Coptic Language Learning and Social Media

languages

Communication Coptic Language Learning and Social Media

D. Nicole Deschene

Department of Teaching and Learning, New York University, New York, NY 10003, USA; [email protected]

Received: 1 August 2019; Accepted: 9 September 2019; Published: 11 September 2019

Abstract: This study explored the potential of using the Internet, including existing social media platforms, for Coptic language learning. Through global exposure, endangered language maintenance and revitalization eﬀorts may beneﬁt from having a presence on social media. The researcher created Coptic language learning material, social media accounts on multiple platforms, and a website. Data were collected through a survey with questions focused on social media users’ background and experience with the Coptic language learning material. In addition to the survey, analytics from the social media and website platforms were documented. The results indicated that social media provided a global audience and the Coptic language learning material blended into survey respondents’ daily lives with positive acceptance.

Keywords: Coptic; social media; language learning; endangered language; language revitalization; language maintenance

1. Introduction The rapid development of mobile technology continually creates new opportunities for language learning. These new opportunities include novel approaches to language education as well as platforms for exposure to endangered languages (Cunliffe 2007). There are 7111 languages in the world (Eberhard et al. 2019) and the majority of languages are endangered (Krauss 2007). Languages can be classified as extinct if speakers no longer exist or, on the other end of the spectrum, safe if the number of speakers is expected to grow. In between extinction and safety, there are several degrees of endangerment (Krauss 2007). Coptic, a language of Egyptian origin, associated with the Coptic Orthodox Church (Takla 2014), is among the languages that are classified as severely endangered, dormant, or even extinct (Eberhard et al. 2019). What can be done to support and protect such endangered languages and prevent their loss? Crystal(Crystal 2014) theorized factors that can strengthen the position of endangered languages; among them is the use of electronic technology. The study presented here explores how the affordances of technology can be engaged as a resource to restore and develop the Coptic language.

2. Background Motivated individuals and communities have served as actors for language revitalization and maintenance efforts. They employ various strategies to strengthen the position of an endangered language, such as the establishment of immersion schools. This approach has been examined for the Hawaiian (Warner 2001), Ojibwe, and Maori¯ languages (Hermes and Kawai’ae’a 2014), among others. Although the literature largely focuses on revitalization efforts that are still in progress, research has reviewed past success of similar efforts. For example, an exemplary case of language revitalization is that of Hebrew. Over the course of approximately 25 years, starting at the end of the nineteenth century, the position of Hebrew strengthened dramatically through a persistent effort. This success

Languages 2019, 4, 73; doi:10.3390/languages4030073 www.mdpi.com/journal/languages Languages 2019, 4, 73 2 of 13 can partly be attributed to the consistent and centuries-long use of Hebrew as a religious language for Jewish prayer (Spolsky 1995). Recently, ongoing language revitalization efforts have been incorporating electronic technology as a tool for language learning outside of traditional education settings. The language learning application Duolingo currently offers 33 language courses for English speakers, including several endangered languages. In addition to the 21.8 million learners of Spanish, Duolingo also claims to have 173 thousand learners of Navajo, 286 thousand learners of Hawaiian, and 336 thousand learners of Welsh (Duolingo n.d.). Still, mainstream language learning technology such as Duolingo has not accommodated the needs of all endangered language learners. Efforts, such as that of Ojibwe, have found it necessary to create their own language learning material. Hermes and King(2013) examined the use of a computer software program among families of beginner level Ojibwe language learners. The software included videos, flash cards, games, exercises, and quizzes. The participants consistently used the software over a period of eight weeks by dedicating time to use it each day. The results from the study suggested that the consistent use of the software provided the adult participants in particular with the confidence and skills that they needed to start using the language. More specifically within electronic technology, research suggests that the Internet has been used for endangered language learning through various websites and applications. Although there are people without access to the Internet, the Internet provides equality for communities that may not be able to afford traditional sources of media (Crystal 2014) and do have access to the Internet. For example, Jones(2015 ) investigated the use of digital technology for Welsh language learning. All of the participants in Jones’ study reported using the Internet in various ways to learn Welsh. They watched YouTube videos, read Facebook and blog posts, wrote emails, participated in Skype conversations, created iTunes U flash cards, and used Google Translate. They also used language learning resources and viewed Welsh television programs on British broadcast websites.

2.1. Social Media Social media is potentially effective because it is ubiquitous and manageable. It incorporates feeds that provide mobile device users with small segments of information. Common practice of mobile social media involves moving through a feed while absorbing information actively or passively. The Pew Research Center reported that within the United States, 74% of Facebook users, 63% of Snapchat users, 60% of Instagram users, 46% of Twitter users, and 45% of YouTube users access the platforms at least once a day (Smith and Anderson 2018). Jones et al.(2013) investigated the use of Twitter among Welsh speakers. The results indicated that the majority of participants expected to read and write in Welsh when they signed up for a Twitter account and chose to follow other Twitter accounts based on their use of Welsh. They considered Twitter to be an easy platform to frequently produce and engage with Welsh content as well as connect with other Welsh speakers. Thus, through global exposure, endangered language maintenance and revitalization efforts can benefit from having a presence on social media. Stern(2017) explored the role of Facebook in Balinese revitalization efforts by administrators and members of a Facebook group. Although the group page was visible to the public, only members of the group could post. The members of the group, mostly teenagers and young adults, posted a variety of content in Balinese, but not necessarily about the Balinese language. The results suggested that the presence of Balinese on Facebook transcended time and space by reaching an international audience that could interact continuously. Similarly, Cru(2015) explored the role of Facebook in Yucatec Maya revitalization efforts. The results indicated that youth encouraged the use of Yucatec Maya by posting in the language. Other Facebook users engaged with the posts by reading and replying to them, creating a written dialogue. Although most of the post replies indicated that users had some degree of proficiency in the language, one example indicated that a Facebook user was not proficient enough in the language to use it but was interested in learning it. The results suggested that the presence of Yucatec Maya on Facebook could reach speakers and learners on a global level and appeal to youth because of the relevance of Facebook in their modern lives. Languages 2019, 4, 73 3 of 13

