Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-89616-0 — Climate Analysis Chester F

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-89616-0 — Climate Analysis Chester F. Ropelewski , Phillip A. Arkin Index More Information

Index

AAO. See Antarctic Oscillation AMIP. Section 11.5.1 Accuracy, 12, 55, 128, 133 AMOC, 100, 102, 113 buoys vs ship SST, 171 Analysis/forecast systems, 54, 59 datasets, in, 30 Annual Cycle, 8, 12–13, 28, 85, 293 model, in, 241 climate change, 104, 106

relative IR vs microwave satellite, 161 CO2, 11, 115 temperature observations, 128 equatorial Pacific SST, 268 Acidification Hadley circulation, 69 ocean, 120 land surface temperature, 85 impacts, 120 Mediterranean, 230 Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer, 196 numerical models, in, 235, 245 Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-Earth precipitation, 66, 85, 160 Observing System sea ice AMSR-E, 196 Antarctic, 204 Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer, 216, Arctic, 203 221 sea level pressure, 79 Advection sea surface temperature, 82, 85 sea ice, 204 snow, 205 vorticity, 75 solar radiation, 52 Aerosols, 9, 22, 51, 122, 223 variance, 95, 101 in models, 236 vegetation, 213 NDVI observations, influence on, 222 velocity potential, 76 sst observations, influence on, 173 water budget, 224 volcanic, 112 Antarctic Oscillation (AAO), 94 Agents Arabian Sea, 73 biosphere, 7 Arctic Oscillation (AO), 94, 202 forcing, 1, 7 Argo Aircraft floats. Section 8.5.1.2 drones, 46 Asian Monsoon, 73, 76, 89 observations, 71, 130, 150, 195, 214 ASOS, 47, 128, 191, 193 Albedo, 5, 52 Assimilation, 50, 234 aerosols, 112 data, 27, 54 cloud, 226 Argo, 185 global analysis, of, 225 constrained models, 235 in radiation budgets, 226 ECMWF, 56 sea ice, 5 JMA, 56 snow, ice, 6, 14, 59, 111, 193, 201 NASA GMAO, 56 sulfate, 9 NASA MERRA, 57 vegetation, 10 NOAA CFSR, 57 Algorithm, 30, 50, 53, 151, 153, 158 precipitation, 58 precipitation estimates, 158, 160, 162–163 data constraints in climate models, 54 radiation budget, 242 Global Ocean Data Assimilation System verification, of, 242 (GODAS), 60

328

Index 329

Land Data Assimilation Systems LDAS, 227–228 temperature radiances, 236 location change, 134 systems, 42, 48 trends, 140 Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation. XBT See AMOC adjustments, 182 Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation descent-rate, 182 AMO, 101 Biome, 215 ATLAS buoys, 185 Biosphere, 7, 114 Atmospheric Model Inter-comparison Project, 175 Bjerknes, 95, 97, 187 Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Blocking, 91 Program, 220, 222 Blue Hill Observatory (BHO), 280 ARM Mobile Facilities (AMF), 223 Boreal Ecosystem-Atmosphere Study (BOREAS), Australasian Monsoon. See Asian Monsoon 228 Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BoM), 263 Boreal summer AVHRR. See Advanced Very High Resolution precipitation, 85 Radiometer Boundary conditions, 235 AWOS, 128, 281 in early climate models, 237 in reanalysis, 59 Balloon, 256 for regional models, 245 early observations, 44 Boundary layer, 59, 168, 185 instrumented. See radiosondes Brazilian National Institute of Space research pilot, 44 (INPE), 264 Barometer, 42 Breeze Baseline Surface Radiation Network (BSRN), 222 land, 13, 212 Bathythermograph mountain/valley, 211 expendable sea, 13, 211 XBT, 182 British Antarctic Survey, 199 Beaufort Budget calculations, 37 sea, 202 residual, 37 wind scale, 71 Budget momentum, radiation, water, energy. Beaufort, Francis, 71 Section 2.5, Appendix D BHO. See Blue Hill Observatory Bulletin Bias, 45, 246–247 American Meteorological Society, 267 buoys Climate Diagnostics, 93, 258 ATLAS vs TRITON, 186 Weekly Weather and Crop, 221 corrections, 30, 134, 175 Buoy networks data, 27 PIRATA, 171 example, 33–34 RAMA, 171 instrument change TAO/TRITON, 171 example, 136 Buoys minimizing, 81 Global Drifter Program (GDP), 171 in models, 61 moored, 171 precipitation radar vs gage, 163 Cambrian, 111 satellite vs gage, 164 Canadian Meteorological Center, 275 satellite vs models, 165 Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA), 166 reduction in climate monitoring, 280 Carbon cycle, 15, 213, 220 satellite Carbon dioxide, 9, 15, 51, 107, 115, 120, beam ﬁlling, 153 213, 259 precipitation, 162 Center for Satellite Applications and Research sea ice concentration, 197 (STAR), 259 sea surface temperature Center for Weather Forecasting and Climate Studies adjustments, 174 (CPTEC) bucket, 170 Brazil, 276 corrections, 170 CESM satellite vs in situ, 82, 112, 170, 173 Community Earth System Model, 237 sunshine duration, 223 CFCs. See Chloroﬂourocarbon

