 2.82 3.44 78.10 7.97 80.81 2.80 2.16 1.22 13.02 91.70 Wheat Maxi Pak 3.15 3.84 87.20 2.84 3.46 78.50 8.95 78.77 2.18 2.80 2.15 14.09 91.62 Wheat SA 421 3.18 3.88 88.10 2.85 3.48 78.90 7.77 81.16 1.92 2.31 1.80 12.80 92.70
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Annexure 6-b Chemical composition of fodder and other feed stuff
On Dry Matter Basis (%)
Sheep/ Goats Cows/ Buffaloes
ME DE TDN ME DE TDN DP Sugar Mineral Fibre Fat Protein DM
Almond cake 3.19 3.89 88.30 3.24 3.95 89.50 32.43 35.07 8.52 5.47 11.29 39.68 93.02
Caster seed cake 2.68 3.27 74.20 2.47 3.02 68.50 21.83 36.41 6.23 21.16 80.50 28.12 93.10
Cotton seed cake (undec) 2.53 3.08 69.90 2.29 2.79 63.40 17.17 34.79 6.52 26.20 9.52 23.04 93.50
Cotton seed cake (dec) 2.93 3.57 81.10 2.88 3.52 79.80 32.36 37.67 7.64 9.49 5.61 39.59 92.70
Groundnut cake (undec) 2.67 3.26 73.90 2.48 3.02 68.50 18.74 43.95 5.89 18.43 5.78 24.75 91.70
Groundnut cake (dec) 3.22 3.93 89.10 3.01 3.68 83.40 33.20 45.24 5.96 7.29 4.36 40.50 93.95
Linseed cake 2.98 3.64 82.50 2.88 3.51 79.70 25.60 42.70 7.03 10.70 7.35 32.22 92.50
Poppyseed cake 3.31 4.03 91.50 3.02 3.69 83.60 25.84 42.62 9.75 12.82 11.00 32.48 92.80
Sunflower cake 2.63 3.21 72.90 2.52 3.07 69.70 23.99 19.26 7.40 26.66 16.20 30.47 91.90
Sesame cake 3.02 3.68 83.05 3.06 3.74 84.70 29.13 38.76 9.34 6.66 8.70 36.07 93.14
Rape seed cake 2.95 3.59 81.50 2.88 3.52 79.80 30.08 35.81 8.39 11.61 8.17 37.10 93.00
Maize oil cake 3.16 3.85 87.40 2.84 3.46 78.50 13.15 56.93 2.81 13.14 8.45 18.66 95.90
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Annexure 6-c Chemical composition of fodder and other feed stuff
On Dry Matter Basis (%) Sheep/ Goats Cows/ Buffaloes ME DE TDN ME DE TDN DP Sugar Mineral Fibre Fat Protein DM Sarsoon cake 3.03 3.70 83.80 3.04 3.70 84.00 25.67 33.80 9.01 11.37 13.52 32.30 93.20 Guar meal untoasted 3.04 3.71 84.10 3.03 3.69 83.80 39.96 30.89 6.90 7.78 6.57 47.86 91.30 Guar meal toasted 3.07 3.75 85.00 3.06 3.73 84.50 41.37 29.90 6.39 7.58 6.72 49.40 92.30 Corn gluten feed 20% 3.01 3.67 83.30 2.88 3.51 54.14 7.75 9.26 7.00 21.85 7.00 21.85 92.90 Corn gluten feed 30% 3.26 3.98 90.20 3.02 3.68 83.60 24.20 54.84 3.44 6.56 4.84 30.70 93.00 Corn gluten feed 50% 3.43 4.18 94.80 3.27 3.99 90.50 47.17 38.55 1.08 1.73 2.91 55.72 92.60 Corn gluten meal 60% 3.51 4.28 97.10 3.42 4.17 94.60 55.41 22.98 2.61 3.48 8.17 64.70 91.80 Maize bran 2.75 3.35 76.00 2.59 3.15 71.60 5.09 64.66 3.65 11.71 3.76 9.88 93.10 Rice bran 2.70 3.30 74.80 2.80 3.41 77.40 5.19 45.25 15.44 14.25 15.12 9.99 92.60 Rice polishing 3.09 3.76 85.40 3.25 3.96 89.90 7.37 52.37 11.66 4.16 15.82 12.36 92.60 Wheat bran 2.65 3.23 73.20 2.57 3.13 71.00 9.78 56.73 5.69 12.47 4.27 14.99 91.40 Matri 3.12 3.81 86.30 2.84 3.46 78.50 19.84 59.46 3.38 8.56 2.67 25.95 94.60 Swank 2.79 3.41 77.30 2.56 3.12 70.90 7.11 54.03 7.30 17.83 8.81 12.03 93.10 Berseem leaf meal 2.40 2.93 66.50 2.34 2.85 64.60 16.34 48.70 8.10 15.87 1.29 22.14 92.60 Lucerne leaf meal 2.20 2.68 60.80 1.86 2.26 51.40 17.12 37.51 5.55 30.96 2.33 23.84 90.10 Molasses 3.06 3.74 84.70 2.91 3.55 80.50 - 86.63 10.33 - - 3.04 82.30 Brewers yeast 0.78 0.95 21.06 2.35 2.86 64.90 36.78 - - - 0.43 44.40 92.80 Beet pulp 2.74 3.34 75.80 2.30 2.81 63.80 7.23 62.79 2.77 19.93 2.04 12.21 90.30 Maize germ cake 3.30 4.02 91.20 2.98 3.63 88.40 10.68 63.78 2.82 0.29 8.14 15.97 95.80 Blood meal 3.11 3.79 86.10 3.21 3.92 88.90 - 17.10 6.21 1.74 1.98 72.98 91.80 Bone meal 0.25 0.30 6.85 20.08 2.54 57.70 - 5.09 66.35 1.54 1.86 25.05 94.20 Feather meal 3.02 3.68 83.50 3.24 3.96 89.80 - 5.14 7.97 1.11 1.89 83.84 95.30 Fish meal 2.53 3.09 70.10 3.10 3.78 85.80 - 15.66 22.10 1.18 7.19 53.86 93.20 Hoof and horn meal 3.28 4.00 90.80 3.10 3.78 85.80 - 66.89 6.24 2.79 5.24 18.95 89.70 Liver meal 3.09 3.77 85.30 3.17 3.86 87.60 - 24.54 6.89 1.83 1.85 64.91 92.90 Meat meal 2.42 2.95 66.90 3.06 3.73 84.70 - 13.65 24.74 2.45 9.08 50.63 95.80
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Annexure 6-d Chemical composition of fodder and other feed stuff
On Dry Matter Basis (%) Sheep/ Goats Cows/ Buffaloes ME DE TDN ME DE TDN DP Sugar Mineral Fibre Fat Protein DM Maize mature stage 2.08 2.54 57.70 2.12 2.59 58.80 2.19 63.25 4.80 23.73 2.12 6.10 40.15 Bajra, early/full bloom 1.84 2.25 51.10 1.78 2.18 49.40 4.19 47.32 11.60 31.62 1.20 8.26 16.70 Bajra, milk/dough stage 1.92 2.34 53.20 1.91 2.33 52.90 2.17 53.77 8.20 30.40 1.73 6.08 29.50 Bajra, mature, wo ears 1.77 2.16 49.00 1.68 2.04 46.40 - 47.97 7.23 41.12 0.56 3.12 35.80 Sorghum, early/full bloom 1.84 2.24 50.80 1.82 2.21 50.30 5.35 42.85 12.50 32.92 2.22 9.51 14.40 Sorghum, milk/dough 1.88 2.30 51.90 1.86 2.26 51.40 2.28 51.26 9.20 31.67 1.67 6.20 30.00 Sorghum, mature stage 1.92 2.34 53.20 1.91 2.33 52.90 1.05 55.72 7.04 30.74 1.62 4.88 42.00 Moth, early/full bloom 2.04 2.49 56.10 1.97 2.41 54.70 14.99 37.81 15.31 24.94 2.06 19.88 16.00 Moth, milk/dough stage 1.96 2.39 54.10 1.89 2.30 52.20 12.68 37.00 15.20 28.50 1.91 17.39 21.50 Guara, early/full bloom 2.08 2.54 57.60 2.00 2.44 55.50 15.10 36.99 12.70 28.31 2.00 20.00 17.10 Guara, milk/dough stage 2.03 2.47 56.10 1.98 2.42 54.80 12.64 37.34 11.90 30.97 2.44 17.35 20.90 Swank, early/full bloom 1.74 2.12 48.20 1.69 2.06 46.70 6.34 40.19 17.40 30.19 1.65 10.57 15.80 Swank, milk/dough stage 1.76 2.14 48.70 1.75 2.14 48.60 3.92 43.50 14.77 31.42 2.34 7.97 12.30 Sarsoon, early/full bloom 2.09 2.54 57.70 2.05 2.50 56.70 15.34 42.76 16.08 18.75 2.16 20.26 15.30 Sarsoon, milk/dough 20.60 2.52 57.10 2.06 2.51 57.00 13.60 43.07 14.90 20.97 2.67 18.39 21.70 Mongi, early/full bloom 2.11 2.57 58.40 2.03 2.48 56.30 13.49 47.30 13.24 19.98 1.21 18.27 17.35 Mongi, milk/dough 2.03 2.48 56.20 1.98 2.42 54.90 12.60 45.03 15.32 20.59 1.76 17.31 22.10 Berseem, early vegetative 2.23 2.72 61.60 2.28 2.78 63.10 16.49 46.66 14.00 14.18 3.66 21.50 14.23 Continue to next page
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Continue from previous page Berseem, early bloom 2.20 2.68 60.20 2.19 2.67 60.70 15.01 46.67 12.20 18.59 2.64 19.90 15.62 Berseem, full bloom 2.19 2.67 60.60 2.17 2.65 60.00 14.08 48.30 11.50 19.06 2.24 18.90 22.77 Berseem, late bloom 2.09 2.54 57.70 2.07 2.53 57.40 10.46 48.95 11.15 22.69 2.21 15.00 28.33 Lucerne, early vegetative 2.30 2.80 63.60 2.31 2.82 63.90 19.37 44.36 13.45 14.40 3.19 24.60 18.29 Lucerne, early bloom 2.31 2.82 63.90 2.29 2.79 63.40 17.73 45.36 10.10 19.03 2.68 22.83 24.26 Lucerne, full bloom 2.29 2.79 63.40 2.26 2.76 62.60 16.21 46.79 9.02 20.62 2.37 21.20 27.16 Lucerne, late bloom 2.15 2.62 59.40 2.13 2.60 58.90 11.74 48.46 9.76 23.18 2.22 16.38 30.10 Oats, early bloom 1.93 2.36 53.50 1.97 2.40 54.50 7.85 47.81 14.96 22.15 2.88 12.20 15.98 Oats, full bloom 1.87 2.29 51.90 1.90 2.32 52.50 4.86 51.84 12.38 22.25 2.30 8.98 22.10 Oats, milk stage 1.90 2.32 52.70 1.92 2.35 53.30 3.21 54.80 11.19 24.37 2.08 7.20 26.89 Oats, dough stage 1.90 2.31 52.50 1.96 2.39 54.30 2.45 52.67 10.40 27.48 3.07 6.38 33.84 Barley, early bloom 2.10 2.56 58.00 2.10 2.56 58.10 9.39 56.53 12.44 15.38 1.80 13.85 15.60 Barley, full bloom 1.98 2.41 54.80 2.01 2.45 55.60 6.55 52.84 12.57 21.31 2.48 10.80 20.37 Barley, milk stage 1.93 2.35 53.40 1.94 2.37 53.80 4.67 53.78 12.19 23.17 2.09 8.77 24.86 Barley, dough stage 1.87 2.29 51.90 1.88 2.29 52.00 2.75 51.26 10.45 29.49 2.09 6.71 29.20 Turnip tops, early bloom 2.06 2.51 57.00 2.17 2.65 60.10 9.35 53.40 14.64 14.23 3.92 13.81 9.70 Turnip tops, full bloom 2.11 2.58 58.50 2.20 2.71 61.40 9.41 54.49 12.36 15.45 3.82 13.88 16.50 Turnips 2.07 2.53 57.30 2.08 2.53 57.50 5.49 60.59 9.36 18.99 1.60 9.66 11.90 Sugarcane tops 1.90 2.32 52.60 1.89 2.30 52.20 2.28 5.60 9.10 29.50 1.60 6.20 33.50
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Annexure 6-e Chemical composition of fodders and other feed stuff
On Dry Matter Basis (%)
Sheep/ Goats Cows/ Buffaloes
ME DE TDN ME DE TDN DP Sugar Mineral Fibre Fat Protein DM
Wheat straw 1.62 1.98 44.80 1.55 1.89 43.00 0.00 42.73 12.18 41.31 1.18 2.59 92.75
Rice straw 1.70 2.07 47.00 1.65 2.01 45.70 0.00 48.42 11.79 35.55 1.18 3.06 92.82
Oats straw 1.78 2.17 49.20 1.78 2.17 49.10 1.18 43.99 10.27 39.51 2.45 4.90 89.80
Barley straw 1.73 2.11 47.90 1.69 2.06 46.70 0.59 42.89 9.44 41.67 1.78 4.22 90.00
Maize stovers 1.86 2.27 51.60 1.83 2.23 50.60 1.52 50.79 8.24 34.06 1.45 5.45 82.50
Sorghum stovers 1.75 2.13 48.30 1.71 2.08 47.30 0.18 49.82 11.11 34.03 1.29 3.74 85.50
Bajra stovers 1.75 2.14 48.50 1.71 2.09 47.40 0.40 48.06 10.29 36.23 1.41 4.00 85.00
Cottonseed hulls 1.80 2.19 49.70 1.69 2.06 46.80 0.97 38.69 3.88 51.55 1.23 4.66 90.20
Sugarcane bagasse 1.71 2.09 47.40 1.60 1.95 44.30 0.00 42.43 4.97 50.28 0.66 1.66 90.50
Maize cobs 1.83 2.23 50.60 1.76 2.15 48.80 0.00 55.56 2.76 36.46 0.55 1.66 90.50
Rice hulls 1.29 1.57 35.70 1.17 1.43 32.40 0.00 29.56 22.68 44.26 0.76 2.73 91.50
Berseem hay 2.04 2.48 56.30 1.98 2.42 54.80 12.93 35.51 12.27 31.31 2.45 18.46 85.60
Lucerne hay 2.05 2.50 56.60 1.97 2.41 54.60 13.27 34.24 11.43 33.14 2.28 18.86 87.50
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Chapter 7 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in Sri Lanka
W.M.P.B. Weerasinghe Veterinary Research Institute Gannoruwa, Peradeniya Sri Lanka
Introduction The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, formerly known as Ceylon, is an island situated in the Indian Ocean; off the southeast tip of India. The country has an area of 65,610 square kilometers (land area - 62705 square kilometers; inland water 2905 square kilometers) and most of the island is flat, rolling and mountains in the south-central region rise to over 2.438 meter (Fig. 1).
Fig.1 Topographic map of Sri Lanka
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Contribution of livestock to the national GDP The total population of the country is 2.4 million according to the population statistics of 2017. The agriculture sector contributes approximately 6.8% of the country’s GDP, out of which, about 0.75% originates from livestock sector (Economic and social statistics of Sri Lanka, 2017, Livestock outlook of Sri Lanka 2016 & 2017). Chicken meat is the highest contributor for the national GDP, followed by dairy and beef (Table 1). Table 1 Contribution of animal production subsectors to the country’s GDP (Economic and social statistics of Sri Lanka, 2017 Animal subsector Share to country’s GDP (%) Chicken meat 0.39 Dairy 0.17 Beef 0.08 Egg 0.07 Pork 0.03 Mutton 0.01
Though the contribution of livestock sector to the country’s GDP is relatively low, nevertheless, it has grown by 3.9% during 2017. Out of the total labor force (8.2 million), approximately 26% employed in agriculture sector (Economic and social statistics of Sri Lanka, 2017). From total labor force, about 37% is female and there is a slight difference in percentages of females in the labor force between urban and rural sectors, 32 and 38%, respectively. Rural employment is mainly through agriculture and livestock. Evidently, female participation is higher in both agriculture and livestock sector in rural areas than urban.
Climate and agro-ecological zones As Sri Lanka is in the north-equatorial tropical zone, the climate is tropical with high humidity and temperature, fairly varies with the altitude. Climatic seasons are primarily determined by the rainfall distribution and topography plays a major role in the pattern of rainfall distribution. The rainfall is highly influenced by convectional precipitation and two monsoons. The Northeast Monsoon in November – February is locally called “Maha season” and the Southwest Monsoon from May – September is “Yala season”. According to rainfall, the country is divided into three climatic zones:
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1. The highlands and the southwest parts receiving both monsoons are the “Wet zone”. This is the most intensively exploited zone with 67% of its area under permanent agriculture. 2. The Northern and Eastern lowlands receiving only the Northeast monsoons are the “Dry zone” and covers two thirds of the island. Lack of rainfall during February – September is a major constraint to crop production. With irrigation, yield potential for field crops and forage crops are high in this zone. 3. A narrow strip of land fringing the highlands to the North and East lies between the two zones and is the “Intermediate zone”. It is dominated by coconuts along the Western Coastal region, where dairy production has a long tradition.
On the topography in particular altitude of the country, three distinct peneplains could be identified as follows: 1. The Low Country, which is the lowest one (<300-meter form sea level) and covers the two third of the island and consisting of the Northern half, broad strip along east coast and narrow strip along both in Southern and Western coasts. 2. The Mid Country forming the second peneplain from 300-meter mean sea level the height increases gradually up to 900-meter mean sea level towards the Southwest parts of the country. 3. The up country or Hill country covered central part of the country forming the third peneplain from 900 to 2500-meter mean sea level.
Considering the above classifications, in general, pertaining to agriculture and livestock, nine major climatic and livestock zones are segregated (Table 2). These are: Low country wet zone (LCW), Low country intermediate zone (LCI), Low country dry zone (LCD), Mid country wet zone (MCW), Mid country intermediate zone (MCI), Up country wet zone (UCW), Up country intermediate zone (UCI), Coconut Triangle and Jaffna Peninsula in the country.