2.2. Coptic Language The present study explored the presence of social media specifically dedicated to Coptic language learning. Coptic is an indigenous language of Egypt and a member of the Afroasiatic language family. It is the last stage of the Ancient Egyptian language, which dates back to 3000 BC. The writing systems of the Egyptian language evolved from the hieroglyphic system to Hieratic, and then Demotic (Loprieno and Müller 2012). By the third century BC, the Egyptian writing system further evolved to incorporate Greek, a dominant language at the time, and was henceforth referred to as Coptic. Coptic was once the majority language in Egypt with different regional dialects, but it slowly became a minority language (Ishaq 1991). Although empirical research on the vitality of the Coptic language has yet to be conducted, organizations still estimate the vitality of the language. For example, UNESCO currently classifies the Coptic language as extinct (Moseley 2010) based on their language vitality and endangerment framework. Extinct is the highest degree of endangerment within this framework and implies that there are no speakers left (Brenzinger et al. 2003). Another organization, SIL International, recently updated their classification of Coptic based on a different framework, the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale. Coptic was previously classified as dormant, which is the last level of endangerment before extinct. A dormant language is defined as only being used symbolically for ethnic identity (Simons and Fennig 2018). The current classification of Coptic was downgraded to second language only, which is defined as no longer being a heritage language of an ethnic community (Eberhard et al. 2019). This updated classification may not accurately depict the vitality of the language, including one of its dialects, Bohairic. Despite Coptic language loss, the Coptic dialect, Bohairic, has been used continuously within the Coptic Orthodox Church. Bohairic Coptic has survived for centuries in a diglossic context (Ishaq 1991) along with Arabic. Priests, deacons, and parishioners continue to perform Coptic hymns during church services. These hymns have been performed throughout the history of the Coptic Orthodox Church (Ramzy 2013). Although priests and deacons can use other languages in religious services, they often choose to use Coptic in order to maintain the rhythmic and melodic musical features that incorporate the syllabic features of the Coptic language (Ragheb 2018). Furthermore, Coptic language education has continued through classes organized by churches and through books published by churches (Younan 2005). In the 1960s, the Coptic diaspora started growing in North America, Europe, and Australia (Botros 2006). Through migration, the use of the Coptic language expanded beyond the borders of Egypt. Churches in the diaspora mount screens that display the text of the liturgy in real time in three languages side-by-side, Arabic, Coptic, and English (Saad 2010). Forms of electronic media, such as satellite television broadcasting, Internet streaming, mobile applications, and social network platforms, have connected Copts throughout the diaspora as well as Copts in Egypt. Electronic media has created a Coptic community that is not separated or divided by territorial borderlines (Westbrook and Saad 2017). Although the literature highlights the use of electronic media within the Coptic community, questions still remain about the use of electronic media for Coptic language learning.

2.3. Research Questions The researcher developed digital resources for learners of Coptic and made them available to the public via the Internet. The research questions that this study addresses are:

1. Who would use Coptic language learning material made available on the Internet? 2. How would they describe their experience using the Coptic language learning material? 3. How much exposure would the Coptic language learning material receive?

3. Materials and Methods The researcher created Coptic language learning material, social media accounts on multiple platforms, and a website. The social media accounts were public and were created on Facebook, Languages 2019, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13