330 Index

Chloroﬂourcarbon CloudSat, 165 stratosphere precipitation estimates, 178 ozone depletion, 10 CMIP, 243–244 Chlorophyll, 156 CMORPH, 163–164, See CPC MORPHing ocean color, 179 Analysis plant, 221 COADS. See ICOADS CIIFIN. See International Center for the Investigation Coherent climate variations, 113 of El Niño in models, 121 Climate Anomaly Data Base (CADB), 253 Coherent patterns. See Modes Climate applications, 40, 159, 279 Cold cloud Climate Assessment, 267 frequency Climate change precipitation estimate, 150–151 abrupt, 124 Cold episodes, 98, 201 Climate Change Initiative Land Cover Project La Niña, 95 ESA, 216 Cold tongue, 82 Climate Data Guide Committee on Earth Observation Satellites, NCAR/UCAR, 38, 58 265 Climate Data Records, 255 Commonwealth Scientiﬁc and Industrial Climate Diagnostics Center, 258 Research Organization (CSIRO) – Climate Diagnostics Database (CDDB), 257 Australia, 263 Climate Diagnostics Workshop, 19 Components, 2 Climate Divisions, 137, 281 Contour maps, 40, 53 Climate enterprise, 281, Section 12.4.2 elevation, 214 Climate forecast Convection, 69, 122 history in the U.S., 265–267 diuranal, 13 history of, 41 Coordinating Group for Meteorological Satellites, Climate Forecast System 265 NCEP, 57, 259 Copernicus Climate Change Service, 262 NCEP v2, 57 Copernicus program, 278 Climate model Sentinel data satellites, 262 PCMDI, 25 Core Observatory diagnostics, Section 11.5 Global Precipitation Measurement, 155 simulations Core Research for Evolutional Science and constrained vs unconstrained, Section 11.2.2 Technology (CREST), 164 unconstrained, 235 Coriolis force, 67, 82 Climate models Correlation. See Appendix A as data sources, 17 Cotton region shelter, 128 Climate monitoring. See Chapter 12 Coupled climate models, 61, 181, Section 11.2.3 Climate Prediction Center, 25, 57 AMOC, 101 Climate Prediction Center Merged Analysis of assimilation of Argo data, 185 Precipitation (CMAP), 161 ENSO, 121 Climate records, 24 ocean-atmosphere-land, 227–228 proxy, 100, 110 Coupling, 3, 6, 17, 65 Climate services, 61, 263, 279–280 biological, chemical, 178 Climate Services Partnership (CSP), 265 ENSO, 95, 97 Climate shift, 101 Global Land-Atmosphere Coupling Experiment Climate system component, 3, 7 (GLACE), 228 in reanalysis, 59 lack of, 95 Climatic Research Unit (CRU) in models, 235 U of East Anglia, 158, 253 ocean/atmosphere in the MJO, 102 Climatology, 19, 22 troposphere/stratosphere in the QBO, 98 CLIVAR, 264 CPC. See Climate Prediction Center Clouds, 47, 51 CPC MORPHing Analysis contamination, 37 precipitation estimates, 162 ISCCP, 52 Crop Moisture Index (CMI), 231 satellite precipitation estimates, in, 150 Crustal plates, 110

