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Appendix Transcription of Vernacular Terms

Thai consonant phonemes and vowels

Thai consonant phonemes

Bilabial Dental Palatal Velar Glottal

Stops Voiced Unaspirated bd Voiceless Unaspirated ptck Voiceless Aspirated ph th ch kh Spirants Voiceless Unaspirated fs Sonarants Voiced Semivowels wy Voiced Nasala mn n Voiced Lateral l Voiced Trill or Retroflex r

Thai vowel phonemes

Front Central Back

Unrounded Rounded

High i, ii, ia u, uu, ua Mid e, ee o, oo Low a, aa

C.M. Joll, Muslim Merit-Making in Thailand’s Far-South, in Global 211 Societies Series 4, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-2485-3, C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012 212 Appendix: Transcription of Vernacular Terms

Pattani Malay consonant phonemes and vowels

Pattani Malay consonant phonemes

Bilabial Alvelar (Alveo-) Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal

Stops Voiceless pt k ‘ Voiced bd g Fricaatives Voiceless fs r h Voiced z Affricates Voiceless ch Voiced jn Semivowels Voiced wy Nasals Voiced m n ny ng Lateral Voiced l Trill Voiced r

Pattani Malay vowel phonemes

Front Central Back

Unrounded Rounded

High i, in u, un ei ou Mid e e, en o, on Low a, an Abbreviations

Ar. b. bin CD Compact disc cf. Compare CIS College of NGO Non-governmental organization NU Nahdlatul Pal. Pali pl. Plural PM. Pattani Malay Pr. Persian PSTI Private school teaching PSU Prince of Songkhla University, Pattani Campus sg. Singular Sk. Sanskrit SL Source language SM. Standard Malay Syn. Synonymous Th. Thai TL Target language Tm. Tamil Ur. Urdu VCD Video compact disc

213 This is Blank Page Integra 214 Glossary

‘ibadat (PM.) Islamic practice (syn. ama ‘ibadat (PM.)) ‘Aqil (Ar.) Age of religious responsibility (reached upon puberty) (SM.) Malay customary practice Adhad al-gabr (Ar.) Torture in the grave (Ar.) Degrees of approval in Islamic law Ahl bida’ah (Ar.) Innovators Ahl kubor (Ar.) The deceased Ahl (Ar.) Followers of the sunnah (example of the prophet) Ajr (Ar.) merit Akhirat (Ar.) The hereafter or Alam al-barzakh (Ar.) The world of the grave where the dead await resurrection, and judgment Al-ayyam (Ar.) The voluntary fasts on the eleventh, twelfth, and thirtieth of every month Al-rasul (Ar.) The messenger (title for ) Ama (PM.) Islamic ritual practice (syn. ama ‘ibadat (PM.)) Ama ‘ibadat (PM.) Islamic ritual practice (syn. ‘ibadat (PM.)) Amphur (Th.) District Amphur Muang (Th.) Municipality. Anok soleh (PM.) A righteous son or daughter (syn. anak (SM.)) Aqiqoh (PM.) Seventh day naming ritual for new-born babies Arwi Tamil written in a modified Arabic script Arwoh (PM.) The soul of the deceased (syn. winyan (Th.)) Asar (PM.) Afternoon (Ar.) The tenth day of . A voluntary fast day. mention the Prophet’s hope that this would cover the sins of the coming year Azan (Ar.) The call to ten minutes before the appointed time for salat (syn. be (PM.), bang (SM.)) Azima’ (PM.) Amulets used from protection from evil spirits Baap (Th.) Sin or demerit (syn. dosa (PM.)) Baht Thai Currency ($1US = 30 baht) Balasoh (PM.) Prayer room (syn. Th./PM. )

