IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2017 70 The Future of Keys factors. geographic and historic of effects the under tions neitherenced evolution, nor nor distor indecision, phenomenon emerging all at once, having experi monolithic arigid were it if as indiscriminately, ture cul and practices ritual, dogma, for acatch-all as used is Islam of notion the Secondly: historiography. by modern taught lessons main the of one is This community. scientific by today the admitted as ety rejectedcategorically by and soci human sciences essentialism into an fall would one otherwise, ment; their conditions of and general develop emergence general, and religious doctrines in particular, from in culture and ideas to separate illusory is it all: of First Islam. on literature by todays’ profuse hidden or ignored often truths fundamental two to recall priate appro be would it subject, this with dealing Before Arts Beit Al-Hikma, Tunis Tunisian Academy ofSciences, Lettersand President Charfi Abdelmajid The Debate of Ideas within Islam FutureThe of Islam 2 1 inconceivable that the religious ideas debated throughout the Middle East region were ignored and had no effect on the Hijazi mindset in the the in mindset Hijazi the on effect no times of had Muhammed. and ignored were region East Middle the is it throughout debated evidence, ideas without religious the asserts that she what to inconceivable contrary but important, is values, intrinsic its with context, tribal The reductionist. unfortunately muta’addidan wa wahidan Islam controversy, the traces of which can be noted in the the in noted be can which of traces the controversy, and to questions rise given has reception its Koran, the of revelation the of time the order. Since in is text con historical of review abrief case, the being This Debates Historic manifestations. of diversity its in to Islam we refer time every mean Jacqueline Chabbi’s supposedly anthropological approach (cf. 2016) in her particular latest is Seuil book: Les trois de piliers l’islam, Paris: ( Multiple” and One “Islam: on – 2010) Arabic in 2006 al-Tali’a (Beirut, Dar by published edited, have we 18 the titles see regard, this In 1 This means we need to know what we what to know we need means This ). ). ------Safwan (d. 746), so reviled by official Umayyad ideol Umayyad (d. 746),Safwan by official reviled so b. Jahm as such figures, certain that noted be must it 132/750 in Abbasids, by overthrown the phate, Cali Umayyad the of course over the production Despite the relatively modest degree of theoretical theology. Muslim subsequent for afoundation as served also that but Muslims, of experiences the for cussions reper practical with questions were tions? These posi antagonistic to take predestined they were or own, their on Were acting they wrong? others and right some were or have erred, all they Could power. for struggle the in another one killing been had who Companions great the of positions the ify to qual attempting were they when peoples, Arabic non- many of conversion the and to conquests due number in grown had which generation, following the among all above place took debates real the But solutions had an incontestable prophetic authority? and answers the when time the during posed been not had that problems discussing Companions, his of that Muslims, of generation first the than natural more be could what Prophet, the of death the After more than one instance. in generations later of concerns the reflect and later much recorded only were they even if to this, attest Prophet. The Hadiths the of arbitration and intervention the quired re often and heated at times were ideas of bates rent era, as with the wave of a magic wand. wave the amagic of with as era, rent cur the of 7th century early the of milieu Hijazi the in held convictions and ideas ancient erase simply not could religion new the Moreover, corpus. official (prophetic traditions) amply 2 De- al------Ma’mun (813-833) and his two immediate succes Ma’mun immediate (813-833) two his and al- by Caliph followed officials, Barmakid Senior positions that upended irreconcilable. becoming different of advocates the favouring power of circles very the within tendencies contradictory were there rather, Or issues. these on stance definitive a single, have not did power political Abbasid outset, At the sects. and clans into schools, time the of tellectuals in the dividing on, raged debates these of all point, view Shiite the daughter, from his of born by the to so speak, pursued, view,of carnally or ( Prophet Tradition to the of the lent authority the and – eternal and atemporal God, with consubstantial thus – and created not – or temporal and God from different thus – and created Koran, the of status the regarding those as such others, many and matters such on Debates unfair? fundamentally as ence experi may people which and control human yond be situations and acts of wake the in retribution of nature the is What criteria? human to our according justified be it could How Muslims? by all recognized to goodness, God’s relation in explained be ence exist its could How infirm. the or children as such innocent, to the coming harm concerning ticularly Other related problems were likewise posed, par ish them for these reprehensible actions. pun then and to wrong do people to compel unable being God acts, their for responsible and free were humans unless applied be not could which justice, omniscience. leaned Others more towards divine and omnipotence his God, of transcendence the ans, favouring predestination, wished to safeguard theologi