Index 331

DAAC. See NASA Distributed Active Archive Earth Explorer Center satellites, 262 Datasets Earth Radiation Budget Experiment, 52 climate monitoring Earth System Grid Federation (ESGF), 244 land/ocean, 258–259 ECMWF, 36, 53, 55, 61 reanalysis, 258 activities, 262 satellite, 259–260 CERA-20C, 61 upper air, 256–258 ERA-20C, 61 four-dimensional, 40 ERA-5, 61 global, 40, 63, 107, 136 history, 260 gridded, 26, 53, 140, 239, 252 Ekman transport popular, 141 sea ice, 205 reanalysis, 278 water, 82 gridded model output, 245 El Niño, 16, 168, Section 4.3.4.1, See ENSO model coupled oscillation, 65 Earth System Grid Federation, 244 historical, 85 satellite indices, 268 NASA/EOSDIS, 179 El Niño/La Niña Decadal variability, 100 monitoring, 276 influence of, 125 Electronically Scanning Microwave Radiometer role of subsurface ocean observations, 181 (ESMR), 196 snow cover, 202 Energy cycle, 15 use of blended SST dara, 175 Ensemble Kalman Filter, 58 use of reconstructed SST data, 177 ENSO, 16–17, 93, Section 4.3.4.1 Deep ocean, 4 components, 97 AMOC discussions, 276 overturning, 100 El Niño Southern Oscillation, 16 currents evolution, 97 density gradients, 180 history, 95 ice melting, influenced by, 121 ice core record, in, 206 influences, on the atmosphere, 181 interactions with other climate modes, 101 Defense Meteorological Satellite Program in models, 121 (DMSP) monitoring, 185 SSM/I instrument, 153 NINO indices, 268 Deforestation, 10, 114, 214 precipitation and temperature, associated with, Digital Elevation Model, 214 97 Dipole precipitation, influence on, 38 Atlantic, 186 predictions, 266, 276 Indian Ocean, 186 Regional Climate Outlook Forums, 277 Diurnal cycle, 13, 34, 48, 65 time scales, associated with, 90 in models, 241 variance, associated with, 95 sampling by satellite, 152, 160 Envisat SST, 171 ERS-1,ERS-2, 261 Divergence, 75–76, See Appendix B Equator-crossing time moisture, 224 drift, 221 Downscaling, 245 ERA-20C, 61 Drifting buoys, Section 8.2.2.2 ERA-20CM, 61 Dropsondes, 46 ERA-CLIM, 61 Drought, 228–229, Section 10.8 ERA-CLIM2, 61 multi-year, 100 Erratics, 198 Sahel, 20, 100 Eruptions See Volcanoes types, 229 volcanic, 1, 9 water cycle, 15 aerosols, 22 western Africa, 10 ash, 51 Drumlins, 198 cooling, 198 Dual-frequency Precipitation Radar (DPR), data, 113 155 dust, 205

332 Index

Eruptions (cont.) Forecast sulpher dioxide, 112 artificial skill, 272 surface temperature, 112 climatology, 266 EUMETSAT, 261–262 monthly/seasonal European Centre for Medium Range Weather CAC, 266 Forecasts. See ECMWF persistence, 266 European Community, 61, 165, 255, 260, 262, 278 weather, 20, 35, 40 European Organization for the Exploitation of analysis, 41 Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT), 61 early, 42 European Space Agency (ESA), 216, 261, 278 models, 53 soil moisture, 220 numerical, 27 Evaporation, 4, 15, Appendix D operational, 48 agricultural drought, 229 Fossil fuel, 11 excess, in models, 240 burning, 10–11, 15, 107, 114 measurements CO2 residence time, 116 lysimeter, 218 Fourier analysis. See Appendix A ocean salinity, 180 Freeboard from rain gages, 148 floating ice, 197 salinity estimates, 156 Freeze/thaw dates snow water equivalent estimates, in, 192 Lakes, ponds, rivers, 200 soil moisture estimates, in, 213 Frequency water budget, in, 37, 224 distribution water budget, in, 145 precipitation, 230 Water vapor, 43 of independent observations, 106 wet bulb temperature, 43 of observations, 131 Evapotranspiration, 37, 156, 213 data, 90 of occurance, 21 Federal Aviation Administration, 128, 191 histogram, 21 Feedback, 5 radars, in defined, 6 shift, 47 ice-albedo, 14, 111 radio loop, 111 RF, 51 in models, 237 rainfall. See Box 11.1 negaitve, 6 sampling, 25, 27 negative, 6 Frequency distribution. See Appendix A ocean-atmosphere Fresh water flux, 178, 181 MJO, 102 Frost point, 43 water vapor positive, 124 Gamma distribution, 22, 230 Ferrel cell, 68 General circulation, 35, 66–67, 69, 71 Field capacity, 213, 216 General Circulation Project, 53, 257 Field experiment GEO. See Orbit:Geostationary HAPEX, 228 Geologic ISLSCP eras FIFE, 228 Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic, 110 FIRE, 228 Phanerozoic eon, 109 Filtering Geological Survey (USGS), 214 of data, 27 Geopotential height, 40, 256–257, 265 Flood GEOS-5 Nile, 66, 107 NASA Flux corrections MERRA, 57 in models, 237 Geostationary Operational Environmental Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 216 Satellite Forcing GOES, 160 external, 1 GOES-EAST and GOES WEST, 261 human, 8 German Weather Service solar, 6 Deutscher Wetterdienst, 158