215 216 Glossary

Balo (PM.) Disaster, calamity, occasionally punishment (syn. hed rai (Th.), bala (SM.)) Bana (PM.) Town (syn. bandar) Barzanji (AR.) to the Prophet Muhammad read at feasts (syn. zanji (PM.)) Basmalah (Ar.) The innovation Bismillah al-rahman al-rrahim “In the name of God, the merciful, the compassionate” Batu nise kubor (PM.) Gravestones Be (PM.) Call to prayer (syn. bang (SM.), azan (Ar.)) Be (PM.) Older brother (Abang (SM.)) Be’woh (PM.) Religious Feast (a term more common in Narathiwat) (syn. wa’ make, wajike (PM.)) Berah (PM.) Uncooked rice Berakat (PM.) (Ar.) Blessing Berijihad di Pattani (PM.) The Struggle of Patani Bid’ah (Ar.) Religious practice that is not clearly sanctioned by authentic sources or is considered an innovation Buko poso (PM.) To break a fast (syn. kae buat (Th.)) Bun (Th.) Merit (syn. phonlabun (Th.), pahalo, bajike (PM.)) Chularajamontri (Th.) The shaykh-al-Islam who is recognized as the spiritual leader of the Muslims in Thailand and the royal advisor on Islamic matters Da’wah (Ar.) Islamic ‘mission’ (literally call) to both Muslims and non-Muslims. This functions as a synonym for the Tablighi Jama’at Dapa’ pahalo (PM.) To receive merit Dato’ Yutitham (Th.) Islamic judge Daun ro’ko’ (PM.) Cigarette grass. Dek ponok (PM.) Pondok students Doso (PM.) Sin or demerit (syn. dosa (SM.), baap (Th.)) Du’o (PM.) Prayer and petition (syn. do’a (Ar.)). Fardu (Ar.) Required or obligatory actions whose performance is meritorious and omission is punishable Fardu ‘in (Ar.) Personal religious responsibilities Fardu khifayah (Ar.) Religious responsibilities to the community (Ar.) The major ablution involving a full bath Gula (PM.) Curry (syn. Kaeng (Th.)) Hadioh pahalo (PM.) To dedicate merit to someone (syn. Th. song/phee bun, PM. hadioh pahalo) (Ar.) Compiles traditions of the prophet Muhammad’s deeds and statements by his companions Haj (Ar.) to Mecca Haj mabrup (Ar.) A pilgrimage resulting in all previous sins being forgiven Hajah (Ar.) Female pilgrim Haji (Ar.) Male pilgrim (Ar.) That which is permitted Halaqah (Ar.) Study circle Glossary 217

Halq (Ar.) Ritual hair-shaving at the end of (Ar.) That which is forbidden (syn. hare (PM.)) Hare (PM.) That which is forbidden (syn haram (Ar.)) Hari Rayo (PM.) General term for Islamic festivals, or the three-day end of celebrations (syn. Hari Raya (SM.), Id’Il-Fitr (Ar.)) Hari Rayo Haji (PM.) Festival of sacrifice (syn. Id’Il-Adha (Ar.)) Hasanah (Ar.) Good deeds Hed Rai (PM.) Disaster or calamity, though often also considered punishment (syn. balo (PM.)) Hijaz (Ar.) Eastern Peninsula Arabia, most importantly Mecca and Medina Hong thaew (Th.) Show house I’tikaf (Ar.) The final ten days of Ramadan Id’il-adha (Ar.) Festival of sacrifice (syn. Hari Rayo Haji (PM)) Id’il-fitr (Ar.) End of Ramadan celebrations (syn. Hari Rayo (PM.)) Ifraad haj (Ar.) The haj made without umroh Iftar (Ar.) The meal with which the fast is broken during Ramadan Ihram (Ar.) State of ritual purity while performing haj and umroh Ikhalah (Ar.) Sincerity, devotion (syn. ikhalas (SM.)) Ilumung (PM.) Religious knowledge (Ar.) Shortened version of the be after which salat commences Isaan (Th.) Northeast Thailand Iso (PM.) Night prayers. Isra’ (Ar.) Muhammad’s night journey to Jerusalem Jaba’ sale (PM.) To shake hands Jahiliyya (Ar.) The pre-Islamic period of Arab religious ignorance Jai bun (Th.) A meritorious person Jangwat (Th.) Province Jawi (PM.) Malay written in an Arabic script (syn. Yawi (Th.)) Ka’ (PM.) Older sister Kae buat (Th.) To break a fast (syn. buko poso (PM.)) Kaeng (Th.) Curry Kampung (PM.) Village Karachakarn (Th.) Thai civil servants Kemiye (PM.) Incense used while the corpse in being prepared for burial Kenduri (SM) Ritual meal, feast Kerajaan (SM) Malay Kingdom Khaek (Th.) A pejorative term used by Thais to refer to Muslims, and by some Thai Muslims in the upper southern provinces to refer to themselves Khairat (Ar.) Alms, good works Kham chern (Th.) Call (to perform the haj) (syn. seru (PM.)) Khanat Kamakarn Islam)(Th.) the Pattani Provincial Islamic Council (syn. Majlis Agama (SM.), Maljih Ugamo (PM.)) Kharo’ (PM.) Alms, good works Khon Thai (Th.) Thai nationals or Thai Buddhists Khon yaak jon (Th.) The poor (syn. muskin (PM.)) 218 Glossary

