Diversification in Aquaculture: a Tool for Sustainability

Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

GOBIERNO MINISTERIO DE ESPAÑA DE MEDIO AMBIENTE, Y MEDIO RURAL Y MARINO Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

GOBIERNO MINISTERIO DE ESPAÑA DE MEDIO AMBIENTE, Y MEDIO RURAL Y MARINO Table of contents

GOBIERNO MINISTERIO Authors...... 7 DE ESPAÑA DE MEDIO AMBIENTE, Y MEDIO RURAL Y MARINO 1. Introduction: the need for diversification in achieving sustainable aquaculture...... 9 1.1. Aquaculture and diversification...... 10 1.2. Justification for writing this guide...... 12 MARM. General Marine Secretariat. 1.3. Purpose of the guide...... 13 1.4. Organisation of the document...... 13 Establishment of directive guidelines promoting the sustainable development of aquaculture in the Mediterranean 2. Diversification of sites...... 15 related to land-based aquaculture and diversification in sea and land-based aquaculture activities. 2.1. Introduction...... 15 2.2. Justification for selecting the site...... 15 Published by: 2.3. Choice of sites. Geographical Information Systems...... 16 © Spanish Ministry of Environmental, Rural and Marine Affairs 2.4. Case study: selection of the site for a marine farm for producing Sparus aurata (gilthead sea bream), General Technical Secretariat Dicentrarchus labrax (sea bass) and Argyrosomus regius (meagre)...... 19 Publications Centre 2.5. Recommendation...... 22 3. Diversification of the farmed species...... 25 Technical Assistance: Tecnoma, S.A. and Asoc. RIIA-CV 3.1. Background and justification...... 25 August 2011 3.2. Diversification of the farmed species...... 25 3.3. Diversification process...... 26 Design and Layout: 3.4. New species...... 27 Acero Estudio Valencia, S.L. 3.5. Integrated sole (Solea senegalensis) culture...... 29 3.5.1. Introduction...... 29 Printing and Binding: textos&imágenes 3.5.2. Reproduction...... 30 3.5.3. Larval culture...... 31 Available in: Spanish Ministry of Environmental, Rural and Marine Affairs. 3.5.4. Fattening...... 31 General Marine Secretariat. 3.6. Octopus (Octopus vulgaris) culture...... 31 C/ Velázquez, 166. 3.7. Recommendations...... 33 Madrid, Spain. 4. Diversification of culture density...... 35 Tel.: 91 347 60 71 4.1. Background...... 35 http://marm.es/es/pesca/publicaciones/ 4.2. Justification...... 36 Official Publication Identification Number: 770-11-238-7 4.3. Development...... 37 ISBN: 978-84-491-1122-8 4.4. Conclusion...... 39 Legal Deposit 2010 4.5. Case study. Production densities during the fattening phase in the ecological production of General Official Publications Catalogue: gilthead sea bream and sea bass in Mediterranean aquaculture facilities...... 39 http://publicacionesoficiales.boe.es/ (servicios en línea/oficina virtual/Publicaciones) 4.6. Recommendations...... 43 Recycled, chlorine-free paper was used to print this publication, in accordance with the environmental 5. Diversification of the production systems...... 45 criteria applicable to public contracts. 5.1. Background...... 45 Technical data: Format: 21.0 x 29.7 cm. Text body: 7,2 x 21,9 cm. Layout: two columns. Typeface: Gill Sans 5.2. Production system types based on the saline tolerance of the species...... 45 Light 12. Binding: rustic and sewn with vegetable thread. Paper: Interior, semi-matte with “stucco” finish 5.3. Production system types based on the organism farmed...... 45 (couché), 125 g. Cover: 300 g poster board. Printed in four colours, plus machine varnish. Ink colours: 5.4. Production system types based on the development phases of the species...... 46 5.5. Production system types based on culture density...... 46 5.6. Production systems based on culture location...... 47 8.5. Recommendations...... 79 5.7. Types of facilities, based on the use of the water: open and closed circuits...... 48 9. Diversification of products...... 81 5.7.1. Open circuit...... 48 9.1. Background: diversification with respect to previous planning...... 81 5.7.2. Closed circuit...... 50 9.2. Lengthening the life of the product...... 81 9.3. Processed and elaborated products...... 84 5.7.3. Relationship between production system and type of circuit...... 51 9.4. Brands (collective brands, guaranteed brands)...... 86 5.8. Case study: Closed circuit...... 51 9.5. Case study: the collective brand “Crianza del Mar”...... 87 5.8.1. Operation of the facility...... 52 9.6. Recommendations...... 88 5.8.2. Equipment and installations...... 53 10. Diversification of markets...... 91 5.9. Recommendations...... 53 10.1. Introduction and background...... 91 10.2. Orientation to production as opposed to market orientation...... 91 6. Diversification in the size of the facilities...... 55 10.3. Differentiation of products...... 92 6.1. Introduction...... 55 10.4. Market segmentation...... 92 6.2. Justification...... 55 10.5. Diversification of geographical markets...... 93 6.3. Land-based facilities...... 56 10.6. Diversification based on types of market...... 94 6.4. Tideland facilities...... 56 10.7. Identification of targets...... 94 6.5. Marine facilities...... 57 10.8. Trust in products for opening up new markets...... 95 6.6. Case study: Aquaculture facility in Burriana (Castellón)...... 59 10.9. Case study: Norway in action in the markets...... 95 6.7. Recommendations...... 60 10.10. Recommendations...... 96 7. Diversification of the production cycle...... 63 11. Appendixes...... 99 7.1. Introduction...... 63 11.1. Abbreviations...... 99 7.2. Hatcheries and nurseries...... 64 11.2. Bibliography...... 100 7.2.1. Technical development...... 65 11.3. Information about the authors...... 107 7.3. Fattening units...... 67 7.3.1. Land facilities...... 67 7.3.2. Farming in tidelands...... 68 7.3.3. Marine facilities...... 68 7.4. Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA)...... 70 7.4.1. IMTA systems...... 70 7.5. Recommendations...... 71 8. Diversification and sustainability of aquaculture nutrition...... 73 8.1. Introduction...... 73 8.2. Current problem with raw materials...... 73 8.3. Nutritional requirements of fish farmed in aquaculture...... 75 8.3.1. Protein...... 76 8.3.2. Lipids...... 76 8.3.3. Carbohydrates...... 76 8.3.4. Energy...... 77 8.3.5. Vitamins and minerals...... 77 8.4. Case study: Nutritional and environmental evaluation of a fall in protein levels in fattening feed for the gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) in a marine farm located in the Mediterranean Sea...... 78 Authors

This Guide has been written by the Spanish Ministry of Environmental, Rural and Marine Affairs, with technical assistance provided by a Joint Venture formed by Tecnología y Medio Am- biente, S.A. (Tecnoma, S.A.) and Asociación Red de Innovación en Industrias Acuícolas (RIIA - CV).

The present Guide is a joint effort and was coordinated by Guido Schmidt and Francisco J. Espinós Gutiérrez, with the participation of the following experts:

Chapter Expert(s Institution Introduction Francisco J. Espinós Universidad Politécnica de Valencia –Asociación RIIA - CV

Francisco Ruiz Universidad de Valencia / Valencia International University Diversification of sites Manuel Segarra Universidad Politécnica de Valencia

Evaristo Mañanos CSIC – Torre la Sal José Luis Muñoz IFAPA – El Toruño (Junta de Andalucía) Diversification of the farmed species Eduardo Soler Andromeda Group Jerónimo Chirivella Universidad Católica de Valencia

Diversification of cultivation density Clive Dove Fundación INNOVAMAR

Rodolfo Barrera AVEMPI–Valenciana de Acuicultura s.a Diversification of production systems Manuel Segarra Universidad Politécnica de Valencia

Tahiche Lacomba Andromeda Group Diversification in the size of the facilities Sebastian Balasch Universidad Politécnica de Valencia Evaristo Mañanós CSIC – Torre la Sal Diversification of the production cycle Jerónimo Chirivella Universidad Católica de Valencia Francisco J. Espinós Universidad Politécnica de Valencia –Asociación RIIA - CV Diversification and sustainability in aquaculture nutrition José Luis Tejedor DIBAQ – DIPROTEG Jordi López ADS ACUIVAL Diversification of products José María Santiago Consultor Luis Ambrosio PROBITEC S.L Diversification of markets Javier Ojeda APROMAR

We are also grateful for the cooperation of Fundación Observatorio Español de Acuicultura – Fundación OESA (Spanish Aquaculture Observatory Foundation) for taking part in the mee- tings with the experts, through its Managing Director Javier Remiro Perlado.

Summarised information about the authors is set out in Appendix 3. Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

1. Introduction: the need for diversification in achieving sustainable aquaculture

Sustainability, sustainable development and sustainability is applied to socio-economic development and is founded on three main pillars: • Ecological considerations • Economic considerations • Social considerations

Ecological considerations

Supportable Feasible

Sustainable

Social Fair Economic considerations considerations

Figure1: Diagram of the three basic pillars of sustainable development. (Source: Own Elaboration)

As shown in figure 1, the mid-point of the three basic pillars is sustainability, although it is not always the mean, given that, to avoid compromising future generations, what is feasible may not be equal in scope as what is fair or supportable. The ultimate objective of sustainable development is none other than to define projects that are feasible in economic terms, which, in turn, can be supported by the environment and have a fair social component (jobs, providers, acceptable sala- ries,…). In short, sustainable development can be defined in the terms set out in the 3rd Principle of the Río Declaration of 19921:

“To meet the needs of present generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”

1. Summit of Río de Janeiro 1992 organised by the UN World Commission on Environment and Development.

9 1 Introduction: Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability The need for diversification in achieving sustainable aquaculture

Diversification is presented as an option for achieving that sustainable development. Diver- From the social standpoint, the adaptation of the cultivated species to the environment and sification leads to a feasible economy, for not only would it depend on only a few sectors (or in market facilitates the production and marketing process, requires less investment and effort in the case of aquaculture, a few products or production systems), but would lead to the creation of selling the products and reduces risks for farmers. jobs in different sectors and the demand for different professions and a feasible ecological system, thereby preventing the excessive use of natural resources. Due to the foregoing, diversification has With respect to environmental behaviour, the adaptation of the cultivated species to the an essential part to play in achieving aquaculture based on sustainable development. environmental characteristics will tend to increase efficiency in using the available resources and reduce the risks of deterioration stemming from over-exploitation and contamination generated 1.1. Aquaculture and diversification through the application of inputs.

Aquaculture is defined as the breeding of aquatic organisms, including fish, molluscs, crus- Diversification in aquaculture production must be developed through cultivating hydro-bio- taceans and aquatic plants. The breeding process involves some kind of intervention during the logical resources which, in technical terms, are easy to implement and handle, creating new inves- process to increase production, such as regular sowing, feeding, protection against predators, etc. tment alternatives in both the industrial and traditional fishing sectors. In addition, breeding implies the individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated. Funds dedicated to R+D+i must be effectively focused on aquaculture diversification, to The UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) has established the following definition obtain the best possible results from such efforts. of sustainability in relation to agriculture and fisheries: “Sustainable development is the management and conservation of the natural resource base, and the orientation of technological and institutional To optimise the resources allocated to aquaculture, it will be necessary to develop and change in such a manner as to ensure the attainment and continued satisfaction of human needs for consolidate scientific and technological, management, logistical and other capacities related to present and future generations. Such development (in the agricultural, forestry and fishing sectors) con- aquaculture. serves land, water, plant genetic resources, is environmentally non-degrading, technologically appropriate, It is essential to improve the supply of raw materials for the processing industry, thereby also economically viable and socially acceptable” (FAO, 1997). permitting the consolidation of existing external markets and the opening of new markets, based The Mediterranean region has a large quantity of resources to facilitate the diversification on a continuous supply in terms of volumes and product quality with high international demand. of its aquaculture, including not only the species cultivated but also diversification in cultivation The aquaculture activity in Spain has largely been developed by concentrating cultivation in processes, types of company, markets, etc. only a few species. For this reason, it now becomes necessary to develop lines of work that will The undertaking of diversification processes is essential to maintain high aquaculture pro- contribute to a diversification of species. To ensure that the efforts focused on this objective are duction growth rates in the Mediterranean and consolidate that region which is one of the most as effective as possible, species must be found that meet a series of production requirements, and important in the world. above all, for which there is a high market demand. This aspect is precisely the one in which most research and development efforts are made by companies. A production diversification process must be properly organised and planned in technical terms to enable it to contribute to guaranteeing the sustainability of production systems. The diversification of aquaculture will serve to strengthen and consolidate the growth of Mediterranean industry, through the incorporation of technologies that will permit the cultivation The most important technical aspects are the correct selection of species to be cultivated, of resources of great importance in the international market. In particular, for the aquaculture based on local environmental characteristics, the market and the main risk factors. Producing in sector, the results obtained will allow specific possibilities for growth to be generated, through the accordance with market demands can assure adequate marketing prices and reduce the risks in creation of new companies and through the expansion of those that already exist. this link of the production chain.

10 11 1 Introduction: Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability The need for diversification in achieving sustainable aquaculture

The drafting of this guide on diversification in aquaculture has the mission of establishing the 1.3. Purpose of the guide ties that exist between the level of diversification in aquaculture and its sustainability, and of facili- tating the diversification processes undertaken by different players in the aquaculture sector, with This guide is intended as a tool for providing decision-takers and fish farmers with practical a view to analysing the following aspects: suggestions for achieving sustainable aquaculture development process adapted to the reality of the Mediterranean, based on current technical and scientific knowledge. • Diversification of sites • Diversification of the cultivated species 1.4. Organisation of the document • Diversification of cultivation density • Diversification of production systems The Guide is divided into ten chapters that cover diversification in different aspects of aqua- • Diversification in the size of the facilities culture activity and their interaction with the environment in land-based and marine aquaculture • Diversification of the production cycle in the Mediterranean. Its content is based on the contributions made by the different co-authors • Diversification and sustainability of aquaculture nutrition • Diversification of products of the Guide, on the collective thoughts and the complementary thoughts of the coordination • Diversification of markets team, with a view to homogenising the different texts and eliminating repetitions.

Each chapter is devoted to a different aspect of diversification (cycle, species, size of facilities, 1.2. Justification for writing this guide etc.), contributing experience, challenges and key recommendations for the sustainability of Me- The drafting of this guide on diversification in aquaculture shows that sustainability in aqua- diterranean aquaculture, based on its diversification. The Guide also contains images, case studies culture is linked to its level of diversification. and bibliography that enable the different topics dealt with in the Guide to be analysed in depth.

The Mediterranean has a large number of resources that will facilitate diversification in its aquaculture activities, in terms of not only the species cultivated but the diversification of cultivation densities, types of companies and markets.

Diversification seeks to: • Distribute the risks • Access new market opportunities • Occupy wider geographic areas or their hydrological resources • Complement the existing supply • Contribute to allowing aquaculture to expand through cultivating new species with the potential to be converted into activities that are economically sustainable • Diversify aquaculture production through cultivating hydro-biological resources that are easy to implement and handle in technical terms, creating new investment alternatives for both the industrial and the traditional fishing sectors • Effectively concentrating funds for R+D on aquaculture diversification • Developing and strengthening the scientific and technological, management, logistics and other capacities related to aquaculture Through the diversification of aquaculture, improvements can be made in the supply of raw materials for the processing industry, and in addition, lead to the consolidation of existing external markets and the opening of new markets, based on a continuous supply in terms of volumes and product quality with a high international demand.

12 13 Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

2. Diversification of sites

2.1. Introduction

Aquaculture is practised in all types of existing aquatic environments ranging from marshlands and estuaries to rivers, lakes and above all, the sea. Aquaculture is able to restore value to areas with low agronomic capacity through the construction of ponds and create wealth in poor areas, either through secondary activities (as a complement to others) or as a main activity.

One of the most important characteristics of aquaculture is the enormously varied wealth of the environment in which it is carried out. In land-based environments, the waters are enriched with nutrients through surface waters or other means and the natural habitat of the area is of supreme importance. The land-based contributions are concentrated in particular in coastal areas, on the border between the continent and the ocean, and give rise to high primary production levels.

As a result of all these contributions the waters from the coastal regions are, comparatively speaking, the richest of all the oceans. Their proximity to emerging land gives rise to the following, among others: • A great diversity of environment and biotopes, with different sectors of the coastal region ac- ting as areas that allow the reproduction, breeding and shelter of many molluscs, crustaceans and fish of enormous commercial value • The considerable influence of adjoining areas of land, which provide many nutrients and suspended matter through surface waters or rivers • Their capacity to promote turbulent mixes and diffusion which eliminates the clarity of the water • Their wealth of nutrients, which gives rise to an elevated primary production of phytoplankton and zooplankton. In many coastal areas, primary production is often higher than in ocean regions. Coastal waters account for one-quarter of the total primary production of oceans Due to these peculiarities and the intense pressure exerted on them by man, coastal areas must be the object of careful planning and conservation to guarantee the rational use of their resources, based on a deep knowledge of the complex interweaving of the coastal ecosystem structure and functions.

2.2. Justification for selecting the site

The increase in aquaculture production has given rise to the need to find new sites. The breeding of aquatic organisms in the different ecosystems in which this activity is carried out has become a technological and biological task of major importance. The key to developing sustainable aquaculture lies in selecting the most appropriate site.

The quality of the water is an essential parameter in determining the suitability of a site and is defined by factors which have the greatest influence on the development of the aquatic species. These are basically the following: • The water temperature: this is perhaps the most restrictive factor and affects several of the water’s properties, such as its density, viscosity, gas solubility (especially oxygen), etc.

15 2 Diversification of sites Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

• Suspended solids: faeces have a certain tolerance in temporary concentrations (flooding), but the most appropriate site. The selecting of that site must be done as part of Integrated Coastal their conduct varies if the suspended matter is comprised of active substances Zone Management (hereinafter, ICZM). The biophysical and socioeconomic differences between • pH and alkalinity parameters: the most appropriate waters are those which are neutral or the diverse areas of a region mean that aquaculture planning is inextricably linked to the region. slightly alkaline (with a pH of between 7 and 8). Their fluctuations need to be controlled. In (Nath et al., 2000). general, the quality of water in lakes and rivers is directly affected by its pH and this, in turn, by the characteristics of the soil and rocks in the area Aquaculture must be based on the premise that not all the areas of a region are able to • Ammonia: only the non-ionised portion produces negative effects, and these are increased support the breeding activity in question. The capacity of a region to house any type of human when the temperature and pH values increase activity is conditioned by the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the environment, • Dissolved oxygen: the source that brings the oxygen to the water varies depending on which must be evaluated and considered as part of the process of selecting the site for the activity. whether it is moving or static, and in marine environments with constant renovation processes, their content will be higher than in the lower courses of rivers, in which renovation is I.e., a series of capacities of use are defined for the region, depending on the activity to be carried practically non-existent out and the environmental characteristics. Based on those capacities, the competent authorities reserve a specific use for each portion of the region. The planning implemented by the competent In addition to the characteristics of the aquatic environment, the location of the production authorities determines the type of activity that can be developed in the different areas. When facilities is also determined by the biological characteristics of the species to be farmed, the clima- establishing the aquaculture activity, this planning and the regulations to which the activity are tic and geographical factors and the sociological and economic factors of the activity. subjected must be taken into consideration.

