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(Late Jurassic) World: II Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 95 (1992): 229-252 229 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam Paleoclimate of the Kimmeridgian/Tithonian (Late Jurassic) world: II. Sensitivity tests comparing three different paleotopographic settings George T. Moore a, Lisa Cirbus Sloan b, Darryl N. Hayashida a and Natasha P. Umrigar a aChevron Oil Field Research Company, La Habra, CA, USA bUniversity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA (Received December 3, 1991; revised and accepted March 14, 1992) ABSTRACT Moore, G.T., Sloan, L.C., Hayashida, D.N. and Umrigar, N.P., 1992. Paleoclimate of the Kimmeridgian/Tithonian (Late Jurassic) world: II. Sensitivity tests comparing three different paleotopographic settings. Palaeogeogr,, Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol., 95: 229-252. Topography and location of continents largely determine present-day climate. We conclude that in the geologic past paleoto- pographic expression was equally important. However, in the geologic record paleotopography is difficult to assess and compile because it is largely a self-destructive environment without record and is rarely addressed in the literature. An objective of this study is to test the sensitivity of paleoclimate to paleotopography by comparing three different Late Jurassic scenarios. Paleotopography influences many paleoclimate parameters to varying degrees. To test the sensitivity of paleoclimate to modeled paleotopography for simulations incorporating a Late Jurassic reconstruction, we ran three simulations using the same boundary conditions of paleogeography (land and ocean) and atmospheric CO2 concentration, 4x the pre-lndustrial level (1120 ppm). One simulation contained mountain ranges of variable height to 3 kin. In another, all the mountain ranges were reduced to 1 km highlands. The third simulation used a constant 500 m height for all land grid cells. The sensitivity tests indicate that paleotopography is an important boundary condition. Without realistic paleotopography, flat or idealized continents surrounded by bodies of water do not produce realistic pateoclimate results. We conclude that in paleogeographic reconstructions the location and extent of mountain ranges and highlands should be recognized and given suitable elevations consistent with their plate tectonic origins, settings, and geologic ages. Introduction Tithonian, two connections were established between the Tethys Sea and the Panthalassa Ocean The Late Jurassic, particularly the Kimmerid- (Ross et al., 1992). Second, the Triassic Jurassic gian and Tithonian (154.7-145.6 Ma) (Harland high sea level stand occurs within this interval. et al., 1990), were significant stages of the Mesozoic Third, Upper Jurassic rocks contain immense, Era for several reasons. First, the time represented economically important deposits including petro- the important interval of Pangea's tectonic disin- leum source rocks, reserves of oil and gas, coal, tegration by the formation of new and the re- and evaporites. Finally, paleoclimate modeling of establishment of ancient seaway connections this epoch has not been attempted previously with (Fig. 1). North America completed its separation a general circulation model (GCM). from Gondwana, and Gondwana was split into a Modeling of this interval and correlation with northern and southern continent by the rift system paleoclimatically-sensitive sedimentary rocks con- opening the proto-Indian Ocean. By the late firms that the Late Jurassic was a time of high CO2 (Budyko et al., 1985; Berner, 1990) and an elevated Correspondence to: G.T. Moore, Chevron Oil Field Research greenhouse effect (Hallam, 1985; Moore et al., Company, La Habra, California. 1992). In this study, we used ll20ppm CO2, 4× 0031-0182/92/$05.00 © 1992 -- Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved. 230 G.T. MOORE ET AL. 180W 150W 120W 90W 60W 30W 0 30E 60E 90E 120E 150E 180E 90N 60N "L ."*- "._ C"c'L,"/',,~AC'C-~Y",~., • ~ --._A,- • 30N 0 - "a~aL ............. 0 30S- Ocean 30S 60S 60S Austra/ ~.