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Table 2 Agro ecological and livestock zones and their characteristic features Major ecological Elevation Rainfall Temp. zone/Livestock zone from sea level (mm/year) Range (meter) (OC) Low country wet zone < 300 2500 - 2750 25 - 30 Low country intermediate < 300 1750 - 2500 25 - 30 zone Low country dry zone < 300 < 1750 30 - 37 Mid country wet zone 300 - 900 2500 - 3000 22 - 27 Mid country intermediate 300 - 900 2000 - 2500 22 - 27 zone Hill country wet zone > 900 > 2500 13 - 15 Hill country intermediate > 900 2500 - 2750 20 -25 zone Coconut Triangle < 300 1750 - 2750 25 - 30 Jaffna Peninsula < 300 1200 - 1750 30 - 37
Livestock statistics The livestock sector in the country is mainly comprised of the dairy and poultry sub sectors. Dairy sector dominated by meat cattle, followed by buffaloes, as in 2017, their populations were 1.3 million and 0.44 million respectively (Table 3). The population of cattle and buffalo reflected the increasing trends; increment by 2 and 4%, respectively in 2017 as compared to 2016 (Livestock statistical bulletin, 2017). The percentages of cattle and buffaloes under milking was 28% in 2017, which was relatively low compared to the standards. Small ruminant production in the country is low comparatively with cattle and buffaloes and the populations of goats and swine were 0.5 and 0.54 million respectively in 2017. Goat production is still recognized as a traditional form of livestock production among farmers, especially in the dry zone. Population growth of 9% was recorded in 2017. Out of the total (5,12,978) goat population, main population is concentrated in the dry and intermediate zones. The highest population (1,45,379) was reported in Eastern Province and 50% of total goat population had been located in Eastern and Northern provinces. Sri Lanka has small sheep population, mainly confined to few locations in dry and up-country zones, but their contribution to livestock sector is negligible. Poultry sub sector is well developed and handled exclusively by the private sector and the country is almost self-sufficient in poultry meat and eggs. Total poultry population in
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2017 including broiler, layer and parent birds were 41 million. Considered to the poultry sub sector, dairy is still dominated by semi-intensive and extensive type of managements. For example, in 2017, percentages of intensive, semi- intensive and extensive types of managements of dairy farms were accounted 15, 51 and 34%, respectively (Livestock statistical bulletin, 2017). Interestingly, about half of the meat cattle population comprised of European and their crosses, whilst the rest is equally consisting of Indian and their crosses and local animals. Table 3 Key livestock statistics of Sri Lanka (Livestock outlook of Sri Lanka, 2016 & 2017) Species Number Cattle Milking cows 3,98,608 Non-milking cows 2,44,075 Other cows 1,65,160 Young female animals Heifers 1,70,816 Calves 1,57,528 Male animals Adults 1,15,065 Calves 1,47,563 Total cattle 13,99,815 Buffaloes Milking buffalo 1,24,369 Non-milking buffalo 72,913 Other buffalo 51,820 Young female animals Heifers 47,776 Calves 51,262 Male animals Adults 47,898 Calves 48,874 Total buffaloes 4,44,912 Goats 5,12,978 Swine 1,54,908 Poultry 4,10,00,000
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Livestock production Current milk production in the country is about 40% of the requirement, which equals to 482.7 million liters in 2017 (Table 4) and the total milk production in 2017 had increased by 6% compared to 2016 (Economic and social statistics of Sri Lanka, 2017). Formal milk collection had increased by 24% in 2017. Imports of milk and milk products had been reduced by 1% compared to 2016, while value of imports increased by 32%. As a result, the annual per capita availability of milk had increased to 56 liters. Out of the 482.7 million liters of milk that is produced locally, the volume of milk entering the formal milk market in 2017 was around 285.4 million liters, while the rest was channeled through informal routes and also consumed domestically. Since 1980, poultry population has grown from 6.3 million to 41 million in 2017. The per capita consumption of chicken meat and eggs had changed from 100 g and 38 numbers in 1980 to 9.3 kg and 132.9 numbers in 2017. The poultry production is in private hands with forward contracts for input supplying and marketing mainly in small scale broiler production. Table 4 Livestock products of Sri Lanka (Livestock statistical bulletin, 2017, Department of Animal Production and Health) Product Quantity Milk (Million liters) 482.7 Chicken meat (X 000 Metric tons) 200.9 Eggs (Million numbers) 2856 Beef (X 000 Metric tons) 29.8 Mutton (X 000 Metric tons) 1.7 Pork (X 000 Metric tons) 7.9
Common feed stuffs available for ruminants Energy sources As in many parts of the world, energy for livestock in Sri Lanka is also coming mainly from roughages. In general, two basic categories of roughages are found. These are: native or varieties which became native after initial introduction and improved varieties of forages purposely grown for ruminant feeding. Different aspects of forage availability to improve ruminant production in the country had been discussed under different topics such as agro climatic suitability, fertilizer application and their responses, integration with other crops in particular coconut, and yields and nutritive qualities under
186 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia different environmental and farming systems. However, in spite of various studies and extension programs, farm grown or improved pastures are not practiced to any greater extent among smallholdings due to socio-economic limitations, which includes unavailability of land, lack of inputs, lack of establishment and management experiences, low awareness of improved forage technology and poor animal production outcomes. But, in recent times, there is a trend of using of improved pasture and fodder for high yielding dairy herds; managed by middle and large-scale dairy entrepreneurs, who use modern technologies for their operations. Among several forage varieties available, Guinea Grass (Ecotype – A) (Panicum maximum) is the most abundant. It was introduced to Sri Lanka in the 1820s and has become naturalized in most ecological zones, ecosystems and habitats with the exception of hilly and semi-arid parts of the country. This is generally called “Wild Guinea Grass” and has become valuable forage. Naturally, it now overruns road and railway sides, natural forests, crop plantations, natural grasslands and scrubland at low and mid elevations. There are several Guinea grass dominant grasslands occurring in the low country dry zone areas (Gajaweera et al., 2011). Despite its abundance, Guinea grass considered as medium quality forage, which contains about 7.5 % crude protein and 6.8 MJ of metabolizable energy (Table 5). Second most abundant fodder grass is CO-3 (Hybrid Napier: Pennisetum purpureum x P. americanum), developed by the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University in Coimbatore, India and introduced in Sri Lanka during 1999. It is the most popular fodder crop for establishment among farmers and the widely used variety for extension programs. CO-3 is characterized by its profuse tillering ability, high yield potential, high crude protein concentration, quick re-growth capacity, high palatability, free from other adverse factors and resistance to pest and disease attacks (Premaratne and Premalal, 2006). Crude protein (%) and energy (ME; MJ/kg/DM) contents of CO3 (Harvested at 8th week) are 13.7 and 7.3, respectively (Jothirathna et al., 2018), making it nutritionally better forage than Guinea grass, especially for medium scale farmers. After Guinea and CO3, few Brachiaria varieties such as Brachairia milliformis, Brachiaria ruziziensis and Brachiaria mutica are widely used as forage for ruminants. They naturally exist depending on favorable agro-climatic conditions and nutritionally comparable with CO3.
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Table 5 Common energy sources for ruminant feeding in Sri Lanka (Ibrahim, 1988; Sarmini and Premaratne, 2017; Jothirathna et al., 2018; Thelaksa et al., 2018) Variety DM (%) TDN DCP CP (%) Fiber (%) ME (MJ/kg/DM) OMD (%) (g/kg) (g/kg) Forages Panicum maximum* (Type A) 25 134 20 7.5 20.4 6.8 46.8 Hybrid Napier CO3: Pennisetum purpureum x P. americanum Harvested at: 4 weeks 12.2 89 13 20.9 27.7 8.3 57.1 6 weeks 14.2 NA NA 14.4 29.5 7.7 52.8 8 weeks 17.0 108 13 13.7 30.3 7.3 50.0 Brachairia milliformis* 18.9 97 13 9.2 32.3 5.3 36.4 Brachiaria ruziziensis* 20.6 107 14 10.1 30.2 7.2 48.0 Brachiaria mutica* 20.4 NA NA 10.6 31.2 6.8 46.5 Zea mays* 32.7 NA NA 7.3 35.1 NA NA Sorghum bicolor*r Harvested at: 4 weeks 12.7 NA NA 20.6 21.7 9.1 62.8 6 weeks 15.4 NA NA 18.8 22.1 8.6 59.2 8 weeks 19.1 122 13 14.9 28.5 8.1 55.3 Concentrates Maize (Seed) 91.0 731 45 6.5 9.8 65 Rice polish/bran 88.4 628 80 11.6 8.1 55.0 *values represent harvesting at pre-blooming
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With the trend of coming up of medium to large scale commercial dairy farms, improved fodder varieties have been introduced to the country recently. Among them, maize and fodder sorghum are the most popular. They are cultivated all over the country, but yield and nutritive quality are superior in dry zone mainly due to favorable agro climatic conditions than in up and mid country regions (Mahipala et al., 2018). However, fodder maize and sorghum seeds are not produced in the country thus, solely imported at present. Rice polish, bran and Maize are the main concentrates, which provide energy for ruminants in Sri Lanka. Rice is the staple food for human population in the country, thus its polish and bran are widely used as animal feed. Availability of maize depends mainly on agro climatic conditions. Sri Lanka was self-sufficient in maize requirement until recently, but due to adverse weather during last few years, the country imported majority of its requirement. As such, in the year 2017, annual maize production was 1,95,744 MT, whilst about 1,81,000 MT had been imported (Livestock outlook of Sri Lanka, 2016 & 2017). Protein sources Gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium) is considered as the main tree legume providing protein for ruminants in the country (Table 6). It is found naturally all over the country and used commonly as a boundary fencing tree. Farmers use gliricidia as part of the ration, but it is widely accepted that gliricidia is underutilized at the movement. Other legumes commonly used as protein supplements for ruminants include Erythrina, Ipil Ipil, Sesbania, Calliandra and Acacia. They have huge potential as protein source in cattle rations, but required strong effort to fully utilize this valuable feed resource. Sri Lanka is a leading coconut product exporter and the residue coming out during coconut oil extraction is termed as coconut poonac. It is the most commonly used concentrate feed supplement to ruminants, which mainly provides protein along with energy. In addition, brewery waste (Fermented residue from beer industry) is widely used; especially for high yielding dairy cows. Gingelly poonac is a potential protein supplement, but seasonal availability hinders it’s the utilization.
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Table 6 Common protein sources for ruminants feeding in Sri Lanka (Ibrahim, 1988; Thelaksan et al., 2018) Variety DM TDN DCP CP Fiber ME OMD (%) (g/kg) (g/kg) (%) (%) (MJ/kg/DM) (%) Forages Gliricidia 22.6 142 50 20.2 21.0 9.2 65.0 sepium Leucaena 24.6 188 59 25.7 22.3 7.4 51.2 leucocephala Erythrina 24.8 122 49 NA NA 9.5 66.0 variegata Sesbania 18.6 125 28 NA NA NA NA grandiflora Acacia nilotica 36.3 145 65 NA NA NA NA Concentrates Coconut 93.0 623 163 20.1 9.8 9.9 67.0 poonac Brewery 25.6 NA NA 26.0 16.7 7.8 54.0 waste Gingelly 88.0 684 292 39.7 NA 9.9 69.0 poonac
Agricultural by products Rice straw is the most abundant agricultural by product for ruminants in Sri Lanka (Table 7). In 2015, 1.81 million hectares of land under paddy cultivation (Paddy statistics, 2014-2015), which produces approximately 2.8 million MT of rice straw (Ariyawansha et al., 2014). Different methods to improve nutritive quality of rice straw has also been introduced throughout, such as urea treatment. Despite those measures, use of rice straw for ruminant feeding is mere 3.0% of the total production (Paddy statistics, 2014-2015). This may be due to propaganda of agriculture authorities to use rice straw as a fertilizer. According to an estimate, approximately 86% of available rice straw is used as fertilizer (Paddy statistics, 2014-2015). The current situation of paddy straw utilization appears due to the method of threshing. Earlier, animal draft power was used to thresh paddy, which accumulate rice straw as a pile in a one place that could easily be collected and stored for ruminant feeding. With the mechanization of rice farming, combine harvesters are used for threshing and the resulting straw is spread in the paddy filed, making it difficult to collect. In 2015, about 80% of the paddy was threshed using harvesting machines (Paddy statistics, 2014-2015). Additionally, about 0.24
190 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia million MT of sugar cane tops (Sri Lanka fodder study, 2015), gingerly and black gram straw as well as maize stover are available seasonally. Milling by products of dhal and wheat (Dhal husk and wheat bran) are used widely as cattle feed. In addition, agricultural by products such as rice bran, coconut and gingerly poonac are major agricultural by products used in Sri Lanka, which have been discussed under energy and protein supplements. Table 7 Common agricultural by products for ruminant feeding in Sri Lanka (Ibrahim, 1988; Thelaksan et al., 2018) Variety DM TDN DCP CP Fiber ME OMD (%) (g/kg) (g/kg) (%) (%) (MJ/kg/DM) (%) Rice straw 90.0 360 0.00 4.2 34.2 37.3 4.4 Sugar cane tops 25.0 NA NA 5.6 37.4 NA NA Gingerly straw 85.0 308 21 NA NA NA NA Black gram 85.0 482 57 NA NA NA NA straw Maize stover 90.3 447 29 NA NA NA NA Concentrates Dhal husk 89.2 NA NA 15.0 NA 46.9 6.8 Wheat bran 88.4 831 107 16.4 13.6 58.0 8.7 NA = Data not available
Current status of fodder production in Sri Lanka Land use pattern At present, little more than one third of the total land area of the country is under agricultural uses, while another one-third is under forest and wild life conservation (Table 8). The balance is used for all other purposes including urban area and for infra-structure (Mapa et al., 2002). About 75% of the agricultural land is under smallholdings, and the number is estimated at around 1.8 million, with over 90% of them having less than 2 hectares. Almost one third of these smallholdings have a mixture of crops and livestock. The area of farm holdings with livestock is around 0.56 million hectares, of which 99% are categorized as smallholdings. The total number of farmers involved in livestock production is estimated to be 7,00,000 (Perera and Jayasooriya, 2008).
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Table 8 Current land use pattern in Sri Lanka (Mapa et al., 2002).
Land Use Area (hectares) Percent
Reserved land (reservations, streams, roads) 5,85,300 8.9
Forests and catchment areas 20,00,000 30.5
Steep lands 3,80,000 5.8
Lands above 1,500 meters contour 76.4 1.2
Barren land 77,000 1.2
Marshes and mangroves 70,000 1.1
Presently used land 26,35,000 40.2
Sparsely used land (shifting cultivation, 7,28,000 11.1 patana)
Total 65,52,500 100.0
The total land area utilized for livestock production in combination with crops is estimated to be about 6,70,000 hectares with an estimated 50,000 ha mainly natural pastures (Sri Lanka fodder study, 2015). However, 12,000 square km of the total land area of 65,000 square km is under grass cover (Pemadassa, 1990), showing a latent potential for improved fodder production. Availability of forage dry matter (DM) vary with some coming from well-established pasture lands to forage under coconut plantations, marginal tea lands, paddy fields, road sides and all types of natural grasslands. A summary of green forage sources, their land extents and expected DM productions are presented (Table 9).
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Table 9 Green forage sources, their land extents and expected productions Approx. Expected dry matter production (MT) Land Extent Favorable Unfavorable Source (000' (Rainy season) (Drought season) Hectare) MT Per Total* MT Per Total** Ha and MT Ha and MT single single defoliation defoliation Permanent Pasture under 5.7 2.50 42,750 2.00 22,800 large farms - well managed pasture Permanent Pasture under 13.27 1.25 49,763 0.65 17,251 large farms - poorly managed pasture Permanent Fodder under 1.87 7.50 42,075 6.50 24,310 large farms - well managed Cultivated fodder under 18.50 7.50 416,250 4.50 199,800 small/medium holders Coconut plantations (30% of 145.00 1.25 543,750 0.65 188,500 total coconut lands) Marginal tea lands 30.23 0.75 68,017 0.37 22,370 Fellow paddy fields/bunds 150.00 1.50 675,000 1.00 300,000 Road sides/Railway 5.00 1.50 22,500 0.75 7,500 embankments All the types of natural 530.00 0.75 1192,500 0.37 392,200 grasslands/scrubs/wastelands (50% total land extent) Total 899.57 3,052,605 1,174,731 Total Expected dry matter 4,227,336 production (MT) *minimum 3 defoliations during the season for total land extent **minimum 2 defoliations during the season for total land extent Source: GGC Premalal, Unpublished data (2013)
Pasture and fodder production In addition to naturally occurring and naturalized varieties such as Guinea grass, few pasture and fodder varieties are cultivated. Hybrid Napier CO3 is the most common established variety. Gliricidia and Ipil Ipil are also grown mainly as boundary fencing as well as for ruminant feeding. Large scale commercial farms in up country region grow Rye and Kikuyu grass under
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intensive management for grazing as well as for cut and fed (Table 10). Hybrid Napier CO3 is exclusively grown for livestock use and has government support through the department of animal production and health and respective provincial authorities. It is cultivated mainly for farmers own use. CO3 is cultivated in few places for selling out side, but compare to total production this quantity is insignificant. Table 10 Common forages and their yields under different management conditions Forage type (species, varieties etc.) Yield (dry or fresh as mentioned below) Hybrid Napier (Var. CO-3); Fresh yield: 5–8 kg / Plant at 45days (Pennisetum purpureum x P. cutting interval and 1 x 1 m spacing under americanum) good management Dry Matter Yield: 40 000 – 75 000 kg/ha/year at 45days cutting interval and 1 x 1 m spacing under good management Guinea Grass (Ecotype – A) Dry Matter Yield: 12 000 – 15 000 (Panicum maximum) kg/ha/year at 45days cutting interval and 0.60 x 0.75 m spacing under good management Dry Matter Yield: 10 000 – 12 000 kg/ha/year at 45days cutting interval and 0.60 x 0.75 m spacing under normal management Dry Matter Yield: 8 000 – 10 000 kg/ha/year at 45days cutting interval under roadside and natural grassland conditions Kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum) Dry Matter Yield: 12 000 kg/ha/year at 40 days cutting interval, and good management Perennial Rye (Lolium perenne) Dry Matter Yield: 12 000 – 15 000 kg/ha/year at 40days cutting interval and good management Gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium) Fresh Yield: 2-3 kg/plant/cut at 75 days intervals as 2 year old hedgerows and 30 cm spacing Ipil-Ipil (Leucaena leucocephala) Fresh Yield: 1.5-2 kg/plant/cut at 75 days intervals as 2 year old hedgerows and 30 cm spacing Source: GGC Premalal, Unpublished data (2013)
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Natural grasslands and their significance In climatic and vegetation contrast, grasslands of Sri Lanka can be divided into three general categories; Patana, Savanna and Low land grasslands (Premaratne et al., 2003). The economic viability of grasslands as grazing grounds depends partly on their productivity and quality of constituent forage species (Pemadasa, 1990). Although little is known of the productivity of the grasslands of Sri Lanka, the general view is that most of them are of low productivity (Premaratne et al., 2003). The low population density of legumes, loss of nutrients by leaching and erosion and, slow rate of microbial activities are some of the possible causes. As such, Amarasinge and pemadasa (1983) estimated the annual productivity of some regions of dry Patana grasslands to be around 68 to 111 MT/hectare, which is much less than the value of around 3810 MT/hectare recorded for some Indian grasslands. There is no available information of dry matter yield of Sri Lankan grasslands, however, important characteristics of them are presented (Table 11).
Fodder conservation Main fodder conservation method in Sri Lanka is silage. Hay production by using commonly available grasses has been attempted previously through various programs, but unsuccessful so far. This may be due to non-availability of commercial or large-scale pasture production in the country, unfavorable weather conditions (During two monsoon seasons, heavy rain adversely affects hay making and during dry season, good quality pasture is in scarcity) and high operational cost. Silage making on contrary, is becoming a viable practice on both commercial and small scale-on farm use. Three major silage making methods can be identified. They are; small scale silage production in plastic barrels or vacuum-packed polythene bags, Bunker silage production at large scale commercial dairy farms and commercial silage production; mainly as bales. Silage made in plastic barrels is a simple, but effective method. Fodder is chopped using a machine and then tightly packed manually into a barrel and sealed with a plastic top or polythene (Fig. 2).