Khong waan (Th.) Sweets khuruj (Ur.) “Mission” trips central to the methodology of the Tablighi Jama’at Khutba (PM.) Sermon Kiraamun kaatibeen (Ar.) The angels that record all good and bad deeds and intentions Ko thoot (Th.) To ask for (syn. mito’ ma’af (PM)) Korbe (PM.) Animal Sacrifice (syn. qurbani (Ar.)) Kubor (PM.) Graveyard Kuen prasert (Th.) The most excellent night Kusala (Sk.) Merit Lamaat (Th.) Ritual prayer (syn. salat (Ar.), semaye (PM.), sembahyang (Th.)) Lamaat Juma’at (Th.) Congregational prayers (on Hari Rayo, or Fridays) (syn. lamaat wan suk (Th.)) Lamaat wan suk (Th.) Friday congregational prayers (syn. lamaat Juma’at (Th.)). Laylat Al Qadr (Ar.) The night of power Ligor (PM.) Nakhon Si Thammarat Lung (Th.) Uncle (syn. Pok (PM.)) (Ar.) School of Islamic jurisprudence Mahzur (Ar.) Punishable actions (c.f. Ar. Haram) Majlih Ugamo (PM.) the Pattani Provincial Islamic Council (syn. Majlis Agama (SM.), Khanat Kamakarn Islam (Th.)) Make Pulot (PM.) Social feast associated with , and which those attending make a donation towards Make suhoor (PM.) Eating the pre-dawn meal in Ramadan (Ar.) Reprehensible actions that although are not punishable, are not disapproved of (c.f. fardu) Mandoob (Ar.) Recommended meritorious practice Markaz (Ur.) Religious centre Masuk Jawi (PM.) Masyid (Th.) Mawlid (Ar.) Celebrations on the prophet Muhammad’s birthday Mayat (PM.) Corpse (syn. sop (Th.)) Mekkoh (PM.) Mecca Mi’raj (Ar.) The night of ascension of the prophet Mito’ ma’af (PM.) To ask for forgiveness (syn. ko thoot (Th.)) (Ar.) Indifferent actions neither punishable nor meritorious Muskin (PM.) The poor (syn. khon yaak jon (Th.)) Mustahab (Ar.) Desirable meritorious practice Muwahhidun (Ar.) Unitarians, A term preferred by the Wahhabi movement Nafilah (Ar.) Voluntary meritorious action whose non-action not punishable (Id.) Indonesian traditionalist organization, “the awakening of the ulama” Ngaji Kure (PM.) Studying the Qur’an (syn. rian al-kuran (Th.)) Ngatek (PM.) Reciting tahlil,ortahlil, tahmid, Niat (PM.) Intention Glossary 219