3. Materials and Methods Languages 2019, 4, 73 4 of 13 The researcher created Coptic language learning material, social media accounts on multiple platforms, and a website. The social media accounts were public and were created on Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter. TheThe postsposts onon thethe socialsocial mediamedia accounts were consistent with each other and anyone couldcould view view posts, posts, regardless regardless of whetherof whether they they had anhad account an account or not, or and not, regardless and regardless of whether of orwhether not they or werenot they followers were offollowers the account. of the The acco websiteunt. The was website created was using created WordPress using andWordPress included and all ofincluded the content all of posted the content on the posted social mediaon the accountssocial media as well accounts as additional as well resources.as additional Links resources. to the website Links wereto the included website were on the included social media on the accounts. social media accounts. The language learning materials that were posted firstfirst consisted of short videos for each Coptic phoneme-grapheme correspondence. correspondence. There There are are 31 31letters letters and and 1 number 1 number in the in Coptic the Coptic alphabet. alphabet. The Themajority majority of the of theletters letters in the in theCoptic Coptic alphabet alphabet are are Greek Greek letters. letters. However, However, 7 7of of the the letters letters are are Demotic, Demotic, which isis the the previous previous writing writing system forsystem the spoken for Copticthe spoken language Coptic (Ishaq 1991language). Phoneme-grapheme (Ishaq 1991). correspondencePhoneme-grapheme was chosencorrespondence as the focus was of thechosen initial as language the focus learning of the materials initial language because decodinglearning ismaterials a necessary because skill decoding in reading is ( Gougha necessary and Tunmerskill in reading1986). A (Gough video wasand createdTunmer for 1986). each A letter video with was a formatcreated thatfor each consisted letter ofwith an a image format of that the lowercaseconsisted of letter an image with a of voice the lowercase recording letter of the with letter a namevoice andrecording letter sound,of the letter followed name by and the letter uppercase sound, letter follow withed by a repeat the uppercase of the voice letter recording with a repeat of the of letter the namevoice recording and letter soundof the letter (see Figure name 1and). Research letter sound has shown (see Figure that learning1). Research letter has names shown is beneficialthat learning for learningletter names letter is sounds beneficial and readingfor learning (Foulin letter 2005 sounds). Videos and were reading also created (Foulin for 2005). letter Videos combinations were also that correspondedcreated for letter with combinations different sounds. that corresponded with different sounds.

(a) (b)

FigureFigure 1. Video 1. Video frames frames of the of thefirst ﬁrst letter letter of the of theCoptic Coptic alphabet. alphabet. (a) Lowercase; (a) Lowercase; (b) Uppercase. (b) Uppercase.

In 2018, the firstfirst 38 videos were posted one at a time, every day, day, and were organically promoted mostly through the use ofof hashtagshashtags (i.e.,(i.e., #coptic).#coptic). Hashtags allow social media users to share and discover contentcontent based based on phraseson phrases or words or words that describe that describe the content. the A content. short description A short accompanied description eachaccompanied video post. each Although video post. the Although descriptions the descriptio were in English,ns were theyin English, could they be translated could be intotranslated other languagesinto other usinglanguages the platforms’ using the translation platforms’ tools. translat Theion description tools. The for description the first video for wasthe firstThis video is the namewas andThis soundis the ofname the firstand sound letter ofof thethe Copticfirst letter alphabet of the. Coptic alphabet. A surveysurvey waswas developed, developed, and and then then created created on Qualtrics,on Qualtrics, to collect to collect information information from socialfrom mediasocial users.media Usabilityusers. Usability tests and tests retrospective and retrospective think-alouds think-alouds were conducted were conducted in order in to order pretest to pretest the survey the (surveyGroves (Groves et al. 2009 et ).al. The 2009). survey The hadsurvey a total had of a 27 total questions, of 27 questions, including includin sub questions,g sub questions, focused on focused social mediaon social users’ media background users’ background and experience and withexperience the Coptic with language the Coptic learning language material. learning The items material. included The multipleitems included choice, multiple Likert scale,choice, and Likert short scale, open-ended and short responses open-ended (see responses Appendix (seeA). Appendix The survey A). was The anonymoussurvey was anonymous and conducted and in conducted English. Immediatelyin English. Immediately after the first after 38 videosthe first were 38 videos posted, were requests posted, to participaterequests to in participate the anonymous in the survey anonymous were posted. survey The were survey posted. was The only survey active forwas one only week. active The for timing one ofweek. the surveyThe timing was designedof the survey to increase was designed the accuracy to increase of the the respondents’ accuracy of memory the respondents’ recall on questions memory suchrecall as, onHow questions often did such the videosas, How appear often in did your the social videos media appear feed? inAll your respondents social media provided feed? All their respondents informed consentprovided before their completinginformed consent the survey. before All completing of the open-ended the survey. responses All of were the manuallyopen-ended coded responses by the researcherwere manually and thencoded organized by the researcher into themes and that then emerged organized from into the themes data (Saldaña that emerged 2016). from the data (SaldañaIn addition 2016). to the survey, web analytics from the social media accounts and the website were documented. This included the number of video views on each of the social media accounts, the Languages 2019, 4, 73 5 of 13 number of visitors and the number of page views on the website, as well as the country location of the visitors on the website. This study, IRB-FY2018-2096, was approved by the author’s University Committee on Activities Involving Human Subjects.

4. Results

4.1. Survey During the one-week time frame that the survey was active, 27 respondents submitted the survey. However, one respondent’s survey was deleted because it was incomplete, leaving a total of 26 respondents. Based on the small sample size, descriptive statistics were used to report on the quantitative data collected from this group of social media users.

4.1.1. Respondent Demographics The results from the background questions indicated that the respondents’ average age was 28.5 years (S.D. = 9). They lived in the United States, Australia, Canada, and Italy. They were born in the United States, Egypt, Australia, Canada, Italy, and Germany.