~Y-'~~ ~ ~ ~aSea 90~ i ~ ] i ~ I i i I ~ i I ~ i I i 1 J i i I i ~ I t r I i r I i i r i i ~S 180W 150W 120W 90W 60W 30W 0 30E 60E 90E 120E 150E 180E Fig. 1. Late Jurassic (Kimmeridgian/Tithonian; 154.7-145.6 Ma) paleogeography showing modern shorelines. Reconstruction based on Rowley (1992). the pre-Industrial level of 280 ppm CO2 (Pearman influence various model-generated paleoclimate et al., 1986; Barnola et al., 1987; Kuo et al., 1990). parameters. The first scenario we term "variable", Paleotopography is an important boundary con- with mountain ranges extending to elevations of dition for GCMs. There have been several climate 3 km. The heights are based on the plate tectonic modeling studies, which address the sensitivity of settings of the mountain ranges and the range of climate to topographic variations, and all agree on present-day elevations in similar settings. In the the importance of incorporating mountains into second simulation we set all the mountain ranges model boundary conditions (e.g. Kasahara and at a 1 km height. We term this case "1 km high- Washington, 1971; Manabe and Terpstra, 1974; lands". In the third simulation, all the continents Barron and Washington, 1984; Kutzbach et al., and islands are at 500 m with no topographic 1989; Ruddiman and Kutzbach, 1989; Sloan and variation. We refer to this case as "500 m Barron, 1992a). These investigations indicate that plateaus". orographic influence changes with latitude, season, continental distribution, and topographic Model description expression. Most prior paleotopographic studies considered The GCM used in this study is the National present day or late Cenozoic changes in mountain Center for Atmospheric Research's (NCAR) Com- elevations. Because of the nature of current geogra- munity Climate Model (CCM) Version 0. It runs phy and topographic expression, these cases dealt on a Cray X-MP at Chevron Oil Field Research primarily with climatic sensitivity to topographic Company, La Habra, California. The CCM uses changes in the Northern Hemisphere. The study thermodynamic and hydrodynamic laws applied presented here is different from those listed above to the atmosphere. The vertical dimension consists in two major ways. First, we explore paleoclimate of nine atmospheric levels and extends through sensitivity to paleotopography in the Late Jurassic. the troposphere into the middle stratosphere. The Second, the range of topographic changes consid- horizontal dimension consists of 40 latitude by 48 ered here includes substantial variations in the longitude grid points with each grid cell having an paleotopography of both hemispheres. approximate resolution of 4.5 ° latitude by 7.5 ° The purpose of this study is to evaluate three longitude. different paleotopographic scenarios and how they Moore et al. (1992) examine the simulated paleo- PALEOCkIMATE OF KIMMERIDGIAN/TITHONIAN WORLD: II. COMPARING PALEOTOPOGRAPHIC SETTINGS 231 climate of the Late Jurassic world with variable or quantitative elevation information is available, paleotopography. They describe the evolution of so we used a deductive approach to reconstruct the model and give pertinent characteristics of the the paleotopography. The distribution of "moun- CCM. Hereafter, Moore et al., (1992) will be tains" existing in the latest Jurassic was taken from referred to as "Part I". In this study we use a Ziegler et al. (1983) and modified with respect to solar constant value of 1370 W m -2 and a global the Late Jurassic plate tectonic framework (Row- CO2 concentration of l l20ppm. The bases for ley, 1992; Scotese, 1992). We assigned values in choosing these values are detailed in Part I. one kilometer intervals (up to 3 kin) to elevated These simulations employ a seasonal model in land grid points using present topographic ana- which solar insolation varies throughout the year. logues occurring in equivalent plate tectonic set- The atmosphere is coupled thermally but not tings as a model (the "variable" case). Non- dynamically to a mixed layer ocean, 50 m deep, mountain land cells are 500 m high. For the case with 5° x 5° surface resolution (Washington and of the "1 km highlands" we reduced all the moun- Meehl, 1984). Sea surface temperature (SST) and tains to a one km height. For the "500 m plateaus" sea ice extent are computed as a function of the case, all land grid cells are assigned that elevation. surface energy balance. Sea ice forms when the The distribution and elevation of the mountain SST falls below -1.8°C. The deeper ocean is ranges used in the simulations are shown in Fig. 2. external to the model. The lack of dynamic cou- The northern hemisphere mountain ranges consist pling has obvious model-induced limitations on of the meridionally oriented Sierra Nevada and oceanic heat transport and related atmospheric the NE-trending, rejuvenated Appalachians bor- feedbacks. dering the western and eastern margins of North America, respectively. We interpret the Sierra Nevada to have elevations ranging up to 3 kin. Kimmeridgian/Tithonian physical world and CCM Elevations in the Appalachians are limited to a boundary conditions 2 km maximum. The extensive eastern Asian range represents a continuous, meridionally oriented Paleogeography mountain system with the higher elevations exceed- ing 3 km. Three major rift systems produced oceanic sea- The southern hemisphere contains three regions ways that separated Pangea into major continental of elevated topography. Western and northwestern segments: North America, Eur-Asia, and Gond- Gondwana are rimmed by
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