Certain two. the of one towards tipped be to had text sacred the of interpretation the of ance bal the and Koran the in exist notions two the cause and be namely predestination, its of human liberty lim the around revolved debate things, other Among this with issue, its obvious repercussions. practical were, moreover, and foremost first with concerned obey. rationalist The first theologians (the Mu’tazila to had subjects that decision adivine of plication ap in but accord, own their of not acting, were they governors did not display irreproachable behaviour, if that, believe have one would which doctrine, ficial of against were Sunnis, by the afterwards and ogy 3 category of licit or Sunna Recall that the five categories of legal rulings are: 1) mandatory, wajib 1) are: mandatory, rulings legal of categories five the that Recall Hadith Hadith the in ) recorded and 5) prohibited, mahzur , 4) reprehensible, by , followed from the Sunni point point Sunni the from ) ------ing that the five five the that ing believ in unanimous were they beliefs, to their due concerned those of integrity physical the or death and to life relative gravity extreme of matters on also disagreement on minor subjects, and sometimes in often were scholars legal though Nonetheless, enmity. and exclusion as far as going sometimes ceased, never divergences and debates regard, this to In another. context dential jurispru and geographic one from change could opinions ( legal issuing of liberty the school legal each and region each law, the allowing unifying from sisted de they that strong so was scholars legal of sition oppo the but empire, entire the for valid code legal asingle to promulgate attempted effectively They life. social of organization the with associated rectly di concern another had Abbasids the Moreover, to religion. relating thought down dragging always and masses, illiterate the all above and places high in people by supported disciplines, religious strictly all in ture cul foreign of enemies literalism, of advocates the (847-861), were Mutawakkil Mu’tazilites, the against by al- about-face the after particularly pole, opposite and even Hindu At philosophers and scholars. the Iranian Greek, of works the of translation and alism ration of encouragement their for known were sors, Caliphs’ courts and in circles of power and of intel of and power of circles in and courts Caliphs’ at the place took speculation and reflection ture, cul by beliefs, raised to subject any relative others of infinity an and issues these around debates The legalism. from removed far approach, individualist more itual, spir amore and reading esoteric an favouring ars, schol legal by the advocated Koran the of reading literalist the rejected mystics 4th/10th The century. (d. 922) the in Hallaj with case the was as trials, intense debate arose, even leading to momentous regard, this In transactions. of that as well as ship wor of sphere the in applicable rules, rigid these ( mystics first by the contested was what precisely is This escape. theory, in could, Muslim no which from straitjacket a established scholars legal the words, other In tion. excep without acts human to all applicable were , 2) recommended, mustahabb fatwa , which is illicit is , which Sufis ), thus tolerating that jurisdiction jurisdiction that ), tolerating thus ) of Islam, who felt hemmed in by in hemmed felt who Islam, ) of legal ruling categories ( , , 3) neutral, neutral, , 3) . , all three in the the in three , all ) 3 ------

IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2017 71 The Future of Islam Keys IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2017 72 The Future of Islam Keys social spheres. The shock ofsocial spheres. that fol conquest, and cultural political, economic, the in also but level, military the on only not backwardness, historic their of degree the Arabs to the demonstrated it as far inso eras, two between point aturning considered 1798 in by Napoleon was Egypt of conquest The (Renaissance) Nahdha The compilers’ historical particular context. the within responses valid as made be only can thisspeaking, is impossible), entails choices that strictly (and however, exhaustive not if cyclopaedia, en Any past. the of legacy the compiled they which posterityleft remarkable encyclopaedic works in predecessors, their of acquis the to preserve tempt at an in and civilization, their of decline the of gers dan the feeling period, this of authors The scarce. somewhat were thinkers original even if relative, was culture of fossilization the period, the of countries civilized most the with compete could and progress irrefutable experienced Empire Ottoman the or India Moghul as such areas since time, at the domains its of all or world Islamic the of ensemble to the formly uni applied be cannot characteristic this though Al decadence. and stagnation of atime as known 13th the is from 18th to the period centuries The removed from legalism. more individualist approach, far esoteric reading and amore spiritual, favouringthe scholars, legal an reading of the Koran advocated by mysticsThe rejected the literalist at the or at mosques as such lectuals, Al-Andalus until the late 6th/12th the until century. Al-Andalus in manner all of controversies and ideas of eration prolif the to not mention lagging, not were Maghreb and Mashreq the in metropoles Other debates. and Jewish philosophers participated in high-quality Christian 4th/10th the where in century, Baghdad in activity discussion this of example an provides Tawhidi of work (d. The institutes). 