Knowledge of the marine ecosystem has basically been limited to those areas of the sea with The priority of regional, state and European administrations with authority in this field is better accessibility due to their proximity to the anthropic environment. Marine aquaculture first to establish suitable zones for developing aquaculture as means of organising that activity within started to develop in coastal areas with physical protections that dissipated the energy of the ICZM. The enormous number of environmental factors that must be analysed to assure the ful- oceans, and during these early stages the lack of knowledge about the reactions of the marine filment of regulatory and biophysical parameters makes it necessary to have powerful territorial environment to the different species cultivated and the new activities of this incipient aquaculture management tools that will bring about the optimisation of production sites. Geographic Informa- were more than evident. Over time, it has been observed that these ecosystems have a series of tion Systems (GIS) offer a magnificent opportunity to tackle this enormous task. natural conditions which are so specific that it would be difficult to transfer the initial experiences carried out in them to other types of aquaculture facilities. For that reason we should consider The usefulness of Geographic Information Systems lies in their ability to model the envi- that aquaculture can be carried out in a wide variety of ecosystems with different conditions. ronment, i.e., elaborate real-life models using digital databases predetermined by any national or international administration or by the observer and use those models to simulate the effects of As occurs with the marine environment, it is necessary to have a thorough knowledge of the a specific process for a particular time and place. The models allow the environmental condi- ecosystems in land-based or transition environments in which the aquaculture production process tions and factors that can influence it to be analysed, and enable explanations to be found for is to be developed. It is essential to know the social, economic and ecological characteristics of the the potential consequences of decisions or planning projects that have an impact on the use and environment in order to promote a responsible activity. organisation of resources.

Depending on the environment in which the activities are carried, the main sites are as fo- Many human activities are carried out on the shores of the Mediterranean (uncontrolled llows: property development, industrial expansion, etc.) which oblige the competent authorities to find • Land culture: these facilities (hatchery and/or nursery facilities) are comprised of ponds crea- zones more appropriate for developing those activities (zoning plan). Starting with the premise ted in the terrain, or elevated tanks. These structures are usually accompanied by pumping that there must be a balance between the environment and productive activity, the areas which systems, WWTE and evacuation systems are likely to have facilities of this type must be characterised by being: • Mariculture: these facilities are set up in tidelands, marshes, floating cages, cages below the sea, long-lines, etc. • Zones in which the growth of the farmed species can be developed as much as possible • Zones with the lowest operating costs 2.3. Choice of sites. Geographical Information Systems • Zones where impact is minimal • Zones where conflicts between the different uses of the coast are avoided to reduced to a The basis for the sustainable development of aquaculture lies in the system used to select minimum

16 17 2 Diversification of sites Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

For the correct application of the GIS methodology, a large amount of information is required There is a wide range of software available for application in GIS. The most important of on the basic physical-chemical and biological principles of the ecosystems, apart from those that these are ArcGis, Autodesk Map, ArcView, Carta Linx, Geoserver, GRASS and GvSig. characterise the social and economic environment of the place or region under study. Those programmes distribute the information into two basic groups, firstly, the basic mapping A GIS study is divided into seven phases (Nath et al., 2000): of the zone and secondly, thematic mapping (waste, biodiversity, natural beauty spots, land uses • Identifying the project requirements etc.). • Formulating the specifications • Developing an analysis structure The most important parameters to be considered in analysing a specific region with GIS are: • Locating the data sources • Territorial ordinance plans, ownership of the occupied area, zones of military interest, zones • Organising and handling the data in which ships anchor, already-existing aquaculture facilities and artificial reefs. • Analysing the data and verifying the products • Zones of tourist interest • Evaluating the products • Zones of archaeological interest • Zones where underground cables/underwater pipes emerge • Coastal waste tipping points INSTALLATION SITE AND PROTECTED ZONES (SCI) • Bathymetry • Port and industrial infrastructures • Zones where dry components are extracted • Protected spaces and habitats • Zones owned by and used by ports A series of physical, chemical and biological parameters exists for determining whether an environment is suitable or not for installing an aquaculture facility. To determine these zones, the following must be carried out: • Analysis of external climatic data: mean temperatures, prevailing winds, etc. • Study of the marine depths: bathymetry, biological and geological characterisation, etc. • Study of the water quality: physical, chemical and biological parameters of the cultivation medium • Study of the oceanographic conditions: currents, waves and coastal dynamics Based on all the studies conducted and after analysing the information obtained, the zoning is carried out in the site under study for the purpose of determining the most suitable zones, zones with limitations and excluded zones. This classification is made in keeping with the degree of compatibility and suitability of the zones for housing the cultivated species.

2.4. Case study: selection of the site for a marine farm for producing Sparus aurata (gilthead sea bream), Dicentrarchus labrax (sea bass) and Argyrosomus regius (meagre)

The example chosen to describe the process for selecting a site for a marine farm is a loca- Figure 2: Location of protected zones and a marine facility on the Mediterranean coast. tion in the municipality of Burriana (Castellón, Spain). The facility for fattening sea bream, sea bass (Source: Own elaboration based on Mapping by the Instituto Cartográfico de Valencia and meagre consists of 48 cages, 60 long-lines, 8 floating octopus cages, 1 floating turbot cage - ICV (Cartographic Institute of Valencia) and Department of the Environment, Water, Urban Planning and Housing of Generalitat Valenciana (Region of Valencia Government))

18 19 2 Diversification of sites Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

and 1 floating sole cage, located in a site at a distance of 4 miles from the coast of Burriana. The In selecting the site for an aquaculture facility, a GIS was constructed in which different layers estimated production of the facility is 2,400 Mt per year. of information were implemented on a digitalised cartographic base of the Spanish Naval Hy- drographic Institute. The bionomic mapping of the sea bed near the coast of Burriana, together with the type of sediment and bathymetry were the basic layers upon which the GIS was built. This initial information was completed by, among others, mapping of the protected natural marine spaces (Sites of Community Interest - SCI) and the artificial reefs. Up to three artificial reefs were found in the area in question (Almenara, Moncofa and Burriana I) and one important SCI (Alguers de Borriana).

Vectors: Average swell direction Average wind sea direction Figure 3: Example of the estimated direction of prevailing winds and currents near the Gulf of Valencia and surrounding areas. (Source: Spanish Meteorological Agency (Spanish Ministry of Environmental, Rural and Marine Affairs)) Figure 4: Bionomic mapping, sedimentology and elements from the sea bed opposite the coast of Burriana (Castellón), with the most suitable location for the planned aquaculture facility (Source: Own elaboration, based on Bionomic Mapping of the Department The coastal environment opposite the municipal boundary of Burriana has a series of ele- of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (Generalitat Valenciana)) ments (artificial reefs, protected natural areas, algae communities of special interest such as mea- dows of Posidonia oceanica, substrata formed by different sediments, etc.) which make it possible to determine how to select the site for an aquaculture production facility. Official mapping in- The thematic mapping generated made it possible to establish several areas suitable for formation is available about most of the elements considered (Bathymetry, bionomy of the sea installing the planned facility. These potential locations were studied, taking several factors into ac- depths, artificial reefs, etc.). The mapping information was obtained from the following sources: count: distance from the port of Burriana, distance from the reef zones or protected zones (SCI), bionomic mapping of sea depths, sedimentology, artificial reefs and the location of other aqua- distance from bionomic communities of interest or protected communities, type of substratum, culture facilities (Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Generalitat Valenciana), Bathymetry depth, etc. In addition to this information, the current flow maps furnished by the Spanish Ports and elements from the sea bed (Instituto Hidrográfico de la Marina- Spanish Naval Hydrographic measuring and prediction systems were analysed. Using this information, it was possible to pre- Institute), Mapping of Natural Spaces (Department of the Environment, Generalitat Valenciana), dict the dilution plume of waste products generated by the facility. This information is extremely Coastal-Municipal Boundaries (Cartographic Institute of Valencia). important to verify the potential effect of the culture activity on the natural elements of the zone closest to the aquaculture facility.

20 21 2 Diversification of sites

The spatial evaluation of all these parameters allowed us to establish the best location for the facility in which the natural resources of the area could be preserved whilst guaranteeing the economic performance of the facility.

2.5. Recommendation • Continental coasts and terrains must be carefully conserved and planned in order to ensure a rational use of their resources • The basis for sustainable development of aquaculture in the marine environment lies in the system for selecting the most suitable site based on Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM). With respect to the land environment, it is essential to know the social, economic and environmental characteristics of the area where the activity is to be carried out, to ensure that the activity can be performed in a way that is compatible with the environment • The use of Geographic Information Systems makes it possible to model the environment and establish the zoning thereof, to prevent negative short, mid and long-term effects on the land or marine environment

22 Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

3. Diversification of the farmed species

3.1. Background and justification

Over the past two decades, international aquaculture and in particular Mediterranean aquaculture, has undergone extraordinary development as an alternative to extractive fishing.

The marine environment has a large variety of species and a great diversity of captures. However, not all marine resources are developed to the same extent for which reason their exploitation in terms of fishing is uneven. The land environment is much more limited in terms of variety of species and this is also observed in the socio-cultural predisposition towards consuming marine species to the detriment of freshwater species.

Diversification in breeding aquaculture species is targeted at completing the offer of fish products, through the production of well-known, appreciated species that are hard to obtain in seasonal or non-predictable captures.

Based on these premises, Mediterranean aquaculture has capable of developing several species of fish, molluscs and crustaceans, using scientific, technical, productive and sales channels, with greater or lesser success, depending on technical and production requirements and market dynamics.

3.2. Diversification of the farmed species

The species of marine fish which have been developed and consolidated as commercial species include: gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata), sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and during recent years, meagre (Argirosomus regius).

In Spain, studies on other marine fish species are under way, thanks to the support of the National Mariculture Advisory Board (JACUMAR), among others, and through National Maricul- ture Plans. Some of the species studied are the red-banded sea bream (Sparus auriga), red porgy (Pagrus pagrus), red sea bream (Pagellus bogaraveo), sharpsnout sea bream (Diplodus puntazzo), common dentex (Dentex dentex), greater amberjack (Seriola dumerili) and the dusky grouper (Epinephelus marginatus). For technical and commercial reasons, farmers have not yet taken the decision to farm these species for marketing.

The species of molluscs habitually produced are mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis), oyster (Os- trea edulis, Crassostrea gigas) and clam (Ruditapes decussatus, Ruditapes philipinarum, Venerupis pullastra). In the case of cephalopods, for several years, exhaustive research has being conducted into the commercial breeding of octopus (Octopus vulgaris) by research teams through initiatives such as the National Mariculture Plans, with the aim of closing the production cycle and not having to use juveniles captured at sea and fattening them for commercial purposes.

25 3 Diversification of the farmed species Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

At present, the production of marine crustaceans in Spain is fast declining, but a few years Consequently the first step is to increase the variety of farmed fish species, which would back, the integrated culture of Kuruma prawn (Penaeus japonicus) was carried out on a major sca- allow the facilities to reduce the risks of monoculture practices. But the solution is not to produce le on the Atlantic coast in Andalus¡a. Imports from other countries, together with high production species to replace the existing ones, for instance, in the case of the gilthead sea bream, sparidae costs led to a fall in profits for producers. The shrimp (Palaemon sp. and Palaemonetes sp.) is sold would be replacement species, and therefore competitive, given that their appearance, size, pre- in the southern part of Andalusia, produced through natural fishing and subsequent fattening in sentation and the way in which they are cooked are similar. ponds created in tidelands. In this respect, Mediterranean mariculture products, mainly turbot and gilthead sea bream, In relation to freshwater species, the relative lack of freshwater courses and rivers means it is can be produced in large quantities and are positioned in the whole fish consumer segment. There a limited resource for aquaculture development. The trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss and Salmo trutta), are others, such as the fish fillets segment, which require fish of a larger size or new species to eel (Anguilla anguilla) and sturgeon (Acipenser nacarii) are the main species produced at the pre- satisfy these consumer segments. sent time. The farming of freshwater fish is based on the perspective of assuring the sustainability of existing water resources using technologies with minimum water requirements. The farming of There is an extremely wide range of strategies with respect to diversification in farmed spe- carp (Cyprinus carpio) and tench (Tinca tinca) in integrated irrigation systems or tilapia (Oreochro- cies. Two different strategies are described below: mis spp.) in closed circuits is seen as an option for increasing freshwater fish production to satisfy • The development of species that are optimum in terms of animal husbandry technology for specific consumer segments. producing a large biomass of fish in short spaces of time. They must be species with rapid growth that individually reach large sizes (4 - 6 kg) or very large sizes (20 - 50 kg), and their TM GROUP SPECIES PRODUCTION anatomy must allow for their industrialisation and processing. Examples: meagre, dentex and Common mussel (Mytilus edulis) 368.631 amberjack Japanese oyster (Crassostrea gigas) 115.649 MOLLUSCS Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) 115.505 • The development of well-known species which are appreciated by consumers but scarce due Japanese clam (Ruditapes philippinarum) 34.002 to excessive exploitation and have demanding production systems in terms of animal husban- Rainbow trout (Onchorynchus mykiss) 195.545 dry technology, such that they do not allow for large-scale production in floating cages. The CONTINENTAL FISH Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) 146.424 ideal candidates are demersal species with sedentary habits or which are highly dependent Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) 70.049 on the sea bed, such as flatfish, red mullet and plaice Gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) 96.419 Sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) 57.004 MARINE FISH Eel (Anguilla anguilla) 6.370 3.4. New species Turbot (Psetta maxima) 9.246 Meagre (Argyrosomus regius) 3.855 With respect to the farming of new fish species, a series of requirements or premises must Table 1. Production figures (year 2009) for the main fish species cultivated in EuropeSource. ( FAO) exist to guarantee the feasibility of the production process, namely: 3.3. Diversification process • Good adaptation to captivity • Rapid growth in intensive culture Competition between companies should bring about an improvement in production tech- • A knowledge of the biological and animal husbandry technology requirements for developing niques and in the quality and diversity of the products offered to consumers: in sum, constant their culture investments in R+D+i. • Having a high market price and great commercial demand

However, consumer habits should be taken into account; the first decision taken by consu- The following tables show the new species being studied for incorporation into production, mers is whether they want to eat fish or not, as opposed to other foods such as meat. The diver- and their current status in terms of knowledge about them. sity in the offering of fish products means that eating fish allows for multiple cooking options, but consumers need to know about the diversity of farmed fish products on offer in order to be able to select fish which has been cultivated on farms.

26 27 3 Diversification of the farmed species Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

GROUP SPECIES FAMILY SPECIES LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE Ulva fascinata Sea bream (Pagellus bogaraveo) Advanced Ulva lactuca Ulva rigida Incipient Striped sea bream (Lithognathus mormyrus) Incipient. Captivity MACROALGAE Gracia correa Hypnea correa Sea bream (Diplodus sargus and Diplodus vulgaris) Average. Biology and Captivity Saccharina lattísima ESPARIDAE Sharpsnout sea bream (Puntazzo puntazzo) Average. Biology and Captivity White clam (Spisula solida) Slug clam (Venerupis pullastra) ncipient. Biology and production Dentex (Dentex dentex) Average. Biology and Captivity Fine clam (Ruditapes decussatus) Red porgy (Pagrus pagrus) Average. Biology and Captivity Razor clam (Ensis siliqua) 2 MOLLUSCS Razor clam (Solen marginatus) Average Red-banded sea bream (Pagrus aurita) Average. Biology and Captivity Razor clam (Ensis arcuatus) Sole (Solea senegalensis) Advanced. Biology and Captivity Sea snail (Haliotis tuberculata) Incipient3 SOLEAE Wedge sole (Dicologoglossa cuneata) Incipient. Biology and Captivity Octopus (Octopus vulgaris) Average. Biology and production in captivity4 Cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) PLEURONECTIDAE Flounder (Scophthalmus rhombus) Incipient. Biology and Captivity

CRUSTA- Mediterranean spider crac (Maja squinado) Incipient. Biology and production in captivity SCIAENIDAE Shi drum (Umbrina cirrosa) Average. Biology and Captivity CEANS Atlantic spider crab (Maja brachydactyla) TUNIDAE Red tuna (Thunnus thynnus) Advanced. Biology and Captivity Echinodermata Incipient. Study of biology and production in captivity OTHERS Sea cucumber (Paracentrotus lividus) SERRANIDAE Dusky grouper (Epinephelus marginatus) Incipent. Biology and Captivity Greater amberjack (Seriola dumerilli) Incipient. Biology and Captivity Table 2. New species under study I: macroalgae, molluscs, crustaceans and others. (Source Own elaboration) CARANGIDAE Longfin yellowtail Seriola( rivoliana) Incipient. Biology and Captivity GADIDAE Hake (Merluccius merluccius) Incipient. Biology and Captivity ACIPENSERIDAE Sturgeon (Acipenser nacarii) Advanced CICHLIDAE Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) Advanced CYPRINIDAE Tench (Tinca tinca) Advanced

Table 3. New species under study II: fish. (Source. Own elaboration)

3.5. Integrated sole (Solea senegalensis) culture

3.5.1. Introduction

The species most widely cultivated in the Atlantic region and northern Europe is the common sole (Solea solea), whereas in southern Europe, particularly in Spain and Portugal, the species with the greatest aquaculture potential is the Senegal sole (Solea senegalensis) (Dinis et al., 1999). The first studies conducted on the reproduction of this species were in the southern Atlantic Photograph 1: Detail of octopus (Octopus vulgaris) bred in tanks region of Portugal (Dinis, 1986; 1992) and Spain (Rodríguez, 1984), where it has traditionally © Francisco J. Espinós been farmed using the extensive method (Drake et al., 1984). This species is currently considered suitable for use in aquaculture diversification in Mediterranean countries, as shown by the many projects financed by public institutions (EU, JACUMAR, CICYT, Regional Authorities) and private 2. JACUMAR Project: Farming and management of Bivalve Molluscs. Reproduction and pathology in captivity. Natural enterprise. resources and treatment criteria. 3 JACUMAR Project: Farming and management of the sea snail Haliotis tuberculta. 4 At present the octopus and cuttlefish are the species with the largest number of projects in progress.