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Table 11 Grassland types of Sri Lanka for livestock farming and their important characteristics (Premaratne et al., 2003) Grassland Rainfall Dominant Potential Important type (Annual), forage species for remarks climatic zone found livestock and elevation rearing Dry Patana - 1750-2250 Pollinia spp Moderate The burning of mm grass just before - Andropogon spp Up country Arundinella spp rain results in the intermediate soil being exposed Themeda tremula - 500-2000 m and eroded. Wet - 2500-4000 Chrysopogon Poor Grasses are coarse Patana mm zeylanicus and wiry. - Upcountry wet Scattered trees are - >2000 m prominent. Lowland - 1450-1750 Panicum spp High The grass cover is Savanna mm much taller. Fire - Themeda tremula Low country Desmodium spp tolerant species are intermediate rather sporadic. - 300-400 m Upland - 1500-2000 Panicum spp Moderate The grass cover is Savanna mm much taller. Soil is - Themeda tremula Mid country Heteropogon eroded and wet triticeus denuded as a result - 400-500 m of frequent Desmodium spp destruction of Mimosa pudica vegetation. Villu - 1500-200 mm Cynodon High Wet grasslands - Low country dactylon found in the flood dry Stenotaphrum plains of the rivers - 0-200 m secundatum in the dry zone. Bothriochloa Grasses are glabra succulent. Damana - 1250-1750 Imperata High Origin seems to be mm cylindrica the results of forest - Low country clearing followed dry by repeated fire. - 0-200 m Talawa - 2000-2500 Cynodon High Arise as a result of mm dactylon forest felling and - Low country chena cultivation wet in wet zone. - 0-200 m Source: Premaratne et. al (2003)
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Fig. 2 Different steps of barrel silage making (Chopping, compacting and sealing)
Common fodder varieties used are Hybrid Napier CO3, sorghum and maize (Fig. 3). In addition, several other fodder varieties have been tested such as Guinea grass, but silage quality is low due to less fermentable sugar content. Inoculant is usually not added, but sugar solution is sometimes mixed especially with medium quality fodder grasses such as Hybrid Napier CO3 to improve fermentation.
Fig. 3 Sorghum cultivation for silage production.
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Large scale silage production using the bunker silage technique is practiced in several commercial dairy farms. Maize and/or sorghum are the main crops used and usually they are made for on farm use. With the recent trend of commercial dairy farming in the country, there is a requirement for good quality conserved fodder base. To fulfill this demand, there are few silage making entities already established in the country. In Sri Lanka, there is a commercial silage making company, whose capacity is around 10000 MT/year (Fig. 4). It prepares maize silage using the latest shred technology, which peels the stalk and leaves instead of chopping it. Kernels get 100% cracked, which in turns increases the palatability and digestibility of the silage.
Fig. 4 Commercial scale silage production.
Silage quality Quality of silage is very important as it determines the storage period, palatability, digestibility and animal production performance. Quality testing facility is currently established at the pasture research division of the veterinary research institute. They analyze large number of samples annually from farmers, commercial producers as well as for research purposes. Our experience so far is if correct technology and good quality forage is used, silage quality can be maintained at a highest level. Results of the quality of silage made using few fodder varieties harvested at different time intervals are provided in Table 12.
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Table 12. Quality characteristics of Hybrid Napier and sorghum silage harvested at different intervals (Sanjeewa et al., 2018) Silage Cutting interval (Week) Fodder quality CO3 CO4 Sorghum DM% 4 14.14 ±0.12ab 13.28±0.65b 14.88±0.37ab 6 15.58±0.25ab 16.73±1.05ab 17.88±1.66a 8 14.95±0.28ab 15.83±1.16ab 18.77±0.42a Mean 14.89±0.42b 15.28±1.03ab 17.18±1.18a pH 4 5.28±0.16 5.45±0.25 4.82±0.26 6 5.52±0.26 5.47±0.17 4.92±0.07 8 5.16±0.08 5.35±0.14 4.54±0.05 Mean 5.32± 0.10a 5.42±0.04a 4.76± 0.11b NH3-N 4 0.16±0.01 0.16±0.05 0.05±0.01 6 0.10±0.0 0.11±0.04 0.04±0.01 8 0.05±0.00 0.06±0.03 0.02±0.01 Mean 0.10± 0.03ab 0.11±0.03a 0.04±0.03b Lactic acid 4 0.68±0.48 1.26±0.77 2.08±0.77 6 1.03±0.45 1.25±0.14 4.14±0.77 8 0.44±0.04 1.15±0.76 2.35±1.05 Mean 0.72± 0.17b 0.89±0.32b 2.86±0.58a SCHO 4 0.88±0.15 cd 1.07±0.18bcd 2.12±0.88abc 6 1.52±0.19abcd 1.36±0.15acdb 2.54±0.12ab 8 0.88±0.11cd 0.46±0.15d 0.49±0.45cd Mean 1.09±0.21ab 0.96±0.26b 1.72±0.69a
Dry matter requirement, availability and future scope Forage production and availability in Sri Lanka mainly depends on rain. During rainy season, forage availability is high, but in dry season, it is in scarcity. Dry matter (DM) requirement, availability and the status (Deficit or excess) during two seasons of the year are presented (Table 13). Briefly, numbers of different categories (Male, female, milking, non-milking, heifers, calves etc.) of cattle and buffalo in the county were taken and converted into adult cattle units (ACU). Then, expected dry matter intakes of each category calculated considering ACU, BW (Corresponding to different agro ecological zones of the country) and average milk production.
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Table 13 Dry matter requirement and availability during rainy and dry seasons of the year (Thirunavukkarasu et al., 2011) Species Season
Rainy/wet (million MT) Dry (million MT)
Requirement* Availability** Deficit/ Requirement Availability Deficit/ excess excess
Cattle 1.60 1.60
Buffalo 0.59 0.59
Total 2.19 3.05 +0.86 2.19 1.17 -1.02
*Calculation based; **Taken from Table 10. According to the predictions, the total DM requirement during rainy season is about 2.19 m MT, whilst availability is about 3.05 m MT, giving excess DM availability about 0.86 million MT. During dry season, requirement exceeds availability, creating about 1.02 m MT of deficit. Therefore, the biggest problem faced by the farmers in the country at present is to find about 1 million MT of DM for the dry season. As there are no satisfactory measures in place currently (forage preservation during rainy seasons at large scale) to overcome this problem, low milk production and animal performance is experienced during dry season of the year. It can be argued that excess DM available during rainy season can be preserved for the lean period. However, out of the 3.05 million MT of DM available during rainy season, more than a third (1.1 million MT) coming from natural grasslands (Table 10), which is generally low in quality and therefore economically not viable to spend money on preservation because it cannot support higher milk production. In addition, buffaloes are the major consumer of natural grasslands, but their contribution to national milk production is about 16% (Livestock outlook 2016 & 2017). Further, vast majority of grazing lands in the country is rapidly diminishing due to various economic activities, thus DM production from grasslands will further reduce in the future. Sri Lanka is making efforts to upgrade national cattle population through various programs for higher average milk production and those animals need good quality forage than that coming from natural grasslands or from crop residues. Therefore, in the future, solution would be growing of high quality fodder varieties in the dry zone, where suitable land is available and preserve them to be used in other parts of the country. When per animal production increases, number of cows in milking as well as other categories of ruminants can be readjusted, paving the way for the management of DM requirement of the livestock in the country.
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Projected dry matter requirement in the future
Cattle population in the country during 2008 was 1.1 million (Economic and social statistics, Sri Lanka, 2018), whilst the figure was 1.3 million during 2017(Livestock outlook 2016 & 2017). Nevertheless, the average population during the same period was 1.15 million. This highlights that despite small increase in cattle population in the year 2017, most of the times during last decade, it remains almost unchanged. It can be reasonably expected that this trend will continue in the future because of less land and other resources available for cattle production. If Sri Lanka is to increase milk production in the future, that will be possible mainly through increasing productivity of the animals, but not through increasing the population. And due to this reason, pattern of dry matter production should shift from low quality natural forage to high quality commercial scale pasture and fodder production. Under this scenario, DM quantity will not greatly change in the next decade, but quality must be improved. Concentrate feeds Concentrate feed availability, requirement and the gaps are presented in Table 14. Accordingly, Rice polish/bran, coconut poonac and maize are the main concentrate feed ingredients available for ruminant feeding in the country. Some other ingredients are also available; such as gingerly poonac, wheat bran, dhal husk and palm kernel cake, but they are available seasonally and no valid data obtainable about the quantities. About 15% of the rice polish produced (More rice polish is used for layer rations than broiler and those figures were considered deciding above value) and about 95% of available maize is currently used for poultry feeds. In addition, considerable amount of rice polish and coconut poonac are is exported and the quality of that varies with milling technique. Therefore, actual availability of good quality rice polish may be slightly less than figures presented in Table 14. Table 14 Major concentrate feeds, availability and requirement in Sri Lanka Feed type Amount available for ruminant feeding (000”MT) Rice polish* 281.7 Coconut poonac** 20.0 Maize*** 11.9 Total 313.7 Requirement 203.4 Balance 110.2 * Considered as 100 kg of paddy rice will generate approx. 5 to 10 kg of polish/bran ** Personnel communications from stake holders ***Livestock outlook (2016 & 2017)
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Concentrate feed requirement calculated based on ruminant population at different agro ecological zones, their expected milk production and the pattern of concentrate feeding. Some farmers feed compounded concentrate mixture and others use individual feed ingredients as concentrate feed. Since there is no data obtainable about quantities of those two categories, this has not being considered for calculations. It can be assumed that concentrate feed requirement will increase in the future, due to establishment of more and more medium to large scale commercial dairy farms. They use more maize for their high yielding dairy cow rations than other ingredients, and competition for maize between poultry and dairy feeds will assumed to be intensified in the future. Changes in feeding methods for ruminants Common practice of feeding cattle in Sri Lanka is free grazing or stall feeding of roughages, together with concentrate according to the milk production. Concentrate is usually fed during the time of milking i.e. in the morning and the evening. However, recently feeding total mixed ration (TMR) is becoming popular in the country. Two methods of TMR feeding can be identified. Most popular one is hand mixing of TMR (Fig. 5). Generally, farmers do not preciously calculate their TMR, but just mix concentrate and roughage together. Studies have shown that providing that type of TMR gives better production performance than feeding concentrate and roughages separately (Bodahewa et al., 2014).
Fig. 5 Manual mixing of TMR Large scale commercial dairy farms use TMR mixer wagons. It is being prepared using good quality ingredients keeping in mind the nutritional qualities, availability, price and finally the productivity of animals. In addition, in the recent times, there were attempts to develop conserved type of ruminant feeds, called densified TMR blocks. The technique is still in its infancy in the country, but several attempts have been made (Fig. 6) and few studies are currently progressing. Studies have indicated that densified TMR blocks can be successfully prepared using locally available ingredients
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(Weerasinghe et al., 2012). If cost effective way of popularizing densified TMR blocks can be developed; as in neighboring country like India, it may pave the way to improve ruminant feeding in the country, especially during dry season of the year, where roughage is in scarcity.
Fig. 6 Densified TMR blocks prepared for research purpose (Weerasinghe et al., 2012). Commercial feed manufacturing Commercial feed manufacturing is a well-established operation in the country. It is primarily for poultry, followed by dairy animals (Table 15). It is worthy to mention that significant amount of poultry feed is self-mixed. Similarly, practice of feeding individual ingredient (Such as rice polish/bran and coconut poonac) to the livestock by farmers of Sri Lanka is excluded from the gross estimate of compounded animal feeds. Table 15 Compound animal feed production in Sri Lanka (Livestock outlook 2016 & 2017) Type of feed Quantity (“000 MT) 2016 2017 Dairy feed 40.85 51.28 Poultry feed 620.31 678.19 Pig feed 2.26 1.14 Goat feed 0.11 0.09 Fish feed 0.34 0.69 Horse feed 0.46 0.24 Other feed 0.14 1.23 Total feed production 664.49 732.86 Self-mixed 413.54 450.13 Total 1078.04 1912.85
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ICT used in feed/ fodder production and marketing Undoubtedly, the ICT could play a major role in livestock development in the country in the modern era. Compared to other countries, use of ICT in livestock sector is still slow in Sri Lanka. However, there are signs of improving this status. Department of animal production and health (DAP&H); the main government authority oversee the livestock sector in the country, use ICT in different ways on livestock sector. Although, there is no ICT related activity currently in operation related to fodder production and marketing, the department have online services such as free booklets, manuals, pamplets on livestock production. The media unit of the DAP&H regularly aired radio and television programs on livestock related subjects. Universities have developed smart phone apps on various topics and few foreign funded dairy development projects have introduced farm budgeting and feed formulation programs worked on tabs. For the future development, however, it is essential that all the livestock related entities, whether they are government or privately owned, work together very closely using ICT to uplift livestock production in the country.
References Ariyawansha, R. T. K., Dileep N. S., and Benedict F. A. B. 2014. Potential of Converting Paddy Straw to Bio-char and Electricity in Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the 11th APRSCP Conference held on 19-20 May, 2014, Bangkok, Thailand. Pp 207-222. Bodahewa, A.P., Weerasinghe, W.M.P.B., and Palliyeguru, M.W.C.D. 2014. Effects of feeding total mixed ration (TMR) on the production performance of dairy cows. The Sri Lanka Veterinary Journal (Supplement). Pp 6. Economic and social statistics of Sri Lanka. 2017. Published by Central bank of Sri Lanka. Pp 1-195. Gajaweera, C.J., Weerasinghe, B., and Seresinghe, T. 2011. Preliminary study on the adaptation of wild Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) to different agro-climatic regions in Hambanthota District. Proceedings of the 16th Annual Symposium of “International Forestry and Environment”, held on 28 - 29 October 2011 at Golden Rose Recreation Complex, Boralesgamuwa, Sri Lanka. Pp 4-5. Houwers, W., Wouters, B., and Vernooji, A. 2015. Sri Lanka fodder study: An overview of potential, bottlenecks and improvements to meet the rising demand for quality fodder in Sri Lanka. Published by Wageningen UR Livestock Research. Pp 1-38. Jothirathna, M.W.H.H., Weerasinghe, W.M.P.B., Seresinhe, T., Manawadu., A. and Kumara Mahipala., M.B.P. 2018. Growth performance and nutritive value of three improved fodder varieties under different harvesting intervals grown in southern province of Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the Wayamba
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University International Conference held on 24-25 August, 2018 at Wayamba University. Pp 377. Kumara Mahipala, M.B.P., Weerasinghe, W.M.P.B., Warnasooriya, S.G.V.B., Kumara, R.M.E.P., Sumanasiri, T.M.D.S., and Bandara, G.M.P.J. 2018. Assessment of yield and nutritive value of hybrid fodder sorghum (Sorghum Bicolor), maize (Zea Mays l.) and, millet (Pennisetum sp.) in mid country wet- zone and mid country intermediate-zone in Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the Wayamba University International Conference held on 24-25 August, 2018 at Wayamba University. Pp 361. Livestock outlook of Sri Lanka. 2016 & 2017. Published by Livestock Planning and Economic Division, Department of Animal Production and Health. Pp 1-6. Livestock statistical bulletin. 2017. Published by Livestock Planning and Economic Division, Department of Animal Production and Health. Pp 1-38. Mapa, R.B., Kumaragamage, D., Gunarathne, W.D.L., and Dassanayake, A.R. 2002. Land use in Sri Lanka: past, present and future. Proceedings of the 17th World Congress of Soil Science held during 14th to 21st August, 2002 at Bangkok, Thailand. Pp 974-1-974-7. M.N.M. Ibrahim. 1988. Feeding Tables. Published by the Fibrous Feed Utilization Project under the Sri Lanka-Netherlands Livestock Development Programme. Pp 1-71. Paddy statistics. 2014/2015 maha season. Published by the Department of Census and Statistics, Ministry of National Policies and Economic Affairs. Pp 1-28. Pemadasa, M.A. 1990. Tropical grasslands of Sri Lanka and India. Journal of Biogeography. 17: 395-400. Premaratne, S., and Premalal, G.G.C. 2006. Hybrid Napier var (Pennisetum perpureum X Pennisetum americarnum) CO-3: A resourceful fodder grass for dairy development. Sri Lankan The Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 2 (1): 22- 33. Premaratne, S., Premalal, G.G.C., and Jayawardene, V.P. 2003. Sustainable management of grassland for ruminant livestock production in Sri Lanka. Tropical Agricultural Research and Extension. 6: 74-79. Perera, B.M.A.O., and Jayasuriya, M.C.N. 2008. The Dairy Industry in Sri Lanka: Current Status and Future Directions for a Greater Role in National Development. Journal National Science Foundation. 36: 115- 126. Sanjeewa, J., Weerasinghe, W.M.P.B., Sujani, S., and Seresinhe, R.T. 2018. Suitability of sorghum (Sorghum Bicolar Var Sugar Grace) and hybrid Napier varieties, CO-3 and CO-4 (Pennisetum Americarnum L. × Pennisetum Purpureum Schum.) in silage preparation. Proceedings of the Wayamba University International Conference held on 24th to 25th August, 2018 at Wayamba University. Pp 388.
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Sarmini, M., and Prematatne, S. 2017. Yield and nutritional quality potential of three fodder grasses in the northern region of Sri Lanka. Tropical Agricultural Research. 28: 175 -182. Thelaksan, T., Chathurika, W.V.A., Weerasinghe, W.M.P.B., and Mahipala, M.B.P.K. 2018. Identification and assessment of nutritive value of widely used feedstuffs for dairy cattle during Yala season in Vavuniya and Mullaitivu districts of Northern Province, Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the Jaffna University International Research Conference held on 27th September, 2018 at University of Jaffna. Pp 27-30. Thirunavukarasu, M., Sankaran, V.M., Kathiravan, G., and Karunakaran, R. 2011. Estimating dry fodder availability and requirement for bovines. The Indian Journal of Animal Sciences. 81: 744-750. Weerasinghe, W.M.P.B., Premalal, G.G.C., Priyankarage, N., Palliyeguru, M.W.C.D., Pathirana, A.P.D.G., and Navarathna, A.K.M. 2012. Formulation of dense total mixed ration (TMR) for ruminant feeding. Proceedings of the Annual Scientific Sessions of the Sri Lanka Veterinary Association held on 11th May, 2012 at Plant Genetic Resource Center. Pp 31.
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Chapter 8 Alternate Feed Resources and Technologies for Their Safe Usage in Livestock Feeding
N. K. S. Gowda, S. Anandan, K. Giridhar, S. B. N. Rao and K. S. Prasad ICAR-National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology Adugodi, Hosur Road, Bangalore Karnataka, India
Introduction Ensuring adequate supply of essential nutrients at the gastrointestinal tract of domestic animals is one of the greatest challenges to the animal nutrition researchers to sustain the productivity of animals, when feed resources are inadequate in terms of both quantity and quality. This is more applicable in all the countries (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka) located in South Asia. Over the years, the livestock population is increasing consistently in South Asia to match the growing demands of livestock products by the ever-increasing human population. Nevertheless, the increase in the number of domestic animals does not commensurate with the improved availability of feed resources leading to deficit on account of most of the livestock dietary components particularly green fodder and concentrate. The situation of livestock feed and fodder availability in South Asia is further worsen due to overgrazing, erosion of land, diminishing grassland/ pastureland, inadequate stimulus packages for fodder cultivation, frequent natural calamities etc. Additionally, reliance on crop residues-based feeding regime by the South Asian small holder livestock farmers leads to lower productivity per animal as compared to developed countries. From regional perspectives, livestock production is growing faster than any other sector with in entire agriculture sector and its contribution is expected to increase manifold in terms of number and value in coming years owing to rapid urbanization, growth of disposable income coupled with growing consumer awareness. In view of the above facts, the current South Asian livestock production throws an open challenge to the regional animal nutrition researchers for finding the solution in order to sustain the productivity of animals along with livelihood security of small and marginal farmers. Under the above perspectives, alternate feed resources show the ray of hope to partially mitigate the scarcity of livestock feed and fodder in South Asia.
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Numerous newer feed resources have been evaluated and found useful for livestock feeding. Incriminating factors have been identified in some unconventional feeds and methods for their detoxification have been evolved. Protein cakes after oil extraction from seeds of neem, castor, and karanj have been evaluated and found suitable for feeding after detoxification. There is a need to upscale these technologies for wider application. Of late certain local feed resources like azolla, areca sheath, maize kadbi, fruit residues, ayurvedic residues, brewery and residues have been found useful and farmers have started using some of them in the ration with suitable processing techniques. Use of these alternative feed resources replacing part of conventional feed ingredients is an economical way for sustainable livestock production. Some of such potential feed stuffs are discussed in this chapter.