4.1.2. Respondent Language Background The respondents reported having some degree of proficiency in languages including English, Arabic, Spanish, French, German, and Italian, which all have different writing systems than Coptic. Additionally, 12 of the respondents reported having some degree of proficiency in Coptic and ranked their proficiency in speaking, listening, reading, and writing on a scale of 0 to 5, with 5 being described as fluent. Their average self-reported proficiency in speaking was 1.67 (S.D. = 1.03), listening was 1.92 (S.D. = 1.08), reading was 2.25 (S.D. = 1.36), and writing was 0.75 (S.D. = 0.75). Only 10 of the respondents had taken a Coptic language class in the past and they all reported that their Coptic language class was held at a church. Exactly half of the respondents reported that they had tried to teach themselves Coptic. As illustrated by the sampling of responses in Table1, some described their challenging experience teaching themselves Coptic, whereas others described the strategies that they used to teach themselves the language.

Table 1. Description of experience teaching oneself the Coptic language.

Theme Responses “Impossible! Books are too verbose and an impersonal way to learn a language so far from English/Arabic in structure” Challenging “I have only just started but the differences between Bohairic and Sahidic are annoying to experience of decipher and there are not many resources dedicated to Coptic as a social language, teaching oneself more liturgical” “Difficult” “Frustrating to learn by yourself” “I learnt the alphabet in a week and then practiced reading every day for a few months. Once a week I would ask one of the boys from church to let me read to them so they could fix my mistakes and help with pronunciation” “Just learning vocabulary by comparing translations during liturgy or other services” Strategies used “I occasionally study it with a friend, brush up with a book, or occasionally attend a Coptic to teach oneself Orthodox Church but not regularly” “Learning Greek alphabet and reading Coptic icons” “My husband helped me learn to read it” “Mainly learning through reading the translation in the liturgy book”

When asked why they were interested in learning the Coptic language, their reasons, which are listed in Table 2, included comprehension of and participation in worship, the ability to read ancient manuscripts, preservation of the Coptic heritage and language, as well as the historical value of the Languages 2019, 4, 73 6 of 13 language. ancient manuscripts, preservationTable 2. Source of the of interest Coptic for heritage learning and the language, Coptic language. as well as the historical value of the language.Theme Responses “I am interested in learning the Coptic language because it is the language of Comprehension of Table 2. Source of interest for learning the Coptic language. our fathers and so I may participate in the hymns of the church” and participation in “Understanding the liturgy more and being able to teach my child” worshipTheme Responses “I“Understand am interested inchurch learning services the Coptic better” language because it is the language of our Comprehension of fathers“At first and it so was I may to participatebe able to insing the Coptic hymns ofhymns, the church” now I think I would take it and participation “Understandingfurther to be able the liturgy to read more manuscripts” and being able to teach my child” Abilityin worship to read “Understand“For worship, church and services to explore better” further the ancient manuscripts and stories of ancient manuscripts “Atdesert ﬁrst itfathers was to beand able mothers” to sing Coptic hymns, now I think I would take it further to be able to read manuscripts” Ability to read “I am interested in ancient Coptic manuscripts and writings” “For worship, and to explore further the ancient manuscripts and stories of desert ancient manuscripts fathers“To go and back mothers” to my roots and preserve our heritage” “Heritage. While I believe that prayer should be easy to understand for all, I Preservation of the “I am interested in ancient Coptic manuscripts and writings” also don’t want our Coptic heritage to die” heritage and “To go back to my roots and preserve our heritage” “Heritage.“Language While revival I believe of my that ancestors” prayer should be easy to understand for all, I also don’t languagePreservation of the want our Coptic heritage to die” heritage and “To preserve the language of our forefathers” “Language revival of my ancestors” language “The heritage of the Coptic people needs preservation” “To preserve the language of our forefathers” “The“I am heritage interested of the Copticto learn people more needs about preservation” an enduring and vibrant culture Historical value of through language” “I am interested to learn more about an enduring and vibrant culture through language” Historical value of the language “It“It has has an interestingan interesting history” history” the language “Due“Due to itsto historicalits historical and culturaland cultural value” value”

4.1.3. Respondent Experience with the Coptic Language LearningLearning Material The resultsresults from from the the questions questions that that focused focused on their on experiencetheir experience with the with Coptic the languageCoptic language learning materiallearning indicatedmaterial thatindicated many that of the many respondents of the respondents used more than used one more type than of device one type and moreof device than and one typemore of than platform one totype view of theplatform videos. to Twenty-five view the ofvideos. the respondents Twenty-five used of athe smartphone respondents to view used the a videos,smartphone 9 used to a laptop,view the 3 usedvideos, a tablet, 9 used and a 3laptop used a, desktop.3 used a Eighteentablet, and viewed 3 used the a videos desktop. on Instagram, Eighteen 8viewed viewed the the videos videos on on Instagram, Facebook, 8 4viewed viewed the the video videoss on on Facebook, Twitter, and4 viewed 3 viewed the videos the videos on Twitter, on the website.and 3 viewed As shown the invideos Figure on2, twelvethe website. reported As that shown the videosin Figure appeared 2, twelve in their reported social mediathat the feed videos once aappeared day, 11 reported in their social that they media appeared feed once once a day, every 11 few reported days, that 2 reported they appeared that that once they every appeared few moredays, than2 reported once a day,that andthat only they 1 reportedappeared that more they than never once appeared a day, in and their only social 1 mediareported feed. that Fifteen they viewed never theappeared videos in 1 timetheir andsocial 11 media viewed feed. the videosFifteen 2–5 viewed times. the Eight videos reported 1 time that and they 11 viewed always the had videos sound 2–5 on whiletimes.viewing Eight reported the videos, that 11 they had always sound on had most soun ofd the on time, while 2 hadviewing sound the on videos, about half 11 thehad time, sound and on 5 hadmost sound of the on time, sometimes. 2 had sound on about half the time, and 5 had sound on sometimes.