28 29 3 Diversification of the farmed species Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

Despite the efforts made in R+D and industrial testing, some critical problems in farming Other studies on reproductive behaviour have shown the great influence of sexual mating have not yet been solved, mainly related to pathologies and reproduction. Such issues limit the patterns and the action of pheromones on the fertilising process in the tank. In addition, it has development of a sustainable and economically profitable aquaculture for this species. also been observed that food exerts an influence, with better egg laying results being obtained in reproducing fish fed with natural food (fish, mussel, polychaete worms) than in fish fed with Recent advances in R+D have given rise to solutions in preventing and treating pathologies commercial feed. and in controlling reproduction in captivity, for which reason the imminent development of aquaculture for this species is now envisaged as a realistic possibility. Information is available about the spawning characteristics of wild reproductive fish. Under normal conditions of light and temperature, and with a gender ratio of 1:1 or 2:1 (male: female), 3.5.2. Reproduction two spawning periods are described, the main one in the spring (February-June), at temperatures of between 13 - 23 °C and a less important one in the autumn (October-November). Average Sole cultivation is based on the stabling of “wild” fish (obtained from the sea) for forming fertility is around 28,000 during each spawning session and for each kg of female body weight, batches of fish that reproduce, generating spontaneous fertilised spawning and F1 generation lar- with a total annual production of 1,500,000 eggs per kg of female body weight (Anguis and Caña- vae. However, these cultivated fish (F1 generation) have reproductive problems when they reach vate, 2005). Through the correct handling of the photoperiod and temperature a prolonged and adulthood, and this leads to the absence of fertilised eggs. The origin of these problems is in the abundant production of natural spawning can be obtained (Anguis and Cañavate, 2005; Cañavate incipient domestication of the species and in particular, the lack of basic knowledge about their et al., 2006). reproductive physiology. This problem is having a negative effect on the feasibility and economic profitability of their culture on an industrial scale, as it prevents the controlled production of eggs 3.5.3. Larval culture and larvae, thereby meaning the end of the life cycle of this species in captivity. The techniques for larval culture of this species are well known, thanks to the results of Recent research has provided a description of the reproductive physiology in captivity and diverse research studies (Cañavate and Fernández-Díaz, 1999; Cañavate et al., 2006; Dinis et al., environmental handling protocols have been implemented (photoperiod and temperature) and 1999). The tanks used have a variable capacity (0.2 – 0.5 – 1 - 2 cu. m.) and the larval densities hormone treatments, with promising results in stimulating ovulation in the females, spermiation in are between 30 - 100 larvae/litre. For larval feeding, rotifers and microalgae are used (days 3 - 9 males and an increase in the production of eggs. However, in all cases, the eggs are not viable and after hatching), continuing with Artemia until they are 40 - 60 days old. The survival rate during to date, no F2 larvae have been obtained, i.e. larvae from reproducing farmed fish (Agulleiroet al., this phase is very high, around 70 - 80%. 2006; Garcia-López et al., 2006, 2007; Guzmán et al., 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011). The launch of hydrolysed fish flour feed was a great step forward in weaning this species. Under optimum handling conditions, the population of newly-hatched Senegal soles reaches an average weight of 1.5g after 90 days of farming, with survival rates of 80%.

3.5.4. Fattening

Fattening the newly-hatched Senegal soles was done in tanks with medium and large capacities (10 - 50 cu. m) and in ponds (1,000 sq. m.) and coastal lagoons. The initial population density was between 2,000 – 5,000 specimens /cu. m. There were fed with commercial feed with a growth rate of approximately 45g during the first year and up to 450g during the second year of farming.

3.6. Octopus (Octopus vulgaris) culture

The common octopus (Octopus vulgaris) is a cephalopod with enormous potential in marine aquaculture, characterised in that it has high commercial demand and a high market price. Photograph 2: Adult soles (Solea senegalensis) in reproduction tanks (left) and female in a state of gonadal maturation (right), seen externally through her swollen abdomen

30 31 3 Diversification of the farmed species Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

During the past 10 years different Spanish research centres have undertaken studies into Obtaining a commercial feed for fattening is another obstacle in the commercial develo- aquaculture for this species through different regional and national lines of public finance. These pment of this species. Aspects such as stability, texture, acceptability and formulation, based on include National Mariculture Plans in which research teams from different Regions have taken part studies of the composition of nutrients in the tissues and in the digestive physiology of octopuses in a coordinated fashion. are being investigated through experimental diets.

Although this species adapts well to captivity and shows rapid growth in certain conditions, its Fattening tests have been conducted under different conditions in tanks and cages, taking industrial development is limited by the lack of mass commercial production in juvenile breeding biological, economic and environmental aspects into account. Batches of homogeneous indivi- sites, and the absence of a specific commercial feed to cover the nutritional needs of this species. duals at initial loads of 10 k/cu.m., fattened under optimum environmental conditions (from 15 to 24º C and salinity of 30 to 35 ppm) fed with fresh prey (lobster and crab) can reach loads of up Other aspects such as reproduction pose no problem, since high quality, viable spawning is to 60 k/cu.m. over a period that depends, above all, on the initial size of the specimens and the achieved using wild octopuses reared in captivity. temperature.

Factors such as the number of production cycles per year, investment in equipment, initial cost of the juveniles, type and quantity of the feed, initial size dispersion, gonadal maturation, design of the fattening structures, temperature and salinity condition survival and economic profitability.

3.7. Recommendations • The selection of new species that can be produced in large quantities by aquaculture with which to complete the varied offer of fish for consumption must be focused on searching for species that respond to consumer requirements in terms of what consumers expect “fish- based” food to be: healthy, safe, with a stable supply, appropriate, constant price and easy and economical to produce in terms of animal husbandry technology • The public and private sectors must cooperate in developing aquaculture for new species through putting up finance and executing basic and applied research R+D projects in which private companies from the aquaculture sector taken an active part • The farming of sole in land facilities is a good alternative for Mediterranean aquaculture in coastal zones where it is not possible to install floating cages (mainly sea bass and gilthead sea bream), providing that the availability of land makes this possible • The farming of octopus and sole should be carried out in areas where there is sea water at a temperature within the optimum range. If the quality of the water is appropriate, zones with coastal wells supplied with sea water are usually suitable, since they have previously been Photograph 3: Octopus eggs (Octopus vulgaris) about to hatch, in which the paralar- “filtered” naturally and tempered with respect to coastal waters, which in the case of the Mediterranean, may reach excessively high temperatures during the summer months vae can be seen © José Luis Muñoz

However, despite all the efforts applied, the production of juveniles was impossible due to none of the paralavae surviving after 40-60 days of farming, at which time they tend to be bento- nic and feed off natural prey (enriched Artemia, crustacean zoeas, etc.). Biochemical and physiological studies of the paralarlvae and potential prey are in progress, to solve this problem.

32 33 Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

4. Diversification of culture density

4.1. Background

Production density is defined as the quantity of biomass (expressed in weight or number of fish / eggs) per surface unit or production volume. It is common for the units used to express it to vary, depending on the production phase and the species in question. The following are some of the most widely used: • Eggs/l • Fish/l • g/l • Fish/cu. m • Kg/cu. m • Kg/sq. m By definition, density is a very dynamic parameter, since the biomass varies, depending on the growth of the fish and mortality, classifications, etc. Fluctuations may also take place in volume, due to deformations in the tops of the cages etc. In addition, the fish do not occupy the whole space available in the production unit (tank, cage, pond, etc.) (Juell and Fosseidengen, 2004; Turnbull et al., 2004). For this reason in commercial facilities, density is usually expressed as the initial or final density, in other words, the particle density on stabling the fish in the production unit or the density obtained after they have reached a size that enables them to pass on to the next production phase. Instantaneous density is estimated using mathematical models that calculate the daily growth of the fish and take their mortality into account. To correct potential deviations, fish samples are taken at certain times during the production cycle and their mean size is calculated. Then the total biomass and density are calculated, through extrapolation.

Density is often used as an indicator of production intensity and is an important parameter as regards the operation of the facility (internal aspect) and because it can contribute to recor- ding problems in the surrounding environment, such as excess load on the receiving medium, the resulting eutrophication or the eventual propagation of pathological episodes.

Hence, density must be taken into account as a key factor when considering the production of a species, in view of its profound effect on the growth, survival and behaviour of the fish (Van de Nieuwegiessen et al., 2006), and with respect to its status as a factor with the potential to trigger harmful environmental and/or health-related effects which are usually serious and difficult to control, once initiated.

For this reason, based on the current state of knowledge and particularly following recent viral episodes in highly saturated grouped culture systems, the density factor is now not just an internal organisational factor but a matter of great concern for Administrations as an indicator of epizootic and environmental risk, above and beyond public interest in animal welfare.

35 4 Diversification of culture density Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

4.2. Justification 4.3. Development

Fish develop in a three-dimensional environment, and so determining the minimum space The Mediterranean marine aquaculture industry produces a wide range of species in facili- required by them to grow and express their entire behaviour spectrum is a much more complex ties designed for operating with different densities, depending on the production cycle phase and task than with land animals. Although it is true that considerable differences exist between species culture intensity. in terms of space requirements and tolerance to high production densities, generally speaking, industry tends to produce the maximum density that is permitted by the circumstances (production As a general rule, culture density must be established based on the biological and conduct- systems, ability to maintain the water quality, environmental conditions, production cycle phases, related needs of the fish, considering the prevailing environmental conditions and the potential restrictions imposed by legislation, insurance policies, certifications, etc.) in order to maximise pro- implications that a determined density could have on the health and wellbeing of the animals. ductivity. Consequently, it should be considered that tolerance to an increase in density depends Therefore, the production system used must be considered, since the ability of the producer to on the species and also on the production phase and environmental conditions. feed the fish correctly and maintain optimum water quality is dependent on that system.

The effects associated with high production densities (reduced growth, deficient nutritional Although there is no European legislative framework that regulates maximum densities in status, increase in the conversion rate, fin erosion, mortality, alterations in swimming patterns, etc.) conventional production, the EU has recently published a series of provisions on ecological aqua- have their origin in alterations in the behaviour of the fish (increase in competition, aggression, culture (European Council regulations EC 834/2007, EC 889/2008 and EC 710/2009), which cannibalism, etc.) and the deterioration in water quality (Ellis et al., 2001). include the EU criteria for the certification of ecological products through the EU seal. In addition, it establishes the limits for other variables and processes involved in aquaculture production, such Apart from epizootic and environmental risks, in general, high density can be considered a as discharging nutrients into the environment, origin of raw materials used in diets, handling of potential source of stress, with negative effects on the growth rate and survival and feeding rates the fish (water quality, etc.), origin of the reproductive fish, selection of sites, implantation of bio- (Sammouth et al., 2009). Nonetheless, it is sometimes possible to reduce these effects by offsetting sanitary management systems, restriction of pharmaceutical treatments, etc. (IFOAM EU Group, the increase in density with an adjustment of other production variables (dissolved oxygen con- 2010). This new legislation is added to the legislation implemented by the national and regional centration, suspended solids level, concentration of ammonium and other dissolved substances, authorities of certain member states (Denmark, France, Spain, etc.). feeding, bio-incrustations in nets, predators, etc.). This strategy is based on the cumulative effect of stress, i.e., an increase in stress levels that leads to a high density is counteracted by a reduction in However, the internal legislation of the main producing states tend to include more and stress, which has its origin in other production variables. In this way, production densities can be more often the adequate control of density among the parameters to be evaluated, in zoning increased to achieve production outputs that would otherwise not be possible. studies and with respect to the specific conditions of the particular authorisations to carry out the activity. Thus, the Norwegian Food Safety Act of establishes “Before granting an authorisation, Due to the fact that the Mediterranean species farmed usually show gregarious conducts, it an evaluation must be made of the risk of spreading disease in the aquaculture facility and in the is important to consider that production density may also have minimum limits. In fact, conditions environment. To make this evaluation, the following relevant aspects must be taken into account: of health, wellbeing and productivity are negatively affected below certain density levels (Turnbull, distance from water bodies and other aquaculture facilities, species farmed, production system 2010). and production volume”. As a result, the Norwegian legislation of 2004 governing the granting of licences establishes a maximum quantity of biomass per licence or authorisation of the activity This chapter deals with the main factors that should be considered by producers when (e.g.: “Marine aquaculture of species for human consumption: maximum 780 t., except in the nor- establishing the production densities with which they operate, with the objective of proposing thern areas of Troms and Finnmmark, where the maximum limit is 900 t. recommendations that will permit the future development and diversification of the industry.

36 37 4 Diversification of culture density Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

On the other hand, there are also ecological or sustainable production guidelines implemen- • Development of pathologies and increase in their scope and speed of transmission ted by the EU, NGOs and other organisations such as ecological producer associations, etc. which • Inability of the fish to withstand situations of stress. The origin of the stress may be due to can be applied by companies from the sector through certification processes. a wide variety of factors, from extreme temperatures to exposure to contaminants, phyto- planktonic blooms or the effects of a storm During recent years, the study and safeguarding of the welfare of the fish farmed in aqua- The magnitudes of the losses arising from episodes of this type are usually related directly culture facilities has become an issue of great significance for the aquaculture industry, not only with the density of production at the time of the incident, for which reason the maximum density because it has to do with the perception of consumers, the marketing strategy and acceptance admitted is of vital importance for insurance companies and they may reserve the right to change of the products, but also due to its effect on efficiency, quality and production size (Broom, 1998; the specific conditions of the policies in the event that significant increases take place in produc- Southgate and Wall, 2001; FSBI, 2002; Ashley, 2007). Of all the factors that affect the wellbeing of tion densities within a facility. the fish, density is one of the most important, especially in intensive production facilities in which high densities are used to maximise productivity. Organisations such as the British Farm Animal 4.4. Conclusion Welfare Council have implemented recommendations for guaranteeing the welfare of fish. FAWC defines five needs or basic “liberties” for the animals (FAWC http://www.fawc.org.uk/freedoms. Production density may have effects on the health and development of the fish, due to the htm), which include the liberty to express a normal conduct, for which purpose the fish must have consequences they have on their social interaction and water quality. However, there are many sufficient space in the production facilities. Furthermore, in its report of recommendations for the more parameters affecting the state of health and development of the fish and these vary depen- welfare of fish issued in 1996, FAWC affirms that fish need sufficient space to express the greater ding on each species: biotic and abiotic factors, behaviour-related interactions, diets and feeding part of their normal conduct with the least possible level of discomfort, stress and fear (FAWC, strategies, handling, genetic selection, impact of pathologies and measures for controlling patholo- 1996). gies etc. (Panel on Animal Health and Welfare 2008). All these elements combine in different ways, depending on the location of the production facilities and in addition, vary over time, such that The gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), species which are the maximum densities recommended for one specific site may not be valid for other production mostly farmed by the Mediterranean marine aquaculture industry, show symptoms of a deterio- zones. ration in their wellbeing at high densities (Montero et al., 1999; Vazzana et al., 2002; Turnbull et al. 2004). However, there are other variables which have a significant effect on the wellbeing of the On one hand, the effects of aquaculture activities on the environment in which they are fish, for which reason studies on the relationship between density and wellbeing become more carried out depend largely on the degree of production intensity, and the capacity of the en- complicated, on considering other factors such as the availability of food (Robel and Fisher, 1999; vironment to absorb these effects differs considerably, depending on the geographical zone in Turnbull et al., 2004), water quality (Ellis et al., 2002; Turnbull et al., 2004) and the environmental question. Therefore, it appears logical for optimum production densities to be established for conditions defining the load capacity of the geographical area where the aquaculture activity is each site, based on local studies on the load capacity, applying an ecosystemic approach defined carried out (climate, hydrodynamics, bathymetry, etc.). Consequently, production density alone by the FAO (FAO, 2006-2011). Safeguarding the wellbeing of the fish also requires production cannot be used as an indicator for measuring or controlling animal welfare (Turnbull et al., 2004). densities to guarantee the normal development of the physiological and behaviour needs of the fish. Production density therefore emphasises the importance of the differences between species Insurance policies are another element which places restrictions on production density. The and the existence of a complex mesh of interrelated factors that affect the welfare of the fish following are some of the variables used by insurance companies to calculate the maximum ad- (Ashley, 2007). missible densities applied by the insured facility: 4.5. Case study. Production densities during the fattening phase in the ecolo- • Species • Size of the fish (depending on the production phase) gical production of gilthead sea bream and sea bass in Mediterranean aquaculture • Type of facility facilities The FAO argues in its technical publication Aquaculture Insurance Industry Risk Analysis During the past decade, European aquaculture has made important efforts with respect to Processes (Secretan 2008) that density is a vital factor for insurance companies over which strict developing a philosophy which highlights aspects such as: control must be maintained, given that an increase in production density involves an increase in • Respect for the environment the risk to which the facility is exposed. According to the FAO, when the density is increased, there • The welfare of the fish is an increase in the following risks:

38 39 4 Diversification of culture density Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

• Increase in the quality and added-value of aquaculture products • Product differentiation and the opening of new markets • Improved perception and acceptance of aquaculture products by consumers In turn, European consumers require food of the highest quality and have developed an important awareness of the need for environmental protection.

All the foregoing has assisted the development of ecological European aquaculture, the growth of which has been possible thanks to the creation of a legislative framework in which, among other aspects, maximum production densities are established in the operations of certified establishments. Ecological production is basically regulated by: Photograph 4: Ecological production facility of Grupo Culmarex Piscifactoría de Aguadulce (left) and ecological gilthead sea bream (right) farmed with a production density of 15Kg / cu. m. © Grupo Culmarex • Community legislation (European Council regulations (EC) 834/2007, (EC) 889/2008 and (EC) 710/2009 and amendments thereto) • Member state legislation Kefalonia Fisheries (Greece) • Legislation established by private organisations The company Kefalonia Fisheries has production centres on the Island of Cephalonia. It The Mediterranean fish-farming industry has also been incorporated into the development breeds and fattens conventional (1,260 t/year) and ecological (300 t/year) gilthead sea bream and of this market sector, in such a way that consumers now have available ecological gilthead sea sea bass (2011 figures). The company is certified by Natruland e.V (pursuant to the Naturland bream and sea bass, marketed as products with high added value. e.V. standard) and by BIO Hellas Institute (based on the European standard) for the production, This section describes the experiences of three Mediterranean producers of ecological handling and marketing of ecological gilthead sea bream and sea bass. gilthead sea bream and sea bass: Although the European standard allows densities of 15 Kg/cu. m., Kefalonia Fisheries operates Grupo Culmarex (Spain) with a density of 10 Kg/cu. m. which is the limit set by the Naturland e.V. standard.

The Culmarex business group carried out its gilthead sea bream and sea bass hatchery and nursery activities in seven farms scattered throughout the Mediterranean region. One of the group companies, Piscifactoría de Aguadulce (PIAGUA) is certified as a producer of ecological gilthead sea bream and sea bass (pursuant to European legislation) by the General Directorate of Industry and Agricultural Food Quality of the Department of Agriculture and Fisheries of the Government of the Region of Andalusia. According to 2011 figures, 2011, PIAGUA produces 205t/year of ecological gilthead sea bream and sea bass and 1,500t/year of conventional gilthead sea bream and sea bass.

In line with the limits established by European legislation, PIAGUA’s ecological production is carried out with a density of 15Kg/cu. m.