Dry fodder Areca sheath Over the years, in some regions of Karnataka, Kerala and Assam, the areca (Areca catechu) cultivation as a commercial crop has partly replaced the traditional paddy and other cereal crops due to higher economic returns. This has consequently resulted in deficit of dry fodder, especially in the costal zones of Karnataka and livestock farmers are procuring paddy straw from adjoining districts at much higher cost. The analysis of areca sheath for its nutritional composition has showed almost similar composition to paddy straw and content of some minerals like calcium, copper and sulfur are higher in areca sheath. No untoward effect was noticed due to feeding of dried areca sheath (Fig. 1) to sheep and cows. For efficient utilization of dried and chaffed areca sheath as mash in the form of total mixed ration along with suitable proportion of concentrate feed is recommended. Suitable machine to shredd the dried areca sheath is commercially available. In Andaman Islands also areca sheath as dry fodder is becoming popular. In India, the potential availability of areca sheath is about 1.20 million tonnes.
Fig. 1 Areca sheath
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Sugarcane trash Sugar cane dry trash and is a part of sugar cane tops and is a major by- product of the sugarcane industry which is left in the field after cane harvest. The major states producing sugarcane are UP, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Uttarakhand and Punjab. With cane to dry leaf ratio of 2-3 %, about 6.8- 10.3 million tonnes of sugar cane trash is expected to be available at the time of harvest in India. The trash can be fed to livestock as a replacement of dry fodder like paddy straw or finger millet straw in adverse climatic situations of drought. Sugarcane trash (Fig. 2) is very bulky material and occupies lot of space. This can be a major drawback during transportation. This can be avoided if trash is chaffed to small pieces with the help of mechanical chaff cutter (4-6 inches). Sugarcane trash is good source of fiber (NDF: 32.3%), and hemi-cellulose (26.9 %). However, contains less protein (3.54%), similar to paddy/finger millet straw (3.65%). It can replace cereal dry fodders for livestock feeding.
Fig. 2 Sugarcane trash Maize cobs and stover Maize crop is being cultivated on a large scale due to the high demand for maize grains for poultry feed, starch industry and distilleries. Maize stovers and cobs are the byproducts that are currently being either not utilized or underutilized. Stover and cobs (Fig. 3) can be used as roughage source in diets of cattle, buffalo, sheep and goats. Simple interventions like chaffing of maize stovers and cobs will facilitate the effective utilization of untapped feed resources. Maize stovers in general after harvesting the cobs are either left in the field itself or sometimes burnt in the field to make way for the next crop. The nutritive value is almost similar to any cereal dry fodder.
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Fig. 3 Maize stover and cobs
Fruit and vegetable residues In many Asian countries, there is a gradual shift in the cropping pattern from cereals to more remunerative fruit and horticultural crops. This results in generation of huge quantity of fruit and vegetable residues. Presently such residues are not effectively used and either composted or dumped in landfills causing environmental pollution. There is a need to develop suitable methods to convert waste to wealth and contribute to value added feed resources. Some of the potential fruit residues that can be used in feeding are mentioned below. Apple In India annually about 1.74 million tonnes of apple is produced and waste consists of peels, seed and pulp, which represents 25-35% of fresh apple. The apple pomace on dry matter basis consist of 4.72% crude protein and 48-60% total sugar. It is a good source of energy (75%) and can replace 30% maize grain in ruminant ration (Fig.4). The residue contains high moisture and can be dried in sunlight or at 65% moisture level can be made as silage for preservation to use as feed.
Fig. 4 Dried apple pomace
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Grape Grape pomace is a by-product of wine industry comprising grape pulp, skin, stem and seeds accounting about 20% of the grape fruit. The annual production is about 1.6 million tonnes and limited quantity is processed for wine. On dry matter basis, grape pomace contains 11% crude protein, 27% crude fiber and 5% lignin. Due to lignified fiber, the digestibility and energy value is low. The dried pomace has phenolic anti-oxidant compounds. Due to lower nutritive value grape pomace can be used in smaller quantity in ruminants feeding. Mango Majority of the mango is consumed freshly and only about 2% is processed and generates 40-50% waste. The waste includes peels, juice extraction waste, seeds, kernel (Fig. 5). The waste has more sugar and moisture and hence need to be dried and made silage for preservation. The silage of peels and juice extraction waste is a good source of energy (70%). The seed kernel represents about 50% of the whole seed and contains 7-12% oil and 40% starch on dry matter basis. Boiling and autoclaving will remove certain anti- nutritional factors like cyanognic glycosides, oxalate and trypsin inhibitors. Though protein content of mango seed kernel is low and quality in terms of amino acids is good.
Fig. 5 Mango waste
Citrus fruit by-products The by-products of orange and lemon are peel and rag. About 40-50% waste is generated from citrus juice industry and contains soluble sugars. It can be made as silage along with dry fodder and used as cattle feed.
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Fig. 6 Citrus fruit by-products
Banana fruit by-product About 30-40% of whole banana is available for livestock feeding. The banana fruit waste (Fig. 7) like peels contains more moisture, low protein and more soluble sugars. This can be preserved as silage along with dry fodder and fed to cattle with other feeds.
Fig. 7 Banana fruit waste Pineapple fruit residue The waste includes leafy crown, peels and the pomace of juice extraction. Less than 30% of the pineapple fruit produced is processed in industry and more than 60% of the fruit is not edible for human consumption. The pineapple fruit residue on dry matter basis contains 6-7% crude protein 50% total sugar, and 70% energy (TDN). The residue (Fig. 8) can be chaffed and dried to use as bran. Otherwise, after draining the excess moisture, the waste can be made as silage and can be used as a fodder source for cattle / sheep. Nutritive values are better than maize green fodder.
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Fig. 8 Pineapple fruit waste Jack fruit residue Jack fruit is a common horticultural crop in many Asian and African regions. In India about 1.2 million tonnes of jack fruit is produced leaving a residue of 0.8 million tonnes per year. This residue (skin, aerial parts) is inedible for human consumption and quickly putrefies due to high sugar and moisture content. Studies have shown that the jack fruit residue (JFR) contain crude protein (6-7% on DM basis), total sugars (60-65% on DM basis) and have higher organic matter digestibility (70-78%). It is palatable and can be fed to ruminants as fodder source along with supplementary nitrogen (urea/tree leaves/oil cake). The chaffed fruit residue (Fig. 9) can be ensiled for preservation or dried to less than 10% moisture content and crushed to use as jack bran. Nutritive value of jack bran is better than any dry fodder and almost similar to medium quality green fodder.
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Fig. 9 Jackfruit residue Tomato pomace India ranks second in the world in tomato production contributing 10.82% of world production. Tomato pomace (Fig. 10) is major by-product of tomato processing industries. The production of tomato pomace is seasonal and linked to harvest period. Most of the product is available during late warm-season and drying is necessary for storage. Sun-drying or artificial drying is the preferred method and resultant product is crispy and it can be mixed along with other feeds and use as roughage source.
Fig. 10 Tomato pomace
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Hydroponic grain sprouts Producing the green feed (Fig. 11) through germination of grains like maize, barley, oat or wheat produces consistent quantities of green feed throughout the year at the rate of about 4 to 6 kg per kg of seed within 10 days period. It is essentially a hydroponic technique, where the sprouted seeds spread over the trays grow into green feed in a 10 day cycle. There is about 20% dry matter loss and often mold growth is a problem. Soaking the seeds with 4% vinegar solution is quite effective in preventing mold growth. Quality of seeds, moisture management and control of predators (squirrel, rodents) are some of the issues in grain sprout production. Improved method of grain sprouts cultivation with straw bedding has been developed by scientists of ICAR-NIANP. It can be considered as a contingency strategic green feed supplement along with dry fodder rather than alternative to conventional green fodder source. On dry matter basis, the nutritive value of grain sprout in terms of protein, energy and fibre is almost similar to good quality wheat bran.
Fig. 11 Hydroponic grain sprouts
Azolla Azolla (A. Pinnata, A. nilotica,) a water floating fern and triangular in appearance, consisting of roots, stems (rhyzomes) and leaves. Azolla grows in symbiotic association with a blue- green alga Anabaena azollae, a nitrogen fixing organism. Azolla (Fig. 12) is a promising supplementary green feed from the point of ease in cultivation, productivity and its nutritive value. Azolla is a protein rich green feed, leucine, lysine, arginine and valine are the predominant amino acids in Azolla, while tryptophan and sulfur containing amino acids are deficient. Azolla is also rich in vitamin A, vitamin B12, Beta- carotene, growth promoting intermediaries, bioactive compounds and bio- polymers and azolla is well digested by livestock. Azolla generally grow best in less than full sun light. Optimum relative humidity for Azolla growth is
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60-75% and pH range of water is 5.5-7. The use of Azolla as a green feed for fish, swine, poultry and cattle has been tested with favourable results. The chemical analysis of Azolla showed that it is a good source of protein (20-25%) and most of the minerals. Azolla can be used as a valuable green feed protein supplement mixed with crushed maize grain or wheat / rice bran. This is very useful under low input livestock production system.
Fig. 12 Azolla cultivation and feeding
Unconventional concentrate ingredients Neem seed cake Neem seed kernel meal (Fig. 13) is high in crude protein (36-38%) and found unsuitable feeding due to presence of bitter and toxic triterpenoids (azadirachtin, salannin, nimbin, nimbidiol etc.). Detoxification can be done by alkali treatment with 1.5% NaOH. Studies have indicated that detoxified neem cake can replace 50% soybean protein in total mixed rations of cattle.
Fig. 13 Neem seed cake
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Karanj seed cake Karanja is a forest tree belonging to the family Leguminosae, grown in all parts of India, particularly in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, for its ecological advantages. Cake is rich in protein, but unpalatable and toxic due to the presence of karanjin, pongamol and an unusual amino acid, glabrin. Detoxification of karanja cake (Fig. 14) can be done by complete removal of oil and refluxing with solvent. Detoxified material could replace 50% of soybean meal in total mixed rations dairy cattle.
Fig. 14 Karnaja cake Castor seed cake Castor seed cake (Fig. 15) is a by-product of the castor seed industry, contains fairly good amounts of protein (CP: 35%). It can be a substitute of conventional oil cakes like soybean meal in livestock diets but for the presence of a toxic glycoprotein, ricin. Lime treatment (4.0%, w/w) followed by extrusion cooking results in ricin free castor seed cake. Such treated cake could be a protein supplement up to 10% level in the total mixed ration of cattle.
Fig. 15 Castor seed cake
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Guar seed meal Guar meal (Fig. 16) is the by-product after extraction of gum from guar seeds. It consists of the outer seed coat and the germ of guar seeds. It is a potential source of protein and has been used to feed livestock and poultry. Guar meal has to be toasted before it is fed to livestock to destroy trypsin inhibitors. It can induce chronic diarrhoea when fed as the sole feed to growing calves. Guar meal has a residual gum which is an indigestible polysaccharide that leads to sticky faeces. It is a good source of amino acids like lysine, cysteine and glycine than ground nut cake but methionine content is comparable to standard protein sources. The guar seeds are toasted to high temperature to remove the trypsin inhibitor so that, the nutritive value improves. The meal is a by-product obtained after processing of seeds. Guar meal is one of the important ingredients used as cattle feed and contains upto 55% crude protein along with digesting content which makes it a reliable and safe ingredient for animals.
Fig. 16 Guar seed meal Rain tree pods Rain tree is widely distributed in the tropics. A mature tree can yield 500- 600 kg green forage foliage and 250-300 kg pods (Fig. 17). Ripened pods are available from February to April when other fodders are scarce. Rain tree pods are a good source of crude protein (15.3%), sugars (69.9%) and low crude fiber (10.0%) and can be a substitute for good quality rice bran.
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Fig. 17 Rain tree pod
Hotel food and kitchen waste Disposal of food waste generated by hotel industries (Fig. 18) is an enormous challenge. There is enormous opportunity for utilizing these wastes as feed for livestock. There should be a mechanism to collect food wastes from the hotels and transporting to livestock farms. The wastes can be fed to dairy animals along with other concentrates and roughages. However, the wastes need to be cooked or heat treated or microbiologically treated before offering to cattle to ensure that they are bacteria free. Generally left-over food and vegetable in domestic kitchen are fed to cattle. Generally ruminant are fed food residues of vegetarian source and pig are fed mixture of both.
Fig. 18 Hotel food and kitchen waste
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Brewer’s grains Brewer’s grains (Fig. 19) are materials remaining after fermentation of grains during the liquor / beer making process. These materials can be fed in the wet form (wet brewer’s grain) or dried form (dried brewer’s grain). The nutritional content varies depending on the type of grain used (barley, wheat, corn, sorghum). Dried brewer’s grain contains 22-25% protein. It is a good source of high-quality bypass protein and digestible fiber. It is usually recommended to include dried brewer’s grains up to 20-25% of the concentrate mixture and up to 15% of the total dietary dry matter of adult ruminant diet. Wet Brewer’s grains have limitation of low shelf life (less than 2 days) and hence to be used without spoilage. Wet edible Brewer’s grains can be mixed with crushed maize grain or wheat bran at 5:1 ratio and feed to cattle.
Fig. 19 Brewer’s grain
Ayurvedic medicinal residues Indian ayurvedic industry has a turnover of around Rs. 3500 crores with 7- 10 per cent annual growth rate. It is estimated that there are over 7800 medicinal drug- manufacturing units in India, includes 14 well-recognized and 86 medium scale manufactures of herbal drugs, producing ayurvedic preparations employing thousands of tons of herbs. Thailam (oil based) and Kasayam (decoction) are the major available Ayurvedic medicinal residues (Fig. 20). The thailam residues have higher crude protein and oil content ranged from 21-27% and 11-23% respectively, whereas Kasayam residues were mostly fibrous with low protein content ranges between 5.5 to 6.5% on DM basis. The potential of Ayurvedic medicinal residues as livestock feed has not been explored. Study conducted in goat at ICAR-NIANP using Thailam Ayurvedic medicinal residues viz. Ksheerabala (K) and Dhanwantharam (D) has shown that 40% of Soybean and groundnut cake protein can be replaced with the above ayurvedic residues without adverse
220 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia effects on health and production (22.7 kg Ksheerabala and 25.4 kg Dhanwantharam per 100kg concentrate mixture). The cost of feeding was also reduced by 18-20%.
Fig. 20 Ayurvedic medical residues
Conclusion Strategies for strengthening the feed / fodder base should focus on regional availability and suitability of potential resources. Use of certain non- traditional feed stuffs lessen the dependency on conventional ingredients. A major drawback in the use of the non-traditional oil seeds is lack of appropriate processing methods that are not only effective to neutralizing the toxins but are economical and simple enough to be taken up by the processing industries. Perception of end users about the technology and their involvement in technology validation is a key to its successful adoption. Local milk unions, krishi vigyana kendras, organised livestock farms and village level self-help groups should act as sub-centres of technology transfer and harness benefits of these innovations.
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References Abdollahzadeh, F., Pirmohammadi, R., Fatehi, F., and Bernousi, I. 2010. Effect of feeding ensiled mixed tomato and apple pomace on performance of Holstein dairy cows. Slovak Journal of Animal Sciences. 43: 31-35. Bakshi, M.P.S., and Wadhwa, M. 2013. Nutritional evaluation of cannery and fruit wastes as livestock feed. The Indian Journal of Animal Sciences. 83: 1198- 1202. Gark, A.K., and Singh, D. 2011. Increasing availability of green fodder through a sustainable approach for fodder seed production. Indian Dairyman. 11: 54- 60. Gowda, N.K.S. 2016. Areca sheath as an alternate dry fodder for livestock. In: Broadening Horizons. FAO, Feedipedia, 29 May 2016. www.feedipedia.org. Pp 1-2. Gowda, N.K.S., and Vijay Bhasker, T. 2017. Fruit residues as alternate forage resources for livestock. In: Approaches towards fodder scarcity in India. (Editors. Ghosh, P.K., Mohanta, S.K., Singh, J.B., Dunna, V., Kumar, R.V., Yadav, V. and Kumar, S.). Studera Press, New Delhi, Pp. 534-550. Gowda, N.K.S., Manegar, A, Verma S, Vallesha, N.C. Maya, G., Pal, D.T., and Suresh, K.P. 2015. Azolla (Azolla pinnata) as a green feed supplement for dairy cattle – An of farm study. Animal Nutrition and Feed Technology. 15: 283-287. Gowda, N.K.S., Vallesha. N.C., Awachat, V.B., Anandan, S., Pal, D.T., and Prasad, C.S. 2015. Study on evaluation of silage from pineapple (Ananos comosus) fruit residue as livestock feed. Tropical Animal Health and Production. 47: 557-561. Indira, D., Sarjan Rao, K., Suresh, J., Venugopal Naidu, K., and Ravi, A. 2009. Azolla (A. pinnata) as feed supplement in buffalo calves on growth performance. Indian Journal of Animal Nutrition. 26: 345-348. Kusmartono. 2007. Effects of supplementing jack fruit wastes with urea or gliricidia / cassava leaves on growth, rumen digestion and feed degradability of sheep fed on rice straw basal diet. Livestock Research for Rural Development. 19: 1-11. Muthuramalingam, T., Pothiappan, P., Tensingh Gnanaraj, P., Meenakshi Sundaram, S., and Pugazhenthi, T.R. 2015. Studies on growth performance of goats fed hydroponic maize fodder. Indian Veterinary Journal. 92: 94-96. Rathod, P.K. and Dixit, S. 2019. Green fodder production: A manual for field functionaries. Publication of ICRISAT, Patancheru, Telangana, India. Rao, S.B.N., Gowda, N.K.S., Soren N.M., and Prasad, K.S. 2018. Sugar cane trash: a valuable dry fodder source for dairy animals. Indian Farming. 68: 29- 30.
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Sharma, R.K., Rastogi, A., and Haq, Z. 2016. Top feeds for sustainable and ecofriendly small ruminant production. In: Newer perspectives in Animal Nutrition Research for Augmenting Animal Productivity (Editors: Dutta, N., Jadhav, S.E., Kala, A., Gopi, M., and Ramana, J.V.). Pp 22-35. Ventura, M.R., Pieltin, M.C., and Castanon, J.I.R. 2009. Evaluation of tomato crop by-products as feed for goats. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 154: 271-275. Wadhwa, M. and Bakshi, M.P.S. 2013. Utilization of fruit and vegetable wastes as livestock feed and as substrates for generation of other value-added products. FAO-RAP Publication 2013/04, Bangkok, Thailand.
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Chapter 9 Feeding Strategies for Profitable Dairying
V. Sridhar1 and Bhupendra Phondba2 1General Manager, 2Scientist-II, Animal Nutrition Group National Dairy Development Board Anand – 388 001, Gujarat India
Introduction The role of livestock in livelihood and food security of millions of people in SAARC countries is well understood. Among livestock, dairy animals have much significance and dairying is acknowledged as a major instrument for sustainable rural development. The small-holder milk producer (comprising landless, small and marginal farmers owning 2-10 animals per household) is the backbone of dairying and contributes more than 70% of the total milk produced in the region. As per FAOSTAT (2017), the SAARC region produced about 218 million tonnes milk (27% of global) from about 425 million cattle and buffaloes (25% of global). Despite the large milch animal population in SAARC nations, the milk production is far below the national requirements due to low productivity of dairy animals. Average productivity of dairy animals in the SAARC region is 627 kg/cow/year and 1258 kg/buffalo/year, which is much lower compared to developed nations who have an average of more than 7500 kg/cow/year (Siddiky, 2018). In developing countries, demand for milk and milk products will continue to increase in the future due to rapid urbanisation, increasing incomes and changing consumption patterns. This future demand can be met without increasing the overall animal population by increasing the average productivity of animals through the adoption of various feeding strategies. A few of them are detailed in this chapter.