1023)ological (the ------− − attention: warrant that positions their from emerge themes central Various Neo-Salafists. or reformists as qualified ventionally con by those shared not clearly was reading This past dangers. from societies Muslim safeguarding in succeeded had that to solutions to cling was changes these of effects devastating the against rampart best the believed they existed, awareness this even when And societies. their in exterior, and interior ty, both changes occurring in the of spheres different activi the of awareness of absence an denoting mindset aconservative had they rule, ageneral As tution. sisted of representatives of religious the insti official con essentially first The point. at this distinguished be can trends major Three texts. founding its and Islam of spirit to the faithful most the considered es practic and dogma of conceiving of manner the ing spreading out, regard then increasingly ed circles, to restrict at first limited up, opened adebate Hence backwardness. this of acause considered phenomena all of ing question by the affected be but not could thought catch up. Under religious the circumstances, to need societies’ their of aware governors and ticularly Christians, and followed by intellectuals sance), initiated by Syrian-Lebanese authors, par Nahdha the called to amovement rise gave Tunisia on Egypt, and imposed protectorates the then Algeria, of occupation French by the lowed lar belief in myths contrary to a healthy under to ahealthy contrary myths in belief lar brotherhoods considered responsible for popu the against struggle afierce out carried they period, this in predominant being Maraboutism Islam. of centuries first the in tion who were for responsible advancing this civiliza the of practices the using societies their to renew intended they tion’s centuries of decadence. In this manner, civiliza Islamic the during forsaken been had to practice people on called they words, other In contexts. historic different very in held positions to slaves being stop and lives their of charge take to Muslims for appeal their Hence conformism. imitation and metic unthinking attitude, servile in resided their suffered Muslims absolute, mi evils the of root the that believed they all, of First once again, an exercise in reflection that that reflection in exercise an again, once , the pious predecessors, , the pious predecessors, (Renais------But it was the abolition of the by Atatürk in in by Atatürk Caliphate the of abolition the was it But diverged. others many and issues these on points Stand populace? the among awareness by raising begin they should or despots, enlightened with them to replace attempt and powers despotic row-minded nar the confront to directly cause Was there sent? pre and past the with arupture by proclaiming ed generat be shock ahealthy should contrary, the on or gradually worked be minds people’s en? Should wom of status the on particularly thought, and style life Western the appropriating in go one could far How disavowed? be traditions prophetic the of ture na prescriptive the or forth, put be exegesis ranic Ko new Should subjects. these on debate of acuity to the witness ample bear articles, journal and per newspa or books informed of form the in centuries, 19th the of turn 20th to the the from texts merous nu The doctrine. and practices to ancestral tomed tion but also the collective accus consciousness, institu official the of representatives between only not clash, afrontal caused positions these Naturally, and Modernism Salafism − − 5 4 jadida Author of the book Unveiling and book Veiling the of ( Author Authored two books that caused a sensation: a sensation: caused that books two Authored ing with the values they held. they values the with ing keep in education an advocating system, tional educa fossilized the of reform prioritized and cy justgirls, asthey deplored the prevailing illitera for education demanded thus They Muslims. of generations first the of behaviour the or Islam of precepts the in root no having them enveloping veil entire the life, public in to participate them for and cloistered be to longer no women lim Theyeducation. for actively Mus campaigned of state the and women of situation the writings: their in appeared themes new two addition, In themconsidered obvious forgeries. they late and recorded been had they for ed, were the based outlooks the reformists reject to distrust the sum of the hadiths led were they clerics, of majority the among lent preva dogmas the moreover, to purify Wishing, fatalist mentality they reproved. the of propagation the for and Islam, of standing , 1900). , Al-Sufur wal hijab wal Al-Sufur , upon which which , upon The Liberation of Women ( Women of Liberation The , 1928). , ------right to without marry a male guardian, established the age of were who gave women spouses, ture fu for age aminimum established polygamy, ited prohib texts, sacred the of interpretation dacious 1956. au in an latter, in The Code Status Personal achievement was the promulgation of the Tunisian rents bore his whose revolutionary crowning ideas, cur social and political deep certain but book, this of publication the after ensued controversy Heated men. with equality full their and women’s rights ma 1908) (1863- Amin Qasim Egyptian the namely tury, cen 20th early and 19th the of century half second the of thinkers many although token, same the By Power and Islam the Foundations of Political work, mous fa his and Raziq to Abdel belongs incontestably subject, this on doctrine Muslim classic the of ing temporal power, following a non-conventional