In turn, Culmarex, the company group responsible for packaging and marketing the ecological gilthead sea bream and sea bass, is certified (in accordance with European legislation) by the Ecological Agriculture Department of the Region of Murcia. Photograph 5: Aerial view of the Kefalonia Fisheries ecological production facility Fte .Google Earth ®

40 41 4 Diversification of culture density Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

Galaxidi Marine Farm (Greece) 4.6. Recommendations

The company Galaxidi Marine Farm has production centres on the northern coast of the In the production densities field, the future development of the Mediterranean aquaculture Corinthian Gulf. Its principal activity is the breeding and fattening of conventional (4,000 t/year) industry requires optimisation with respect to breeding and fattening both traditional species and and ecological (380 t/year) gilthead sea bream and sea bass (2011 figures). It is certified by BIO emerging ones, in order to achieve a balance between the activity’s profitability and sustainability. Hellas Institute (pursuant to the European standard) for the production, handling and marketing To achieve this, in-depth studies on the effects of density and its impact on animal welfare must be of ecological gilthead sea bream and sea bass. conducted under industrial production conditions, in view of their repercussion on productivity and the limited knowledge that exists about this complex issue. Although the European standard allows densities of 15 Kg/cu. m., Galaxidi Marine Farm operates with densities of 12 Kg/cu. m. Coastal zoning activities with a view to identifying appropriate areas for the development of aquaculture activity carried out by the competent authorities in the Mediterranean region must promote the performing of local load capacity studies, applying an ecosystem-based approach and the updating of such studies. This will facilitate the calculation of maximum densities for each species, depending on the production system used and the phases of the production cycle covered by each facility.

Photograph 5: Galaxidi Marine Farm ecological production facility (left) and feeding platform (right)

According to their collaborating companies the gilthead sea bream and sea bass have been well accepted in the market, to the point that in certain countries, in which considerable development has recorded in sustainability policies (e.g., Germany), there is high demand for ecological fish. However, since it is more expensive than gilthead sea bream and sea bass produced in conventional facilities (particularly in processed products such as fillets, in which production costs are even higher), production volumes are still small.

Kefalonia Fisheries considers that the ecological gilthead sea bream and sea bass market are not expected to record important growths, due to the effects of the international economic crisis. For its part, Galaxidi Marine Farm considers that the growth of the ecological aquaculture products market will be slow, given that today, supply is in excess of demand. Lastly, those responsible for the gilthead sea bream and sea bass line in Grupo Culmarex indicate that based on the market evolution, the maximum ecological production share of the group will amount to 10% of its conventional production.

42 43 Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

5. Diversification of the production systems

Aquaculture production systems can be classified based on different criteria such as: water salinity, organism farmed, farming phases, degree of human intervention required, culture density and the location of the facilities.

As with any other type of production, basic systems exist, depending on the production intensity and its technological development.

Depending on the classification criteria selected, the following criteria are established: (See Figure 6) • Production system types based on the saline tolerance of the species • Production system types based on organism farmed • Production system types based on the phases of development of the species • Production system types based on the culture density • Production system types based on the farm location • Production system types based on the use of water Consequently, depending on the technological development available, together with the production goals and site, a specific production system will be used which will determine the facility.

This chapter deals with production systems based on the use of water, in other words, open or closed systems. A description of other production systems is given in Chapter 7: diversification of the production cycle.

5.2. Production system types based on the saline tolerance of the species

This is the simplest classification type, with two productive systems existing depending on the water salinity and species farmed: • Land-based aquaculture. The farming of freshwater species such as trout and carp • Marine aquaculture. The farming of marine species such as gilthead sea bream and sea bass

5.3. Production system types based on the organism farmed

The following production systems can be established, depending on the culture development phase: • Algaculture: algae farming • Shellfish culture: mollusc farming. This system includes mussel farming and oyster farming • Carcinoculture: the farming of crustaceans. In the case of freshwater crayfish, this activity is known as astaciculture • Pisciculture: fish farming. In the case of farming salmon, this activity is known as salmon culture, in the case of carp, carp farming and in the case of eels, eel farming

45 5 Diversification of the production systems Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

5.4. Production system types based on the development phases of the species 5.6. Production systems based on culture location.

Depending on the phase of the species farmed, the following types of production systems The following types can be established: exist: • Land farming with breeding and/or fattening units on land. Water pumping systems must • Integrated production: this includes all the development phases of the species in one facility, i.e., be installed in the hatchery and in the tanks and the fattening ponds or lagoons, either from reproduction, breeding and fattening rivers, underground water sources or the sea, and discharge pipes must be installed for the • Fattening: the production of adults from juveniles used water to return • Hatchery: the reproduction of adult individuals, from fertilisation and incubation to larval de- • Tideland farming with facilities located in tidelands on the coast, or submerged at shallow velopment or young fish depths in protected areas. In both cases, the areas are highly productive and rich in phyto- • Pre-fattening: the production of juveniles from larvae or young fish plankton. The water is renewed and food provided through the tidal movements and waves. This type of farming is almost exclusively limited to the production of macroalgae or filter- 5.5. Production system types based on culture density feeding bivalve molluscs • Marine farming, with facilities installed in coastal areas or in the sea, thereby allowing a much The intensification of production systems is subordinated to the availability of land and the greater volume of water to be used than that which they occupy. This leads to a higher pro- production methods, including aspects such as water, feeding and labour. duction by volume unit. Most of these types of facilities use a floating system, which means that different types of structures are employed for this type of farming, as in the case of mus- Intensification depends on the density (kg / cu. m. or kg / sq. m.), such that depending on the sel rafts, nurseries, long-lines and cages culture density, the systems are classified into: ooMussel rafts are floating structures used for farming mussels on ropes and oysters in baskets or cemented containers. They are installed in estuaries with sufficient depth • Extensive farming: This type has a density of 0.01 – 0.1 kg / cu. m. and is characterised by the and widely used in Galicia, Andalusia and the Region of Valencia capture or introduction of juveniles into the farming activity and the final removal of the adult ooNurseries, which are typical of the Ebro Delta (Catalonia), are formed by wooden fish once fattened. Such types of farming require favourable areas in which productivity is stakes driven into the bottom which form a lattice-type structure on the surface with natural, such as coastal lagoons, salt lagoons or marshlands. In some cases, the area must be wooden cross pieces to which the farming structures are moored specially prepared in advance ooLong-lines consist of a longitudinal linear support on or in the water, to which the far- • Semi-extensive farming: Farming with a culture density of between 0.5 - 1 kg / cu. m. ming structures are moored, such as ropes, baskets, capturing elements, etc. They have • Semi-intensive farming: When the density is between 1 - 5 kg / cu. m. floating systems and anchoring systems and are used in Galicia, Andalusia, Catalonia • Intensive farming: characterised by a density of 10 - 25 kg / cu. m., this type of farming has a and the Region of Valencia higher demand for food, greater oxygen consumption and a greater accumulation of waste ooCages are totally or partially submerged enclosures, far from the coast, through which the and toxic metabolites. Unlike extensive farming, this type requires a greater degree of human water passes and inside which the fish are stabled. They are in the shape of a rectangular, hexa- intervention, as it needs the appropriate technical facilities, highly-qualified staff and control gonal or circular polygon and have floating structures (buoys) and anchoring systems (me- over all the phases and aspects of the farming activity such as feeding, regulation of water tres of cable).Their structure is completed by nets to prevent problems with bird predators. parameters and the prevention of potential pathologies The hydrodynamic, bathymetric and current characteristics should permit the correct • Super-intensive farming: when the culture density is 100 kg / cu. m. or higher oxygenation of the water, the elimination of excretion products and prevent the nets As a rule, the greater the culture density intensification, the greater the technological demand, from becoming deformed which leads to higher investment.

46 47 5 Diversification of the production systems Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

Continental Water salinity Marine Algaculture

Shellfish farming Organism farmed One example of this type of facility is the extensive system which uses the natural medium Crustacean farming to obtain production. We should not make the mistake of thinking that this type of facility cannot produce high quantities, due to not having complex technology, since from the classification stan- Integrated production Fish farming dpoint, a facility of floating cages in the sea for fattening gilthead sea bream would be considered an open circuit system. Fattening PRODUCTION Phase of development SYSTEMS Other examples of open-circuit facilities with large productions are mussel rafts, long-lines Hatchery and other sea structures. Extensive Nursery Semi-extensive

Culture density Semi-intensive

Intensive NATURAL WATER NATURAL WATER FACILITY On land FLOW FLOW Super-intensive Location On tideland

In the sea

Figure 6. Diagram summarising the different aquaculture production systems. (Source: Own elaboration)

5.7. Types of facilities, based on the use of the water: open and closed circuits FACILITY

Many aquaculture production systems exist. Depending on the classification of reference, a final classification can be established based on the use of the water. Figure 7. Diagram of potential alternatives for an open circuit (Source. Own elaboration) The water may be supplied continually or on the contrary, it may be recirculated and in- corporate higher volumes every so often. Consequently, closed circuits exist, which require the recirculation of water and the incorporation of extra volume when necessary, or open circuits, in In sum, as shown in the above figure, an open-circuit system may be one that is located in a which the water is used for fattening the species and is then returned to the medium after being water course (sea, river, lagoon…) or a facility located near a water source or well in which the treated. water is suctioned from the water source or well, passes through the facility and is then returned to the medium after being treated. 5.7.1. Open circuit • Benefits: ooGreater advantage can be taken of the natural environment in which the facility is In this type of circuit the water is not reused as a medium for developing the fish, and there located is a constant supply of water to the facility. In this type of facility, the production medium is not ooThe species develop in their natural habitat controlled and it is not possible to maintain optimum conditions for production as the medium ooLess investment cannot be controlled. ooLess use of technology ooLess energy consumption

48 49 5 Diversification of the production systems Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

• Disadvantages: 5.7.3. Relationship between production system and type of circuit ooThe aquatic medium cannot be controlled ooIt is impossible to provide the best conditions of temperature, pH and conductivity all The following table shows the different production systems and types of circuits, depending the year round, since they depend on the climate on whether or not the water is recirculated. ooGreater use of water ooGreater risk of contamination / disease in the event of potential tipping into the water Classification system Production system Type of circuit course Land-based Water salinity Open/closed Marine 5.7.2. Closed circuit Algaculture Open/closed These are facilities in which practically all the water in them is recirculated, incorporating the Shellfish culture Organism farmed Open necessary treatment processes for maintaining the appropriate levels of quality. This way, water is Crustacean culture only incorporated when its quality is reduced or in the case of a leak and only a maximum of 20% Pisciculture Open/closed of the total water volume is incorporated. Integrated production The basic objectives are: Fattening Phase of development Open/closed • To control the medium. This is essential in processes such as handling batches of reproductive Hatchery fish during the process of reproduction, hatching, larval systems, nurseries and fattening of Nursery young fish Extensive • To provide the best conditions for growth and development. For instance, keeping the water Open Semi-extensive at the ideal temperature for each species all the year round, to obtain maximum growth Culture density Semi-intensive Open/closed A typical example of a facility that functions with a closed circuit is a hatchery, which has the Super-intensive mission of producing young fish. In this case, the facility is located on land for producing young fish from marine or freshwater species, and for this purpose a closed circuit is necessary in which all Land Open/closed the parameters for producing those young fish can be controlled. Location Tidelands Open • Benefits: Sea ooThe aquatic medium can be controlled at all times Table 4. Relationship between production system and type of circuit (Source: Own elaboration using data taken from Acuicultura ooIt provides optimum temperature conditions for production (Aguaculture) I and II, Espinós F. J 2009) ooHigh production per cu. m. of facility ooLess water is used 5.8. Case study: Closed circuit ooConcentration of waste for subsequent evaluation ooControl of physical, chemical and biological parameters affecting production The company Valenciana de Acuicultura, S.A. (VASA), which was set up in 1984, directed all ooContinued growth curve during the year its initial efforts at developing a new system for farming fish species using water-recirculation tech- ooUnrestricted location of the farm without competing with protected species or tourist niques. Its initial interest was focused on the eel, since this product is widely consumed in Valencia zones and in growing demand in Europe. However, the technology they wanted to develop had to allow ooLess risk of losses for subsequent adaptation to other species of commercial interest. • Disadvantages: ooThis system requires high technological development In February 1986 the first eels were introduced into the facility, whose annual production ca- ooGreater energy costs pacity was 100 t., which, in principle, was sufficient to cater for the domestic market and following ooGreater initial outlay successive extensions, they now produce 400 t. per year and have a Drinking Water Treatment Plant for treating the water in the facility.

50 51 5 Diversification of the production systems Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

5.8.1. Operation of the facility 5.8.2. Equipment and installations

The closed circuit allows 99% of the process water to be reused. After passing through the A facility operating with a closed circuit must take into account a series of components which, fattening tanks, this water is submitted to biological treatment to eliminate the toxic metabolites for practical purposes, are considered as elements of a closed circuit system. (nitrites, ammonium, etc.) and then, after adding oxygen, it is reintroduced into the production circuit. During the whole process, physical and chemical parameters such as temperature, oxygen, The VASA facilities contain the following elements: pH, alkaline reserve, etc. are monitored regularly to ensure the correct functioning of the system • A water supply system and good health of the fish. • Temperature control system • A reserve tank The main benefits offered by this technology are: • Recirculation pumps • Better control of the parameters intervening in the production system • Biofilters • Total isolation of external factors (diseases,…) • Fattening tanks • Complete lack of dependence on environmental conditions, enabling it to be installed in any • Solids separator location • Oxygen installation • Alarm systems As for its disadvantages, although they are few, we should mention the advanced technology required for its operation and the important initial outlay that is necessary.

CO2 BIOFILTER BIOFILTER PUMPS

AIR Denitrification

Photograph 6: Vertical impulsion pumps (left) and production room with RESERVE TANK tanks and pipes line (right) © Rodolfo Barrera

FISH PUMPS 5.9. Recommendations WATER OXYGEN HEAT • The principal step in establishing the production system that is best adapted is to determine pH the production objectives, i.e., the species to be farmed, estimated production and life stage to be produced • The sustainability of the process depends on the location, availability of the water, commu- SOLIDS SEPARA- nication routes and other environmental factors which determine the choice of one system FISH TANKS WATER SOLIDS TOR or another • The sustainability of the closed circuit lies in greater production and reuse of water, but the electrical consumption is much higher than in an open circuit. • The sustainability of an open circuit lies in the lower maintenance costs, since gravity-based or tidal management systems are used. The electrical consumption in water impulsion is minimal, Figure 8. Diagram of closed circuit in VASA (Source: Own elaboration) but on the other hand, lower productions are obtained

52 53 Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

6. Diversification in the size of the facilities

6.1. Introduction

The Mediterranean Sea basin is practically closed, and its major source of water is the constant flow of surface water from the Atlantic Ocean. It is estimated that it would take one century for the total volume of water from the Mediterranean to be completely renovated through the Strait of, with a depth of 300m.

This limited water flow and the high rate of evaporation means that the Mediterranean contains more salt than the Atlantic Ocean. Its surface temperature varies from an average minimum temperature of 10º C in winter in the Adriatic to a maximum of 28–30° C on the south-east shores. It is not possible to farm certain species of consolidated scaled fish within this range of temperatures, such as the salmon and turbot.

The classifications traditionally applied to aquaculture farming facilities are closely related to the habitat in which the production activity is to be carried out, the species to be farmed and the culture density (this parameter is very much related to biomass and the number of individuals per cage/tank), and based on these variables, the size of the aquaculture facility that is most suitable can be defined.

The size of an aquaculture facility is closely related to production costs, for which reason it is of vital importance to ensure the correct size of the facility, depending on the required objectives, to avoid incurring extra expenses apart from production costs.

In the Mediterranean region, most of the aquaculture activity is carried out in marine areas, but there are also many heterogeneous land-based and tideland facilities of major importance.

6.2. Justification

The facilities may have different sizes, with large marine facilities occupying a considerable extension of public marine surface area, and on the other hand, small family concerns or simply repopulation facilities.

From the standpoint of sustainability, the size of the facility may be a key factor. It is well known that the larger the facility, the greater the demand for human and energy resources, which must be offset by productive sustainability to allow the facility to provide sufficient resources to support demand. In short, at present many different sized facilities exist in the market and their final sustainability will depend mainly on that size being appropriate for what was originally planned in that facility.

55 6 Diversification in the size of the facilities Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

Facility size Concession size Small <1,000 sq. m. 6.3. Land-based facilities Medium 1,000 – 5,000 sq. m. Large > 5,000 sq. m. These are usually facilities for breeding / fattening freshwater species, but they may also include also breeding / fattening units for saltwater species. Table 6. Size of tideland aquaculture facilities by administrative concessions (Source: Own elaboration)

Freshwater aquaculture with cages in the Mediterranean region is mostly carried out in Egypt, Although the facilities are large, there are two trends; cooperative societies such as those where the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) are profound in the Po Delta (Italy) and the private operation of small administrative concessions, as duced in cages in the Nile Delta. The production of these species in cages has undergone a con- occurs in the Ebro Delta. siderable increase during the past decade, rising from 1977 tons in 1995 to 32,062 tons in 2003. 6.5. Marine facilities The rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and common carp (Cyprinus carpio) are also farmed to a lesser extent in freshwater, using cages, ponds or reservoir in Italy, Turkey, Cyprus, and The marine facilities in the Mediterranean region are floating cages for fattening gilthead sea the Syrian Arab Republic. bream (Sparus aurata), sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and meagre (Argyrosomus regius), but facilities also exist for fattening red tuna (Thunnus thvnnus) (in Murcia and Malta). Experimental facilities The most widely used farming methods in land-based aquaculture are intensive or extensive also exist with cages on the sea bed for testing new species such as sole (Solea senegalensis) and tanks, either for breeding or fattening freshwater species, and for farming fry belonging to marine octopus (Octopus vulgaris). species. Depending on the number of cages in the Mediterranean aquaculture facilities, they can be The approximate size of the facilities on land varies considerable and depends on the pro- classified in the following ways: duction objectives of the company, but one example would be the size of the facilities used for producing trout, as shown in the following table: Facility size Nº of cages Production (in t) Small 12 - 24 400 – 1,000 Facility size Production (in t) Medium 24 - 48 1,000 – 2,000 Small < 500 Large > 48 > 2,000 Medium 500 – 1,500 Large > 1,500 Table 7. Size of marine aquaculture facilities based on the number of cages (Source: Own elaboration)

Table 5. Size of land-based facilities for farming trout based on the production figures

6.4. Tideland facilities The Mediterranean coast has a large variety of farming sites, including protected and open sites. For that reason, different types of cages are used, from simple ones with wooden frames and Most tideland facilities in the Mediterranean are dedicated to the farming or collecting of barrel-type structures (Egypt) to more modern facilities with sophisticated technologies such as molluscs, such as the Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas), Japanese clam (Ruditapes philippinarum) and steel platforms or submersible steel cages with integrated feeding systems (Murcia, Catalonia and fine clam (Tapes decussatus) and even echinoderms such as the common sea urchin (Paracentrotus Greece). Nonetheless, the floating cages most widely used are made of high-density polyethylene lividus) or the black sea urchin (Arbacia lixula). (HDPE) due to their capacity to adapt to diverse marine conditions.