Introduction of newer variants of ‘Compound Feed’ In mixed crop-livestock system, low quality crop residues form the bulk of basal diet of ruminants. Dairy animals are fed one or two locally available concentrate feed ingredients (grains, brans, oilseed cakes etc.), grasses, a little cultivated fodder and some minerals and vitamins. In such systems, animals either do not produce milk according to their genetic potential or else the cost of milk production is high due to imbalanced / improper feeding. Compound
224 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia cattle feed is the blend of various raw materials and feed additives, prepared in accordance with the requirement of various categories of animals, their productivity level, physiological state etc. The Indian dairy cooperative sector produced about 3.6 million tonnes of compound feed during 2016-17. Out of those compound feed, around 68% belongs to BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) Type- II category (20% CP), 13% belongs to BIS Type-I category (22% CP), 18% belongs to bypass protein feed and remaining 1 % is of another category. This implies that a majority of the cattle feed plants produced primarily BIS Type II feed. Considering the fact that the nutrient requirement of various categories of animals - such as calves, heifers, buffaloes, high yielders etc – are different from each other, the Cattle Feed Plants (CFP) may be advised to produce different variants of compound cattle feeds to cater to the specific needs of these animals. This will not only ensure optimal growth, milk production and reproduction in milch animals but also improve the profitability for the dairy farmer. Further, in the absence of specific regulations to monitor the quality of cattle feed and mineral mixtures in some SAARC nations, the feed/ mineral mixtures produced could contain higher levels of toxins, heavy metals etc., which could impact human health if transmitted from feed to milk. For assuring the quality of cattle feed and mineral mixtures to end-user farmers in India, the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), designated as an institution of national importance by an act of the Indian Parliament initiated a ‘Quality Mark’ (Fig. 1) for various variants of cattle feed and mineral mixtures manufactured in the cooperative, government and semi- government sectors. The presence of the ‘Quality Mark’ on the bags of the cattle feed and mineral mixtures is meant to convey to the end-user that the manufacturer has adopted Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) for ensuring that the product conforms to set specifications.
Fig. 1 Quality Mark
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Strategic supplementation of feed supplements during physiological / climatic stress Feed supplement for improving Fat and SNF content in milk Fat and SNF content in milk directly impact the price of milk realized by the farmer. Imbalanced feeding (most likely in traditional feeding systems) could negatively impact the fat and SNF content in milk. Several feeding strategies can be adopted for improving the fat and SNF content in milk. These include the maintenance of an appropriate roughage - concentrate ratio, supplementation of appropriate additives as well as the avoidance of Negative Energy Balance (NEB). NDDB has formulated and tested a feed supplement for improving the milk fat and SNF content (Fig. 2). A field study on 106 early and mid-lactating cows and buffaloes revealed that with its supplementation the average fat and SNF increased by 7.2-9.6% and 1.8-2.4%, respectively in cows, and 2.4-3.7% and 1.6-1.8%, respectively in buffaloes. Net daily income of farmers was also improved by INR 14-25 in early and INR 6-11 in mid lactation.
Fig. 2 Supplement for improving milk fat and SNF content
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Feed supplement for mitigating ‘heat stress’ in cattle and buffaloes Heat stress - expressed in terms of Temperature Humidity Index (THI) - increases with environmental temperature and relative humidity. In tropical countries THI is high (72 or more) from April to August months. With increase in THI above 72, dairy animals have difficulty in cooling themselves and exhibit decreased body comfort. Maintenance energy requirement of animals increases by about 30% and animals also exhibit metabolic stress (Fig. 3). Feed intake, milk yield and milk fat can decrease by 40-45%. Milk SNF content may drop by 20%. Heat stress also prolongs the effect of NEB which results in poor reproductive efficiency and heavy economic losses to farmers.
Fig. 3 Heat stress in a cow Negative effect of heat stress on animals can be reduced by supplementation of appropriate nutrients/additives. To minimize the productivity losses during heat stress, NDDB developed a supplement for reducing heat stress in animals (Fig. 4). A field study was conducted on early lactating crossbred cows (n=20) in summer months (April to July, 2018) to evaluate the effect of heat stress supplement on performance of cows. The Dry Matter Intake (DMI) and milk yield improved (P<0.01) by 8.8% and 10.5%, respectively, whereas rectal temperature (103.4 vs 102.6 ºF), respiration rate (63.5 vs 45.5 per min)
227 SAARC Agriculture Centre and pulse rate (76.8 vs 60.8 per min) reduced (P<0.05) in supplemented cows compared to Control group animals. The net daily income of farmers was improved by INR 20.00 per cow.
Fig. 4 Supplement for reducing heat stress Feed supplement to augment fertility Production efficiency of dairy animals is largely dependent on reproductive performance. Nutritional deficiencies constitute the principal cause of infertility/ poor reproductive performance in animals. Among the reproductive disorders, repeat breeding and true anoestrus showed the highest prevalence. Results of a field study conducted by NDDB revealed that supplementation of chelated minerals, coated vitamins and omega fatty acids resulted in confirmed conception in 70% of the supplemented animals (n=168). Such supplementation would help to reduce the incidence of reproductive disorders and improve the reproduction efficiency in dairy animals.
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Crop residue management Crop residues form the bulk of basal diet of ruminants and contribute up to 60% of the total DMI. In spite of this, there are two major challenges in effective utilisation of crop residues in SAARC nations: Lack of mechanism for securing crop residues post-harvest About 501 million tonnes of crop residue is produced annually in India (MOA, 2014). From among these, about 140 million tonnes is burnt annually in the fields to clear the field of straw and stubble. This not only causes air pollution but also results in loss of soil nutrients and decreased soil fertility. The problem is severe in the mechanised rice-wheat system where combine harvesters are extensively used. With such harvesters, about 80% of the residues are left in the field as loose straw which finally ends up being burnt. Low nutritive value and bulk density Due to low energy, protein and mineral content in crop residues, feeding them in large quantities adversely affects production efficiency. There is also a regional imbalance in the availability of these crop residues, with some regions having surplus while others face an acute shortage. Low bulk density of the crop residues is the limiting factor for their transportation from surplus to deficit regions. These challenges can be tackled by developing strategies for their enrichment and densification before feeding to animals. One approach for the enrichment of crop residues is to use them for the manufacture of Total Mixed Ration (TMR) pellets. These pellets can be produced by mixing crop residues with grains, oilseed cakes, special additives, minerals and vitamins. (Fig. 5). In TMR pellets the proportion of straw can be gradually increased as animals progress from early to mid and late- lactation. Feeding TMR pellets according to the stage of lactation would not only help to improve lactation yield, length and average productivity of animals but also optimise the feeding cost, since TMR pellets are normally more economical compared to the conventional compound feeds. A field study was conducted wherein Murrah buffaloes were fed dry TMR pellets (Fig. 6) in early-lactation by incorporating the ‘challenge feeding’ concept. A specially formulated ‘Early Lactation Feed’ was given in progressively increasing quantities. Due to this TMR feeding, DMI (15.2 vs. 12.9 kg/d) and milk yield (9.8 vs. 7.8 kg/d) was improved (P<0.05) in early lactating buffaloes compared to the buffaloes maintained under traditional feeding. Net income of farmers was higher by INR 62/d/animal due to feeding of TMR during early lactation. Further, to popularise TMR feeding among the farmers NDDB has set-up two plants for the manufacture of dry TMR pellets/ blocks. Locally available crop
229 SAARC Agriculture Centre residues such as paddy/ wheat straw and sugarcane tops are being incorporated to the extent of 35-40% in the TMR pellets.
Fig. 5 TMR pellet mill
TMR pellet. TMR pellet and green fodder Fig. 6 Early Lactation TMR
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Green fodder production / conservation by adopting innovative business models Round- the- year availability of good quality fodder is indispensable for profitable dairying. NDDB has pioneered a business model for silage making at the level of the Dairy Cooperative Society (DCS) in the village. This entails the purchase of green fodder from farmers under a contract-farming arrangement. Subsequently the same is converted into silage at the DCS and sold at a nominal price to pourer members in the lean season when fodder availability is scarce.
Feeding management of calves to reduce the ‘Age at First Heat’ and the ‘Age at First Calving’ Calf nutrition during all stages of growth is critical for productivity enhancement. Even if adult animals are well fed, they may not produce milk up to their full genetic potential, if fed improperly during their calf-hood. As a result, the life-time milk production and reproduction are adversely affected. Delayed sexual maturity and delayed ‘Age at First Calving’ (AFC) are among the major factors responsible for poor profitability of dairy farms. Therefore, proper feeding management of young calves is essential for sustainable dairy farming. NDDB designed and rolled-out a ‘Calf Rearing Programme’ (CRP) for raising calves during all stages of growth i.e. pre-natal, neo-natal and post- natal. Under this programme, a specially formulated ‘Pregnancy Feed’ is provided to pregnant animals in their last two months of pregnancy. Further, calves born from these dams are fed ‘Calf Starter Feed’ up to 6 months of age and ‘Calf Growth Meal’ from 7th to 27th months of age. The programme is being implemented on indigenous Kankrej cows, crossbred HF cows and Murrah buffaloes. Calves reared under CRP exhibited 30% higher growth as compared to calves under conventional rearing. Murrah buffalo calves reared under CRP attained puberty at an early age of 15-17 months and produced their first calf at 25-26 months compared to Control (Fig. 7 and Fig. 8). The AFC was also lower in Kankrej cows at 27 months as compared to 44- 47 months under traditional feeding (Fig. 9).
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Fig. 7 CRP Control (1st heat: 25 months, BW: 236 kg)
Fig. 8 CRP Treatment (1st heat: 17 months, BW: 250 kg)
Fig. 9 Effect of CRP on AFC in indigenous cow (AFC: 24 months, BW: 378 kg)
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Real-time monitoring of critical parameters in nutrition and health Real-time monitoring of parameters such as DMI, fat and protein content in milk, feed residue in manger, Body Condition Score (BCS) and dung score enable the dairy farmer to evaluate the rations being fed. Corrective measures can then be taken to maintain milk production and its quality.
Summary There is scope to improve the profitability of dairying under the small-holder farming system by improving the production of different variants of cattle feeds and the use of appropriate feed supplements for reducing heat stress, and improving the milk composition and fertility of animals. Effective utilization of crop residues will not only mitigate the deficit of fodder, but also optimize feeding cost and enhance production. Innovative business models are needed to ensure round- the- year fodder availability to dairy farmers. Programmes such as the Calf Rearing Programme could help improve production efficiency of animals and profitability of dairying.
References FAOSTAT, 2017. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. Gorti R. K., Suresh K. P., Sampath K. T. Giridhar K. and Anandan S., 2012. Modelling and forecasting livestock and fish feed resources: requirement and availability in India. National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Bangalore, Indian Council of Agricultural Research. MOA, 2014. National Policy for Management of Crop Residues (NPMCR). Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. Siddiky, N.A., 2018. Livestock in South Asia: Challenges, Priorities and Way Forward. In: Transforming livelihoods in South Asia through sustainable livestock research and development. 13-18th November, 2018, Kathmandu, Nepal.
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Chapter 10 Strategies to Improve Fodder Production in India
K. Giridhar, N.K.S. Gowda and S. Anandan ICAR-National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology Adugodi, Hosur Road, Bangalore Karnataka, India
Introduction Adequate supply of feed and fodder is crucial for improving livestock productivity. Feeding is the foundation of livestock system and it directly or indirectly affects the entire livestock sector, including animal productivity, health and welfare and the environment (Makkar, 2016). The profitability of livestock rearing is dependent on the sources of feed and fodder, as 70% of the total cost is attributed to feeding. Green fodder is an important and economic source of nutrients and provides better option for costlier concentrate feed ingredients (Mohini et al., 2007). Any saving in feeding cost would directly contribute to increase in profitability. By using good quality forage, particularly leguminous fodder, feeding of concentrate can be reduced significantly. Less than 5 per cent of the country's farmland is devoted to fodder cultivation though the livestock sector contributes about 30% to the agriculture gross domestic product of India. The area under fodder crops is either stagnant or declining in various states of India and is adding further to the problem of deficit of green fodder availability.
Reasons for fodder shortage • The practice of cultivation of green fodder crops on exclusive land is limited due to competition for the resources utilized for the production of food crops. • Huge livestock population, particularly, genetically improved breeds. • Frequent occurrence of droughts and floods, leading to low productivity. • Shrinkage and deterioration of common grazing lands and deforestation. • Conversion of pasture land for crop production. • Use of high grain yielding varieties of with low straw yield and increased usage of combine harvesters, leading to considerable left over of straw in the field. Only limited number of farmers use stubble shaver and straw baler to collect crop residue from the harvested field.
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• Burning of straw, especially, paddy straw, is a major problem in several parts of India. • Lack of availability of quality fodder seeds and planting material. • Lack of awareness of balanced feeding of livestock and farmers not prompted to grow fodders. • Wastage of fodder in flush season due to non-adoption of practices like chaffing and conservation measures (hay or silage) in several states. There is an urgent need to improve the productivity of fodder crops by correct choice of crop as well as variety, along with, adoption of proper agro- techniques. For ensuring continuous supply of green fodder throughout the year, it is essential to have suitable cropping plan with different fodder crops in an overlapping system to maximize forage yield. Planting of fodder trees and shrubs is essential to ensure the availability of top feeds, especially, during lean months. If the supplemental irrigation facilities are available, selection of high yielding perennial grass like hybrid Napier (HN) bajra or multi-cut perennial sorghum as the main component of the system will ensure continuous supply of green fodder. Addition of sufficient organic manures, mulching and use of drip or sprinkler system will greatly minimize the evaporation losses and improve the irrigation efficiency. Providing irrigation at regular intervals after the cessation of rains will ensure better biomass yields. In view of the vagaries of monsoon, it is essential to adopt water harvesting practices to store the rain water during the monsoon season for providing irrigation during the prolonged dry spells or post-rainy season. For irrigated conditions, HN bajra is highly suited due to its abundant herbage yield, palatability and good fodder quality. It grows fast and is ideal for green fodder as well as silage making. Several high yielding varieties like Co-3, Co-5, Sampoorna, IGFRI selections etc. are popular in India. Pakchong 1 variety (Fig. 1) of HN bajra introduced recently from Thailand is performing well in the southern states of India. The main merit is that this variety’s harvest interval is around 60 days even during the winter months, as compared to 70 to 75 days in others due to their slower growth due to cold weather. It is popularly called as ‘super napier’ variety by the farmers.
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Fig 1. Pakchong-1 (super napier) HN bajra Crops like sorghum and pearl millet can tolerate low rainfall conditions better. The new improved perennial varieties of sorghum like CoFS-29 and CoFS- 31 (Fig. 2) are tolerant to drought as well as temporary water-logging conditions. These varieties can give at least 2 cuts in places that receive rains only for 4 months during the south west monsoon season, if sown in early part of June, with the onset of monsoon. Marvel grass (Fig. 3) is a palatable and popular pasture grass that can tolerate drought as well as salinity.
Fig 2. CoFS-31 variety of perennial fodder Sorghum
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Fig 3. Marvel grass (Dicanthium annulatum) In case of pearl millet, Baif bajra-1 variety performs well in dry lands and give 2 to 3 cuts for green fodder. The other merit is that it is a dual-purpose variety and so, after taking one cut for fodder, ratooning can be done to provide 10 to 12 quintals of grain along with 30 quintals of stover per hectare. It is always advisable to include a legume as an intercrop, as it provides protein rich fodder. Fodder legumes like cowpea (Fig. 4), hedge lucerne, horsegram etc., can be intercropped with maize, jowar, pearl millet and hybrid Napier bajra. Several studies like that of Hossain et al. (2017) have clearly shown that green fodder-based rations help in improving net daily income of farmers by way of reducing cost of milk production.
Fig 4. Maize + Cowpea intercropping
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A few important details like seed rate, spacing, green fodder yield etc., for major fodder crops are elaborated in Table 1. Table 1 Common fodder and their production technologies Forage crop & Seed rate (kg/ha) Harvesting time Green fodder yield important varieties and spacing (days after sowing) (q/ha) Sorghum- 40 kg for normal 80-90 (late 300-400 (single Pusa chari, MP chari, varieties and maturing varieties) cut) Ksheerasagar, PC-6, 9 10 kg for 65-75 (early 1350 to 1600 in and 23, HC-171 and perennial multi- varieties) five cuts per year 260, cut varieties for perennial Co FS -29 and Co FS - (COFS-29 & 31) varieties like 31 30 x 15 cm COFS-29 & 31. Maize - 40 kg 75-90 (late) 350-550 African tall, APFM-8, 30 x 15 cm 60-75 (early) J-1006 and VL-54 Composites like Vijay, Moti and Jawahar Bajra - 10 kg 60-75 250-320 Giant bajra, Rajbajra 25 x 10 cm chari-2, BAIF Bajra-1, AVKB-19, Deenabandhu & Co-8 Cowpea - 25 kg 60-80 150-200 BL-2, UPC-4200,5286 30 x 15 cm and 5287, IGFRI-450, Shweta, Co-5 and CoFC-8 Lucerne - 15 kg First cut at 75 to 700-750 Anand-2 and 3, Type-9, 25 cm-solid 90 days after RL-88 and Co-1 sowing sowing. Subsequent cuts at 30 days interval. Napier-bajra hybrid - 40,000 root slips First cut at 65 to 1600-2000 in 6 to Sampoorna, IGFRI- 6,7 or stem cuttings 75 days. 7 cuts per year and 10, RBN-1, PBN- 50 x 50 cm Subsequent cuts at 83, APBN-1, Co- 3, 4 about 40 days and 5, BH-18 & PNB- interval. 233 Guinea grass - Seeds @ 2.5 First cut 75 days. 1100-1500 in 5 to 6 Riversdale, Macuenni, kg/ha or Subsequent cuts at cuts per year Hamil, PGG-19 and 66,000 root slips about 45 days (Shade tolerant 101, Co-2 and 3, BG-1 at 50 x 30 cm interval. crop and suitable and 2, DGG-1 spacing for orchards and agro-forestry systems)
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Grain sprouts as supplemental feed To overcome the shortage of green fodder, hydroponic units for production of green fodder are being installed in different parts of India in recent years. Majority of these units run on electricity and need continuous and reliable power supply to control the temperature as well as humidity. The other major limitations are high cost of production (capital, depreciation and running costs), handling of very high moisture feed and risk of mold growth. To overcome these problems, ICAR-NIANP, Bangalore developed a simple and cost-effective method of producing mold-free grain sprouts on local crop residue bedding with minimum water usage. Hydroponics refers to the technique of growing plants in water or nutrient solution, without the usage of soil as medium of growth. The new method developed by NIANP is a modified hydroponic way (Fig. 5 to 10) and does not require electricity as, manual or battery-operated sprayer is used for spraying water. Good quality grains like maize/wheat/horse gram need to be cleaned with water and soaked in a bucket of water for a day. Later, these wet grains are removed from the bucket and kept tightly packed in wet cloth for about 36 hours in a dark place to ensure rapid germination. Germinated grains are taken out of the cloth and placed in 4% vinegar solution for about 30 minutes to prevent the mold growth. Later, these grains are transferred on to half inch-thick straw beds made with locally available chaffed straw of rice or sorghum or pearl millet and placed in plastic trays with fine holes at the bottom and on sides. The trays are housed in a shelf made with locally available materials like bamboo or Eucalyptus poles for corner support, and split bamboo sticks for racks. The shelf with 5 racks secured on all sides with PVC coated iron net costs Rs.3,000. Net will prevent eating of grains by squirrels, rodents, birds etc. Germinated grains are placed on straw beds and a sprayer is used to apply water 4 times a day in places with moderate climate, and up to 7 times in hot and dry places.