Index 333

GHCN. See Global Historical Climatological volcanoes Network influenced by, 112 Glacial Global temperatures period, 106 ENSO rebound, 120 influecned by, 114 Glaciers, 121, 189, 197 Global wind patterns, 35, 66, Section 4.1 calving, 199, 206 GMAO, 57, See Global Modelling and Assimilation mass balance, 199 System Office mountain, 120 NASA, 57 movement, 199 GOES Precipitation Index (GPI), 160 Global Argo Data Repository (GADR), 184 GRACE, 52 Global Atmospheric Research Program GARP Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment First GARP Global Experiment NASA, 156 FGGE, 261 groundwater storage, 225 Global Change Master Directory, 228 ice sheet mass, 199 Global Change Research Program Gravity waves, 98 GCRP, 55 Greenhouse effect, 9 Mission to Planet Earth (MTPE) runaway, 124 NASA, 259 scenarios Global Climate Observing System (GCOS), 264, IPCC, 125 279 ocean acidification, 120 Global Earth Observing System of Systems Greenhouse gas, 9, 11, Section 5.6.2 (GEOSS), 279 Carbon dioxide (CO2), 10 Global Energy and Water Exchanges Experiment CFCs, 10 (GEWEX), 228 methane, 10, 15, 116 Global Energy and Water Exchanges (GEWEX), animal sources, 123 264 permafrost, 201 radiation project, 226 observations Global Historical Climatological Network (GHCN), history, 115 133 projected changes, 124 Global Land Cover Facility (GLCF), 216 water vapor, 117 Global Land-Atmosphere Coupling Experiment Grid Analysis and Display System (GLACE). See Coupling GrADS, 292 Global Modeling and Assimilation Office Grid area, 26, 36, 141–142 GMAO digital elevation maps, 214 NASA, 56 versus grid points, 239 Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment observation vs model grids, 239 (GODAE), 184 probability density functions, 239 Global Precipitation Climatology Centre (GPCC) represent averages or indices, 239 German Weather Service, 158 snow cover, 193 Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP), Gridded temperature, 140 264 GSFC. See Goddard Space Flight Center Global Precipitation Climatology Project GPCP), 161 Hadley cell, 67–69 Global Telecommunications System (GTS), 33 Hadley Center, 187, 254 Global temperature Halley, 67 coastal sea level, 119 Heat island data urban, 140 for monitoring, 254 Heat waves, 90, 125, 254 data for analysis, 139 Histogram. See Appendix A real time monitoring, of, 128 defined, 21 role of sea surface temperature, in, 253 grid vs station, 142 time series, 15, 25 theoretical anomaly, 109 precipitation, 230 history, 117 Holocene as an Index of climate change, 118 geologic epoch, 110 proxy, 110 Hovmöller diagram, 268

334 Index

Humans Instrumental records and climate, 8–9 duration for AMOC studies, 100 land surface, altering, 209, 213 overlap with proxy data, 108 Humidity, 41 Instruments absolute, 43 infrared, 150, 173 dew point, 43 pyrogeometers, 222 laboratory measurement, 43 VIIRS, 222 relative, 43 passive microwave, 152–153, 196 speciﬁc, 43 pyroheliometers, 222 weather station observations, 42 pyrometers, 222 Hydroﬂuorocarbons visible, 221–222 HFCs Integrated Climate Data Center (ICDC), 212, ozone depletion, 123 216 Hydrological cycle. See Water cycle Interannual climate variability ENSO, 95 Ice caps, 5, 11, 15, 110, 119, 189, 198–199, 251, 261 monitoring, 267 Ice cores, 11, 15, 32, 100, 108, 122, 198, Section 9.6.4 Interglacial period, 106, 110, 206 CO2 in bubbles, 111, 116 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), dust, 198 125, 243, 264 isotopic concentrations, 205 Internal Ice sheets, 5, 52, 121, 189, 198 feedback, 105 mass balance, 199 interactions, 64, 105 melting, 206 modes, 95 monitoring variability, 105 GRACE, ICEsat, 199 Internal climate variations. See Modes Icebergs, 189, 199, 206 International Center for the Investigation of El Niño monitoring, 199 (CIIFIN), 264 IIP, 199 International Geosphere-Biosphere Program (IGBP), ICOADS, 174, 254 216 International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere International Precipitation Working Group (IPWG), Data Set, 169 160 Illinois State Water Survey (ISLS), 219 International Research Institute for climate and Index cycle, 91 society (IRI), 25, 264, 275 India Meteorological Department (IMD), 263 maprooms, 260, 264 Indian Ocean Convergence Zone (IOCZ), 89 International Satellite Land Surface Climatology Indices Project (ISLSCP), 228 ciruclation, 268 International Soil Moisture Network (ISMN), 219 climate monitoring, 93, 121 International Surface Pressure Databank (ISPD), 256 cryospheric, 189 Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), 89 drought, 229 Intraseasonal climate variability, Section 4.3.1 ENSO, 268 IPCC NAO, 93 AR-5, 11 NINO1&2, 268 Assessment Reports. See Box 5.1 NINO3.4, 268 cryosphere schematic, 190