Niqab (Ar.) Full-faced veil Nisfu Sha‘ban (Ar.) The middle of the month of Sha’ban by which all requirements of the previous year’s fast has been fulfilled. Norib (PM.) Dusk prayers (syn. Maghrib (Ar.)) Ore brao (PM.) “Wahhabi” Ore isle (PM.) Muslims Ore jawi (PM.) Muslims from Southeast , Malays from South Thailand. (syn. Jawah) Ore meneko (PM.) Merchants, Petty traders (syn. thawke (Th.)) Ore nayu (PM.) Malays (from South Thailand) Ore siye (Th.) Thai Buddhists Ore taning (PM.) Pattani natives Pahalo (PM.) (syn. pahala (SM.) bun, phonlabun (Th.)) Paya de (PM.) Payment of the fine for days of the fast of Ramadan not completed Peranakan (SM) Mixed race Phee bun (Th.) To dedicate merit to someone (syn. song bun (Th.), hadioh pahalo (PM.)) Phi (Th.) Older brother or sister Piyo’ (PM.) Muslim skull cap Pok (PM.) Uncle (syn. lung (Th.)) Ponok (PM.) Traditional Islamic school (Pondok (SM)) Poso (PM.) Fasting (syn. puasa (SM.)) Puñña (Pal.) Merit Punya (Sk.) Merit Qasr (Ar.) Ritual haircutting at the end of ihram Qiblat (PM.) Direction of prayer (to Mecca) Qiraan haj (Ar.) The haj performed with one ihram Rai (Th.) Measure of land equivalent to 1,000 square meters Raka’at (pl.)(PM.) Units or cycles in salat (sg. raka’ah) Rasul- (Ar.) A title for Muhammad, meaning the prophet of God Raya Ne (PM.) The seventh of Shawwal on which the six day fast after Hari Rayo is completed Rian al-kuran (Th.) Studying the Qur’an (syn. ngaji kure (PM.)) Riski (PM.) Provision or physical blessing Ro’ko’ (PM.) Cigarette Rongrian ekachon son satsana Islam (Th.) Private School Teaching Islam Rukon Islam (Ar.) Pillars of Islam Sagha’ir (Ar.) Venial sins Sa’I (Ar.) Walking between the hills of Safa and Marwah in Mecca seven times Salafism Islamic puritan movement asserting the sunnah of Muhammad as the normative guide for Islam today (Ar.) Blessing the prophet Muhammad sanchatthian (Th.) Instinctive Satsanakit (Th.) Religious . Saw luk (Th.) Centre post of a house (syn. thiye (PM.)) 220 Glossary