Fig. 5 Germinating maize grains Fig. 6 Spreading of germinated grains on straw bedding
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Fig. 7 Emerging sprouts of maize Fig. 8 Ready to feed maize sprouts
Fig. 9 Low cost bamboo hydroponic stand Fig. 10 Completely mold-free sprouts = Germinated grains are grown in sun light for about 6 days till the seedlings are 4 to 5 inches tall. The thick mat of grain sprouts along with straw bed is taken out and fed to the livestock. About 8 liters of water is needed to obtain over 4 kg of sprouts from 1 kg of maize grains. Tests done by Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) in 4 states have shown that by feeding about 4 kg of grain sprouts per day during green fodder scarcity periods, the milk yield raised by about 1 liter per cow per day. Milk quality (fat content increased from 3.4 to 3.6) also improved due to better feeding. It costs just Rupees four to produce one kg maize sprouts with this low-cost technology.
Azolla - an economical supplemental feed Azolla is an aquatic fern that is a rich source of crude protein, essential amino acids, vitamins as well as minerals. In villages, where livestock farmers feed
240 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia their milch animals mostly with dry fodder and concentrates, inclusion of Azolla a nutritive feed supplement helps to improve yield and quality of milk. It is easy to cultivate Azolla in ready to use PVC ponds of 12 x 4 feet size (Fig. 11 and 12) and harvest about 1.1 kg of fresh Azolla every day. Field testing of Azolla as supplemental feed to lactating cows for 7 weeks was done by ICAR-NIANP, Bengaluru in 4 villages under Farmer First Program. The dry matter content of Azolla varied between 4.7 and 5.0 % and the crude protein from 22.9 to 23.5%. Azolla supplementation improved the mean daily milk production from each cow by 0.6 liters, and milk fat from 3.3 to 3.5. The monthly income from milk sale improved by over Rs. 500 per cow. This low- cost technology can easily be adopted by small livestock holders.
Fig. 11 Azolla pond with the shade Fig. 12 Ready to harvest Azolla
Fodder trees Providing top feeds from the trees will help to bridge the deficit of green fodder. In dry regions, their utility is much more pronounced. Trees like Sesbania, Subabul, Gliricidia, Melia etc. perform well even in dry lands. The normal farmers' practice of lopping only the side branches and allowing the uninterrupted growth of main stem reduces the yield. Instead, main stem is to be pruned to a height of 5 feet when the trunks of fodder trees are about 1.5 inches in diameter. Normally, it takes about 8 to 10 months to reach this stage. After the first lopping, subsequent harvests can be done at an interval of around 60 days.
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Conservation of fodder Conserving the excess fodder produced during plush season is essential to ensure supply of green fodder during the lean periods. Hay The primary purpose of hay making is to reduce the water content of the green herbage so that it can be stored for long, without undergoing spoilage like fermentation, and mold development. The green fodder harvested at pre- flowering to flowering stage is dried to reduce the moisture level to about 16 %. Quality hay can be produced from fodder crops that have more proportion of leaves and thin stems. Good hay should be leafy and greenish in color. Silage It is preservation of green fodder in its original form through anaerobic fermentation. Oxygen-free environment and low pH are essential to preserve the quality during storage. Fodders which have thick stem and more sugar content like maize and sorghum are well suited for silage making. The fresh fodder harvested during grain filling stage with desired moisture content of 65-70% is chaffed. Adequate compaction is required while filling the chaffed fodder to remove air for ensuring anaerobic fermentation. The silo should be covered securely with plastic sheet and old tyres can be placed on the top to ensure proper compression. Care must be taken to prevent the entry of water and air. The silage will be ready in about a month. Good silage will have greenish yellow colour with a vinegar odour and a pH of 4.2 or less. Farmers needing large quantities can construct large stone or cement pits. Small holders can prepare silage in 100 kg poly bags or 200-liter capacity plastic drums. Drum silage method (Fig. 13 to 16) was tested in 10 adopted villages of under the World Bank aided National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) livelihood project in Chitradurga district of Karnataka and it gave encouraging results. Feeding of 4 to 5 kg of silage (in addition to dry fodder and concentrate) during the summer months improved milk yield at least by 0.8 liters per day. The main problem with poly bags is that they are prone to the damage by rodents and even a small hole will spoil the silage stored. Repeated damage makes the bags unfit for re-usage. The drums are most durable and easy to handle. 105 to 110 kg of silage can be made in 200 liter capacity drums. This drum silage technology was recently tested on a large scale in Haryana state by Department of Animal Husbandry and dairying with encouraging results.
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Fig. 13 Filling of drum with chaffed hybrid napier bajra
Fig. 14 Layer-wise compaction of chaffed fodder in the drum
Fig. 15 Sealing of the drum’s lid with plastic tape
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Fig. 16 Ready to use maize silage in the drum Climate change has the potential to impact the quantity and reliability of forage production, quality of forage, water demand for cultivation of forage crops, as well as large-scale rangeland vegetation patterns (Giridhar and Anandan, 2015). In the coming years, due to the wide fluctuations in distribution of rainfall in growing season in several regions of the world, the forage production will be greatly impacted. As the agricultural sector is the largest user of freshwater resources, the dwindling water supplies will adversely affect the forage crop production. With proper adaptation measures ably supported by suitable policies by the governments, it is possible to minimize the adverse impacts of climate change and ensure livestock productivity through optimum forage availability.
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Road map for fodder improvement Strengthening of fodder seed chain Supply of quality seeds, propagation of new fodder varieties, seed production specific to each region, Buy-Back system of seed production involving progressive dairy farmers and dairy milk unions. Research, development and management Short duration varieties with better nutritive value, Multiple stress tolerant forage crops, Forage based inter-cropping system, High grain-better straw varieties, Multi cut cereal fodder varieties, rapid techniques for planting material multiplication, stay green dual purpose varieties, Optimizing resources: chaffing, silage, hay, total mixed ration, pretreatment or crop residues, harnessing local fodder resources, low cost fodder block making machines and hydroponic units. Post - harvest technology support Cost effective machinery for fodder harvesting, baling, fodder block machine and transportation, Combined harvester with minimum straw on ground. Extension Services Field demonstrations, Mobile units, Access to quality seeds / root slips. Policy initiatives Establishing region-wise fodder ware houses, Linkage of National Seeds Corporation- Milk Unions - Central and State fodder farms, Remunerative price and necessary buyback arrangements to the fodder seed growers, Community approach for distribution of inputs, self-help groups, Incentives for fodder cultivation, Entrepreneurship and assured market for fodder.
Conclusion In the past two decades, several technologies in the form of high yielding varieties, crop production as well as protection technologies have been developed by National Agricultural Research System in India. Complete economic benefits of forage crops have not been fully realized. Farmers usually allot marginal land to the fodder cultivation with minimum or no input. The trend must change and growing quality fodder with higher productivity should become an integral component of livestock farming.
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References Giridhar, K., and Anandan, S. 2015. Impact of climate change on forage availability for livestock. In: Climate Change Impact on Livestock: Adaptation and Mitigation; Springer: Berlin, Germany. Pp. 97-112. Hossain, S.A., Sherashia, P.L., Phondba, B.T., Pathan, F.K., and Garg, M.R. 2017. Effect of feeding green fodder-based diet in lactating buffaloes: Milk production, economics and methane emission. Indian Journal of Dairy Sciences. 70: 767-773 Makkar, H.P.S. 2016. Animal nutrition in a 360-degree view and a framework for future R&D work: towards sustainable livestock production. Animal Production Science. 56: 1561-1568. Mohini, M., Mani, V., and Singh, G.P. 2007. Effect of different ratios of green and dry roughage on milk production and methane emission in cattle. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences. 77: 79-82.
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Chapter 11 National Feed Inventory Development: Methodology and Challenges
S. Anandan and K. Giridhar ICAR-National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology Adugodi, Hosur Road, Bangalore Karnataka, India
Feed resources management Sustaining the present population of livestock with the available feed resources and catering to the growing demand for livestock products triggered by the increasing income levels and changing food habits of the growing population is going to be a major challenge. In view of the multi-faceted role of livestock in promoting livelihoods, poverty alleviation, nutritional security, crop husbandry and its impact on land, water and environment there is greater need for efficient resource management of the livestock sector. This involves assessing the potential availability of feed resources and devising ways and means of using these resources by livestock optimally without compromising the long term ability of the natural resources to sustain the production. Further assessment of feed resources should not be a onetime exercise but it needs to be a continuous activity as is being done for the food sector. This will facilitate to capture the rapid changes in the livestock sector in terms of the demand and availability of feed resources and ensure timely updates which in turn would lead to enhance the competitiveness of the livestock sector ensuring profitability and sustainability. Growing demand for livestock products coupled with shrinking natural resources calls for efficient management of all the inputs. Feed being the largest input, an efficient information system on feed availability and requirements can immensely help the policy makers, planners and developmental agencies in formulating and implementing effective schemes for livestock development and achieve feed security. A feed inventory of a particular area/region will provide information on the type of feed resources available and their quantities, which can then be compared with available livestock numbers to arrive at the status of the area/region in terms of whether feed availability is sufficient, in surplus or in deficit. Assessing feed availability vis-a-vis requirements for developing countries with diverse production systems and productivity is a challenging task. Added to the diversity, lack of proper documentation of various components of livestock production systems
247 SAARC Agriculture Centre makes the task much more challenging. The present paper gives an overview of the approaches for assessing the feed resources in India. The approach holds good for many developing countries as they tend to have a more or less similar production systems. Approaches, data sources and methodologies used in generating the quantitative data on availability of feed resources ICAR - National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Bangalore has developed FEEDBASE, an information system that has all the details on the type and quantity of potential feed resources available and feed requirements for all livestock species in all districts of the country. The approaches, data sources, methodologies and the limitations of the FEEDBASE are discussed below. FEEDBASE is developed based on the premise that all the feeds are either linked to the crop production or the green biomass obtained from cultivated fodders and other categories of land. The total potential feed resources are categorized in to crop residues, greens and concentrates and are matched against the requirements of the various categories of livestock in both quantitative & qualitative terms (protein and energy) and deficiency or surplus are calculated. The protein and energy content of feeds are calculated from the average values of different feed resources based on the reported values and the nutrient requirements as per the Indian Council of Agricultural Research publication on Nutrient requirements of Livestock and poultry (ICAR 1987). The approach of database on feed resources - FEEDBASE is summarized as Fig.1. Crop da Land use Livestock census
Production of cereals, Area under cropped area, Cattle, buffalo. sheep. goat, pulses, oilseeds forests, pastures, fallows equines, camels, yak, mithun, & others etc., pigs, commercial poultry, Harvest index Harvest rates Extraction Productivity Biomass productivit and wise age Numbers y
Potential feed resources available Feed requirements Crop Crop Concentrate Green Concentrate Green residues residues s s
Protein Energy Protein Energy
Adequate Surplus Deficit
Feed balance Fig.1 Basis of estimating feed balance adopted for data base on feed resources
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Assessing feed resources- For assessing feed resources availability we need data on the crop production and the land utilization pattern. Crop production data is used for assessing the availability of crop residues and crop based by products used as livestock feed. Land utilization pattern is used for assessing the green fodder availability. Crop production data is available from the various state agriculture departments and central agriculture ministry (http://agricoop.nic.in/agristatistics.htm) maintained by the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India with free online access. The data provides the area, production, and yield of crops, land use statistics and other related information with respect to the agriculture statistics and is regularly updated. From the crop production data the potential feed resources in terms of crop residues, grains, oil cakes, bran, husk, etc., were calculated using the grain to straw ratios and the extraction rates reported in Table-1.For example the harvest index of crop residue for paddy is 1.3 implying that for every unit of paddy production 1.3 units of paddy straw is produced (example if paddy production is 100 tons then the paddy straw production would be 100 X 1.3, that is 130 tons). Similarly for extraction rate for every unit of paddy crop the extraction rate of bran and paddy is 0.08 and 0.02 respectively (for every 100 tons of paddy produced 8 tons (100 X 0.08) of bran and 2 ton (100 X 0.02) of grains are available for feeding).Grain to straw ratios and extraction rates of various feed resources were compiled from published literature (Ramachandra et al.,2007) and where the information were lacking the values were based on primary data and inputs from the subject matter specialists/industry. Further for precise estimates we need to know the actual proportion of the potential feed resources that are actually used for feeding as many of them have alternate non feed uses. Feed inventory needs to be complete and include all the feed resources used for feeding. Feed imports, exports and regional movement should also be considered. The list of feed resources listed in Table 1is not exhaustive and we need to include all the resources to ensure the feed availability is estimated precisely. The extraction rates may vary slightly across regions/countries and wherever regional factors are available, the factors should be used for better inventory assessment.
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Table 1 Conversion factors used for working out availability of crop residue, grains, oilcakes, bran and husk from pulses Crop Crop residues Bran/husk Oilcake Grains Paddy 1.3 0.08 0.02 Wheat 1 0.08 0.02 Sorghum 2.5 0.10 Bajra 2.5 0.10 Barley 1.3 0.10 Maize 2.5 0.50 Finger millet 2.0 0.05 Small millets 2.5 0.10 Other cereals 2.0 0.10 Pulses 1.7 0.03 Groundnut 2.0 0.60 Sesame 0.60 Rape & 0.67 Mustard Linseed 0.67 Niger 0.72 Sunflower 0.70 Safflower 0.70 Soybean 0.17 0.73 Sugarcane 0.25* Coconut 0.0625 Cotton 0.0499 * Green fodder Source: FEEDBASE (2011)
For green fodder estimation the area of land under fodder cultivation, permanent pastures, cultivable waste lands, forests, current fallows, other fallows and miscellaneous tree crops is considered. The average production potential of cultivated fodder, extent of land under fodder cultivation, average biomass production potential of other land categories must be known to arrive at total green availability. A typical land use pattern is given along with the fodder biomass production potential as an example in Table 2. Depending on the land classification and the fodder biomass production potential of
250 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia different regions/countries appropriate factors should be used to arrive at the total green fodder production. Table 2 Green fodder production potential on fresh basis of various land categories Source Area Productivity/annum Cultivated fodder 5% of the total cropped 40 tons/hectare area Forests 50% of the area 3 tons/hectare accessible for fodder Permanent pastures and Total area 5 tons/hectare grazing lands Miscellaneous tree crops Total area 1 ton/hectare Cultivable waste lands Total area 1 ton/hectare Current fallows Total area 1 ton/hectare Other fallows Total area 1 ton/hectare Source- FEEDBASE (2011 For working out the feed requirement livestock census, nutrient requirements and feeding practices have to be considered. Category wise census, average productivity of different species and production cycle of different species is essential to arrive at the feed requirements. For calculating feed requirements, the livestock census data published by Department of Animal Husbandry Dairying and Fisheries, Government of India (http://dahd.nic.in/dahd/) is used. As the census is performed at interval of five years with the recent census completed in 2017, the growth rate based on the inter-census data of 2012 to 2017 can be used for estimating the numbers of different categories of livestock during 2018 onwards. The average body weights of different classes of livestock are summarized in Table below. Productivity of milk and meat of different species of livestock was obtained from the Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics, (BAHS2017) from website of Department of Animal Husbandry Dairying and Fisheries, Government of India (http:// http://dahd.nic.in/about-us/divisions/statistics).The information regarding the various factors that has been considered for arriving at feed requirements for different livestock species is given in Table 3.
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Table 3 Factors considered for calculating feed requirements Species Factors Cattle - Cross bred Adult body weight- 350 kg Growth potential- 400 g/d Milk production - state/national productivity values provided by Department of Animal Husbandry, Government of India Cattle Indigenous Adult body weight- 250 kg Growth potential- 200 g/d Milk production state/national productivity values provided by Department of Animal Husbandry, Government of India Buffalo Adult body weight-350 kg Growth potential- 350g /d Milk production- state/national productivity values provided by Department of Animal Husbandry, Government of India Sheep & goat 90% of the population under extensive system with no stall feeding 10% of the population under semi intensive system with 25% concentrate supplementation. Dry matter requirement - 3% of the body weight Average body weights Sheep < 6 months 6.5 kg, Sheep > 6 months 15 kg Average body weights Goats < 1year 6.5 kg, Goats > 1year 15 kg Poultry Only commercial broilers and layers have been considered based on the feed conversion ratio (FCR), assuming 3.5 and 40 kg of feed per broiler and layer respectively. Pigs Desi pigs – 35 kg slaughter weight and an FCR of 1:6 Crossbred pigs – 70 kg slaughter weight and an FCR of 1:5 Equines ad mules Dry matter intake – 2% of body weight Average body weights < 3 years 200 kg, and > 3 years 400kg Horses and Dry matter intake – 2% of body weight donkeys Average body weights < 3 years 100 kg, and > 3 years 200 kg Camels Dry matter intake – 2% of body weight Average body weights < 3 years 250 kg, and > 3 years 450 kg Yak Dry matter intake – 2% of body weight Average body weights < 3 years 150 kg, and > 3 years 400 kg Mithun Dry matter intake – 2% of body weight Average body weights < 3 years 150 kg, and > 3 years 400 kg Source- FEEDBASE, 2011 The inputs from the above three sections can be used to develop a software program to work out the feed availability vis a vis the feed requirements for different states, regions and the whole country. The FEEDBASE development needs software expertise using the relational database
252 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia management system (RDBMS) with the Visual BASIC as front-end tool and MS-ACCESS as back-end tool. The software has provision to present the desired information in tabular, graphical and GIS map forms for easy interpretation of the data. In absence of software expertise, simple excel sheet can also be used to work out the feed availability and requirements.