The Mediterranean areas in which molluscs are farmed are comprised of large areas, mainly The floating cages used in the Mediterranean for farming gilthead sea bream, sea bass and in bays or estuaries, where the confluences of freshwater and salt water courses are of great im- meagre are 22 or 25m in diameter with a depth of 13m, with a cone of a depth of about 2 to 3m. portance in primary production. The nets used for containment are made of polyamide that is resistant to the effects of UV The following table shows the average size of tideland aquaculture facilities. radiation, in mesh without knots.

56 57 6 Diversification in the size of the facilities Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

For this size of cage, the depth of the ocean bed must be at least double the depth of the top 6.6. Case study: Aquaculture facility in Burriana (Castellón) of the net, so that waste generated during the activity (faeces and feed remains) can be correctly dispersed throughout the zone and does not build up in specific points. The facility is four sea miles to the south (course 175º) of the port of Burriana (Castellón), in a polygon of 1,200 x 990m with a surface area of almost 119 hectares (1,188,000 sq. m.). That Another parameter for defining the size of an aquaculture facility is by the surface area occu- facility has an annual production of 4,800 t of gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata), 900 t of sea pied by the administrative concession in which the production activity is carried out. Depending bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and 300 t of meagre (Argyrosomus regius), reaching a total production on that surface area, another classification can be established: of 6,000 t.

The facility originally occupied an administrative concession of 255,000 sq. m., and has the Facility size Concession surface area Production (in t) following elements: Small < 250,000 sq. m. 400 – 1,000 • 2 groups of 12 surface cages with a diameter of 20 metres for farming gilthead sea bream Medium 250,000 – 500,000 sq. m. 1,000 – 2,000 and sea bass Large > 500,000 sq. m. > 2,000 • 1 group of 6 surface cages with a diameter of 20 metres for farming gilthead sea bream and sea bass Table 8. Size of marine aquaculture facilities based on the concession area (Source: Own elaboration) Due to reasons of demand, it was decided to increase production, by adding 8 octopus cages, Both classifications would be correct in determining the size of a marine aquaculture facility, 2 sole cages, 1 turbot cage and 4 suspended octopus pots. The whole concession was eventually since they are related to each other through the approximate production that can be obtained as described below: in each one. • 2 groups of 12 surface cages with a diameter of 20 metres for farming gilthead sea bream and sea bass Mediterranean marine aquaculture facilities are mainly dedicated to fattening gilthead sea • 1 group of 6 surface cages with a diameter of 20 metres for farming gilthead sea bream and bream and sea bass and we could say that both these species are native to the Mediterranean Sea. sea bass • 8 cages on the sea bed with a diameter of 25 metres for octopus Diverse parameters exist for defining the size of a facility, but the final size of the facility is not • 2 cages on the sea bed with a diameter of 25 metres for sole determined by only one parameter, but by all of them. • 1 cage on the sea bed with a diameter of 25 metres for turbot • 4 long-line suspended octopus pots The following diagram shows the main parameters that determine the size of a facility. Following this first extension related only to capacity, a new extension was undertaken, re- questing an enlargement of the occupied maritime-land surface area. Specifically, an occupation of 933,000 sq. m. was requested. 60 long-lines for mussel and oyster were placed in this new occupied surface area and 6 gilthead sea bream and sea bass cages with a diameter of 25 metres, Species to be farmed The size of the species affects the size of the facility 12 cages of 25 metres for meagre, 3 octopus cages with a diameter of 25 metres and the 8 octopus cages of 25 metres were relocated, and a cage for farming sole was eliminated, with the sole remaining sole cage and turbot cage being relocated. In sum, the whole facility (1,118,800 sq. m.) Production objective Fry, fattening, repopulation now has the following elements: Facility size • 1 cage on the sea bed for turbot with a diameter of 25m. • 1 cage for sole on the sea bed with a diameter of 25m. Desired production More or less space is needed, depending on production • 8 octopus cages on the sea bed with a diameter of 25m. • 72 surface cages for gilthead sea bream, sea bass and meagre with a diameter of 25m. • 23 long-lines for mussels and oysters Production density Intensive, extensive semi-intensive facility • 13 surface cages for gilthead sea bream and sea bass with a diameter of 16m, for auxiliary operations Figure 9. Parameters affecting the size of a facility (Source: Own elaboration)

58 59 6 Diversification in the size of the facilities

Concesión de ocumación de 255.000m2 Jaulas de 20m Jaulas de 25m

Jaulas pulpo sumergidas Jaulas de 16m

Nasas pulpos

Entramado pulpo

Jaulas rodaballo y lenguado long-lines

Figure 10. Sketch of the current status of the facility (Source: Andrómeda Iberica Group)

Estimating an average survival rate of 85% for all the species and a commercial size of 450g for gilthead sea bream and sea bass and 1 - 2kg for meagre, total annual production is reckoned to be 12,870,000 fish and 6,000 tons. These figures may vary from one year to the next, depending on the farming and selling conditions.

This is a large facility (> 48 cages), with a large production (6,000 t) of sea bass, gilthead sea bream and meagre, and long-lines for farming mussel and oyster and bottom cages for fattening octopus, turbot and sole.

6.7. Recommendations • Selecting a good site for the facility, either on land or in the sea. In the case of locating the site in the sea, it is important to have a fishing port nearby and if on land, it must be located near a town and have good land communications • Consider potential enlargements at a later date, for increasing production, adding other species for farming, etc. • Studying the human and economic resources required to execute the planned facility • • Not oversizing the facility

60 Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

7. Diversification of the production cycle

7.1. Introduction

In sustainable aquaculture, diversification of the production cycle in the marine or continental species to be farmed has been used to advantage by aquaculture businesses to correctly generate, use and develop their facilities.

The development of diverse types of cycle in the facilities may have a positive effect on final production. This is due to the fact that it is one thing to mass-produce fry and quite another to produce adults of a commercial size. The establishing and marketing of the different products obtained is not the same for each phase of growth in the species farmed.

Semi-intensive fish farming Integrated fish farming Semi-intensive mollusc farming Integrated mollusc farming

Natural medium Reproductive specimens Natural medium Reproductive specimens

Larvae Eggs Seed Larvae

Post larval/fry Larvae Fattening Seed

Fattening Post larval/fry Fattening

Fattening

Figure 11. Classification based on the biological cycle phases included in the farming of fish and molluscs (Source: Own elaboration

In general, the degree of biological cycle diversification carried out by the companies need not be absolute, meaning that they need not include the production of all the cycle growth phases in their facilities: hatchery, nursery and fattening units. At present there are some companies that diversify the whole cycle, especially in the case of flatfish (turbot and sole), while others simply function as breeding, nursery or fattening units.

One important fact is that in general, the processes executed in a hatchery or nursery facility can be carried out in land facilities, while the fattening phase (nursery facilities) may be located on land (some molluscs, crustaceans and flatfish) or in the sea in mussel rafts, nurseries for molluscs and pelagic fish, floating cages, submerged cages, etc.

63 7 Diversification of the production cycle Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

Fish-farming facilities Mollusc farming facilities

Reproductive specimens Reproductive 7.2.1. Technical development specimens Hatcheries Companies in which these industrial processes are carried out have the necessary equipment Eggs Hatcheries Larvae and systems to ensure the technical feasibility of this phase. This can be summarised as follows: • Pumping systems: pumps of all the types and capacities existing in the market which pump the Larvae Seeds Nurseries sea water and force it through the different circuits (auxiliary filter circuits, etc.) • Filtering systems: systems and components that ensure the sea water arrives with the highest possible quality Post-Post larval/fry Nurseries Adults Fattening units: • Water heating – cooling systems: in developing this first phase of the cycle, it is essential to tideland areas/ have the appropriate temperature gradients by using components (electric elements, solar mussel rafts Adults Fattening units or photovoltaic panels, diesel boilers, heat pumps and exchangers, etc.) to improve animal husbandry technology aspects in farming • Sterilisation systems: the water used must be completely free from germs and parasites that Figure 12.: Classification based on the type of aquaculture facility (fish and molluscs) and what is could interfere with the processes executed during this cycle culture phase. There are 2 va-

farmed in each one (Source: Own elaboration) lidated methods: UV radiation at 254 nm and ionisation (O3). Both methods require energy • Aeration systems: in all the culture phases, oxygen must be supplied, but it need not be pure oxygen. It is normal to use “air blowers” with differing capacities and powers. In farming mi-

croalgae, it is important to have CO2 in order to maximise the output Nurseries can be located next to hatcheries, but in Mediterranean marine aquaculture, nur- • Containers and tans for farming: the forms and dimensions must be in keeping with the or- series act as logistic platforms, given that they are normally located in areas of the Mediterranean ganism farmed during the different phases of the cycle and range from pyramid to circular where temperatures are lower, while the fattening units are located in areas with higher tempe- elements, including rectangular elements or “raceways” ratures; transportation of live fish over long distances (> 1,000 km) is easier if the fish are of a • Phyto and zoo-plankton production systems: different phyto and zoo-plankton species are used in the development of the first phases of the organisms that are farmed small size, but the fattening units are not the best place for receiving these small fry. However, the nurseries located in the fattening areas fulfil the mission of receiving fry weighing 1 - 2g, where they are nursed until they reach 5 - 20g and returned to the fattening units. Essential parameters in the post-larval farming of molluscs 7.2. Hatcheries and nurseries Temperature 20- 25 ºC Filtration 1 µ By definition, these are land facilities where mass industrial-scale production is carried out during the first cycle phases, namely: Sterilisation No 60 units/sq cm (clam) • The capture, transportation, conditioning and maintenance of reproductive fish Density 22 units/sq cm (oyster) • Larval development Food 50-200 l microalgae/Kg. seed/day • Nursing until reaching larger sizes of 8-10mm in the case of molluscs and fish over 10g for all 40 days (clam) fish species until they are taken to the fattening units Farming time 60 days (oyster)

The fish and mollusc hatcheries may be compatible as regards their operation and produc- Size 0.6-3 mm (clam) tion, by reusing the fish exit water for nursing molluscs. 0.6-5 mm (oyster) Trays or drums (with mesh base) in tanks with larger Tanks capacities Renovations 2-4 times/day The quality of the water quality in which they are farmed is of great importance Table 9. Values of the essential parameters in the larval and post-larval farming of molluscs

64 65 7 Diversification of the production cycle Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

Parameters Gilthead / Sea bass / Turbot Pyramid-shaped with a capacity of 0.15- 5 cu. m. Tanks Weaning *: 2-5 cu. m. Round or rectangular 7.3. Fattening units Aeration Lightweight for maintaining zooplankton in suspension Temperature 18-20º C Fattening of the different aquaculture species is done in the hatcheries. The fry obtained in the hatcheries and nurseries are fattened until they reach a commercial size. These facilities can be Density 40-50 larvae/l. Weaning* 15 kg/cu. m. classified based on a geographical location criterion, as follows: Sterilisation UV or O 3 • Land facilities: 1 µ ooFacilities for fattening fish, molluscs and crustaceans Filtration Weaning*: 40 µ ooFarming in tanks or lagoons Continuous and/or long (16 h.light: 8 darkness). Lighting of • Tideland facilities / lagoons: Photoperiod 500-2.000 lux ooMollusc-farms (oyster, clam, etc.) < 0.01 mg/l. Nitrites and Ammonia Weaning*: < 2 ppm • Marine facilities: ooFloating cages for fish (gilthead sea bream, sea bass, etc.) Oxygenation Minimum 5 mg/litre ooSubmerged cages (sole, octopus) Water renovation 0 (5-10 days); 5-10% Renovation rate/hour. ooMussel rafts (mussel, oyster, etc.) Weaning: 50% hour ooLong-lines (mussel, oyster etc.) Salinity 30-38‰ As commented above, fattening of fish and molluscs should also be compatible with a sea 10-15 % Survival Weaning*:50-80% environment (fish cages, long-lines and mollusc rafts). Multi-species culture would also be possible, 40-90 days combining fish and molluscs on the surface and on the sea bed. Duration (days) Metamorphosis between15-60 days. Weaning*: 50-70 days after hatching 7.3.1. Land facilities Growth (g) 0.05 - 3 * Weaning: Change in diet from live to inert (commercial feed) Fish Table 10.: Parameter values observed during the larval culture of fish of commercial interest In the western Mediterranean, a generic example is given for farming trout in cement tanks or ponds. Parameters Gilthead / Sea bass / Turbot Tanks 2-5 cu. m. Round or rectangular Aeration Several points and continuous Parameters Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Temperature 18-22º C Cement or fibreglass tanks for fry / juveniles (3 x 1 x 0.5) Tanks / Ponds Rectangular or round ponds for adults (10 x 2 x 2) Density 15 kg/ cu. m. Growth (g) 200 – 250g commercial size Sterilisation Not necessary Reproductive fish up to 500g Filtration 40 µ 7.2 - 17.0º C for growth (ideal 15º C) Temperature (ºC) 7.2 - 12.8º C for reproduction and incubation Photoperiod Natural Tolerates up to 25° C for short periods <0.01 mg/l. Salinity freshwater farming Nitrites and Ammonia Weaning: < 2 ppm Oxygen 6.5 – 9 ppm Oxygenation > 5mg/litre Can survive in waters with 3 mg/L Water renovation 50% h 6.5 – 8.5 pH Values of less than 5 and over 9.5 are lethal Salinity 30-38‰ Ammonia <1 (mg/l) Survival 80% 0.2 – 12g: 1.3 – 7.2kg / sq. m. Duration (days) 50-70 days 12 – 45 g: 8-10kg / sq. m. Density 45 – 250 g: 10 – 15kg / sq. m. Growth (g) 1-10 Reproductive fish: 15-20 kg / sq. m.

Table 11. Parameters observed during nursery period for different species of fish of commercial interest Table 12. Parameters for farming trout in land facilities (Source: Gurung T.B (2008))

66 67 7 Diversification of the production cycle Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

Crustaceans Depending on the culture method, three types of farming are established: extensive, semi- intensive and intensive. However, intensive farming is currently the most widespread since they The Japanese prawn is used as an example (Penaeus japonicus). The post-larvae are sown in withstand high production densities. The adequate control of feeding and correct handling of the ancient salt flats in Cádiz, in which the water is renovated through a tidal gate or in ponds excava- farm can give rise to large productions. ted in marshlands, into which sea water is pumped (Huelva). The size of the ponds varies from 0.2 – 6 hectares and their shape is usually rectangular, with a clay base. In extensive culture (without Mussel rafts external feeding) they are usually sown with 2 - 10 post-larvae per sq. m. and in semi-intensive culture (including some food) with 10 - 20 post-larvae per sq. m. The final productions are variable, Mussel rafts are based on a system of 6 floating elements which support a wooden lattice- even within the same type of culture, 100 - 400kg per hectare for extensive and 1,600 – 2,800kg type structure (usually made of eucalyptus wood) from which ropes are suspended that support per hectare for semi-intensive. the mussels (the maximum surface area is 550 sq. m.). In the Ebro Delta they are anchored to the bottom by a series of fibrocement girders which support the wooden lattice structure. The ropes Molluscs have a series of plastic sticks at intervals of 20 - 30cm to facilitate the adherence and production of the mussels. The maximum number permitted depends on the bay in question (Alfacs and The species used here as examples are the clam (Ruditapes philippinarum) and the Pacific Fangar) which permits 500 ropes with a maximum length of 12m. In the Ebro Delta (Tarragona) oyster (Crassostrea gigas). Their fattening phase is carried out in tidelands (farms), directly on the they range from 2.5m and 3.5m. to ensure reasonable production quantities and product quality. sea bed or using bags or nets to cover the seeds. The mussel-farming process is divided up into several phases: obtaining the seed in the natu- During this phase it is necessary to prepare the terrain on commencing the fattening phase, ral medium, placing them on the ropes, thinning them out and harvesting them. This process lasts to allow the specimens to be buried, and regular cleaning of the mesh forming the enclosures for 12 - 14 months in Galicia. In the Ebro Delta and the Region of Valencia, this term is reduced or bags to eliminate epibiontal organisms and promote water circulation. The culture density de- to 9 - 12 months, due to market demand and the production cycle. Sowing is usually done in pends on the primary production in the area near the facility, and is between 8 – 1,000 specimens September and harvesting starts in May. per sq. m. in enclosed media and 200 specimens per sq. m. in culture media. Long-lines At the end of this phase, which lasts for about 8-12 months, clams with a commercial size of 35-45mm (25g) are obtained. The long-line farming systems consists of a main line with floating elements, anchored at the ends and at other points of the sea bed. The farming ropes hang from this main line. The long-line 7.3.2. Farming in tidelands floatability can easily be adapted to the needs of each production phase.

Fattening during this phase is done in farms or nurseries, on the sea bed. In the case of the The long-line is a floating structure with a trapezoidal shape, comprised of a polypropylene oyster, the seeds, measuring 5 - 8mm, are detached from the pipes and transferred to these farms or nylon line with a diameter of 12 - 16mm and a length of 100 - 600m. This line is called the on a support or “mesh bags”. In the case of the latter, the seeds are placed in plastic bags. When main line and is anchored to the sea bed by its ends with two blocks, each weighing up to 25 t, they reach a size of 5cm they are removed from the bags and the oysters are left on trays or so that the main production line does not move with the current. The main line is suspended at attached to ropes until they reach a commercial size of 8 - 10cm. a depth of between 3 and 5m using surface and submerged buoys. These buoys have secondary lines hanging from them which maintain the farming implements (manifolds, baskets and lanterns) 7.3.3. Marine facilities inside the water column. At the bottom of each element are weights to ensure that they do not Floating cages become tangled and always remain in suspension.

Fish farming in general has undergone considerable development and in particular, fattening Long-line farming is practised only in the western Mediterranean, taking advantage of the on floating structures. Different types of cages exist in terms of size and shape. They may be fixed, artificial reefs previously installed in these areas. floating, submerged, etc.