Sawm (Ar.) Fasting (syn. poso (PM.), puasa (SM.), sin ot ahaan (Th.)) Sedekoh (PM.) Charity Sedekoh jariyah (PM.) The donation of skills, items, or money to public institution. Considered by some to include teaching Segoro (PM.) Songkhla Semaye (PM.) Islamic ritual prayer (sembahyang (SM.), lamaat (Th.)) Semaye duho (PM.) Salat performed at about 11 am Semaye hajat (PM.) Salat performed in response to a special need Semaye ishraq (PM.) Morning prayer performed after the sun has risen Semaye juma’at (PM.) Congregational prayers (on Hari Rayo, or Fridays) Semaye mayat (PM.) Salat performed before burials Semaye sunnat topat (PM.) Prayer for forgiveness Semaye tahajud (Ar.) Salat performed after midnight subsequent to falling to sleep (syn. salat al-lail (Ar.)) Semaye taroweh (PM.) Salat performed during the month of Ramadan after Iso prayers, usually consisting of twenty, or eight raka’at Senenge (PM.) Peace Seru (PM.) Call (to perform the haj) (syn. kham chern (Th.)) Sewaeng bun (Th.) To go on a pilgrimage (to seek merit) Shahadah (Ar.) The first pillar of Islam declaring “There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is his messenger” Shariah (Ar.) Islamic religious law Song bun (Th.) To send merit to someone (syn. phee bun (Th.), hadioh pahalo (PM.)) Songkran (Th.) Thai new years celebration Sop (Th.) Corpse (syn. mayat (PM.)) Suat mun (Th.) Make religious chants Suboh (PM.) Pre-dawn prayers (syn. zuboh (SM.), fajr (Ar.)) Suhoor (PM.) Pre-dawn meal in Ramadan Suhur (PM.) Midday prayers Sunnah (Al-Nabi)(Ar.) The practice of the prophet. These are divided into mandub (recommended) and mustahab (desirable) Sunnat (PM.) Generic term for voluntary religious acts whose performance is rewarded with merit. Sunnat muakkad (PM.) A practice regularly practiced by the prophet himself (syn. Sunnah muakkadah (Ar.)) Surau (PM./Th.) Prayer room (syn. balasoh (PM.)) Suroh (PM.) Chapter of the Qur’an Ta’laat nat (Th.) Weekly market Taa yaa (Th.) Ancestors (syn. tok nenek (PM.)) Tabligh Juma’at Muslim missionary and revival movement founded in the late 1920s in of India by Maulana Muhammad Ilyas Kandhalawi Tadika (SM) Small religious schools attached to mosque or prayer rooms where basic Islamic knowledge is taught in the evenings and weekends Tahlil (Ar.) “la ilah illa Allah” (syn. ngatek (PM.)) Glossary 221

Tahmid (Ar.) “Alhumdulilah”(Ar.PraisebetoAllah” (Ar.) “Allahu Akbar”(Ar.Allahisgreat) Talbiyah (Ar.) Prayer prayed by pilgrims declaring their intention to perform the haj Talqin (Ar.) catechism Tammatu haj (Ar.) The haj made with two ihrams (Ar.) Blind following Tariqah (Ar.) Sufi Order Tasbih (Ar.) “Subahanaallah” Ar. glory be to Allah), and to the reception of Subahanaallah, Alhumdulilah, and Allahu Akhbar Tawaf (Ar.) The anti-clockwise circling of the Ka’bah seven times Tepa’ ngusong mayat (PM.) Cage for carrying a corpse to the graveyard. Thai Phut (Th.) Thai Buddhists Tham bun (Th.) General religious action, including—although not exclusively— those generating merit. Tham naa (Th.) To make face Tham thaan (Th.) To do acts of charity (syn. sedekoh (PM.)) Thawke (Th.) Merchants, Petty traders (syn. ore meneko (PM.)) Thesebarn (Th.) City Council Thiye (PM.) Centre post of a house (syn. saw luk (Th.)) Tobat (PM.) Repentance Tok babo (PM.) Owner of ponok school, or senior and respected tok guru Tok guru (PM.) Religious teacher Tok ime (PM.) Person responsible for a mosque, or who leads salat (syn. tok (SM.)) Tok (PM.) Reader of Friday sermon. Tok kodi (PM.) (Islamic law) judge Tok leba (PM.) Mosque official who gives the call to prayer (syn. tok lebai (SM.)) Tok mude (PM.) Circumcision specialist Tok nenek (PM.) Ancestors (syn. taa yaa (Th.)) Tok pakir (PM.) Ponok school superintendent who looks after students and liaises with visitors to ponok,orponok students Tok seh (PM.) Haj guide Tuhe (PM.) God Tupa’ (PM.) Triangular glutinous rice and cream sweet wrapped in leaves which are eaten on Hari Rayos (syn. (SM.) Turut ore tuo (PM.) To follow old traditions Umroh (PM.) The lesser pilgrimage (syn. (Ar.)) Ustaz (PM.) Teacher in a ponok, or PSTI Wa’ arwoh (PM.) Funeral feast (syn. wa’ ngatek (PM.), tham bun hai phu sia chiwit (Th.)) Wa’ make (PM.) To hold a merit-making feast (syn. wa’ wajike (PM.)) Wa’ mawlid (PM.) To hold a mawlid feast (syn. tham bun mawlid (Th.)) Wa’ ngatek (PM.) Funeral feast (syn. wa’ arwoh (PM.), tham bun hai phu sia chiwit (Th.)) 222 Glossary