Figure 2. Frequency of video appearance on social media feed.

Exactly half of the respondents reported that the content helped them learn letter names, 16 reported that it helped them learn letter sounds, 9 reported that it helped them learn letter combination sounds, and 5 reported that it helped them find other Coptic language learning resources. Twenty-four reported that they were interested in continuing to learn Coptic, whereas Languages 2019, 4, 73 7 of 13 only 2 reported that they were unsure if they would continue to learn Coptic, and none of the respondents reported that they were not interested in continuing to learn. wereIn unsure response if they to wouldan open continue ended to question learn Coptic, that andasked none the of respondents the respondents to provide reported additional that they wereinformation not interested about their in continuing experience, to learn.they reported that, “It was great, I’ve never had a resource for learningIn response another to language an open ended on so questioncial media”; that asked“Very the useful respondents to understand to provide the additional language information and know abouthow it their sounds”; experience, “Videos they are reported straightforward that, “It was and great, reliably I’ve the never same had high a resource quality”; for It learning is not my another first languageexposure onto socialthe Coptic media”; language “Very useful so I tomostly understand viewed the it languageto make andsure know that howwhat it I sounds”; had previously “Videos arelearned straightforward was the same and as what reliably was the on samethis site”; high “Personally quality”; It need is not more my ﬁrstusage exposure examples to and the context Coptic languageto learn”. so I mostly viewed it to make sure that what I had previously learned was the same as what was on this site”; “Personally need more usage examples and context to learn”. 4.2. Web Analytics 4.2. Web Analytics After the social media accounts and the website were launched, web analytics were documented.After the At social the mediatime of accounts the survey and administrati the websiteon, were the launched, website had web a analytics total of 50 were visitors documented. and 125 Atpage the views. time ofThe the country survey administration,locations of the thewebsite website visitors had aincluded total of 50the visitors United andStates, 125 Canada, page views. the TheUnited country Kingdom, locations Egypt, of the Australia, website visitorsand Russia. included One theyear United later, th States,e website Canada, had theaccumulated United Kingdom, a total Egypt,of 249 Australia,visitors and and 847 Russia. page Oneviews. year The later, webs theite website pageshad that accumulated contain the aphoneme-grapheme total of 249 visitors andcorrespondence 847 page views. videos The accumulated website pages a thattotal contain of 107 the views. phoneme-grapheme The country locations correspondence of the website videos accumulatedvisitors included a total the of addition 107 views. of TheGermany, country France, locations China, of the Mexico, website Italy, visitors Indonesia, included Ireland, the addition Japan, of Germany,Mongolia, France,Seychelles, China, the Mexico,United Arab Italy, Indonesia,Emirates, and Ireland, Sweden. Japan, Figure Mongolia, 3 shows Seychelles, a world map the United of the Arabcountry Emirates, locations and of Sweden.the website Figure visitors.3 shows Visitors a world clicked map on of the the website country link locations 124 times of thethrough website the visitors.Facebook, Visitors Instagram, clicked and on Twitter the website accounts, link 124as well times as through 34 times the through Facebook, search Instagram, engine results and Twitter from accounts,Google, Yahoo, as well and as 34Bing. times through search engine results from Google, Yahoo, and Bing.

Figure 3. WorldWorld map of website visitor country locations.

The number of views for each of the first first 38 videos posted on Facebook, Instagram, and and Twitter Twitter were addedadded togethertogether asas the the total total number number of of views views per per video. video. The The video video views views were were added added together together for thisfor this initial initial stage stage of the of the research, research, as theas the comparison comparison of theof the diff differenterent social social media media platforms platforms would would be prematurebe premature at this at this stage. stage. One One year year after after the 38ththe 38th video video was posted,was posted, the combined the combined total numbertotal number of video of viewsvideo views was 3049. was The3049. average The average number number of views of views per video per wasvideo 80.24 was (S.D. 80.24= (S.D.38.52) = 38.52) and the and range the range of the totalof the number total number of views of views per video per video was 31 was to 31 241. to Figure241. Figure4 shows 4 shows a quadratic a quadra regressiontic regression model model of the of totalthe total number number of views of views per video per video and the and order the order that the that videos the videos were posted. were posted. The video The that video was that viewed was theviewed most the was most the was first videothe first that video was that posted was and post theed videoand the that video was viewedthat was the viewed least wasthe least the sixteenth was the videosixteenth that video was posted.that was posted. Languages 2019, 4, 73 8 of 13 Languages 2019, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13