68 69 7 Diversification of the production cycle Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

IMTA as a sustainable method. The following types of long-lines exist: • Protected waters These systems promote economic and environmental sustainability, through converting the ooSurface, double buoy solid, soluble nutrients of the organisms and their food (intensive culture of crustaceans and fish) ooSurface, single buoy in harvests for extractive organisms (algae and molluscs), thereby reducing the potential for eu- ooSemi-submerged trophication and increasing economic diversification. If selected and located in the appropriate • Exposed waters way, the growth of the co-farmed species can be accelerated through assimilating extra nutrients ooSemi-submerged with a single buoy supplied by the species farmed, by introducing food. ooSubmerged with a single buoy The IMTA system allows producers to diversify without having to seek new sites. Initial results 7.4. Integrated multi-trophic aquacul- suggest that recycling waste from farming as food for others can increase the revenues of an IMTA ture (IMTA) system. An analysis of the IMTA system shows that it can reduce financial risks stemming from problems posed by the climate, disease and market fluctuations (Ridleret al., 2007). Integrated Multi-trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) is defined as a combination of different maricultures IMTA systems; health in food and quality using species from different taxonomic groups in one physical system or facility, with a view to impro- One possible reason for concern about the waste produced by a species if not consumed by Photograph 7. Detalle de una batea y long-line ving environmental quality and making the best use another is that they are a potential source of contamination. As of today, this does not appear to of the system resources. (de doble boya) en superficie (aguas protegidas) © Francisco J. Espinós be a problem for IMTA systems. One example is the project under way since 2001 in Fundy Bay (Canada) on mussel populations raised in zones adjacent to salmon cages, in which analyses of The multi-trophic concept refers to the incorporation of species with differing nutritional contamination due to medicines, metals, arsenic, PCBs and pesticides has shown concentrations levels in one system (Chopin, 2006). This is a different characteristic from aquatic multi-culture in that are negligible or lower than the limits established by different agencies (Canadian Food Ins- which different fish species with the same trophic level are farmed. pection Agency, USA Food and Drug Administration, EEC Directives). Tasting tests conducted on the mussels indicated that they were free from fish and other aromas, with parameters similar to In IMTA systems, by-products (waste) produced in breeding certain species can be used as those observed by wild mussel evaluators. However, their meat production was significantly higher, inputs (fertilisers, food) for others. In these systems the culture of species requiring feed (fish, which reflects the increase in the availability of food and energy (Haya et al., 2004). crustaceans) is combined with the aquaculture of inorganic (marine algae) and organic (molluscs) extractive organisms, thereby achieving a balanced ecosystem that produces mutual benefits for 7.5. Recommendations the co-farmed species, fostering environmental sustainability criteria (biomitigation), economic sta- • The joint farming of fish and molluscs in one facility is recommended, using the water from bility (diversification of products and reduction of risks) and social acceptance (improved handling farming the fish to fatten the mollusc seed practices: Chopin et al., 2001). • Mussel rafts are still a very good option in protected zones (inlets, bays, estuaries, etc.) • Long-lines are a sustainable, economic alternative, with a low visual impact Ideally speaking, the biological and chemical process of an IMTA system are balanced if a • Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture is a good option which brings environmental and econo- careful and proportional selection is made of the different species to be farmed together, each of mic benefits, with a multi-production of species that are compatible with each other which assumes a different function in the ecosystem.

7.4.1. IMTA systems

The IMTA concept is extremely flexible. IMTA systems can be located on land or in the sea, in marine systems or freshwater systems and may include diverse combinations of species (i.e., fish- algae-molluscs, molluscs-crustaceans, etc.) (Troell et al., 2003). The important thing is to select the organisms taking into account the functions they will carry out in the ecosystem, their economic value and/or their potential acceptance by consumers.

70 71 Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

8. Diversification and sustainability of aquaculture nutrition

International aquaculture production has increased in enormous proportions in recent years, especially through the development of semi-intensive practices in Asia and Africa. Nutrition plays an important part in this, from the standpoint of the study of the nutritional requirements of each species, the availability of raw materials and nature conservation.

In the face of the challenges posed for Mediterranean aquaculture in Europe, it is necessary to fight to obtain sustainability, technology, diversification and profitability. Competition from countries with lower production costs and other species with scant development in Europe, the stricter demands in quality and traceability by consumers, the volatile prices of raw materials and food and the harsh legislative requirements in Europe regarding quality, health and environmental protection make it more and more difficult to stabilise this activity.

The development and diversification of aquaculture must be considered in terms of achieving a balance between the main factors which affect it, namely reproduction, new species, the environment, pathologies, genetics, handling.. and of course, nutrition.

For an aquaculture facility to be profitable, a diet is required and guidelines for applying it (Zamora, 2006). Much work has been done on nutritional studies since the 1970s and in particular, during the last ten years, but the progress made is different, depending on the fish species to be farmed.

Feeding in larval phases in aquaculture is an important obstacle for its development. At present, it is necessary for most auxiliary facilities to have parallel cultures of zooplankton (Artemia and rotifers) and phytoplankton (principally microalgae) to feed the larvae, with the complex task of meeting the nutritional requirements of each particular species through this channel (Zamora, 2006). Furthermore, the zooplankton used must be supplemented with essential fatty acids, since these are not readily available in Artemia and rotifers. The development of dry diets based on mi- croparticles containing these elements would be a great step forward for aquaculture. Tests have been conducted with inert diets using hydrolysed proteins and probiotics and essential fatty acids. These microdiets must fulfil a series of characteristics: a bright colour to attract the larvae, high floatability, stability in water and being composed of elements that are easy to digest (given the lack of development of the larvae digestive tract). The results varied; in some cases the microdiets were relatively well accepted by the larvae and in others, a period of co-feeding with live prey was necessary.

8.2. Current problem with raw materials

The development of intensive aquaculture on a worldwide scale is conditioned by the availability of raw materials for feeding the hatched species. Fish flour and oil are the main raw materials used as a source of protein and energy, respectively, in feed for fish, and especially for the intensive breeding of carnivorous species.

73 8 Diversification and sustainability of aquaculture nutrition Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

High-quality fish flours are without doubt the best source of protein for the farmed fish, due Lastly, within the above context of alternative to their great digestibility and their amino acid composition, which is very close to the profile of and possibilities, we should not forget that we are needs of most species (Cowey, 1994). This has determined that, simultaneously to the develop- operating in a sector in which the volatile prices of ment of intensive fish farming, the demand for fish flour has soared, which on occasions, accounts most raw materials (and in particular, flour, grain for up to 60% of all fish feed formulations. As a result, there is a possibility that the supply of fish and oil) is enormous, and poses a great obstacle flour on an international scale will not follow keep up with the pace as its demand in livestock in stabilising the business for both feed manufac- nutrition and in particular, fish farming and for this reason, guarantees of supply are at risk (Pike, turers and farmers. Speculation, availability, strict 1998). Meanwhile, its price has risen steeply, such that the total or partial substitution of fish flour quality controls and restrictive legislation are four with other protein-based raw materials has become a priority in research conducted into nutri- factors which interfere directly with this volatility tion and feed formulation in aquaculture. in markets and prices.

The most important manufacturers of fish flour are Peru and Chile, which contribute to just 8.3. Nutritional requirements of fish over half of international production (IFFO, 2005). Forecasts of demand for fish flour for forthco- farmed in aquaculture ming years in aquaculture are fast increasing and this makes it necessary to find other sustainable, Fish nutrition is a research area which has available and quality alternatives (FAO, 2009). undergone significant development, particularly Photograph 8. Detail of some of the raw mate- The use of vegetable protein such as that found in soy flour, pea, lupine, rapeseed, rice, bean, when we consider that feeding and feeding costs rials used to manufacture fish feed in aquaculture marine macroalgae or sunflower is being tested as alternatives to fish flour, and corn or wheat constitute the most important part of the opera- © Grupo Dibaq gluten (de la Gándara, 2006). These raw materials are reasonably priced due to their greater avai- ting costs of an aquaculture facility. The develop- lability, but they may contain anti-nutritional factors and not contribute sufficient minerals, energy ment of feed for aquaculture requires at least a basic understanding of nutrition and a definition and amino acids that are essential for ensuring the correct nutrition of the fish species farmed. and knowledge of the nutritional needs of the species being farmed. Furthermore, the digestibility of these raw materials is often insufficient for the digestive system of the fish, and it is necessary to limit their inclusion or increase their digestibility, through acid or All animal species have their own requirements in terms of the proteins, energy (lipids, car- enzymatic hydrolysis processes. bohydrates), vitamins and minerals included in their diets. The type and quantity of each of these nutrients varies, not just between species but depending on the ages, productive function and On the other hand, the use of other proteins of animal origin has also been studied, such environmental conditions, and such requirements warrant special treatment. as meat flour, blood derivatives and hydrolysed proteins. Unlike plant-based materials, these raw materials provide an excellent source of energy, vitamins, minerals and essential amino acids and Moreover, the nutritional value of a food is not only based on its chemical composition, but do not contain anti-nutritional factors. However, in the case of meat flours, following the cases also on the ability of the fish to digest and absorb it. Consequently, knowledge of the digestibility of spongiform bovine encephalopathy in Europe, such substances were banned in manufactu- of the nutrients is essential for designing practical diets. ring practically all composite feeds to prevent health problems and risks (European Regulation On the other hand, current legislation on animal nutrition is extremely strict, following the 1774/2002), although it is true that in recent years, data with grounds are being published about recent food crises of past years, and poses a slight obstacle in achieving objectives that appear the authorisation of transformed animal proteins (TAP) in aquaculture, which would provide a clear and also much closer. Some examples of this are control of the environmental nitrogen and new tool for achieving the sustainable aquaculture objective. phosphorus in diets, digestibility, labelling and integrated traceability. In addition, a key factor in aquaculture sustainability and one which is taking on ever-increasing Based on the above, it is clear that knowledge of the nutritional needs of fished farmed in importance is the use of by-products from the agro-food industry which, due to their nutritional aquaculture is not easy and must be supported by complex research and approximations on the properties and availability, could represent an alternative to traditional raw materials. subject. As has already been commented, there are many research projects and studies on this topic but greater depth and know-how must be applied in all these projects.

74 75 8 Diversification and sustainability of aquaculture nutrition Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

8.3.1. Protein 8.3.4. Energy

Needs with respect to protein, which constitutes approximately 70% of the dry component The formation of fish feed is designed based on the energy demands of each species and of organic matter and is essential for the growth of the fish and influenced by biological factors in particular, the energy/protein ratio. Fish, like all species, require energy to grow, develop and such as: the size of the fish, physiological function, culture density, type of feed and nutritional fac- reproduce. In general, a ratio of 9 kcal / g of protein would be enough for them to develop their tors such as quality and digestibility, energy level in the diet and the quantity of feed to be supplied. functions and ensure optimum growth. The speed with which the energy is used is influenced by factors such as temperature, species, age, size, activity, physiological condition, body functions and Generally speaking, nursery feed or that given to the fish at an early age has greater protein chemical changes in the water, such as oxygen, pH, temperature and salinity. percentages and is also of greater quality and more digestible. Like other animals, fish use different sources of energy in a way that is specific to their species. Knowing the amino acid profile of each species is one of the great challenges in the nutrition Thus, fish which thrive in cold waters use proteins and lipids as sources of energy and make poor of farmed fish. The majority of studies conducted to date show that the requirements are very use of carbohydrates, whereas fish which live in warm waters use carbohydrates with relative similar for all species in the sum total, but there are significant differences between species (parti- success for exactly the same purpose. cularly freshwater and saltwater species) when treated individually (Luquet, 1989). Energy deficits or excesses in diet will have no relevant effects on the health of the fish. 8.3.2. Lipids Nevertheless, in a diet that is deficient in energy in relation to protein, a proportional quantity of protein in that diet will be used as a source of energy instead of being used to form tissues and Lipids are the most concentrated and readily available source of energy of all nutrients. In promote growth. In the case of diets with excess energy content, the fish will feel satiated before fish feeds, lipids improve the palatability, texture and stability of those nutrients. Furthermore, they consuming the necessary quantity of feed for optimum growth. are very important as a source of essential fatty acids for the normal growth and survival of the fish and the normal development of their vital functions. They are also essential in that they act as 8.3.5. Vitamins and minerals vehicles for liposoluble vitamins and photolipids, in particular, play an important part in the mem- branes and the hormonal and enzymatic functions. Vitamins are a heterogeneous group of organic compounds required in very small quantities. Since they are not synthesised by the organism, they must be supplied in daily feed rations. They In the case of knowledge of the requirements of the fatty acids included in their diet, the stipulate the appetite and ultimately, give a positive response in terms of growth, in addition to same occurs as with amino acids and proteins. The fatty acids which exert the greatest influence stimulating the defences. on farmed fish species during all their production phases are the omega 3 or linoleic acid series and omega 6 or linolenic acid series. The requirements with respect to these acids vary, depending Vitamin requirements ranges among the different species of farmed fish are extremely va- on whether the species is freshwater or saltwater and within this group, whether they thrive in riable, due to a lack of knowledge about many of them, with the exception of vitamins C and E, cold or warm waters. about which more studies exist, due to their importance.

8.3.3. Carbohydrates In the case of minerals, like vitamins, they are not synthesised by the organism and must be supplied daily in small quantities. They are essential elements for bones and soft tissues and are Carbohydrates are considered to be the cheapest form of energy in any diet. However, they also used by fish to regulate their osmotic balance, and are essential in the transmission of nerve are the most controversial group of nutrients in fish feed, considering that fish do not show defi- impulses and in the organism’s acid-base balance. ciency symptoms if carbohydrates are not included in their diets. This situation makes it possible to affirm that the requirements with respect to carbohydrates in farmed fish are practically zero. Both vitamins and minerals must be administered as supplements in diets for highly-competitive production systems. While carnivorous fish have little or no ability to assimilate carbohydrates, herbivorous fish, omnivorous fish and plankton-eating fish easily hydrolise the carbohydrates, since they are synthesised in their digestive tract by amylase and cellulase enzymes.

76 77 8 Diversification and sustainability of aquaculture nutrition Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

8.4. Case study: Nutritional and environmental evaluation of a fall in protein 8.5. Recommendations levels in fattening feed for the gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) in a marine farm located in the Mediterranean Sea. The development and diversification of aquaculture must be considered as the achieving of a balance between the main factors that affect it: reproduction, new species, environment, patho- The shortage of fish flour and enormous fluctuations in its market has led the aquaculture logies, genetics, handling.. and, of course, nutrition. sector in general and specialists in animal nutrition in particular to search for alternative raw materials. Comparing other components that can be used in aquaculture in fish feed with this raw Special importance must be placed on taking advantage of by-products from the agro-food material is a difficult task. For aquaculture, whose main objective is the rapid production of healthy, industry which, due to their nutricional properties and availability, could be used as alternatives for fresh, high-quality fish, feed represents the most important cost for its development. Therefore any traditional raw materials. change, no matter how small, in this regard may have major consequences on earnings. Obtaining knowledge about the nutritional requirements of farmed fish is not easy and re- During recent years, the certainty exists that fish have been overfed with levels of proteins quires complex studies and research into this subject. that are far superior to their biological, physiological and nutritional needs. As for protein, the amino acid profile of each species must be known, and this is one of the In this experiment, the animal protein source was partly replaced with digestible raw mate- greatest challenges facing nutrition in fish farming. rials of plant origin, with the fish flour formulation being of greater quality. Several experiments It is advisable to pay special attention to the fatty acids that most affect aquaculture species were conducted, reducing the protein and fat profile by up to 5 and 3 units respectively, which in all the production phases, and in particular, the omega 3 or linoleic acid series, and omega 6 or gave rise to a reduction in costs for producers. linolenic acid series, since their nutritional and functional properties are the main hallmark that The positive results resulted in the maintaining of growth and conversion that was even bet- identifies quality fish. ter in seasons with high temperatures, and a fall in mortality during times of greater feeding rates. Fish diets and their formulation are designed based on the energy demands of each specie This experiment shows that the quantity of protein is not proportional to the quality of the and in particular the energy/protein ratio; when a diet is deficient in energy in relation to protein, feed but to the quality and digestibility of that protein. In addition, this affirmation has an important a proportional quantity of protein in the diet will be used as energy instead of being used for component, not only in terms of nutrition, but in economic, sustainability and environmental terms. promoting the development of tissues and growth In the case of minerals, like vitamins, they are not synthesised by the organism and must be CONVERSION (FCR) 7,00 supplied daily in small quantities. They have not been widely studied, and research is necessary in this sense. However, maintaining the recommended levels and above all, not exceeding the 6,00 maximum limits established in literature is highly recommended to ensure the correct assimilation 5,00 of other nutrients. 4,00 A 3,00 B 2,00

1,00

0,00 APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC Figure 13. Comparison of conversion (FCR) between a traditional feed (A) and a feed with less protein content but greater digestibility (B)

REFERENCE: Experiment conducted within the framework of the CENIT ACUISOST Project “Towards Sustainable Aquaculture 2007-2010” promoted by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Technology through the CDTI (Industrial and Technical Development Centre) programme entitled Ingenio 2010.

78 79 Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

9. Diversification of products

9.1. Background: diversification with respect to previous planning

Previous planning in aquaculture is necessary, depending on the products to be obtained. It is one thing to devote a farm to the exclusive obtaining of fish meat and quite another to devote it exclusively to the production of roe (caviar from the sturgeon). The facility must be designed for the correct handling of the different phases of development, based on their requirements in terms of space, flow rates, temperature, luminous phase, etc.

Furthermore, needs with respect to handling the final product (whether or not it is processed in the same plant) will also affect planning with respect to breeding and removing the fish.

To reach the consumer, the products must be attractive due to their quality and their ease of conservation and preparation. Great efforts have been made during recent years to ensure a longer useful life for the product, guarantee its quality and facilitate its consumption.

9.2. Lengthening the life of the product

To offer new, more elaborate products that are more complex and more attractive, first it is necessary to overcome the problem of conservation.

The period for conserving fresh refrigerated fish5 is limited and no more than a few days. Spoiling of aquaculture products begins immediately after the death of the animal due to the development of various types of micro-organisms such as bacteria, mould and yeast and chemical and enzymatic reactions of degradation, with obvious and direct economic implications for both producers and for distributors and consumers. Micro-organisms are responsible for important losses in foods produced all over the world, and entail relevant losses in economic terms and with respect to resources, and evident risks for health (FAO 1997).

All thee deterioration processes are greatly influenced by temperature, in such a way that the conservation of aquaculture products in optimum conditions usually requires strict storage temperature controls.

Fish muscle is easily contaminated during evisceration and infested by micro-organisms from the gills, intestines and skin. Correct hygienic practices in preparing the products will contribute to keeping them in useful condition.

In addition, the metabolic reactions of certain bacteria generate trimethylamine and sulphur compounds which cause unpleasant odours and other substances that are harmful to heath such as histamine, which may cause food allergies (García et al., 2006).