NINO4, 270 pre-industrial CO2, 116 Ocean NINO Index (ONI), 268 Third Assessment Report, 3 Southern Oscillation, 95 IRI/LDEO Data Library, 85, 98, 119, 269, 272, 293 Infrared Irradiance radiation, 51 Integrated Surface Irradiance Study (ISIS), 222 Initial conditions, 27, 41, 53, 57, 60, 138, 237 total solar (TSI), 8, 14, 110 for ensemble forecasts, 266 Isobars, 2, 43 Land Surface Models, in, 227 mismatch, 240 Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and satellite based, 260 Technology (JAMSTEC), 185 INMET. See Brazilian Weather Service Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), 55, 263 Insolation JMA Climate Data Assimilation System (JCDAS), solar, 9, 105 56

Index 335

Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Metadata, 32 164 at archive centers, 34 Jason. See Ocean topography at NCEI, 133 Jet stream, 65, 71 weather station ENSO influence on, 97 elevation, 214 Southern hemisphere, 73 Meteorological Operational (METOP) satellite Jet streams, 69 program, 261 Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS), 164 Meteosat, 261 Meteosat Second Generation (MSG), 261 K. Wyrtki, 95 Microclimate, 4, 10, 31, 130, 201 Keeling Curve averaged CO2, 11 in grids, 239 Keeling, Ralph, 11 Milankovich cycles, 8 Model climate. Section 11.2.1 and 11.2.2 La Niña, 16, 96 Model validation. Section 11.4 impacts, 104 Model verification, 163 precipitation pattern, 99 Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer Lake ice, 200 MODIS, 216 Land cover. See Land type Modern-Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Land Long-Term Data Record, 222 Applications. See Reanalysis, NASA, Land surface models, 59, 210, 220, 227 MERRA Noah and VIC, 228 Modes. See AO, AAO, NAO, ENSO, PNA, MJO, Land Surface Models and Data Assimilation QBO Systems, Section 10.7 in climate models, 245 Land Surface Types of climate variability, 22, 90, 245 MODIS, 216 indices, 268 Land type, 210, 212, Section 10.2.3 Monsoon, 73 NASA Land Cover Types, 215 global Land use, 217 velocity potential, 76 changes Indian, 251 influence of, 34 prediction, 251 Landsat, 216 precipitation, 89, 95, 101 land use categories, 217 prediction, 263 LDAS. See Land Data Assimilation System under ridge, 76 Assimilation Monte Carlo testing. See Appendix A Leaf Area Index (LAI), 221 Montreal Protocol, 10, 123 Leeside trough, 211 Moraines, 198 LEO. See Orbit:Low Earth Multi-decadal climate variability. Section 4.3.4.3 Little Ice Age, 190, 198 Multi-Model Ensembles (MMEs), 266 Living Planet program National European Space Agency, 261 NMME, 275

Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO), 16 NAO index, 93 and ENSO, 102 NASA inﬂuence of, 85 Data Assimilation Ofﬁce, 54, 56 period, 91 Distributed Active Archive Center (DAAC), 25, RAMA, 186 267 Mathematical models, 2, 4, 40, 62 Global Precipitation Measrement (GPM) Mission, analysis revolution, 248 162 output Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS), data, 234 253 precipitation estimates Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC), 56 radar, 154 NASA/NOAA National Polar-orbiting Partnership radiances, 50 satellite Maunder Minimum. See Sunspot cycle Suomi satellite, 222 Mean seasonal cycle, 22, 64, Section 4.2 National Centers for Environmental Information Memory, 3 (NCEI). See NOAA