Figure 4. Quadratic regression model of total video views and video post order. 5. Discussion 5. Discussion 5.1. Research Question 1 5.1. Research Question 1 The results from the survey background questions, as well as the website analytics, address the The results from the survey background questions, as well as the website analytics, address the first research question by describing the people who used Coptic language learning material made first research question by describing the people who used Coptic language learning material made available on the Internet. Overall, the survey respondents and the website visitors were an international available on the Internet. Overall, the survey respondents and the website visitors were an group that were located in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Egypt, Australia, Russia, international group that were located in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Egypt, Germany, France, China, Mexico, Italy, Indonesia, Ireland, Japan, Mongolia, Seychelles, the United Arab Australia, Russia, Germany, France, China, Mexico, Italy, Indonesia, Ireland, Japan, Mongolia, Emirates, and Sweden. This finding aligns with the literature that describes the Coptic diaspora having Seychelles, the United Arab Emirates, and Sweden. This finding aligns with the literature that started in North America, Europe, and Australia (Botros 2006). This finding also supports suggestions describes the Coptic diaspora having started in North America, Europe, and Australia (Botros 2006). in the literature that the Internet provides endangered language revitalization and maintenance efforts This finding also supports suggestions in the literature that the Internet provides endangered with a global audience (Cru 2015; Stern 2017). Considering the overall low cost of this effort, and that language revitalization and maintenance efforts with a global audience (Cru 2015; Stern 2017). the content was mostly promoted organically through the use of hashtags within a short period of time, Considering the overall low cost of this effort, and that the content was mostly promoted organically the results suggest that the Coptic language learning material developed a presence on the Internet. through the use of hashtags within a short period of time, the results suggest that the Coptic However, it may be beneficial for future efforts to promote websites and social media accounts more language learning material developed a presence on the Internet. However, it may be beneficial for actively if the goal is to create a wider presence. future efforts to promote websites and social media accounts more actively if the goal is to create a All of the survey respondents that indicated that they had taken a Coptic language class in the wider presence. past reported that the classes were held at a church. This supports the notion that Coptic language All of the survey respondents that indicated that they had taken a Coptic language class in the education has continued through classes organized by churches (Younan 2005). Almost half of the past reported that the classes were held at a church. This supports the notion that Coptic language survey respondents reported that they had some degree of proficiency in Coptic. However, their average education has continued through classes organized by churches (Younan 2005). Almost half of the self-reported proficiency levels in speaking, listening, reading, and writing were low. This may suggest survey respondents reported that they had some degree of proficiency in Coptic. However, their that language learning material on social media may be especially useful for beginners. This could also average self-reported proficiency levels in speaking, listening, reading, and writing were low. This suggest that posting beginner level language learning material on social media may attract beginner may suggest that language learning material on social media may be especially useful for beginners. learners. Half of the respondents reported that they had tried to teach themselves the Coptic language This could also suggest that posting beginner level language learning material on social media may and explained the challenges they experienced as well as the techniques they used. Although it is attract beginner learners. Half of the respondents reported that they had tried to teach themselves common for people to teach themselves a language, the results suggest that Coptic language learners the Coptic language and explained the challenges they experienced as well as the techniques they may not have the variety of self-teaching resources that other language learners have (Duolingo n.d.). used. Although it is common for people to teach themselves a language, the results suggest that Several of the survey respondents attributed their interest in learning the Coptic language to Coptic language learners may not have the variety of self-teaching resources that other language reasons related to the preservation of their Coptic heritage. This contradicts the current classification learners have (Duolingo n.d.). of Coptic in the literature. SIL International classifies Coptic as second language only, which is defined

Languages 2019, 4, 73 9 of 13 as no longer being a heritage language of an ethnic community (Eberhard et al. 2019). Further research could determine the vitality of the Coptic language and could update classiﬁcations if necessary.

5.2. Research Question 2 Results from the survey address the second research question by describing people’s experience using the Coptic language learning material made available on the Internet. The Coptic language learning material blended into the respondents’ daily lives with positive acceptance. More than half of them reported that posts appeared in their social media news feed at least once a day. This suggests that the language learning material was often delivered to the learner without requiring the learner to actively seek it. As reviewed in the literature, the development of confidence and skills in the language learning process benefits from consistency (Hermes and King 2013), which further supports the important role that social media can have in learning any language. Almost all of the respondents reported that they used a smartphone to access the language learning material, which suggests that social media users may be mobile. The development of language learning material for social media should take mobility into consideration. One of the respondents commented on the high quality and straightforwardness of the videos. Although the language learning material was provided to the public informally and without financial cost, it was still designed purposefully and created carefully. Another respondent commented on the usefulness of knowing how the language sounds. Furthermore, all of the respondents indicated that they had the sound on while watching the videos at least sometimes and more than half indicated that they had the sound on at least most of the time. The availability of audio is particularly salient for learners of an endangered language because access to the spoken language may be limited.

5.3. Research Question 3 Results from the web analytics address the third research question by quantifying the exposure of the Coptic language learning material based on social media video views, website page views, and website visitors. Over the timespan of one year, the videos posted on social media accumulated a total of over three thousand views and more than two hundred people visited the website. This supports the theory that electronic technology, including the Internet, has the potential to help strengthen the position of endangered languages (Crystal 2014). A possible explanation for the range between the video with the most views and the video with the least views could be the order that they were posted. Social media users that discovered the social media accounts may have viewed the most recent posts and may also have been interested in viewing the earliest posts. However, social media users that were actually using the language learning material may have viewed all of the posts, including those in the middle. The content of the videos was limited to phoneme-grapheme correspondences, which may not have been useful for every social media user that discovered the accounts. Although decoding is a necessary skill in reading (Gough and Tunmer 1986), it is a beginner level skill that more proficient language learners may already have. It should be expected that social media users have different needs based on their varying levels of proficiency. This is similar to what was reviewed in the literature. The majority of the members of a Yucatec Maya Facebook page were proficient enough to communicate with each other. However, one member was interested but was not proficient enough to join the conversation (Cru 2015). Future efforts should determine what content would be most useful but not be discouraged by low engagement. Older content can be reposted if it is determined that it needs more exposure. Furthermore, future research could examine the relationship between social media post engagement and post order over a longer period of time and with a variety of content.