Wa’ pahalo (PM.) To make merit wa’ upoh haj (PM.) Hiring someone to perform the haj Wa’ wajike (PM.) To hold a merit-making feast (syn. wa’ make (PM.)) Wajib (Ar.) Required or obligatory actions whose performance is meritorious and omission is punishable Waktu (PM.) Prayer times (Suboh, Sohur, Asar, Norib, and Iso) Walimah (PM.) Feast associated with weddings, for which no donation is expected Wan di (Th.) Good days to make merit on Woquf (Ar). Prayer vigil between noon and sunset (Ar.) Ritual ablutions before the performance of salat (Ar.) Compulsory annual religious tithe Zakat fitrah (Ar.) Tithe paid to the poor before Juma’at prayers on Hari Rayo Zanji (PM.) Oracle to the Prophet Muhammad read at mawlid feasts (syn. berzanji (Ar.)) Zeroh ore mati (PM.) Visit the relatives of the deceased, or to attend a merit- making feast for the deceased Zikir (PM./Ar.) Reciting, or recalling God’s names and attributes. Sometimes synonymous with tasbih Zuboh (SM.) Pre-dawn prayers (syn. Suboh (PM.), Fajr (Ar.)) Index

A obligations to, 17, 154, 181, 186Ð189, 197, , 29, 44, 209 199, 200, 208 Adat rewards from, 98, 142, 181, 198Ð199 codification by Dutch, 9Ð10 Al-Manar, 43, 46 conceptualizations of, 8 Al-Munir, 43 evaluations of, 8 Ama ‘ibadat, see ‘ibadat Middle Eastern origins of, 9 Anglo-Siamese treaty (1909), 16, 38, 48, 83, Adhad al-gabr, see Torture of the grave 205Ð206 (Ar. Adhab al-Qabr) Anok soleh, 65, 111, 114Ð115, 120, 126Ð127, Ahl bid’ah, 64, 147Ð148 147, 178, 181, 188Ð189, 196, Ahl kubor, 111, 169 198Ð199, 207Ð208 Anthropologists Ahl sunnah, 65, 138, 147 as professional strangers, 13 Ajr, see Merit, Arabic terms for the religious identity of, 13 Akhirat, 106, 130, 150Ð151, 156, 171, 174, of Islam 187Ð188, 193, 198 conceptualization of Muslim diversity by, 9 See also Alam al-barzakh definition, articulators and exemplifiers Alam al-barzakh of, 8 comfort in, 186, 188, 195, 198Ð199, 200, the ethnographic significance of ‘ibadat in, 209 8, 10, 208 definition of, 187 evaluation of adat, 8 merit transference to deceased in, 186, Arwi, 31 188Ð189 Ashura, 34 and resurrection, 186 Ayutthaya See also Torture of the grave (Ar. Adhab control over Patani, 16, 33, 36Ð37 al-Qabr) demise of, 36 torture in, 113, 189Ð190 patani as vassal of, 36Ð37 uniqueness of on eschatological market, predecessor of Bangkok, 16, 37 200 Azan, 31, 115, 215Ð216 Alam kubor, see Alam al-barzakh Alayyam, 169 B Algeria, 96, 192 Baap, see Demerit (Th. baap,PM.doso) Alhumdulilah, see Tahmid Bajike, 85Ð86 Al-Imam, 43, 46, 50 Balasoh, see Surau Allah Balo, see Misfortune (PM. balo) absent in Buddhist cosmology, Bangkok 199 assimilation by, 39Ð40, 74 forgiveness by, 143, 162, 168, 173, 175, and Chakri dynasty, 26, 37, 73, 206 177, 182, 189 governments, 39Ð42, 68, 70, 83