Advantages and challenges in development of feed inventory Managing feed inventory is an important approach for enhancing animal productivity and this is much more relevant for developing countries where we have feed shortages. An updated feed inventory enables proper allocation of available resources to different species commensurate with the importance and production potential of different livestock to ensure optimal utilization of available feed resources. Information generated through feed inventory can be of great importance for policy-makers, concerned government departments, NGOs and development agencies in formulating and implementing meaningful livestock development activities commensurate with the available feed resources. Further it can also help in tackling natural calamities such as drought and floods by networking the surplus and deficit zones. Improving livestock production by improving the genetic makeup of livestock through improved germplasm and by improving veterinary care is only possible when there are adequate feed resources which can be only be known by carrying out assessments of feed resources. Such assessments can also help livestock traders, feed companies and commerce ministries in making informed decisions with respect to the nature and quantities of commodities available, the feed resources that could be traded locally, potential areas for feed markets, and the nature and the quantities of feed resources involved in imports and exports to ensure adequate availability of feeds round the year. While the FEEDBASE methodology and approaches provides a framework for development a national feedbase it is not without limitations. Understanding the limitations and addressing them will help in improving the estimates and better management of feed resources. Among the several limitations in feed inventory assessment the important ones are the quality of the data reported, timeliness of the data availability, data on diversion of potential feed resources to non-feed uses, lack of information on alternate/unconventional feed resources, lack of data on movement of feed resources across regions, precise data on fodder cultivated areas, types of fodder cultivated and their productivity in different regions etc., As the estimates are based on number of factors and as we don’t have all the data and information for arriving at the actual availability, the estimates at best indicates only a broader picture. There is need for strengthening the data inputs for precise estimates. Further the error component at national level
253 SAARC Agriculture Centre estimates is larger as there is lot of variation across states and regions. Estimates at district levels are much more precise provided we use district level specific factors as the variation within district is likely to be much less and also minor feed resources that are specific to district can be accounted which is likely to be missed at the regional or national level. Same holds true for the feed requirements as the breed, productivity and feeding practices varies across regions
Extending the concept of FEEDBASE to SAARC countries The concept of FEEDBASE can easily be extended to member SAARC countries as the livestock and crop production systems and the data availability is very similar to India. In areas where there are differences the methodology can be modified to capture the required information. The conversion factors- grain to straw ratios and the extraction rates is likely to vary a bit given the differences in the varieties grown and the management factors. Country specific or region specific factors should be used to improve the precision of the estimates. Similarly with regard to the livestock requirements, livestock body weights and their production potential are likely to vary across the member countries and using the country specific factors is recommended for better results. Member countries can always rely on the expertise available with the National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology Institute based in Bengaluru, India for guidance and technical inputs in developing country specific feed inventory
Conclusions With the growing demand for livestock products and the shortages of feed resources, scientific management of feed resources becomes all the more important and feed inventory is the first pre requisite for scientific management of feed resources. Feed assessment provides a sound basis and frame work for arriving at the feed inventory and feed balance. With better data inputs, the precision of estimates can be improved and feed assessment can be a powerful tool for the planners, policy makers, development agencies, feed industries and government agencies. The Indian feed assessment approach is most relevant to developing countries with feed shortages and strong livestock sector as this will help them in better management of feed resources. The Indian feed assessment has already been adopted by the Asia Pacific region for FAO for developing a similar inventory of feed bases for the South Asian countries. Similarly some of the African countries like Ethiopia has also shown keen interest in the approach and is developing a similar tool with our expertise. The approach of Indian feedbase can be adopted by the
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SAARC member countries with little modification in development of country specific feed inventory systems for better management of feed resources.
References Anandan, S., and Sampath, K.T. 2012. The Indian feed inventory. FAO.2012. Conducting national feed assessments, by Michael B. Coughenour and Harinder P.S. Makkar. FAO Animal Production and Health Manual No. 15. Rome, Italy. BAHS. 2017. Basic Animal Husbandry and Fishery Statistics. Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, Government of India. FEEDBASE. 2011. National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Bangalore, India. ICAR. 1987. Nutrient requirement of livestock and poultry. Indian Council of Agricultural Research. New Delhi. Ramachandra, K.S.R., Taneja, V.K., Sampath, K.T., Anandan, S., and Angadi, U.B. 2007.Livestock feed resources in different agro ecosystems of India; Availability, requirement and their management. National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Bangalore, India. Pp 1 -100.
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Chapter 12 Current Status and Challenges of Indian Poultry Feed Industry
A. Natarajan Professor and Head Animal Feed Analytical and Quality Control Laboratory Veterinary College and Research Institute Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University Namakkal-637002, Tamil Nadu India
Introduction Indian poultry sector has shown tremendous growth during the last three decades. In spite of the several glitches in the areas of feeding (shortage, cost and quality of feed resources), heath, marketing challenges and the vagaries of the nature, the growth in the poultry sector is likely to continue in the near future. Availability of important feed resources like maize and soybean that form the major proportion of the diet and other minor supporting ingredients like sorghum, bajra, rice, rice bran, rape seed meal, sunflower meal and groundnut cake are influenced by crop production which in turn is influenced by the vagaries of nature. The Indian poultry industry, both layer and broiler are poised for another leap in the coming years. Certain developing states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, where poultry is in the beginning of its development, is likely to grow faster as the breeders have been expanding business to these states. Table 1 Growth of layer and broiler placement in India (in millions) Year Layer Broiler 1971-89 100 190 1990-2000 155 700 2000-05 180 2100 2014 210 2800 2018 230 3200 2019* 240 3600 2020* 250 3800 * Estimates
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Indian feed industry The poultry feed industry in India is having substantial share in the total feed output in 2018 for the entire livestock and poultry put-together. The share of the commercial poultry feed manufactured in 2018 was a whopping 62.82 % (24.336 MMT) out of 37.74 MMT that has been manufactured in India (Alltech Global Feed Survey, 2019). While broiler feed showed a production of 13.0 MMT (33.5%), layer recorded 11.34 MMT (29.26 %). Even the Indian dairy industry which is supposed to be the largest producer of milk in the world, recorded a feed production of only 11.84 MMT (30.55%), slightly higher than total commercial layer feed manufactured. This is mainly due to the fact that feeding of compound feed in dairy sector in India is not very prevalent and feeding of individual ingredients is more widely practised.
Challenges to poultry feed industry Currently there are multiple challenges in poultry feed industry and they can be broadly discussed under four major categories, first one is related to the rapid genetic improvement over the years and consequent need to formulate precise diets able to support the high level of productivity. Second one relates to the occurrence of mycotoxins and other stressors that occur individually or in combinations and effect the productivity adversely. Third one is related to feed processing efficiency – particle size and mixer performance and its effect on productivity. Fourth one is the most important and is related to cost of the feed ingredients and the alternate feeds which has direct bearing on the product cost.
Performance targets The feed industry needs to cope up with the production targets of the layer and broiler industry which is improving continuously over the years due to advances in intensive selection and breeding techniques. Productivity targets of layer and broiler in commercial poultry sector over the different decades is presented in Table 2. Productivity of layers and broilers in India has been improving rapidly and is comparable to the best of the countries across the globe.
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Table 2 Efficiency of commercial layers and broilers Year Number of eggs/bird/365 days Attaining 2.0 kg BW (Days) 1970s 270 60 1980s 285 55 1990s 310 50 2000s 330 45 2010s 335 40 2020s 340 32 2050s 365 ? 28 ? Consistent quality in terms of nutritional properties always ensures performance of the birds to their target production. Quality control of feed ingredients, their frequent analysis with respect to protein, amino acids, fibre and acid insoluble ash contents are very crucial in achieving the desired productivity in poultry. Methionine and lysine are the two important amino acids in addition to other less critical but equally important amino acids in the feeds and they have to be maintained in the desired quantity and ratio for optimum productivity. This has been made possible due to explicit analytical facilities and availability of feed supplements to ensure the quality of compound feeds commensurate with the genetic potential of the birds. Although few regions especially the northern and eastern India is still lagging in the analytical facilities and needs to be strengthened.
Mycotoxins with special reference to aflatoxin B1 Moulds can grow over a temperature range of 19 - 270C (66.2°F – 80.6;0 F), humidity range of 68 - 79 % and moisture range of 12 – 13 % in tropical environment. Moulds can grow and aflatoxins can be produced over wide conditions starting from production to consumption. Afaltoxins can be produced during the seeds before harvest while the crop is still in the field or they can grow during storage at the feed mill or the farm. They can also grow during feed processing, like mixing process when the mixer increases the temperature and the humidity of the feed. Inadequate cleaning of feeders can also lead to build up of fungal growth and aflatoxins production.
Occurrence in feed ingredients Many feed ingredients are affected by occurrence of aflatoxins. However, only a handful of them have greater tendencies to have higher presence of aflatoxins especially aflatoxin B1 and B2. Maize, groundnut cake and cottonseed meal are the prime materials that are mostly affected with
258 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia aflatoxins, especially B1. Considering the high risk of B1 toxin, the MRL value of 20 ppb (BIS India) has to be strictly adhered and analysis of these materials becomes mandatory for manufacture of quality feeds.
Occurrence in feeds Analysis of occurrence of aflatoxins between 1995 to 2008 in feed resources at Animal Feed Quality and Analytical Lab (AFAQAL) situated at Nammakal, a poultry hub of India, is presented in Table 3. Groundnut cake was found to be highly susceptible with 92% of the analysed samples testing positive for aflatoxins above permissible greater than 20ppb. The occurrence of aflatoxin B1(>20 ppb) was detected noticed in 5436 samples out of 19,910 feed (including cattle, poultry and others) tested. Table 3 Occurrence of aflatoxin B1 in feed ingredients
Aflatoxin B1 > 20 Ingredients Total Samples % of occurrence ppb
Maize 9803 1784 18.0 Bajra 1148 471 14.9 Jowar 1619 98 6.1 Rice 2483 261 10.1 Groundnut Cake 11098 10231 92.2 Sunflower Meal 14767 6024 40.8 Soybean Meal 10758 87 0.80 Rapeseed Meal 2244 16 0.70 (>100 ppb for groundnut cake) Presence of alarming quantity of aflatoxin B1 besides skewed balance in critical nutrients for growth and production on account of poor mixing efficiency of feed materials leads to many problems like variations in growth during grow-out period in layer chicken. This seriously affects their laying performance in terms of productivity, efficiency, egg size and shape. The following performance (Table 4) justifies the problems encountered in a layer farm in Namakkal belt when the point-of-lay pullets, of differently weighing groups, were moved to laying phase and started laying eggs. Body-weights of laying birds at the time of its grow-out period and their production performances is positively related. It has to be ensured that the feed during grow out period has to be free from aflatoxin, properly balanced, adequate in critical nutrients and uniformly mixed, failing which the body weights of the layers will vary. This seriously affects their laying performance
259 SAARC Agriculture Centre in terms of productivity, efficiency, egg size and shape. Lack of uniformity of body weights in pullets at the point of lay has serious consequences on the production performance. Production performance of layers with under and standard body weights during laying phase starting from 26 to 39 weeks at different temperature is presented in Table 4. The serious and important setback in the performance of these under-weighing birds was their vulnerability to the stress caused by the increasing temperature (>38° C) of the summer during the month of April. Apart from the summer stress, other stressors’ due to multiple causes, affect the production leading to production drop. These birds were also shown to be underperforming when exposed to multiple stressors due to mycotoxins, nutrient deficiencies, mineral problems especially calcium and phosphorus, viral and bacterial diseases, parasitic infestations and even ammonia from its own litter. Table 4 Relationship between body-weights of laying birds at the time of its grow-out period and their production performances as influenced by the environment temperature
Month and maximum Age in Under-weighing birds Standard-weighing temperature recorded Weeks at the time of shifting birds at the time of to layer cage shifting to layer cage January 30.5°C 26 92.7 94.8 27 93.4 94.9 28 93.2 96.0 29 92.3 96.1 February 32.3°C 30 91.5 95.7 31 91.5 95.7 32 91.3 96.3 33 93.2 95.9 March 36.5°C 34 93.3 97.4 35 92.9 96.7 36 94.9 96.1 37 94.7 95.3 April 37.2°C 38 90.3 94.2 39 87.6 93.6 Another set-back in having the under-weight birds at the time of shifting from grower to laying sheds is its effect on egg weight and shape. From the Table 5, one can appreciate how important the body weight of the pullets at the time of shifting to layer shed on its effect on the egg weight and egg size (Fig. 1). As the average body weight of the pullets increase from 1100 g to
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1380 g during the age of 18-19 weeks (age a start laying eggs), the pullet eggs weight also tended to increase from 46.9 g to 49.7 g. Table 5 Relationship between body-weight of pullet layer at the time of shifting to layer sheds and their egg weights Body weight of layer at the time of shifting Pullet Egg Weight in grams to layer phase 1100 g 46.9 g 1200 g 48.4 g 1280 g 48.8 g 1380 g 49.7 g
Fig. 1 Different sized eggs in a tray due to different sized ready-to-lay pullets In addition to maintaining the aflatoxin B1 level below 20 ppb, it becomes important that the so called ‘frame size’ of the chick, which is found to be fixed before the age of 4-5 weeks, one has to achieve the body weight as per standard recommendations of the commercial layer manual of the relevant strain, marketed by the parent company. Correct stocking density and frequent grading (al-least 4 gradings at the age of 4, 8, 12 and 16 weeks) and corrective actions like feeding according to grades to fulfill the energy intake with enough fat will ensure uniformity in body weights of pullets
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Particle size seduction and mixing inefficiencies Most of the poultry feed in India is produced in mash form and the factors effecting mash quality in terms of the correct particle size and factors influencing mixing efficiency is poorly understood. Variations in bodyweights of chicks, grower, layers and broilers experienced in Namakkal layer hub is commonly ascribed to the poor mixing efficiency and inefficient particle size reduction. Uniform egg size in a tray is not reached till the age of 35 weeks of layers or even later, due to variations in their mature body weight at the start of egg-lay. In the case of broilers, wide variation in the body weight causes delay in lifting them. Biggest challenge in the today’s feed industry in India is to reduce the variations in the egg weight and size in layers and to make broilers uniform in their weight at the market age.
Particle size reduction A good uniform particle reduction and well mixed feed brings out a uniform growth in chicks and growers minimising variations in bodyweight among them, leading to peaking of egg production smoothly with gradual increase in egg size and weight. Even with the balanced feed formulation, optimal particle reduction and mixing efficiency are the pre-requisites for obtaining, the standard performance results. As the number of ingredients used in the layer feed are many the particle size reduction becomes more problematic since ingredients used for layer feed differ largely in their density, shape and size. A set of grinder, hammers and screen should be selected in such a way that the particle reduction should be more or less uniform for different ingredients which result in promoting good mixing (less than 10 % CV). Otherwise, segregation will take an upper hand as a result of differences in particle size. Though the problem of particle size difference is comparatively low in a broiler feed manufacturing when compared to layer, broilers are more sensitive to particle size differences than layers. Greater uniformity of the particle size of a broiler feed leads to greater uniformity in their body weight which is always a desirable market parameter.
Mixing efficiency Majority of feed mills lack knowledge on the factors effecting mixing efficiency resulting in variations in the eggs/body weights. Good knowledge on mixing is much needed one for obtaining the desirable output in poultry. Poor mixing of feed ingredients end up in variations in body weight of growers and pre-layers and this has a problem of the so-called ‘fix-up’ of lesser body weight than the standard and required body weight of pullets at the time of
262 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia start of laying leading to different grades of egg weights till a reasonable time of its laying cycle.
Fig. 2 Uniform size and weight of table eggs is always a desirable market requirement Ideally mixers should have coefficient of variation (CV) below 10% and the survey carried out over a long period at commercial farms in Namakkal has shown that CV of mixing efficiency is poor and the values are above the recommended 10% CV. The mixers performance can be influenced by a number of factors viz.; 1) Improper choice of mixing paddle or shaft 2) Lack of knowledge on minute things (e.g. distance between paddle/ribbon to bottom of the inner mixer body, rotations per minute, time and place of addition of premixes and liquids, feed clearance, mixing time etc) 3) Poor keeping of the mixer profile 4) Irregular testing of mixing efficiency
High cost of key ingredients and alternates There have been instances of shortage of key ingredients of feed especially maize and soybean meal during the last few years as the requirement of feed has been increasing gradually from year to year as a result of concurrent increases in layer and broiler placements. This has resulted in exorbitant increases in feed price with large hue and cry among the poultry farmers for either import or explore alternate feed resources to tackle the shortage. Vagaries of monsoon have also been the reason for failure of maize productivity. Wheat is not usually used in Indian feeds for poultry or dairy sector because of its priority for human consumption in addition to the cost factor. With maize often costing more than the cost of the wheat, replacing maize with
263 SAARC Agriculture Centre wheat is a possibility. Wheat cannot be fully replaced by maize in layers and broilers as its consumption leads to alter the viscosity of the digesta owing to the presence of complex carbohydrates.
Fig. 3 Use of whole wheat grains in broiler feed Wheat replaced maize in a gradual manner in broiler feed where the wheat availability is plenty and cheaper than maize in certain pockets of world. In Netherlands, commercial use of whole wheat is successfully practised (Fig. 3). Recent experience from Namakkal feed industry for layer farming show that wheat can replace maize up to 20 % and support egg production with xylanase supplementation. Soybean meal (SBM) has been increasingly used in the last 15 years gradually replacing the groundnut cake in poultry as the latter has been consistently found to contain aflatoxins in alarming quantity. As the industry depends on soybean meal for its superior protein quality with relatively nil to very low aflatoxins content, it is often branded as low-problem proteinaceous feed ingredient. Most of the feed manufacturers opt for the safe soybean meal for all the types of feeds and hence, its demand has risen in the recent years often leading to higher cost. Though SBM cannot be fully replaced satisfactorily with other protein cakes/meals in broilers unlike layers where it can be fully replaced. The alternate materials that are often used for partial replacement of SBM in different regions of India are described below.
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Meat and bone meal Meat and bone meal is superior in protein, oil, calcium and phosphorus. Its high quality protein often is advantageous in fulfilling amino acid requirements easily and a good cost-effective replacement for soybean meal. Rendered chicken offal meal is often mistakenly judged as meat and bone meal and one needs to be alert. Frequent problem encountered in using the meat and bone meal is incomplete sterilization. If both of these issues are taken care of, meat and bone meal can economically and nutritionally be used to partially replace the soybean meal.
Dry fish / fish meal Fish comes as dry fish or meal for feed usage. Use of fish in poultry feeding is common in southern states of India where the catches result in fishes not suitable for human consumption but rather good for poultry/fish feeding. For nearly 30 years, layer and broiler feed manufacturers in the state of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Kerala used dry fish and fish meal as a predominant protein source. However, the problems often encountered in using the fish meal is adulteration with inferior and low cost fish varieties. Common adulterants are , urea to increase the protein content and sand, silica and salt leading to high acid insoluble ash.. High oil fish meals have high ME value but the potential threat is oxidation which lead to problems like spoilage of fish meal and production of free fatty acids. However, despite the these problems, fish meals of high and moderate quality in terms of protein, oil, low salt, prove to be a good feed ingredient and often finds as a suitable replacement for soybean meal.
Low aflatoxin de-oiled groundnut cake During later 90s and early 2000s, groundnut cake lost its way as feed ingredient in poultry since it is a potential source of aflatoxins especially B1; immunosuppressive in nature and often makes birds vulnerable to many viral and bacterial diseases. As soybean meal is relatively free from aflatoxins and other mycotoxins, it established itself as predominant proteinaceous feed material in all types of poultry feeding commercially. However, after sensitisation of the problem related to aflatoxins, farmers and suppliers attempted to produce low aflatoxin groundnut cake (less than 50 ppb aflatoxin B1) and even succeeded in producing it which is welcomed by the feed industry since the cost is less than the soybean meal costs. However, the production of this type is low and part of it is exported to countries where it is used in human food preparations and only a small proportion is available to the local feed industry.
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Rapeseed meal Rapeseed meal or mustard cake is widely grown in northern India. Earlier, it was rejected due to significant quantity of goitrogen; an anti-nutritional substance. However, recent varieties have low goitrogenic activity and the use of it has become prominent and regular. However, its level of inclusion should be restricted to 5 % for layers especially the brown egg layers which may produce eggs with fishy taint and offensive odour. Further, larger inclusion may also cause leg related problems due to presence of significant quantity of sulphur. Local experience at Nammakal farms suggests the use of rapeseed meal to be restricted to 5 % in layer diets and 3-4 % in broiler diets.
Corn gluten meal Corn gluten meal contains 60 % crude protein and is a by-product of wet milling of corn for glucose/fructose manufacturing. This is often confused with Corn Gluten Feed which has only 20 % crude protein. Both the products are called Corn Gluten in general leading to confusion. However, the percent of crude protein differs and is always nearly 60 % in the case of Corn Gluten Meal which comes from corn protein concentration after removal of starch. Whereas, corn gluten feed is often found with high fibre. Corn gluten meal usage as feed ingredient for broilers is widely practiced as a partial replacer of Soybean meal. However as it is poor source of lysine, its usage should always be balanced with synthetic lysine.