336 Index

NOAA radio occultation Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological gravity, 52 Laboratory, 182 salinity Climate Analysis Center (CAC), 252 Argo, 182 Earth System Research Laboratory (ESRL), sea ice 258 historical, 196 Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL), thickness, 197 35, 275 sea surface temperature (SST). Section 8.2.2 Long Range Prediction Group (LRPG), 252 sunshine, 223 NCEI temperature Global HIstorical Historical Network (GHCN), land, 127 253 Ocean Pacific Marine Invironmental Laboratory (PMEL), heat content, 186 185 mixed layer, 169, 272 Noah LSM. See Land surface models sea level, 107, Section 5.6.3 Sea Level Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), topography, 178 156, 221–222 accuracy, 178 North American Monsoon, 89 Ocean color, 114, 179 North American Soil Moisture Database (NASMD), Ocean currents 219 Agulhas, 180 North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), 20, 65, 202, Benguela, 180 268 California, 180 Northern Annular Mode. See Arctic Oscillation deep, 179 Nowcast, 252 Gulf Stream, 178, 180 Numerical models. Section 2.4.1 Humboldt, 180 Numerical weather prediction, 19 Kuroshio, 178 data assimilation, in, 237 Ocean Observatories Initiative (OOI), 258 Optimal Observations averaging. See Appendix A aircraft, 44, 46 climate normals, 266 atmospheric, 40, See Chapter 3 climate observing system, 280 monitoring, 251 ORAS4. See Reanalysis, ECMWF, Ocean cloud, 47 Reanalysis System 4 satellite, 52 Orbit icebeg. Section 9.3.2 geostationary, 48 in situ low Earth, 48 advantages of, 46 precessing, 152 disadvantages, 174 sun synchronous, 150 ocean, 182 outgoing longwave radiation (OLR), 160 soil moisture, 231 Outgoing Longwave Radiation (OLR), 91, 269 infrared Outlier, 27 precipitation, 150 Ozone SST, 173 greenhouse effect, 123 vegetation, 221 ground level, 123 kite, 44 stratospheric, 10, 123, 259 microwave, 51, 152 UV radiation, 123 active, 197 Ozone hole, 123 passive, 152–153 sampling, 152 Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), 101 passive Pacific North American (PNA) pattern, 93 salinity, 156 ENSO, 93 permafrost. Section 9.5 Paleozoic. See Geologic eras precipitation, 34, 146 Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI), datasets, 254 230 pressure Parameter-elevation Regressions on Independent sea level, 255 Slopes Model (PRISM), 141, radiation, 223 159

Index 337

Parameterizations, 23, 30, 228, 241–243 Process cycle, 12, 14, Section 1.5.2 Pathfinder program, 222 Profile Period of record, xiii, 25, 31 atmospheric active microwave data, of, 197 Occultation of Global Positioning System radio assimilation, for, 54 waves, 52 environmental changes, 35 radiosonde, 57 input data satellite, 236 reanalysis, in, 244 atmospheric properties, 52 precipitation analysis, in, 157 land trends over, 90 soil properties, 216 TRMM data, 163 oceanic Permafrost, 189 salinity, 179 Phase locking temperature, 182 ENSO, 97 spectral Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR), 221 blackbody, 50 Pixel. See Satellite data solar radiation, 8 Plate tectonics, 109 standard Polynyas, 204 atmospheric, 79 Precambrian, 109 vertical Precipitation precipitation, of, 154 analysis Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and CADB vs GHCN, 254 Intercomparison (PCMDI), 25 CMAP, 161 Pseudo-observations, 236 gage-based, 157 Psychrometer, 43 GPCP, 163 Public good, 279 IMERG, 162 merged, 161 Quasi-Biennial Oscillation (QBO) PERSIANN, 162 stratospheric, 98 remote, 159, Section 7.3.2 tropospheric, 99 remote and gage-based. Section 7.3.3 satellite-based radar, 162 Radar surface-based radar, 155, 160 altimeters, 120 TRMM radar, 154 frequency, in, 47 convective, 69, 92 precipitation estimates, 254 in climate studies, 155 example, 274 precipitation estimates, 149, See Chapter 7 – GSMaP, 162 Radar (Active Microwave) Methods passive microwave, 151 satellite, 51 quantitative, 160 vertically pointing, 47 radar, 153 Radar (RAdio Detection And Ranging), 47 soil moisture, 156 Radiances, 50, 236 surface properties, from, 155 Radiation high-latitude, 153 Earth’s model estimates, 156 emitted, 7 orographic, 153 refected. See Albedo remotely sensed, Section 7.2.2 solar, 8 statistical distributions, 230 incoming, 110 Precipitation Intercomparison Project (PIP), 161 reflected, 222, 226 Precision, 128 Total Solar Irradiance (TSI), 8 Predictability top of Earth’s atmosphere, 8 limits, 265 Radiometer, 48 Prediction and Research Moored Array precipitation remote sensing, 149 in the Tropical Atlantic (PIRATA), 186 Radiosondes, 44, 53, 70, 102, 224, 257 Pressure limits, 46 sea level, 42, 255 Rain gage. See Section 7.2.1 sea level vs surface, 79 tipping bucket, 148 surface, 61, 79 weighing, 147