read and religious between break aclear made ing hav of merit the authors, Ottoman numerous of forts ef modernizing the 1890) to not mention Tunisia, in (1801-1873) (1822- Pasha Hayreddin and Egypt in Rifa’a al-Tahtawi after reformists, of works the in agenda the on constantly was countries Muslim in system political the reforming of issue the Though heir. his be (1849-1905) Abduh Muhammad of to claiming and Al-Manar journal the of founder and Syrian-Lebanese origin, living in Egypt and director of latter the and Britain, Great in by studies lowed fol education Azharite an with family, Egyptian (1865-1935), Ridha Rashid alarge from former the (1888-1966) Raziq Abdel Ali themselves: and of and in trends two these Two summarize figures reconciled. be hardly could that solutions ferent dif envisaging but progress of ideals same the ing and bring thinkers into in hav opposition, principle to grow bound were that movement reform this in tendencies 1924 antagonistic two reveal would that (1908-1976) and in Society ( Society in and Women the in Our 1935) book, his in who, (1899- Tunisian, Tahir the was it Haddad liberation, , 1930), went the farthest in the defence of defence the in , 1930), farthest the went Tahrir al-mara’a 4 ( and the Lebanese Druze Nazira Zain al-din al-din Zain Nazira Druze Lebanese the and Al-Islam wa usul al-hukm wausul Al-Islam 5 were activists for Muslim women’s , 1899) and and , 1899) Imra ‘tuna Fi ‘l-sharia Wa ‘l-mujta ‘l-sharia Fi ‘tuna Imra The New Woman ( Woman New The , 1925). 1925). , , both disciples disciples , both Al-mara’a al- Al-mara’a ------

IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2017 73 The Future of Islam Keys IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2017 74 The Future of Islam Keys ensemble of of ensemble by the 18th reviled the in century, emerging family Saud to the linked sect – arigorist Wahhabism and Brotherhood the between connection The system. caliphal the of defence athorough published Ridha Rashid book, Raziq’s Abdel after just vein, same the In Caliphate. the of abolition 1949) to the reaction in (1906- 1928 in al-Banna founded was by Hasan lim Brotherhood movement, representing this trend, (1906-1966). Qutb of influence the Mus The evolved from the 1960s towards under extremism and right to the squarely was movement, form re the from emerging also tendency, second The other.the West’s political double on standards the regarding in general Muslims the and by in particular the Arabs the one and the hand, humiliation felt the anachronistic regimeson Gulf benefit of the oil by used bonanza few it if had not decades had the in the world Muslim over the past impact and audience enjoyed it has wouldSalafism never have had the sions for women. provi enact did they though rights, Tunisia family in as far as go not did Code, Civil Swiss the and gime re Turkey, of asecular exception adopted which the with countries, Muslim Other actors. political ber of intellectuals, civil society activists and even num asignificant among today agenda the on still is that a demand inheritance, their share equally to sisters and brothers for right the was gramme, pro Haddad’s in already was it although achieve, to failed Tunisian the legislation that step only The legacy. entire parents’ their to inherit right the females granted and judge, acivil before divorce 6 In this regard, see: Hamadi Hamadi see: regard, this In of the time and until then limited limited then until and time the of R edi ss i Le pacte de Nadjd (2007). Nadjd de pacte , Le ------to the Arabian Peninsula Arabian to the to as the Arab Spring. Arab the to as referred commonly is what of onset the since region Arab the by in events demonstrated as tortuous, ten rest of humanity, but the paths leading there are of the as peace and dignity justice, equality, liberty, of ideals same to the aspire Islam of adepts the that incontestable is It constraints. and values nomic civilization, withmodern its cognitive and socio-eco of demands the and traditions religious their ing andby monotheists in in reconcil Muslims, general, encountered difficulties the of sign the but is which produces, it commotion by the influenced be self one to not let important is it damage, its limit least at or it, to eradicate But Muslims. of majority the of mind of frame general the representing from far is it and Islam, within ideas of debate the in space alimited occupies only it media, to the well-known most the is ideology this though note that, simply us let closing, In Islam. political this of consequences disastrous the on to dwell superfluous be would It Conclusion other. the on Palestine in entity Zionist the of apartheid and arrogance the and standards double West’s political the garding re general in Muslims the and particular in Arabs by the felt humiliation the and hand, one the on cies, nistic Gulf regimes to counter modernizing tenden anachro by the used bonanza oil the of benefit the had not had it if few decades past over the world lim Mus the in enjoyed has it audience and impact the have never had would forms, its of any in Salafism, Nevertheless, Daesh. and by al-Qaeda petrated per actions 11 terrorist the and certain September a after especially world, the throughout by everyone known now are violent, and intolerant exclusivist, an, Brotherhood-Wahhabi matrix, increasingly sectari- the from 1967 in emerging by Israel movements in defeat Arab the after Islamism of developments The (1263-1328).Taymiyya Ibn of work to the reference shared the and him 6 – was particularly due to due particularly – was ------