Recommendations The government should establish sufficient number of animal feed testing laboratories with international accreditations for testing the feeds/feed ingredients in Northern and Eastern regions of the country to help the feed manufacturers to test their ingredients and finished feeds. Feed manufacturers should periodically test feed ingredients and finished feeds for key nutritional composition and aflatoxins. They should keep a record of such test results. Periodical testing of finished feeds, for ensuring its mixing efficiency, should be taken up by poultry growers to ensure uniform body weight and egg size. Universities and central institutes should be encouraged to carry out research to ascertain alternates to key ingredients especially maize and soybean meal where the demand is likely to exceed the supply in near future and ensure sustainable production of poultry sector.
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Chapter 13 The Future of Animal Feed Sector in India
Dinesh T. Bhosale Regional Sales Director A B Vista South Asia, Pune, Maharashtra India Since early date of Indian civilization, possessing of livestock is considered as important wealth of an individual in addition to symbolizing the economic status in the society. Indian livestock population is one of the largest in the world, comprising of 192.5 million cattle, 109.8 million buffalo, 74.2 million sheep, 142.8 million goat, 9 million pig, 3.9 million mithun, 3.4 million horses and ponies, 1.2 million donkey, 2.5 million camel, and 851.8 million poultry. Needless to say, that the enormous population of milk producing animals (particularly cattle and buffalo) makes India to be the largest milk producer in the world since 1998. Essentially, feed is the important driver for determining the productivity of the animal’s vis a vis economic returns from the sector. Driven by the needs of the overgrowing population, the Indian feed manufacturing industries are also contributing immensely by producing compounded feeds for different livestock species. As per 2019 Alltech Global Feed Survey, global feed production has increased by 3% at the tune of 1.103 billion tons in 2018. It includes surveying of approximately 30,000 feed mills spread across 144 countries. The feed industry has grown by 14.6% during last five years. China maintains its hold as the major global feed manufacturer. Among SAARC countries, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh also demonstrated higher growth rate in compounded feed production. Global broiler feed production increased by 3% in 2018. Layer feed production grew in South Korea, India and Indonesia in Asia Pacific region. India’s total compounded feed production was around 38.7 MMT and broiler feed shares approximately 34%.
Future of animal feed production in India In livestock enterprise, feed is the most important factor that drives the productivity and product quality, besides the genetic merit of animals and healthcare management. Currently, the Indian livestock farming is reshaping itself as customer driven enterprise because of consumer awareness, health
267 SAARC Agriculture Centre consciousness, food safety, animal welfare, climate change etc. Evidently, this will lead more intensive livestock farming incorporating advanced technologies in feed manufacturing to meet the growing demands of generation next population. In this road of livestock development, newer opportunities will be opened up in front of the small and marginal farmers to be linked with different formats of livestock value chain systems. This is expected to send strong message to the compounded feed manufacturing sector for inching up the productivity to match the Indian livestock farmers’ requirement. As a result, the expected production of compounded feed by 2025 - 26 in India will be around 15 - 20 million tons for cattle, 26 million tons for broiler, 13 million tons for layer, 5- 6 million tons for fish and 8 -10 million tons for shrimp.
Key challenges While interacting with the key compounded feed manufacturers or their consultants, several issues emerged out. Some of them are common to all animal feeds and others are species specific. Nevertheless, the feed manufacturers are committed to serve the livestock sector in the ways that will ensure higher productivity coupled with quality to meet the expectations of over conscious customer of twenty first century. The major challenges of Indian feed industry are discussed below.
Right price of livestock product The livestock farmers should get the right price for his final produce i.e. eggs, poultry meat, milk and milk products, fish and shrimp, mutton, etc. As and when farmers get price below their production cost, immediately they reduce the usages of quality check compounded animal feeds and switch to cheap feed formulation having no quality check or use individual feed ingredients, which further reduces the productivity and comprise with the health of the animals. The price fall of livestock product also happens owing to change of import policy. It leads to tough competition between domestic livestock product vs. imported one. The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India is expected to play proactive role for regulating the processed livestock product (originated form meat, egg, milk), particularly the imported one.
Growing demands for specialized livestock products In line with the rest of the world, most of the Indian population is net savvy and looking forward for consumption of A2 milk and milk products because of its health benefits. Therefore, Indian compounded feed manufacturers could join hands with the livestock farmers of this subcontinent for increasing
268 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia productivity by producing quality assured compounded for particular animals. Additionally, there is a growing demand for organic livestock products; milk, meat and eggs. Therefore, the compounded feed should be formulated accordingly to cater the needs of farmers/ entrepreneurs engaged in organic production and marketing. Similarly, demands for low cholesterol/ antibiotic residue free eggs and meat is increasing among urban population. Therefore, the feed manufacturers need to switch their manufacturing in that line and satisfy the primary livestock producers.
Calf rearing Claves are the future of livestock, either for cattle or for buffalo. In India, calf rearing is not done in scientific way. Scientifically formulated milk replacer/ calf starter/ grower/ heifer feed will help in profitable livestock farming coupled with enhanced performance of livestock because of higher growth rate, early maturity, early conception followed by healthy and productive animals.
Importance of balanced feed There is lack of awareness about the importance of balanced feeding among the livestock farmers. It results into livestock farming among small and marginal farmers with the feeding of cheaply available inferior quality of concentrate mixture or pellet. Modern gadgets like social media, cable network, FM channel could contribute immensely on awareness development regarding the utility of balanced feeding. Further, state animal husbandry department, veterinary officers, ICAR animal science institute, veterinary colleges, Krishi Vigyan Kendra are expected to government officials, ICAR and veterinary colleges will play important role in promotion of compounded feeds.
Quality feed ingredients and its price Availability of quality feed ingredients and its prices is major challenge for manufacturing of good quality compound feeds. Often, weather vagaries or pest attack adversely affect the yield of crop. Due to less rains, maize prices have skyrocketed this year. Few years back, soybean meal prices were quite high almost for five years. Maize and SBM prices act as benchmarks for prices of other feed ingredients. Albeit, lot of research took place on unconventional feed ingredients during the past, but their incorporation in the concentrate mixture is limited to 5% only due to its availability, price, presence of anti- nutritional factors. Although BT cotton is grown in India, there is ban on other GM crops. Therefore, both farmers and feed millers are at loss. Even
269 SAARC Agriculture Centre during scarcity, one could not import GM maize and soybean meal. One has to look for non-GM ingredients only. Besides, the Indian solvent extraction industries exports significant amount of oil meals every year. Production of animal protein is still not up to the mark as it is handled by unorganized players. Adulteration of feed ingredients is also a major issue. There is inadequate number of Quality Control Laboratory for precise feed evaluation. Still feed ingredients are bought and sold through traditional channels. Increase in MSP of major crops has also affected prices of all feed ingredients used for manufacturing of compounded animal feed.
Residues in livestock products Along with the rest of the world, there is a growing concern among consumers about the residues of antibiotics, pesticides, heavy metals, mycotoxins livestock products. Therefore, the animal feed manufacturers are not allowed to use antibiotics as preventive source. Feed millers use toxin binders to reduce impact of mycotoxins present in feeds.
Lack of coordination There are several stakeholders in the process of compounded feed manufacturing. Strong and effective coordination is essential between feed industry and Animal Husbandry Department/ State Veterinary University/ ICAR Animal Science institutes in order to ensure penetration of of good quality compound feeds. Further, there is also shortage of good quality manpower including vets to run animal feed sector.
Inadequate green fodder For best performance, the ruminant’s animals should be maintained on balanced ration comprising of roughage and concentrate. The concentrate alone could not sustain neither life of animal, nor its productivity. Therefore, milk producing animals need good quality of roughage either green or dry of silage. Looking at the current scenario, very limited land is allocated by the farmers towards fodder production in India. As a result, there is huge deficit on account of green fodder between availability and requirement. It could be partially mitigated through promoting farmers for fodder cultivation.
Emergence of disease Emergence and re-emergence of disease such as bird flue is great threat to poultry industry. In case of outbreak, there is every chance of adverse effects on feed consumption. Similarly, there should be adequate preparedness to
270 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia control any outbreak of ruminant’s disease as it can also affect negatively on feed consumption.
Outdated feed manufacturing technology The compounded feed manufacturing units of India need to be updated with advanced technology to satisfy the customer’s requirement. Albeit, the prominent feed manufacturers building new feed plants with advanced processing facilities, but small players are lacking behind owing to the financial constraints.
Implementation of BIS standards The Compound Feed Manufacturers Association of India (CLFMA) has started the process to update feed standards. Although BIS has standards for feed ingredients and complete feeds, they are voluntary. There are many feed companies which are selling substandard quality feeds as farmers buy feed mainly on the basis of price. Farmers should focus on lowering cost of production instead of buying low cost feeds.
271 Chapter 14 Brief report of the Expert Consultation Meeting on “Identification of Best Practices in Livestock Feed and Fodder Production and Management”
Ashis Kumar Samanta Senior Programme Specialist – Livestock SAARC Agriculture Centre BARC Complex, Farmgate Dhaka – 1215, Bangladesh
Rationale The feed is considered as the highest prioritized input of in livestock enterprise. Since several decades, there has been continuous debate on the availability, requirement and balance sheet of livestock feed and fodder. The findings on feed resources status signifies a considerable gap between availability and demand and anticipates for constant widening of this gap in the coming years due to increased livestock population in South Asia. These projections on feed and fodder status needs to be viewed with certain degree of circumspection and reservations as milk, egg and meat production has been constantly increasing over the years in most of the Member States of South Asia. The South Asian livestock production basically relies on crop residues and locally available feed resources. But availability of feed is subjected to wide seasonal variations. It is adequate in harvesting and rainy season and shortage in dry season. This variation of feed availability limits overall livestock productivity. During monsoon season no supplementary feed is required, but in dry season livestock are most in need of supplementary feed supply. The qualitative and quantitative value of livestock products mainly depends on availability of feeds, feeding system and nutritional regimes. Proper and scientific use of available feed resources would extend and cover feed security for longer period to support livestock production. Therefore, sharing of technology, knowledge, experiences in the field of livestock feed production and management could be befitted from each other. Fodder is the lifeline of livestock farming for maintaining long healthy and productive life. Daily feeding of green forage is the top-secret for the successful entrepreneurship in livestock; small, medium or big. For better health and higher production, the animals should offer regularly fodder crops. Nevertheless, the fodder production and its utilization depend on several factors (production aspects: seed, irrigation, soil, climate, pest management,
272 Livestock Feeds and Feeding Practices in South Asia harvesting time, etc, utilization: processing of fodder, nutrient composition, species of livestock, stage and level of production, etc). The major sources of fodder supply are crop residues, cultivated fodder and fodder from common property resources like forests, permanent pasture and grazing lands. Most of the SAARC countries are facing shortage of arable lands due to rapid urbanization and commercialization. Therefore, fodder lands are gradually shrinking and on the contrary, fodder demands are increasing day by day. Scarcity of feeds and fodders are great reality for livestock farming. As the feed cost accounts for 60 to 65% of the total cost of livestock production, a strategy towards downing of this head is expected to inching up the profitability of primary stakeholders of livestock sector. Keeping in mind the above perspective, the SAARC Expert Consultation Meeting was was carried out at ICAR – National Institute of Animal Nutrition during 21st to 23rd May, 2019. The programme was jointly organized by the SAARC Agriculture Centre, Dhaka, Bangladesh and ICAR-National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Bengaluru, India. Dr. Ashis Kumar Samanta, Senior Programme Specialist – Livestock, SAARC Agriculture Centre, Dhaka was the programme Coordinator and lead the SAARC delegation team comprising of nominee from Bhutan, Bangladesh, India and Sri Lanka to Bengaluru, India.
Objectives The specific objective of the SAARC Expert Consultation Meeting was as follows: v Review and documentation of existing feed and fodder production and management system in the SAARC region v Identification of best practice for cost effective feed and fodder production and management v Discuss and prioritize issues and gaps for policy, research and technology transfer for feed and fodder production and management;
Brief report SAARC Expert Consultation Meeting on “Identification of Best Practices in Livestock Feed and Fodder Production and Management” was held at ICAR- National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Bengaluru, India during 21st to 23rd May, 2019. Dr. J. K. Jena, Deputy Director General (Fisheries and Animal Sciences), Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi graced the inaugural session as the Chief Guest. He urged for more cooperation among SAARC Member States and opined to
273 SAARC Agriculture Centre increase the number of nominees (at least two) from each Member States. Dr. Raghavendra Bhatta, Director of the host institute spoke on overview of the expert consultation meeting vis a vis its objectives. Dr. A.K. Samanta, Senior Programme Specialist - livestock, SAARC Agriculture Centre, Dhaka presented the genesis of the meeting, livestock activities of SAC and expectations from the focal persons. The session was attended by more than 150 participants comprising of scientists, research scholars, students, Joint Director and Heads of neighbouring ICAR institutes, representatives from National Dairy Development Board and feed industry, and academia from poultry industries. The technical session began with the presentation of Dr. Sridhar, General Manager, NDDB on “Feeding management in dairy cooperatives”. He highlighted the importance of balanced feeding in dairy production for maximizing the productivity. Dr. Dinesh Bhosle, former Chairman, Compounded Livestock Feed Manufacturing Association (CLFMA), elaborated “Current status of feed industry and challenges in feed production”. Professor Natarajan talked about “Poultry feed industry – Indian perspectives”. Dr. Nani Gopal Barman presented the country paper of Bangladesh. On second day, the participants got the opportunity to visit livestock feed processing plant, Central Poultry Development Organization & Training Institute, Central Frozen Semen Production & Training Institute, Hessarghatta, Bengaluru. On third day, technical session started with the Indian country paper presentation by Dr. Raghavendra Bhatta. The country papers of Sri Lanka and Bhutan were presented by Dr. WMPB Weerasinghe and Dr. Kuenga Namgay, respectively. The local speakers presented on fodder production technologies and challenges, national feed inventory – methodology and challenges, and alternate feed resources and technologies for their optimal usages. Dr. A Paturkar, Vice Chancellor, MAFSU, Nagpur graced the valedictory function as the Chief Guest and handed over the participation certificates to the country nominees. The participants also gave their feedback during this session.
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Recommendations Ø Regional and national feed and fodder inventory is crucial for sustainable livestock development in order to secure food and livelihood security among small and marginal livestock farmers Ø Best practices are highly context specific and choosing the right intervention and adapting to local conditions is the key to success Ø Best practices in feed production and management include ration balancing program, area specific mineral mixtures, crop residue improvement, complete feed blocks, year-round green fodder production, fodder conservation and improved fodder production Ø Some of the suggested best practices that need immediate attention are drum silage, plastic bag silage, TMR self-mixed/ small mixer wagons, quality checks of feeds and silage through portable kits and restructuring national herd commensurate with the resource availability Ø Conserving and improving the productivity of pastures and common grazing lands across country and promoting the same in delta areas Ø Crop residues are the backbone of feed resources and needs to be better utilized through interventions like chaff cutter, bailing, pellets, complete feed blocks and total mixed rations Ø Appropriate use of feed supplements or feeding strategies could help in addressing the issues of greenhouse gas emission from livestock, heat stress, low fat/ solid not fat (SNF), infertility, and mastitis management Ø Promoting calf rearing through better feeding management program is vital for both smallholder and organized dairy enterprise towards profit maximization Ø Ration balancing program could be initiated with the small and marginal dairy farmers among SAARC Member States Ø Developing a suitable mechanism to share seeds or planting material of improved fodder varieties among SAARC countries under the 'seeds without borders' program Ø Promoting the usage of Azolla as nutritive feed supplement for dairy animals Ø Periodic quality checking of finished feeds for aflatoxin, nutritional quality in order to ensure safe and healthy production from various food producing animals
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Ø Exchange of technical information on feed resources (including roughages, concentrates, unconventional)/ feed processing/ fodder conservation/ feed additives among the SAARC Member States need to be strengthened Ø Awareness development among livestock farmers about significance of balanced feeding for productivity enhancement and reproductive performance Ø The focal persons suggested SAARC Agriculture Centre to organize “in plant training on various aspects of livestock feed manufacturing including procurement of raw materials, quality checks of raw materials and finished products, least cost ration formulation, feed grinding and mixing, pellet making, packaging, branding”. It should also include urea molasses mineral block, complete feed block, densified roughages block, area specific mineral mixture, lifesaving ration against natural calamities etc. Ø Exposure and experience sharing visit to cold water fish production: SAARC Agriculture Centre should take initiatives
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Participants
Name Designation and address Representation
Dr. Joykrushna Jena Deputy Director General (Animal Chief Guest of Sciences). Acting. Inaugural Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi - 110 001, Ceremony of INDIA Expert Email: ddgas.icar.nic.in Consultation Meeting
Dr. Raghvendra Director Focal Person from Bhatta ICAR- National Institute of Animal India Nutrition and Physiology. Adugodi. Hosur Road. Bengaluru – 560030. Karnataka. India Email: [email protected]
Dr. Nani Gopal District Livestock Officer Focal Person from Barman Noakhali, Bangladesh Bangladesh Email: [email protected]
Dr. Kuenga Namgay Chief Livestock Officer, Department Focal Person from of Livestock, Ministry of Agriculture Bhutan and Forests, Royal Government of Bhutan Email: [email protected]
Dr. W.M.P.B. Veterinary Research Officer, Focal Person from Weerasinghe Veterinary Research Institute, Sri Lanka Gannoruwa, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka Email: [email protected]
Dr. S. Anandan Principal Scientist. Coordinator from ICAR- National Institute of Animal Host Institute. Nutrition and Physiology. Adugodi. Invited Speaker Hosur Road. Bengaluru – 560030. Karnataka. India Email: [email protected]
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Name Designation and address Representation
Dr. K. Giridhar Principal Scientist. Coordinator from ICAR- National Institute of Animal Host Institute. Nutrition and Physiology. Adugodi. Invited Speaker Hosur Road. Bengaluru – 560030. Karnataka. India Email: [email protected]
Dr. N.K.S. Gowda Principal Scientist. Invited Speaker ICAR- National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology. Adugodi. Hosur Road. Bengaluru – 560030. Karnataka. India Email: [email protected]
Dr. V. Sridhar General Manager, Invited Speaker Animal Nutrition Group National Dairy Development Board, Anand – 388 001, Gujarat, India Email: [email protected]
Dr. Dinesh T. Regional Sales Director Invited Speaker Bhosle AB Vista south Asia #404, 4th Floor, Rainbow Plaza, Pimpale Saudagar Pune 411027, Maharashtra, India Email: [email protected]
Dr. A. Natarajan Professor and Head Invited Speaker Animal Feed Analytical and quality Assurance Laboratory Veterinary College and Research Institute, Namakkal, Tamil Nadu Email: [email protected]
Dr. Ashis Kumar Senior Programme Specialist – Programme Samanta Livestock, Coordinator from SAARC Agriculture Centre SAARC BARC Complex, Farmgate Agriculture Centre Dhaka – 1215 and Team Leader Bangladesh of SAARC Email: [email protected] delegates
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Book chapter contributors
Name Designation and address
Dr. Mohammmad Mohi Uddin Associate professor and Head Department of Animal Nutrition Bangladesh Agricultural University Mymensingh – 2202 Bangladesh Email: [email protected]
Amrin Akter IDRN Research Fellow Department of Animal Nutrition Bangladesh Agricultural University Mymensingh – 2202 Bangladesh Email: [email protected]
Grishma Neupane Senior Livestock Development Officer Ministry of Land Management, Agriculture and Cooperatives Gandaki Province, Pokhara Nepal Email: [email protected]
Dr. Muhammad Musa Deputy Director (Research) Ayub Agricultural Research Institute Faisalabad Pakistan Email: [email protected]
Dr. Muhammad Iqbal Mustafa Institute of Animal and Dairy Sciences, University of Agriculture Faisalabad Pakistan Email: [email protected]
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