338 Index

RAMA satellite microwave, 152 Research Moored Array for Africa – Asian – temperature, 140 Australian Monsoon Analysis and Prediction, spatial and temporal, 40 186 precipitation, 161 Random error, 27 reanalysis, 58 Rawinsondes, 45 Resolution 40 RCOF. See Regional Climate Outlook Forum World Meteorological Organization, 24 Reanalysis, 20, 24, 36, 58 Resolution 60 Arctic system World Meteorological Organization, 138 ASR, 58 Rocketsonde, 46 ECMWF Russian Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute, 199 ERA-15, 55 Rutgers Global Snow Laboratory, 194 ERA-40, 55–56 ERA-interim, 56 Salinity, 113 Ocean Reanalysis System 4, 60 currents ESRL transfered by, 177 20CR, 58 Mediterranean Sea, 180 JMA precipitation JRA-25, 55 proxy, 147 JRA-55, 56, 60 satelite estimates, 156 NASA variations, 181 GMAO, 56 Samples MERRA, 57 independent, 27, 29 NCEP Satellite Application Facilities (SAFs), 261 CFSR, 57, 61 Satellite data, 27, 30, 36–37 NCEPCFSv2, 57 assimlated in models, 54 NCEP/NCAR corrections, 36 version1, 55 pixels, 37 version2, 55 spatial resolution, 36 other compenents, 40–60 Satellites regional Earth orbiting, 8, 36, 48, 149, 154 NARR, 58 orbits. See Orbit Reconstruction Sea ice, 5, Section 9.2 Sea Ice Data and methodology. See Box 7.1 Observations precipitation. Section 7.4 analyses, 196 sea surface temperature, 176 Arctic extent Regional Climate Centers (RCC), 277 decreases, 120 Beijing Climate Center, 264 boundary, 175 Regional Climate Outlook Forums (RCOFs), concentration, 196 277 ERA-20CM Representativeness error, 236 boundary forcing, 61 Resolution extent requirements satellite observations, 196 rain gages, 157 fast, 195 satellite freezing point, 175 second generation, 163 historical observations, 195 satellite observations leads and polynyas, 195 LEO, 48 reanalysis, 59 spatial, 61 satellite estimates of, 50 Arctic reanalysis, 59 thickness, Section 9.22 GEO precipitation, 151 variations global temperature, 109 albedo, 189 LEO satellites, 150 Sea level. See Ocean topography rain gages, 162 measurements. See Tide gauges reanalysis, 55–57, 61 Sea surface temperature, 20, Section 8.2 regional reanalysis, 58 bucket vs intake, 170 satellite cloud data, 150 daily, 36

Index 339

datasets, 253 Soil properties, 212 defined, 169 Soil Water and Temperature System (SWATS), index, 29 220 influence, 59 Solar constant, 8, 112 monitoring, 271 Sources reconstructed ERSST, 177 in budgets, 37 satellite, 173 South Atlantic Convergence Zone (SACZ), sea ice, 196 89 seasonal cycle. Section 4.2.3 South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ), 89 spatial scale, 29 Southern Annular Mode (SAM). See Antarctic Seasonal cycle. See Annual cycle Oscillation Ship tracks, 171 Southern Oscillation. See ENSO Simulations. Section 11.2.1 Special Sensor Mcrowave/Imager (SSM/I), 153 model, 23 Spin-up Sinks model, 235 in budgets, 37 SST. See Sea surface temperature Sir Gilbert Walker, 92, 247 Stan Hayes, 185 Siting Standard Rain Gage, 148 precipitation gages, 149 Standard Solar Model, 110 Skewed distribution, 21 State of the Climate SNOTEL AMS Bulletin, 267 Snow Telemetry observing network, 192 Station pressure Snow conversion to sea level pressure, 42 depth, 192 Stationarity, 30 falling Statistical significance. See Appendix A microwave estimates, 165 Statistical techniques firn, 197 Empirical Orthogonal Functions, 28, 140 lake effect, 200 reconstructed fields, 166, 176 liquid water equvalent. See Snow Water objective analysis, 53, 158 Equivalent principal component analysis, 30, See snow course, 192 Appendix A snowfall, 193 spectral analysis, 27 snowpack. Section 9.1.3 Basin Snowpack superposed epoch analysis Snow cover composite, 27 variability. Section 9.6.1 Stevenson Screen, 128 Snow Water Equivalent. Section 9.1.4 Storm tracks, 65, 71 Snowboard. Section 9.1.1 Snowfall mid-latitude, 89 Soil Climate Analysis Network (SCAN), 219 Stratosphere. Section 4.3.4.2 Soil moisture. Section 10.5.1 links to tropospheric weather, 99 in budgets, 224 Stratospheric variability. See Quasi-Biennial conductivity, 218 Oscillation definitions, 213 Stream function, 76, See Appendix B drought monitoring, 228, 230 divergent winds empirical modeling of, 231 magnitude, 76 measurements seasonal mean, 76 direct, 218 Sub-grid scale gravimetric, 218 processes, 23, 70 lysimeter, 218 Sub-monthly climate variability, 175, neutron, 219 Section 4.3.1 monitoring Sub-seasonal USCRN, 280 MJO. See Madden-Julian Oscillation Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), Summary of the Day (SOD), 138 219 Sunshine duration. See Bias, sunshine duration precipitation proxy, 147, 156 Sunspot. Section 5.5.1 SNOTEL observations, 192 Sunspot cycle, 8 Soil Moisture Operational Products System Maunder Minimum, 14 (SMOPS), 220 statitical climate studies, 100