6. Conclusions This study must be considered purely exploratory. The sample was self-selected and may not be representative of the larger population with an interest in learning Coptic. Moreover, promotion was Languages 2019, 4, 73 10 of 13 limited and time for the project was constrained. Although generalizations cannot be made from the small self-selected sample size, the results are still promising and can guide future research related to the Coptic language, as well as other endangered languages. Future research should focus on the vitality of the Coptic language. The current classification of the language did not align with the survey respondents’ comments regarding its role as a heritage language. Therefore, it should be determined if the position of the language is different than what is depicted in the literature. Furthermore, the vitality of Coptic, as well as other endangered languages, should be measured on more than one occasion, and over time, to determine if revitalization and maintenance efforts are effective in improving the position of the language. The use of existing platforms, such as social media, for language learning should continue to be examined. The majority of the survey respondents in this study reported that they learned from the posts and were interested in continuing to learn the Coptic language. Future research could focus on the effectiveness of learning an endangered language through social media through longitudinal studies. In addition to providing direction for future research, the implications of global exposure should be promising for endangered language efforts. The survey respondents and the website visitors in this study were people with Internet access that were located all over the world. A global audience is essential for endangered language exposure since diasporas take their languages outside of their indigenous boundaries.

Funding: This research received no external funding. Acknowledgments: The author thanks the survey respondents for their participation in this study, as well as Miriam Eisenstein Ebsworth for her feedback and guidance. Conﬂicts of Interest: The author declares no conﬂict of interest.

Appendix A Survey

1. How old are you? 2. What country were you born in? 3. What country do you live in? 4. What languages do you know? Select all that apply. Arabic Coptic English Other 4.1. Rate your Arabic proficiency. 4.1.a. Speaking 4.1.b. Listening 4.1.c. Reading 4.1.d. Writing 0 1 2 3 4 5 Fluent 4.2. Rate your Coptic proficiency. 4.2.a. Speaking 4.2.b. Listening 4.2.c. Reading 4.2.d. Writing 0 1 2 3 4 5 Fluent 4.3. Rate your English proficiency. 4.3.a. Speaking 4.3.b. Listening 4.3.c. Reading 4.3.d. Writing 0 1 2 3 4 5 Fluent 5. What languages were used in your home when you were a young child? Select all that apply. Arabic Coptic English Other 6. Do you attend a Coptic Orthodox church? Yes No 6.1. At what age did you start attending a Coptic Orthodox church? Under 3 years old 3–11 years old 12–18 years old Over 18 years old Languages 2019, 4, 73 11 of 13

6.2. What languages are used in the church services you attend? Select all that apply. Arabic Coptic English Other 7. Have you ever taken a Coptic language class? Yes No 7.1. Where have you taken Coptic language classes? Select all that apply. At a church At a college or university Other 8. Have you ever tried to teach yourself the Coptic language? Yes No 8.1. Describe your experience teaching yourself the Coptic language. 9. Why are you interested in learning the Coptic language? 10. What types of devices did you use to view videos from Coptic Literacy? Select all that apply. Smartphone Tablet Laptop Desktop 11. Where did you view videos from Coptic Literacy? Select all that apply. Website Facebook Instagram Twitter 12. How many Coptic Literacy videos have you viewed? 1–9 10–19 20–29 30 or more 13. How many times do you typically view each Coptic Literacy video? 1 time 2–5 times More than 5 times 14. How often did videos from Coptic Literacy appear in your social media feed? Never Once every few days Once a day More than once a day 15. How often did you have sound on while viewing videos from Coptic Literacy? Always Most of the time About half the time Sometimes Never 16. How often did you repeat out loud while viewing videos from Coptic Literacy? Always Most of the time About half the time Sometimes Never 17. What did Coptic Literacy help you with? Select all that apply. Letter names Letter sounds Letter combination sounds Finding Coptic language resources 18. Are you interested in continuing to learn Coptic? Yes Maybe No 19. What are you interested in learning? Select all that apply. Grammar Vocabulary Writing 20. Provide any additional information about your experience using Coptic Literacy.