223 224 Index

Bangkok (cont.) legitimacy in Pattani, 40 influence of, 17, 25Ð53, 196Ð200 origins of institution, 42, 50 legislation by, 40Ð42 Persian influence, 34 Malay resistance of, 207 Circulating Islam Muslims in, 7, 73 definition and heuristic value of, 16, 27Ð33 wars with Patani (1785Ð1836), 16, 36Ð39 products of, 27Ð33 Barzanji, see Zanji Circumstantialism, 66 Bengali Muslims, 91, 101 Compulsory Primary Education Act (1921), Be (SM. bang), 115 38Ð39, 206 Be’who, see Feasting complexes, Cosmology merit-generating Islamic, 90, 181, 198, 200Ð201, 208 Bismillah Thai, 199 sanctifying effect of, 118 Cosmopolis in semaye, 146 Arabic cosmopolis, 26, 30Ð31, 51, 91, 197, Bonds of brotherhood, 52 205 Brahmanism, 148 Sanskrit cosmopolis, 16, 25Ð27, 51, 83, 86, See also Indic Influences 101, 205 Brao Thai, 17, 78, 209 as reformist centre, 50 Thai and Malay in cosmopolis, 83 village of, 50 Cosmopolitan, 16, 27, 30Ð31, 35, 78 See also Ore brao Creole ambassadors Buddhist merit-making, see Merit-making contributions, 32 rationales; Motivations definition, 16, 31, 34, 205 Bun examples of, 16, 26, 30Ð32, 34, 205 indic origins and Islamization of, 83, 86, 91 phonlabun as elegant equivalent, 85, 109, D 133, 138Ð140 Da’wah, see Tablighi Jama’at See also Merit Debt, 131Ð132, 137, 148, 171Ð172, 175 Bunkhun, 138Ð139 Defilement, see Wudu; Ghusl Demerit (Th. baap,PM.doso) C incurred by non-performance of ritual Cabetigo obligations, 92Ð93, 96, 126, 186 default languages in, 76Ð77, 104 non-inclusion of, 131 ethnic diversity in, 12, 53, 72, 205 Dhu al-Hijjah, 175Ð177, 194 linguistic diversity in, 12, 64, 76, 78, 205 See also Haj religious diversity in, 10Ð12, 64, 66, 205 Doso, see Demerit (Th. baap,PM.doso) spatial orientation, 75, 78, 187 Du’o Calamity, see Misfortune (PM. balo) for the dead, 113, 134, 141, 143, 147, 155 Chants, 130, 140Ð142, 146, 154Ð156, 199 for the dead as meritorious, 147 as merit-generating element in feasting efficacy assisted by sedekoh, 130, 134, 136, complexes, 129Ð130, 138, 140Ð144 141, 145, 155Ð156, 191Ð192, 208 See also Tasbih; Tahmid; Takbir; Ngatek; as element of feasts, 140Ð144 Salawat following salat, 96, 118, 121, 123, 129, Charity, see Sedekoh 143, 160, 175, 208 Chinese Muslims, 101 general description of, 96, 121 Chinese in , 27, 30Ð31 Chork (Th.), see Luck E Chulalongkorn (Rama V) Economy of merit and Anglo-Siamese treaty, 38 in , 192 modernization of Thailand, 37 characteristics of, 192 Chularajamontri resemblences to convention economy, 193 Haji Sulong as unofficial Chularajamontri, in Southeast Asia, 208 40 in the wider , 192Ð196 Index 225