340 Index

Surface friction, 43 Tree ring, 100, 110 Surface pressure data, 32 20C reanalysis, 54 Trends Surface Radiation Network (SURFRAD), 222 constraints on data accuracy, 133 Surface temperature over land. Section 6.2 filtering, 90 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), 199, 214 historical studies, 117 precipitation, 166, 255 Teleconnection, 92, 95, Section 11.6.2 sea ice using model data, 247 Antarctic, 205 Temperature Arctic, 203 Air in SST analyses, 175 Maximum-Minimum Temperature System stationary background climates, in, 66 (MMTS), 128 versus oscillations. Section 5.2 anomalies, 202, 254, 294 Triangle Trans-Ocean Buoy Network (TRITON), ENSO, 85 185 change with height, 3, 211 Triple point, 132 critical metadata, 140 TRMM Precipitation Radar (TPR), 154 dewpoint, 43 Tropical Atmosphere Ocean (TAO), 185 diurnal cycle Tropical Ocean – Global Atmosphere (TOGA) influence of land surface on, 212 program, 264 ocean. Section 8.2 Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) skin, 170 datasets, 161 ocean subsurface. Section 8.5 Troposphere proxy Madden-Julian Oscillation, 91 delta-O18, 109, 198 role in the QBO, 98 seasonal cycle land influence, 210 U.S. Climate Reference Network (USCRN), wet bulb, 43 280 Temperature and CO2 U.S. Department of Agriculture, 192, 216, 219 theory, 107 NASA Temperature Scales. Section 6.3 Global Reservoir and Lake Monitor, 231 Terra U.S. Department of Commerce satellite, 216 USDoC, 221 Terrain U.S. Department of Energy (DoE). See Atmospheric ice sheets, 198 Radiation Measurement (ARM) Program influence of, 133 U.S. Weather Bureau, 256, 265 radar precipitation estimates, 163 early radiosonde observations, 45 rain gage distribution, 162 early surface observations, 133 influence on U.S. Department of Agriculture observations, 31 USDA, 221 precipitation, 159, 211 United Kingdom Meteorological Office microclimates, 4 Unified Model, 263 Thermocline, 4, 179 United Kingdom Meteorological Office (UKMO) observations, 181 climate prediction, 262 TAO buoys, 185 SST datasets, 254 Tide gauges, 119, 178 Units of Measurement Tides historical atmospheric, 14 temperature, 132 gravitational, 14 land surface lunar, 14 not standardized, 218 solar, 14, 119 in models, 240, See Table 11.1 Time of Day Temperature Bias, 131 winds. See Box 4.3 TIROS-1, 48 Urbanization Tokyo Climate Center, 263 factor in microclimate, 130 Topex-Posiden. See Ocean topography influence of, 133 Trade Winds, 67, See Box 4.1 influence on temperature, 114 Transpiration, 213 land use change, 212

Index 341

Validation Water vapor, 7, 43 CRU dataset, 158 condensation, 145, 147 and verification. See Box 11.2 greenhouse gas, 51 Variability quantified, 43 multidecadal, 100–101 SST estimates preferred patterns, 64 influence on, 173 Variable Infiltration Capacity (VIC) sulfate aerosol foramtion model, 228 volcanoic eruption, 112 Variations Weather station, xiii, 32, 40, 65–66, 79 multi-decadal Weather variations, 22, 89 AMOC, 100 vs climate variations, 105 Varves, 200 as noise, 12 Vegetation Weighted Anomaly of Standardized Precipitation remotely sensed. See Normalize Difference (WASP), 230 Vegetation Index (NDVI) Wind type, 6, 212 meridional component, 43 Vertical velocity, 71 zonal component, 43 Victor Starr, 53 Windows Volcanoes infrared, 51 El Chichon, 112, 173 Winds Krakatoa, 112 mountain/valley. See Box 10.1 Pintubo, 173 World Climate Research Programme (WCRP), 264 Tambora, 112 GPCP, 161 Toba, 112 surface radiation, 222 Vorticity, 73 World Data Center for Glaciology, 206 World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 222, 278 Walker circulation, 68 climate monitoring, 264 ENSO, 97 ENSO monitoring, 267 Warm episodes World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE), 264 El Niño, 95 World Radiation Monitoring Center, 222 Water budget World, National and Regional Radiation Centers, mean. See Appendix D 222 Water budgets. Section 10.6.1 Water cycle, 15, 145, 220 XBT. See Bathythermograph lake/reservoir levels, 231 snow water equivalent (SWE), 193 Year without a summer, 112