Algae in Aquaculture. the Larvae of Molluscs, Echinoderms and Crustaceans As Well As the Live Prey of Some Fish Larvae Feed on Algae

International Journal of Health Sciences and Research www.ijhsr.org ISSN: 2249-9571

Review Article

Priyadarshani I.1, Sahu D.1, Rath B.2*

2Reader and Head; 1Department of Biotechnlogy, North Orissa University, Sriram Chandra Vihar, Takatpur, Baripada-757003, Odisha.

*Correspondence Email: [email protected]

Received: 25/11//2011 Revised: 30/12/2011 Accepted: 5/01/2012

ABSTRACT

Algae are the first link in the chain of live food manufacturer and nutrition. It is the culture diet for rotifers and provides a direct nutrition for larvae. Algae are utilized diversely in aquaculture, but their main applications are related to nutrition. They are used in toto, as a sole component or as a food additive to supply basic nutrients, color the flesh of salmonids or for other biological activities. The need for nutritional sources safer than traditional animal products has renewed interest in plants in general and algae in particular. This report deals principally with the different role of algae in aquaculture. The larvae of molluscs, echinoderms and crustaceans as well as the live prey of some fish larvae feed on algae. Though attempts have been made to substitute inert particles for these micro-organisms which are difficult to produce, concentrate and store, only shrimp and live prey for fish will accept inert food, and only shrimp accept it fully. Several studies have confirmed that a live, multi-specific, low-bacteria algal biomass remains essential for shellfish hatcheries. Major advances are expected from new production system designs and operations, from batch-run open tanks to more sophisticated continuously run and closed loop reactors Key Words: Aquatic, coastal, commercial, environment, fish, microalgae

INTRODUCTION times as food stuff. Algae are photosynthetic organisms (contain chlorophyll) and obtain Since ancient times, coastal their energy from the sun and their carbon populations have used marine plants as food from carbon dioxide. Their size ranges from complement, as soil fertilizer, as fuel, as one micron to many meters. All organisms fodder for animals. Traces of algae found in that use carbon dioxide for their carbon ashes of prehistoric fire places allow us to requirement are called autotrophs. Algae are think that algae were used in very early generally beneficial in aquaculture by International Journal of Health Sciences & Research (www.ijhsr.org) 108 Vol.2; Issue: 1; April 2012 supplying oxygen and a natural food base Fatty Acids. Microalgae also represent a for the cultured animals, such as vast genetic resource, comprising in excess dinoflagellates that cause the red tides. Algal of 80,000 different species. Mass- cultured production for feeds is divided into intensive unicellular algae are used as a sole food monoculture for larval stages of bivalves, source in the intensive seed culture of shrimp, and certain fish species, and bivalves. Due to the high production cost extensive culture for grow out of bivalves, and the unpredictability of algae culturing, carp, and shrimp. Favoured genera of the development of a performing artificial microalgae for larval feeds include diet is highly desirable. Microalgae such as Chaetoceros, Thalassiosira, Tetraselmis, Dunaliella salina, Haematococcus pluvialis Isochrysis, and Nannochloropsis. These and Spirulina are also used as a source of organisms are fed directly and/or indirectly natural pigments for the culture of prawns, to the cultured larval organism. Indirect salmonid fish and ornamental fish. Over the means of providing the algae are through last four decades, several hundred artemia, rotifers, and daphnia, which are, in microalgae species have been tested as food, turn, fed to the target larval organisms. but probably less than twenty have gained Microalgae are an essential food source in widespread use in aquaculture. Microalgae the rearing of all stages of marine bivalve must possess a number of key attributes to molluscs (clams, oysters, scallops), the be useful aquaculture species. They must be larval stages of some marine gastropods of an appropriate size for ingestion, e.g. (abalone, conch), larvae of several marine from 1 to 15 μm for filter feeders; 10 to 100 fish species and penaeid shrimp, and μm for grazers. (1-3) Algaculture is a form of zooplankton. Marine microalgae are known aquaculture involving the farming of species to be the basic source of important nutrients of algae. Microalgae play a crucial essential for larval development for almost nutritional role for marine animals in open all marine invertebrates, allowing growth ocean and consequently in marine and transformation through the juvenile and aquaculture. Live microalgae were adult stages to proceed. Diatoms traditionally used for bivalves feeding in Chaetocerus gracilis and Navicula commercial mollusc hatcheries. Such ramoissima are currently cultured for feed intensive cultures are costly for producers for aquaculture commodities in Samoa, and many alternatives have been proposed to namely for sea urchin Tripneustes gratilla. reduce the cost and to simplify production Microalgae (single celled algae or procedures. Nonliving food such as phytoplankton) represent the largest, but microalgae pastes, dried microalgae, most poorly understood, kingdom of microencapsulated lipids, bacteria or yeasts microorganisms on the earth. As plants are were tested in hatcheries and laboratories to terrestrial animals, microalgae represent with various level of success. (4-5) It involves the natural nutritional base and primary raising fish commercially in tanks or source of all the phytonutrients in the enclosures, usually for food for human aquatic food chain. As the primary consumption. Fish species raised by fish producers in the aquatic food chain, farms include salmon, catfish, tilapia, cod, microalgae are the source of many carp, trout and others. Fish farming, or phytonutrients, including docosahexaenoic “aquaculture,” has become a billion-dollar acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA) industry, and more than 30 percent of all the precursors for the valuable nutritional sea animals consumed each year are now component widely promoted as Omega 3 raised on these “farms.” The United International Journal of Health Sciences & Research (www.ijhsr.org) 109 Vol.2; Issue: 1; April 2012

Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization aquaculture waters absorb and store large reports that the aquaculture industry is amounts of nutrients. This results in growing three times faster than land-based improved water quality for the cultivated animal agriculture, and fish farms will animals, as well as for the environment, surely become even more prevalent as our given that the water returned to the sea natural fisheries become exhausted. Over contains a lower concentration of nutrients. 1100 species of fishes, molluscs and Several studies have demonstrated that it is crustaceans directly contribute to production possible to economically cultivate valuable of the world’s major fisheries. There are seaweeds using wastewater from many additional species contributing to aquaculture.(10) Micro-algae are also cultured small scale fisheries. In aquaculture, in aquaculture hatcheries as food for although the majority of production comes juveniles. These species, mainly haptophytes from a few species, there are over 300 and diatoms, have been selected for their species, which do contribute. Most growers nutritional value, ease of culture, and proven prefer monocultural production and go to performance. Cell size, culture vigour, and considerable lengths to maintain the purity nutritional value may change over time in of their cultures. With mixed cultures, one culture and preservation of these isolates and species comes to dominate over time and if a strains is therefore desirable. Spirulina 20 non-dominant species is believed to have flakes contain a full 20% Spirulina and particular value, it is necessary to obtain provide a complete high protein diet for pure cultures in order to cultivate this freshwaterfish, saltwater fish, goldfish, species. Individual species cultures are also crustaceans, and invertebrates. Several needed for research purposes. A common companies produce aquaculture feeds using method of obtaining pure cultures is serial Chlorella and Spirulina, or a mixture dilution. Most hatcheries grow a variety of thereof. Some examples of the use of species that serve different needs throughout microalgae for aquaculture includes; the production cycle with respect to size, Microalgae species Hypneacervicornis and digestibility, culture characteristics, and Cryptonemia crenulata particularly rich in nutritional value. (6) protein were tested in shrimp diets. (11) Algae were collected, rinsed, dried and ground up ALGAE USED AS AQUACULTURE for the feed formulations. The marine FEED cyanobacterium Phormidium valderianum Water, carbon dioxide, minerals and was shown to serve as a complete light are all important factors in cultivation, aquaculture feed source, based on the and different algae have different nutritional qualities and non-toxic nature requirements. The basic reaction in water is with animal model experiments. (12) In 1999, carbon dioxide + light energy = glucose + the production of microalgae for aquaculture oxygen. Along with adequate calcium and reached 1000 ton (62% for molluscs, 21% magnesium in the water (especially for for shrimps and 16% for fish) for a global marine organisms), Spirulina helps insure world aquaculture production.(6) The proper electrolyte function, calcium levels nutritional value of any algal species for a over calcium and other minerals that are particular organism depends on its cell size, added to fish food as an afterthought to digestibility, production of toxic make up for poor quality ingredients. compounds, and biochemical composition. Several studies (7-9) have shown that Microalgae grown to late-logarithmic macroalgae cultivated in residual growth phase typically contain 30 to 40% International Journal of Health Sciences & Research (www.ijhsr.org) 110 Vol.2; Issue: 1; April 2012 protein, 10 