References

Botros, Ghada. 2006. Religious identity as an historical narrative: Coptic Orthodox immigrant churches and the representation of history. Journal of Historical Sociology 19: 174–201. [CrossRef] Languages 2019, 4, 73 12 of 13

Brenzinger, Matthias, Arienne M. Dwyer, Tjeerd de Graaf, Colette Grinevald, Michael Krauss, Osahito Miyaoka, Nicholas Ostler, Osamu Sakiyama, María E. Villalón, Akira Y. Yamamoto, and et al. 2003. Language vitality and endangerment. Paper presented at International Expert Meeting on UNESCO Programme Safeguarding of Endangered Languages, Paris, France, March 10–12. Cru, Josep. 2015. Language revitalisation from the ground up: promoting Yucatec Maya on Facebook. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 36: 284–96. [CrossRef] Crystal, David. 2014. Language Death. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9781139923477. First published 2000. Cunliffe, Daniel. 2007. Minority languages and the Internet: new threats, new opportunities. In Minority Language Media: Concepts, Critiques and Case Studies. Edited by Mike Cormack and Niamh Hourigan. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, ISBN 9781853599651. Duolingo. n.d. Language Courses for English Speakers. Available online: https://www.duolingo.com/courses (accessed on 5 March 2019). Eberhard, David M., Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig, eds. 2019. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 22nd ed. Dallas: SIL International, Available online: http://www.ethnologue.com/ (accessed on 3 March 2019). Foulin, Jean Noel. 2005. Why is letter-name knowledge such a good predictor of learning to read? Reading and Writing 18: 129–55. [CrossRef] Gough, Philip B., and William H. Tunmer. 1986. Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education 7: 6–10. [CrossRef] Groves, Robert M., Floyd J. Fowler Jr., Mick P. Couper, James M. Lepkowski, Eleanor Singer, and Roger Tourangeau. 2009. Survey Methodology. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., ISBN 9780470465462. Hermes, Mary, and Keiki Kawai’ae’a. 2014. Revitalizing indigenous languages through indigenous immersion education. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education 2: 303–22. [CrossRef] Hermes, Mary, and Kendall A. King. 2013. Ojibwe language revitalization, multimedia technology, and family language learning. Language Learning & Technology 17: 125–44. Ishaq, Emile Maher. 1991. Coptic language, spoken. In Coptic Encyclopedia. Edited by Aziz Suryal Atiya. New York: Macmillan, vol. 2. Jones, Ann. 2015. Social media for informal minority language learning: exploring Welsh learners’ practices. Journal of Interactive Media in Education 2015: 1–9. [CrossRef] Jones, Rhys James, Daniel Cunliffe, and Zoe R. Honeycutt. 2013. Twitter and the Welsh language. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 34: 653–71. [CrossRef] Krauss, Michael. 2007. Classification and terminology for degrees of language endangerment. In Language Diversity Endangered. Edited by Matthias Brenzinger. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 1–8. ISBN 9783110197129. Loprieno, Antonio, and Matthias Müller. 2012. Ancient Egyptian and Coptic. In The Afroasiatic Languages. Edited by Zygmunt Frajzyngier and Erin Shay. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 102–44. ISBN 9780521865333. Moseley, Christopher. 2010. Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger, 3rd ed. Paris: UNESCO Publishing, Available online: http://www.unesco.org/culture/en/endangeredlanguages/atlas (accessed on 12 November 2018). Ragheb, Nicholas. 2018. Coptic ethnoracial identity and liturgical language use. In Contemporary Christian Culture: Messages, Missions, and Dilemmas. Edited by Omotayo Banjo and Kesha Morant Williams. Lanham: Lexington Books, pp. 147–62. Ramzy, Carolyn M. 2013. Music: Performing Coptic expressive culture. In The Coptic Christian Heritage: History, Faith, and Culture. Edited by Lois M. Farag. New York: Routledge, pp. 160–76. ISBN 9781134666843. Saad, Saad Michael. 2010. The contemporary life of the Coptic Orthodox Church in the United States. Studies in World Christianity 16: 207–25. [CrossRef] Saldaña, Johnny. 2016. The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers, 3rd ed. Los Angeles: Sage Publications, ISBN 9781473902480. Simons, Gary F., and Charles D. Fennig, eds. 2018. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 21st ed. Dallas: SIL International, Available online: http://www.ethnologue.com/ (accessed on 12 November 2018). Smith, Aaron, and Monica Anderson. 2018. Social Media Use in 2018. Washington: Pew Research Center. Spolsky, Bernard. 1995. Conditions for language revitalization: A comparison of the cases of Hebrew and Maori. Current Issues in Language and Society 2: 177–201. [CrossRef] Stern, Alissa Joy. 2017. How Facebook can revitalise local languages: lessons from Bali. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 38: 788–96. [CrossRef] Languages 2019, 4, 73 13 of 13

Takla, Hany N. 2014. The Coptic language: The link to Ancient Egyptian. In The Coptic Christian Heritage: History, Faith, and Culture. Edited by Lois M. Farag. New York: Routledge, pp. 179–94. ISBN 9781134666843. Warner, Sam L. No’eau. 2001. The movement to revitalize Hawaiian language and culture. In The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice. Edited by Leanne Hinton and Ken Hale. Leiden: Brill, pp. 133–44. ISBN 978900425449. Westbrook, Donald A., and Saad Michael Saad. 2017. Religious identity and borderless territoriality in the Coptic e-diaspora. Journal of International Migration and Integration 18: 341–51. [CrossRef] Younan, Sameh. 2005. So, You Want to Learn Coptic? A Guide to Bohairic Grammar. Sydney: St. Mary, St. Bakhomious, and St. Shenouda Coptic Orthodox Church Kirawee.

© 2019 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).