5. Refrigeration is lowering the temperature of the products to bring them to the melting point of ice.

81 9 Diversification of products Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

On the other hand, enzymatic reactions due to the softening of the texture of the fish flesh In relation to the materials used for packaging agro-food products in protective atmospheres, and the development of unpleasant odours and tastes also affect the life of aquaculture products. these must be resistant to the diffusion of gases and mechanical perforation that could occur due Moreover, in oily fish (with a high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids) lipid oxidation processes to the presence of bones or low freezing temperatures. take place which lead to rancid odours and tastes. The use of protective atmospheres in packaging fish has the following advantages (García et One of the advantages of aquaculture products is the speed with which they can be put on al., 2006): the market and maintained fresh. This permits great safety in hygiene and better prices. However, • It delays the deterioration of the products, thereby increasing their shelf life without using lengthening the life of the products, once purchased, is the war horse based on which a great deal additives of research has been conducted to encourage people to buy products which are easy to handle • It prevents the generation of trimethylamine and histamine and conserve. • It allows warehouse management to be optimised, as the hermetic packaging isolates the foods and allows different foods to be stored in the same area without the risk of odours In this field, the use of protective atmospheres is being developed. The most basic protective being transmitted between them or released into the atmosphere, thereby maintaining opti- atmosphere systems are the so-called “vacuum packing”, which inhibits the development of aero- mum conditions of hygiene bic micro-organisms and oxidation reactions due to the negligible portion of oxygen that remains • The longer shelf life allows the distribution frequency to be reduced (with the ensuing reduc- in the package. Furthermore, this type of treatment prevents the product from being burned by tion in costs) and the geographical distribution scope to be increased the cold, ice crystals from forming and the surface of the products from becoming dehydrated. • Losses due to returning the products are reduced and in general, a reduction in production and storage costs, since working peaks, spaces and equipment can be more easily managed. The use of modified atmospheres6 as a method for packaging and conserving food has pro- • The presentation of the food is improved ved to be a very useful technology in increasing its shelf life, given that in foods with short shelf • Value is added to the product, since it facilitates the conservation and handling thereof lives such as fish, their shelf life can be prolonged by 4 - 5 days, which can lead to improving the However, there are also certain disadvantages (García et al., 2006): competitiveness of the products (Beltrán 2001). • It is necessary to design a specific atmosphere that is suitable for the characteristics of the Packaging in modified atmospheres consists basically of changing the composition of the at- food • An important initial outlay is required in packaging machinery and control systems mosphere surrounding a product after it is inserted into a package that is impermeable to gases. • The budget is increased by the cost of the packaging maerials and the gases used (except in the case of vacuum packaging) The conservation effect of modified atmospheres is based on the effect of CO (carbonic 2 • The volume of the packs (except vacuum packaging) is larger, which entails an increase in anhydrase) which suppresses microbial growth and metabolism (Beltrán 2001). It can be said that storage space, transport and exposure this suppression is specific to aerobic flora, and usually occurs in fish stored in refrigerated facilities. • The staff must have specific training in the different phases of the packaging and control pro-

The concentration of CO2 must be higher than 25% and may reach a maximum of 50-60%, at cess and in particular, in handling the machinery which the maximum suppressive effect of microbial growth is reached. On the other hand, con- • In the event of the packaging being damaged or torn all the benefits of packaging the product centrations of more than 50% may lead to the packaging collapsing and exudates and changes in in a protective atmosphere are lost the muscle texture. The incorporation of nitrogen prevents deformation and the collapse of the • There is risk of the proliferation of micro-organisms in the food in the event of extreme conservation temperatures, as the food must be maintained refrigerated. packaging caused by the dissolution of the CO2 in the food tissues.. The combinations most often • In modified atmospheres with a high content in carbon dioxide, problems such as the collapse used are 40% CO2: 30% N2: 30% O2 for white fish and 60% CO2: 40% N2 for oily fish (Garcíaet al. 2006). Some products undergo changes in their colour and taste when exposed to high concen- of the packaging, exudates, changes in texture, the development of acid tastes and decolora- tion of the muscle tissue may arise trations of CO2. As for oxygen, it is advisable to include a small quantity thereof in the packages, to suppress the growth of anaerobic micro-organisms such as Clostridium botulinum (García et In relation to diversification in the presentation of aquaculture products and the use of new al. 2006). Although the gases most widely used in combinations for packaging fish are, as already conservation methods such as protective atmospheres, the possibility exists of selling different

commented, CO2, O 2 and N2, the use of noble gases such as argon (Ar) has also been studied as parts of the fish (side, neck, etc.) ready cleaned and packaged for cooking or even ready-cooked, a substitute for nitrogen (Beltrán 2001). as will be seen later.

6. Type of protective atmosphere used for fish, in addition to vacuum packaging and “second skin” vacuum packaging.

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Other traditional procedures for conserving and presenting aquaculture products are salting, requires no equipment or special training. There is a very wide offer which ranges from basic dehydrating, dehydrating-salting, smoking, canning and semi-preserving. dishes to more sophisticated haute-cuisine dishes at affordable prices that can be used just as they are or as part of what is called "assembly cooking" in which they are used as a basis for The majority of these presentations were developed to favour the conservation of extractive other, more creative preparations (Eroski Consumer 2008) fish products when refrigeration was not available as a method of conservation and to offset the In a market that is increasingly more complex, consumers are more and more interested in marked seasonal component of many products. products that are already prepared for cooking and pre-cooked foods. In other countries, the marketing of fourth and fifty-range products is now widespread. In general, their quality is similar Consequently salting was traditionally used for sardines, anchovies and tuna, with the codfish to that of foods which can be prepared instantly, but with the added advantage of not having to dehydrating-salting technique used in fishing over long distances, the smoking technique used in cook them. In Spain, this market is not yet ripe. oily fish in damp climaes where dehydration was not easy to perform and in modern times, canning and semi-preservation, amaking it possible to extend the longevity of the products and and Fifth-range food products are pre-cooked products with varying shelf lives, depending on more easily enter other, more remote markets. how they are marketed (refrigerated or frozen). They need to be regenerated to be consumed, i.e., heated in the oven, microwave or using the bain-marie method before eating them, without Although at present, aquaculture products do not suffer from such pressing conservation the need for any other type of handling. problems, many of these techniques have been converted into presentations that are widely accepted by the public, for instance, smoked salmon and sturgeon, semi-preserved caviar, salted These new products are made with high-quality raw materials and come in different types tuna (cured salt tuna), etc. What were once conservation methods have now become forms of of packaging, such as pasteurised or sterilised, to lengthen their shelf life without the need for presentation that bring significant added-value to the products, and also extend the options avai- preservatives. lable for supplying these products. Once in the home or restaurant, all that is necessary is to remove the packaging from the 9.3. Processed and elaborated products product and customise it, to suit the taste of the end consumer. Based on studies conducted, no taste or aroma is lost in the chain, from production to consumption, and all the nutrients are We have already seen that a good way to add value to the products is their diversification. maintained in full. This approach also includes processing (preparing cleaned fillets) and the elaboration of culinary preparations, such as pre-cooked foods. Fifth-range products are undergoing a considerable boom in Spain, and reaching the levels of other countries in which this type of food is well accepted, such as Great Britain or the United The treatment given to the foods determines the “ranges” in which they are included: States. This consolidation process is due mainly to changes in lifestyles (less time at home, less • Range I (fresh products): These are non-transformed foods which have not undergone a pro- dedication to household chores by families, etc.) and to improvements in the quality and variety cess of sanitisation or conservation, but are offered directly to consumers without any kind of of this type of product. Year after year, the data point to a strong increase in the consumption of preservative treatment other than refrigeration. In this case (aquaculture products) they are fifth-range products in Spain. highly perishable products that require extremely strict conditions of hygiene • Range II (canned and semi-preserved foods): For preservation purposes, these foods are usua- With respect to the hotel and restaurants sector, more and more establishments are deciding lly subjected to thermal treatment. In the case of semi-preserved foods, these also require to include fifth-range products in their menus, in order to cut costs while maintaining adequate refrigeration levels of quality and reducing expenses in raw materials and cooking time. • Range III (frozen and deep-frozen): These products are preserved by applying extreme cold, and it is necessary to maintain the cold chain to keep them in perfect condition. They may be The hotel and restaurants sector has realised that a profit is to be made from having the uncooked products or pre-cooked products • Range IV (processed products that are vacuum-packed or packed in controlled atmospheres): exact portions required, without running the risk of unsold food spoiling since, in general, fifth- These are fresh, cleaned products wrapped in flexible plastic material which sometimes also range products have a long shelf life and the risk of them not being used within that time is quite require refrigeration small. Furthermore, they are an excellent solution for establishments that want to offer different, • Range V: Next-generation foods, ready-prepared and packaged after being subjected to saniti- high-quality menus but do not have the appropriate culinary facilities. sation processes to ensure that they are safe and health to eat, and that their texture and all their original sensory properties remain intact. Their easy, fast regeneration for consumption

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The development of this range of foods requires many years of research and innovation. In In this respect, there are also brands regulated by international standards such as Protected particular, in designing new machinery and new packaging to achieve end products of the appro- Designations of Origin (PDO) and Protected Geographical Indications (PGI). There are even priate texture and with optimum taste, without forgetting the importance of the final regenera- fewer examples in the agricultural sector, but some interesting examples already exist in extensi- tion in the whole process. ve aquaculture within the geographical scope of this guide, such as Tench from Pianalto di Poirino (Italy). They have multiple uses in the hotel and restaurants trade: cook&chill system, and are excep- tional in catering and banqueting, as this type of food can easily and quickly be transported to any Other systems for certification and differentiation are Integrated Management Systems which place. In this way, the options for restaurants are increased considerably, and the raw material has establish, describe, process and document the different working methods and forms on all the another method of penetrating the market. productive levels of a company. The most frequent certifications are the UNE-EN ISO 9001:2008 quality standard, UNE-EN ISO 14001:2004 environmental standard, UNE-EN ISO 22000 Food Market trends and their rapid growth allow us to be optimistic with respect to the future of Safety Standard and the OHSAS 18001:2007 on occupational safety and health. these products. For this reason it is important to know and work with these new techniques. In sum, it can be said that the elaboration of fifth-range products allows potential consumers to have Apart from these generic certifications, specific quality standards exist such asUNE seasonal products at times of the year in which they are not naturally available. 173003:2008 on correct hygienic practices in trout production or UNE 173201:2010 on Correct Hygienic Practices in mariculture. Of course, it is obligatory to set up HACCP and traceability systems (labelling, control of suppliers, control of risks, waters, facilities, etc.) in the production processes, in accordance with Ecological production is an important method of differentiation in production, which has current legislation. This means a considerably outlay in machinery and the designing of processes. managed to fill a gap in a market that is in constant growth. Ecological production is based on However, experts agree that companies which are able to reach the end consumer in fifth-range good environmental practices, a high level of biodiversity, the conservation of natural resources, products at competitive prices are much more likely to be successful. the application of strict regulations on animal welfare and production that is in keeping with the preferences of certain consumers for products obtained using natural substances and processes. 9.4. Brands (collective brands, guaranteed brands) EC Regulation 66/201 regulates ecological labelling in the EU. The EU ecological labelling criteria are based on environmental conduct, taking into account the whole life cycle of the products, pur- Collective and guaranteed brands may be an element that denotes safety and quality and the suant to the most recent strategic objectives of the Community with respect to the environment. responsibility of the producer to win the loyalty of consumers to a guaranteed image, endorsed Each member state designates the competent organisation or organisations inside or outside the by a prestigious concern. In this way, the creation of a brand makes the product stand out in com- government ministries that will undertake the actions included in the Regulation and guarantee mercial terms and promotes it to a better position in the market, stabilising it and often improving its operativity. its price vs. other existing brands, provided that there is in all cases a basis of quality and guarantee supporting the product, which is what is pursued with the guaranteed and quality brand figures. 9.5. Case study: the collective brand “Crianza del Mar”

Collective brands are brands that cover a group of producers who offer a product with The collective brand “Crianza del Mar” was set up in 2005. It protects the gilthead sea bream common characteristics that identify it to consumers as one whose characteristics are completely and sea bass species produced in aquaculture in Spain. homogeneous. It should be said that no differential quality is implicit in a collective brand, and this is an element adopted by the brand, with the standard and regulation evident in the brand rules. The reasons for establishing this quality brand are the following: In this sense, initiatives have been set up, including the creation of brands as “crianza del mar” (sea- • The establishing of a brand for promoting mariculture products, with the ensuing repercus- farmed), which is used to denote gilthead sea bream and sea bass with differential quality. sion on sales • The objective of being a distinctive brand for gilthead sea bream and sea bass produced in Guaranteed brands are instruments for protecting a potentially large number of brands of di- Spanish aquaculture facilities, as opposed to those from other countries verse products from one family (e.g., foods) which safeguard the excellent quality of the products • Through the implantation of the brand in companies, which entails complying with a series protected. These brands are usually owned by public entities for the purpose of promoting regio- of strict production, sanitary and environmental requirements, improvements can be brought nal products, as is the case of “Calidad Certificada” (Certified Quality) in Andalusia, among others. about in fish production and marketing processes In such cases, the body supervising compliance with the regulations (the owner of the brand) is • The use of the brand implies the development of aquaculture that shows a respect for the independent from the associated producers. environment and is in keeping with sustainable development undertakings

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Affiliation to the brand is voluntary and does not entail an obligation for the producers, but it does mean undertaking to respect a series of quality standards in production processes and a res- pectful attitude towards the environment. These aspects are considered to be greatly appreciated by consumers and in short, are intended to improve the commercial position of the producers of the brand. However, all the above would be useless if not set down in a standard and a disciplinary system covering the correct use of the brand.

Of all the legal options available for protecting products that deserve to be considered apart, the most appropriate for this case are those set out in Act 17/2001 of 7 December 2001, on Brands, and the regulations thereof (Royal Decree 687/2002 of 12 July 2002, approving the exe- cution of the Brands Act 17/2001, of 7 December 2001). The figures included in this Act are: the brand (sensu stricto), the collective brand and the guaranteed brand. Of these figures, it was decided to adopt the Collective Brand due to being the one that was best adapted to the particular circumstances of the aquaculture sector for gilthead sea bream, sea bass and turbot.

The Collective Brand is a method for “distinguishing the products or services of the members of an association owning the brand covering the products or services of other companies in the market” (art. 62.1). This type of brand must be governed by a usage-based regulation which, nonetheless, does not necessarily include the certification of quality characteristics for the products covered.

9.6. Recommendations • Continuing research into improvements and more effective conservation methods, whilst maintaining the sensory and nutritive properties of aquaculture products • Develop new products with the prevalent condition based on “healthy eating” • Continue to create guaranteed brands (sensu lato) to optimise the product image and quality • The development and implementation of specific quality standards for aquaculture

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10. Diversification of markets

10.1. Introduction and background

When aquaculture products are marketed, they are marketed as simply one more aquatic product. Their competitive advantage or disadvantage has more to do with their intrinsic characteristics than with their aquaculture origin, and factors such as the fact that they are foods and their availability and price are considered over and above their aquaculture origin.

Many market studies have been conducted7 which indicate that the factors that consumers take into account the most when buying fish are (1) its appearance (apparent freshness), (2) its price, (3) its presentation, (4) the species and (5) other available information. Whether or not an aquatic product is captured or farmed ranks 6th in importance, and is therefore not a relevant factor in the purchase decision of consumers.

The benefits of aquaculture products must respond correctly to those preferences. The conducting of detailed market studies is essential for undertaking the diversification of markets with any degree of success. Even so, the opening up of new markets is a lengthy process which only yields results in the mid-term.

Since aquaculture is a productive activity subject to considerable controls, in theory it has more advantages than captured fish in terms of selectively satisfying the demands of consumers. However, the farming of species in aquaculture also involves restrictions which pose limits on obtaining ideal products. There are biological limitations, such as the current lack of possibilities of farming certain species of enormous interest, technical limitations such as the difficulty in subs- tantially increasing the individual size of each fish, and biological limitations such as the complex nature of farming fish in which processing gives rise to fewer losses.

The control of production processes in aquaculture animals, particularly their feeding and reproduction, will, in the near future, enable greater progress to be made in optimising their characteristics in the eyes of consumers, in keeping with the philosophy of functional foods.

10.2. Orientation to production as opposed to market orientation

Traditionally, aquaculture arose as an activity orientated at production. Faced with the existence of traditional markets in which the demand for fish was not satisfied due to declining captures, aquiculture took advantage of the situation to launch similar fish in the market. The efforts made by aquaculture companies were at that time focused on optimising technical and production issues in order to produce larger quantities which the market accepted without any problem. However, over the years, in view of the progressive market saturation, aquaculture has had to redirect its efforts towards market development.

7. Findings from a recent study on perception of aquaculture products in France. AGRIMER. Presented on April 16th, 2010 at an OECD conference. Paris.

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10.3. Differentiation of products sed on age, gender, family size, education and economic possibilities, and others. In addition, other differentiation factors exist, such as per capita fish consumption, local preferences, consumption The strategic positioning of companies must be directed at the market orientation of aqua- at home as opposed to outside the home, etc. Company strategies must search for the most culture. There are two directions or strategies and both are equally valid. Companies can deci- appropriate consumer segments and take advantage of differentiation factors in which they have de to product large volumes and compete in price. This involves using advanced technologies, a competitive advantage over their competitors. applying a cost economy and having a strong commercial organisation. The second option consists of focusing on finding market gaps, betting on quality, selective marketing and customer service. 10.5. Diversification of geographical markets

In both cases, a transition has been observed over time from putting generic products on The consumption of aquatic products in certain countries depends on the culture, history, sale towards putting differentiated products on sale, i.e.., products endorsed by a brand. This is es- gastronomic traditions and religious beliefs of those countries. It is a complex task to launch a sential aimed at achieving a mental association among consumers between a specific product and new type of fish in a market, whether or not a high quantity of fish is consumed in that market its manufacturer. Product differentiation is essential in opening up new markets, to prevent efforts or whether the consumption of aquatic products is low. Nevertheless, in view of the recognised in promotion being used by others who produce the same product. This differentiation may be nutritional properties of fish and the efforts of governments to increase its consumption, the per individual, regional or even national. capita intake is increasing, especially in countries where fish is not usually consumed much. All in all, there are increasing market opportunities. Individual differentiation enables companies to take advantage of investments in advertising and promotion. The recognition of a brand is achieved through the brand logo. In the European Each aquatic product market requires fish with different characteristics. In general, in markets Union, regional differences are usually based on Protected Designations of Origin (PDO) or Pro- where fish is not traditionally consumed, the acceptance of new fish comes through providing fish tected Geographical Indications (GDI), as is the case of the PDO of mussels produced in Galicia cleaned, filleted and without bones or skin, whereas more mature markets with a greater gastro- (Mexillón de Galicia). nomic culture of eating fish accept many other formats.

Lastly, national differentiation links the production of a country with the image of that country. The first step to be taken by a company in extending its traditional market is usually taken in A good example would be marine products from Norway, promoted by the Norwegian Seafood its own country. Knowledge of the language, culture, habits and commercial mechanisms facilitates this first level of geographical expansion. In large countries, considerable differences may exist in Exports Council (NORGE). This organisation the consumption of fish in terms of the quantities consumed and the species preferred. has set up powerful promotions in markets all over the world for Norwegian salmon, the origin On the other hand, in the eyes of consumers, many fish species are replaceable or interchan- of which is associated with a series of guaran- geable with others. For instance, white fish may be launched in a market as a substitute for another tees and quality. better-known species of fish.