to 20% lipid and 5 to 15% marine algae, such as phycocolloids and carbohydrate. (13-14) The content of highly pigments, is used. unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA), in particular 1. To increase dissolved oxygen and to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), arachidonic decrease toxic gases like ammonia, nitrite, acid (ARA) and docosahexaenoic acid hydrogen sulfide, methane, carbon dioxide (DHA), is of major importance in the in pond water. evaluation of the nutritional composition of 2. To stabilize pond water quality and to an algal species to be used as food for lower the content of toxic compounds. marine organisms. In late-logarithmic phase, 3. To make use of microalgae as a natural prymnesiophytes, on average, contain the feed. highest percentages of saturated fats (33% of 4. To provide shade and to decrease total fatty acids), followed by diatoms and cannibalism. eustigmatophytes (27%), prasinophytes and 5. To increase and stabilize water chlorophytes (23%) and cryptomonads temperature. (18%). (13) The content of vitamins can vary 6. To minimize pathogenic and unwanted between microalgae. Ascorbic acid shows microbial population by competing with the the greatest variation, i.e. 16-fold (1 to 16 available nutrients in the water. mg / g dry weight. (15) The use of biofiltering So, Phytoplankton plays a significant grown seaweed eliminates the need for a role in stabilizing the whole pond ecosystem destructive harvest of natural seaweed beds. and in minimizing the fluctuations of water The chemical composition of the culture quality. Another potential large-scale seaweed is controllable. Algae, and in application of microalgae is the cultivation particular seaweed, allow the creation of of Haematococcus for the production of the flexible integrated sustainable mariculture carotenoid astaxanthin, which gives salmon operations. flesh its reddish color. In the long-term microalgae biomass high in lipids (omega-3 WHY ALGAE ARE USED IN fatty acids) may be developed as substitutes AQUACULTURE? for fish oil-based aquaculture feeds. In Algae are the basis of primary shrimp ponds the indigenous algal blooms production in the aquatic food chain. In the supply a part of the dietary requirements of marine realm, algae sustain the production the animals, but it is difficult to maximize of a hundred million tons per year of marine algal productivities. The microalgae used as fisheries and a large portion of the feed in hatcheries vary in size, aquaculture production (seaweeds, molluscs, environmental requirements, growth rate, larval rearing, etc.), securing a stable human and nutritional value (Fig. 1). (16) When food supply. On a daily basis, a wide array selecting a species for culture, it is important of high-value substances derived from to take all of these parameters into consideration.

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Figure 1. Photomicrographs of two popular species of microalgae commonly cultured in bivalve hatcheries. A) Isochrysis sp. (4–6 μm x 3–5 μm, and B) Tetraselmis sp. (14–20 μm x 8–12 μm).(16)

Table 1: Temperature, light, and salinity ranges for culturing selected microalgae species. (17)

Species Temperature Light (Lux) Salinity (ppt-%) Chaetoceros 25 – 30 8,000 – 10,000 20 - 35 muelleri Phaeodactylum 18 – 22 3,000 – 5,000 25 – 32 tricornutum Dicrateria sp. 25 – 32 3,000 – 10,000 15 – 30 Isochrysis galbana 25 – 30 2,500 – 10,000 10 – 30 Skeletonema 10 – 27 2,500 – 5,000 15 – 30 costatum Nannochloropsis 20 – 30 2,500 – 8,000 0 - 36 oculata Pavlova viridis 15 – 30 4,000 – 8,000 10 – 40 Tetraselmis 5 – 33 5,000 – 10,000 6 – 53 tetrathele Tetraselmis 20 – 28 5,000 – 10,000 20 - 40 subcordiformis Chlorella 10 – 28 2,500 – 5,000 26 - 30 ellipsoidea

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