10.4. Market segmentation Given the overwhelming number of small or middle-sized companies engaging in aquaculture, aquaculture producers tend to undertake expansion into new markets on a collective basis, sup- Any type of market diversification must ported by their national governments. The existence of agencies which promote exportation in be aimed at placing the correct product in the many countries (for instance the Foreign Trade Institute (ICEX) in Spain) and commercial attachés correct format in the correct market segment, in embassies often take the first steps in opening up international markets. at the correct time and at the correct price. In this respect, it is important to bear in mind that There are many channels for promoting aquaculture products in new geographical markets. markets are not monolithic or homogeneous, One is worth mentioning, due to its potential and the scant use made of it up to now. Tourism is but segmented into clearly different parts. Con- a reality that allows many people to explore new countries and gastronomic habits. This can be Figure 14. Commercial poster for Galician mussels. sequently, there are certain consumer groups ba- used to advantage to convince tourists of the positive effects of certain species of fish with the (Source: Mejillón de Galicia website)

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aim of selling them to these tourists once they return home. One example is the positive image The benefits that clients are searching for in aquaculture products are stable, competitive pri- of the Mediterranean and the Mediterranean diet, which could be impressed on the many millions ces, a long shelf life for the fish along and a regular supply that is predictable in terms of dates and of tourists who visit Spain, Italy or Greece each year, with the objective of subsequently sending quantities, reliable in logistical terms, homogeneous and certified with respect to quality, uniform in shipments of gilthead sea bream, sea bass or meagre from the Mediterranean to their homes. respect of sizes and with the necessary hygienic-sanitary controls. On the contrary, the limitations imposed on aquaculture producers with respect to their clients are the great pressure brought to 10.6. Diversification based on types of market bear on them by large companies, which are in many cases, multinationals, and the marketing of what are usually generic products, thereby making it easy to change suppliers. Most aquaculture production on a global scale is aimed at obtaining food for people, in the form of fish, molluscs, crustaceans and algae. However, other interesting markets exist of different Consumers of aquaculture products are searching for benefits regarding price, nutritional types, which could be explored by aquaculture products, while making a contribution to aqua- values, freshness and gastronomic quality, ease of preparation for cooking, food safety and respect culture sustainability. These destinations of production, even though smaller in tonnage terms, are for the environment in production. In addition, the limits posed by the above causes harm to the usually specialised and can sometimes prove to be extremely profitable. image of aquaculture products and conservative attitudes in accepting new products.

They can be summarised as follows: 10.8. Trust in products for opening up new markets • Angling • Environmental repopulation The globalisation factor in the supply of aquatic products has led to the establishing of a • Aquariums complex certification system, with a view to guaranteeing the characteristics of the products or • Microalgae as food their production systems to third parties. These guarantee systems aim to overcome the gap that • Microalgae as fuels exists between producers and marketers, or between producers and consumers. • Scientific research • Pharmaceuticals Certification is particularly relevant as a tool for opening up new markets, given the presence • Using fish processes waste of modern commercial structures. Compliance with the certification requirements leads to faster acceptance of the products. The aspects they cover vary from environmental, social and animal 10.7. Identification of targets welfare issues to food safety issues. These certifications are targeted at the producer’sclients and also at consumers. In the first case, reference is often made to B2B (Business to Business) certi- In planning expansion in new markets, there is no room for error. To that end, it is essential to ficates and usually consists of guarantees regarding the characteristics of the fish which include clearly identify the targets in each activity. In this respect, the figure of theclient must be distinguis- freshness, composition of the feed, veterinary treatments permitted and others. hed from that of the consumer. The client or marketer is the intermediary who buys the farmed fish and then supplies it to consumers. On the other hand, the consumer is the final recipient in In the second case, they are known as B2C (Business to Consumer) certifications and usually the marketing chain. provide guarantees about the production methods, in terms of environmental protection, social In negotiating their pur- justice or animal welfare. The present collection of Guides on the Sustainable Development of chases, clients look for different Mediterranean Aquaculture undertook an exhaustive study of the certifications topic in its third characteristics to those sought issue8, and established their importance as tools for the sustainable development of aquaculture. by consumers, but the satisfaction of future consumers is also 10.9. Case study: Norway in action in the markets a necessary prerequisite for the client. Making a clear distinction The opening up of new markets requires not only an important monetary outlay, but also between these differences is of highly qualified professionals and organisations. One of the most reputed organisations in this vital importance in all situations, Photograph 9. Gilthead sea bream in point of sale © Javier Ojeda 8. UICN (2010). Guide for the Sustainable Development of Mediterranean Aquaculture 3. above all, in new markets. Aquaculture: Responsible Practices and Certification. IUCN Gland, Switzerland and Málaga, Spain. vi+78 pages.

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sense is NORGE (the Norwegian Seafood Exports Council), which was set up in 1991. Norway exports fish farmed in aquaculture and in the wild to 150 countries. Farmed salmon is its star product. Every year, NORGE draws up a report on its activities in more than 20 different markets. Its headquarters are in Tromso (Norway) and it has offices in China, Japan, Russia, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Singapore and Brazil.

NORGE organises advertising campaigns in stores and restaurants, inserts ads in the local press, carries out communication activities and takes part in organising activites for consumers and distributors. All these activities are paid for by the Norwegian aquaculture producers and fisheries.

The mission of NORGE is to foster competitiveness in the Norwegian aquaculture sector and fisheries. Another of its activities is to provide information for its members.

The NORGE website (www.seafoodfromnorway.com) is offered in 12 languages and contains fish recipes, tips about purchasing and cooking, information about products and company contact data.

Figure 15. Detail of the NORGE website (Source: NORGE website)

10.10. Recommendations • The diversification of markets offers important sustainability elements in aquaculture • The competitiveness of an aquaculture product depends on how it responds to consumer preferences. In this respect, the most relevant issues are apparent freshness, price, presentation and species • Diversification should be based on market-development strategies, focusing on the study, analysis and promotion thereof

96 Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

11. Appendixes

11.1. Abbreviations

FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations

R+D+i Research, development and innovation. ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management GIS Geographic Information System ICV lInstituto Cartográfico Valenciano (Cartographic Institute of Valencia) SA Sociedad Anónima (Public Limited Company) SCI Site of Community Interest IMTA Integrated Multitrophic Aquaculture JACUMAR Junta Asesora de Cultivos Marinos (National Mariculture Advisory Board) APROMAR Asociación Empresarial de Productores de Cultivos Marinos (Spanish Association of Mariculture Producers) EU European Union EC European Comission IFOAM International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements t. Tons m. Metre l. Litre ml. Millilitre g Gram mg Milligram FAWC Farm Animal Welfare Council Sq. M. Square metre Cu. m. Cubic metre WWTE Wastewater Treatment Equipment Kg. Kilograms ºC Degrees centigrade h. Hours mm. Millimetre Sq. cm Square centimetre ppm Parts per million Ha. Hectare TAP Transformed Animal Proteins Kcal. Kilocalories art. Article OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development PDO Protected Designation of Origin PGI Protected Geographical Indication UICN International Union for Conservation of Nature

99 11 Appendixes Diversification in aquaculture: A tool for sustainability

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Cañavate, G. Martinez-Rodriguez, C.C. Mylonas, J. Cerdá. 2006. Induction of tamate supplementation. CIAC’09 (Cephalopod International Advisory Council). 3 al 11 de septiembre spawning of captive-reared senegal sole (Solea senegalensis) using different administration methods for de 2009. Vigo, España. gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist. Aquaculture, 257:511-524. • Chopin, T., AH. Buschmann, C.Halling, M. Troell, N. Kautsky, A. Neori, GP Kraemer, C. Yarish y C. Neefus. • Aguirre E., García N., Cárdenas S. (2006). Influencia de la Temperatura de Incubación en la Supervivencia 2001. Integrating seaweeds into marine aquaculture systems: a key toward sustainability. Journal of Phy- y el Desarrollo de Huevos y Larvas de Hurta Pagrus auriga (Pisces: Sparidae) Durante la Primera Semana cology, 37: 975-986. de Vida. Comunicación científica – CIVA 2006. pp-1267-1278. • Chopin, T.2006. Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture.Nothern Aquaculture, 12(4): 4. • Anguis M.V., J.P. Cañavate. 2005. 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• Sandbol, P. 1993. FEDNA Nuevas tecnologías en la producción de harina de pescado para piensos. Im- 11.3. Information about the authors plicaciones sobre la evaluación de la calidad. IX Curso de especialización FEDNA. Barcelona, 8 y 9 de Noviembre. Francisco J. Espinós Gutiérrez. Head Professor of the Animal Science Department at Valencia • Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Animal Health and Welfare on a request from the European Com- Polytechnic University (UPV). Director of the UPV ACUMA (Aquaculture and the Environment) mission on animal welfare aspects of husbandry systems for farmed European seabass and Gilthead Research Group, Director of RIIA-CV (Aquaculture Industries Innovation Network Association in seabream. (2008). The EFSA Journal (2008) 844, pp 1-21. the Region of Valencia) and Director of the DIBAQ-UPV Aquaculture Chair. • Secretan, P.A.D. (2008). Aquaculture insurance industry risk analysis processes. In M.G. Bondad-Reantaso, J.R. Arthur and R.P. Subasinghe (eds). Study on understanding and applying risk analysis in aquaculture. Francisco J. Ruiz Sánchez. He obtained a B. Sc. and Ph. D. in Biological Science from Valencia FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper. No. 519. Rome, FAO. pp. 229–245. University and is the author of one hundred scientific communications. He occupied different • Seixas, P., A. Otero, C. Aragão, LM.P. Valente y M. Rey-Méndez. 2009. Crecimiento y supervivencia de para- posts in Valencia Regional Environmental and Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Department bet- larvas de pulpo (Octopus vulgaris Cuvier, 1797) alimentadas con juveniles de Artemia suplementados con ween 1992 and 2007. He is an Expert at the Association of Fish Farming Companies of Valencia aminoácidos libres. XII Foro dos Recursos Mariños e da Acuicultura das Rías Galegas. 8 y 9 de Octubre de 2009. O Grove, España. (AVEMPI). Between 2008 and 2010 he acted as the Representative of the Pescaplus Mediterrea- • Shpigel, M., A. Neori, DM. Popper y H.Gordin. 1993a. A proposed model for “environmentally clean” nean Office (Innovamar Foundation – Valencia Polytechnic University) and has been an Associate lansed culture of fish, bivalves and seaweeds. Aquaculture, 117:115-128. Professor at Valencia University since 1999. • Shpigel, M., J. Lee, B. Soohoo, R. Fridman y H. Gordin 1993b.The use of effluent water from fish ponds as a food source for the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. Aquaculture & Fisheries Management, 24: 529-543. Manuel Segarra Mañes. He obtained a degree in Technical Agricultural Engineering, specia- • Silva G., Claudio, Olivari M., Rodolfo y Yany G., Gabriel. Determinación de distritos de aptitud acuícola lising in Livestock Farming in 2009 from Valencia Polytechnic University and has a specialisation mediante la aplicación de sistemas de información geográfica . Investig. mar. [online]. 1999, vol.27 [citado scholarship at the ACUMA Research Group in the same University, mainly in the environmental, 22 Julio 2007], p.93-99. fisheries and aquaculture fields. He has taken part in implementing and executing regional and • Silverstein, JT., Shearer KD., Dickhoff WW., Plisetskaya EM. 1999. Regulation of nutrient intake and energy national projects. balance in salmon. Aquaculture, 177: 161-169. • Southgate, P., Wall, T., 2001. Welfare of farmed fish at slaughter. In Practice 23, pp 277. Jerónimo Chirivella Martorell. He has a Ph. D. in Biology from Valencia University, and is • Tacon. A. 1990. Standard Methods for the Feeding of Farmed Fish and Shrimp. Argent Laboratories Press, Technical Director in the company Alevines del Mediterráneo S.L.U., which engages in providing Redmond, Washington U.S.A. nursery facilities for gilthead sea bream and sea bass in closed circuits. He is a university lecturer • Tacon, A. 2004. Use of fish meal and fish oil in aquaculture: a global perspective. Aquat. Resour. Cult. Dev. in the aquaculture and fisheries area, at the Sea Sciences department of the Catholic University 1, 3-14. of St. Vicent the Martyr in Valencia. • Troell, M., C. Halling, A. Neori, T. Chopin, A.H. Buschmann, N. Kautsky, C. Yarish. 2003. Integrated mariculture: asking the right questions Aquaculture, 226: 69-90. Evaristo L. Mañanós Sanchez. He has a Ph. D in Biology from Valencia University (1993) • Turnbull J.F.(2010). Stocking Density. www.fishwelfare.net. and has worked as a Full-time Scientist by the Spanish National Scientific Council (CSIC) at the • Turnbull J.F., Bell A., Adams C., Bron J., MacIntyre, C. & Huntingford F.A. (2004). Stocking density and wel- Aquaculture Institute of Torre la Sal (IATS) in Castellón since 2001. He has cooperated as a joint fare of cage farmed Atlantic salmon: application of a multivariate analysis. Aquaculture. 243, pp 121-132. • UICN (2010). Guía para el Desarrollo Sostenible de la Acuicultura Mediterránea 3. Acuicultura: Prácticas investigator in the “Center of Marine Biotechnology” (Baltimore, MD, USA; 1994-1996) and at Responsables y Certificación. Gland, Suiza y Málaga, España: UICN. vi+78 páginas. Rennes University (France, between 1997-1998). He is currently responsible for the research • Van de Nieuwegiessen P. G., Verreth J.A.J. & Schrama J.W. (2006). The Effects of Stocking Density on group “Endcrinology in the reproduction of fish and diversification of aquaculture” at IATS. Welfare Indicators in African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus, Burchell, 1822). Libro de actas de la conferencia internacional AQUA 2006 – Sociedad Mundial de Acuicultura. Eduardo Soler Torres. (1960). He has a Ph. D. in Biology from Valencia University (1996), and • Vazzana, M., Cammarata, M., Cooper, E.L., Parrinello, N. (2002) Confinement stress in seabass (Dicentrar- has devoted most of his professional career to studying the marine environment and to aquacul- chus labrax) depresses peritoneal leukocyte cytotoxicity. Aquaculture 210, pp 231– 243. ture, initially in the Hydraulic Engineering Dept. of Valencia Polytechnic University and from 1999 • Watanabe, T. 2002. Strategies for further development of aquatic feeds. Fisheries Sci, 68, 242-252. as Technical Director of PISCIMAR S.L., and from 2010 as Quality and Environmental Manager in • Webster C., Lim C.E.,2002. Nutrient Requirements and Feeding of Finfish for Aquaculture. CABI GRUPO ANDRÓMEDA. He continues to hold this post at the present time. Publishing. UK. p 418. • Zamora, S. 2006. Cultivo y Alimentación de Peces. Acuicultura III. Universidad Internacional del Mar. José Luis Muñoz. He has a Degree in Biology from Seville University. At present he is em- Aulas del Mar. 2006. ployed by El Toruño Centre, at the Institute of Research and Training in Agriculture and Fisheries

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of the Department of Agriculture and Fisheries of the Regional Government of Andalusia, where José María Santiago Sáez. He has a Degree in Biology and since 1990, has worked as a con- his functions include research, transfer and training in aquaculture. He has published several stu- sultant in the environmental, fisheries and aquaculture fields. He has participated in executing dies in specialised congresses and journals and is a member of the Spanish Aquaculture Society and managing more than 200 projects. He is the Founder Partner and Director of the company Management Council. Estudios Biológicos, and currently works as an independent consultant for different public administrations and companies from the private sector. He has executed missions in Spain and in Clive Dove. He has a Degree in Marine Science from Cádiz University and is currently un- Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Mauritania, Namibia, Mozambique) and South America (Peru, Bolivia and dertaking Ph. D. studies at Valencia Polytechnic University. His current occupation is Project Ma- Colombia) nager in the Fisheries and Agriculture Division of the INNOVAMAR Foundation and he has wide experience in fish farming in different public and private facilities in the Region of Valencia. He is a Javier Ojeda González-Posada. He has a Degree in Biology and a Master’s Degree in Ocea- member of the aquaculture work group and group of representatives of the Spanish Technological nography and has fourteen years’ experience in mariculture fish- farming companies in Spain, the Fisheries and Aquaculture Platform (STFAP) and of the Knowledge Management Thematic Area USA, and Ireland. Since 2003 he has been working as Managing Director of the Spanish Associa- of the European Aquaculture Technology and Innovation Platform (EATIP) work group. tion of Mariculture Producers (APROMAR). He works for the General Spanish State Administra- tion, Regional Authorities and trade union organisations and national and European organisations. Rodolfo Barrera Orozco. He has a Ph. D in Veterinary Science and is the Managing Director He is known in particular for his work performed for the European Commission on the Fisheries of Valenciana de Acuicultura, S.A. He has been working on closed-circuit systems for more than 26 and Agriculture Consultative Committee, for the European Parliament, the FAO and the Euro- years and has directed or taken part in 30 30 research projects in Spain and overseas. He is the pean Federation of Aquaculture Producers (FEAP) author of 42 scientific publications and congress reports and is deeply committed to the aquaculture sector. He is President of the Association of Fish Farming Companies of Valencia, of the Luis Ambrosio Blázquez. He has a Degree in Biology and since 1989, has worked as a con- Spanish Federation of Health Defence Groups, of the Region of Valencia Health Defence Group sultant on fisheries, aquaculture and marine biosphere topics. He is currently Managing Director and of the Innovation Network in Aquaculture Industries. of the consultant firm Proyectos Biológicos y Técnicos s.l. (PROBITEC). In relation to Fisheries and Agriculture, he has collaborated with different public administrations and companies from the pri- Rubén Tahiche Lacomba Sobrino. He has a Degree in Biology from Valencia University vate sector, and in particular, with respect to work on fisheries executed for the General Marine (1992-1997) and training as a polyvalent ship’s captain, yacht captain, 2-star diver, level 1 survival Secretariat related to extractive fishing, subsidies, marketing and improvements in the quality of at sea, level 1 fire fighting skills, occupational risk prevention and sailing skills. He is current Mana- fishery products and the environmental interactions of fishing and socio-economic impact of the ging Director of Andrómeda Ibérica Group s.a. fishing industry, etc. He has also taken part in international cooperation projects and missions in Africa and in South America for the Spanish Agency of International Cooperation for Develop- Sebastià Balasch i Parisi. He is a Professor in the Department of Statistics and Operational ment. Research applied to Quality at Valencia Polytechnic University and is the author of many scientific communications (published in Spanish and international journals specialising in ISI, congress reports, conferences, etc.) and has taken part in many projects financed in public and private calls.

José Luis Tejedor del Real, (Segovia, 1979). He has a Ph. D. in Veterinary Science from Madrid Complutense University and has spent time at the Center for Fish Diseases, Oregon (USA) and DPIWE, Tasmania (Australia). He was awarded a scholarship by the Animal Health Laboratories VISAVET at Madrid Complutense University where he focused his research on Me- diterranean aquaculture, Mediterranean ictiopathology and molecular biology. He is current Head of the R+D+i department of Grupo DIBAQ and coordinator of the project CENIT ACUISOST “Sustainable Aquaculture”.

Jordi López Ramón. He has a Degree in Veterinary Science from CEU San Pablo Universi- ty of Valencia and is currently Technical Veterinary Director of the Aquaculture Health Defence Group of the Region of Valencia (ADS ACUIVAL) and coordinator of the Technical Committee of the Spanish Federation for Health Defence in Aquaculture (SFHDA).

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GOBIERNO MINISTERIO DE ESPAÑA DE MEDIO AMBIENTE, Y MEDIO RURAL Y MARINO