Education controversies concerning, 147 special tuition, 106 description of, 84, 144Ð149 strategies in Cabetigo, see PSTI as element of local Islam, 1 Thai public education system, 41 Thai and Malay terms for, 147 transformation of in South Thailand, see PSTI case Studies of, 144 , 8, 43Ð44, 110, 200 funeral manuals, 190 Embedded Islam, 31 Qur’anic silence on, development in first Epistemological optimism, 14 Islamic Century, 110 Epistemological privilege, 14 Talqin, 7, 146 Ethnicization See also Semaye mayat, Funeral feasts; construction of ethnicity in the Straits of Jago kubor Melacca, 66, 68 plural and porous boundaries in the process G of, 66Ð73 General tham bun feasts as celebration, 153 F description of, 152Ð154 Fardu dispelling misfortune, 154 Fardu ain, 121, 126, 197 diversity of, 152Ð153 Fardu khifayah, 121Ð122, 126 and protection, 152Ð153 See also Wajib; Fardu prayers Ghosts, see Hatu; Phi Fardu prayers, 84, 88, 93Ð96, 104, 109, 111, Ghusl 115Ð120, 122Ð123, 126, 130, 133, description of, 116Ð117 137Ð138, 154Ð156, 160, 164, 170, compared with wudu, 116Ð117, 176 173Ð174, 176, 180Ð181, 186Ð187, See also Wudu;defilement 193Ð195, 197Ð198 Good days (to make merit), see Wan di Fasting, see Poso Good deeds, see Sedekoh Faw kubor, see Jago kubor The grave, see Alam al-barzakh Feasting complexes, merit-generating, 138, Great traditions, 6 140Ð144, 152, 156, 198Ð199 food at, 103, 110, 126, 129 H ritual elements of, 186 and Hadhramis, 29Ð30 Thai and Malay terms for, 197 Hadith, 42, 90, 95, 109, 114Ð116, 123, 133, as tham bun, 4, 15, 84, 87Ð88, 93Ð94, 96, 141, 144, 148Ð149, 163, 180, 190 121, 126, 130Ð131, 144, 149, 186, See also Islamic texts and traditions 197, 199, 207 Hafiz, 165Ð166, 181 types in Cabetigo, 111Ð112, 114, 142, 169, Haj 182, 187Ð189 biggest merit-making occasion of a unceremonial exist from, 151 lifetime, 173, 181, 194 See also Funeral feasts; Mawlid, House- changes among returning after pilgrims, warming feasts; General tham bun 43, 171, 173Ð174, 196 feasts, merit-making complexes completion of wajib requirement, 160, 163, Feasts, see Feasting complexes, 178, 180Ð181 merit-generating; Feasts, for the deceased, 178, 181 social for the deceased as functional substitute for Feasts, social funeral feasts, 189 confusion over, 87 description of, 160, 171Ð177 donations towards, 199 forms of, 176 Thai and Malay terms for, 85Ð87 funding for, 160, 182 Fieldwork, 10Ð14, 74, 78 haj mabrup and forgiveness through, 160, Funeral feasts 173, 175, 177, 181Ð182 comparisons with Thai wai phra by Burr, Ihram, 176 78 as merit-making complex, 160, 171, 198 226 Index

Haj (cont.) role in seeking blessing and dispelling preparations before, 171Ð176 misfortune, 124 scholarship for, 179 similarities to semaye hajat, 124 Seru, 160, 173 Huamuang Patani, 16, 18, 37 various rewards from, 181, 198Ð199 See also Mecca; Merit-making complexes; I Wajib;wa’ upoh haji; Tok seh ‘Ibadat Hajahs/Hajis, 7, 43, 52, 174Ð175, 177Ð178 definition of, 8, 84, 92 Hajis ethnographic significance of, 8, 10 as “mock monks”, 6 importance in merit-making, 208 Haji Sulong as Islamic ideation, 91, 198, 201 career in Mecca and Pattani, 206 neglect by anthropologists, 92 and Education, 41, 47, 51, 65, 206 ‘ibadat/adat binary, 208 influence by Muhammad Abduh, 43Ð44, Ibn Taymiyya, 42, 191 46Ð47 Ide, 146, 149Ð150 influence in Pattani, 16, 40Ð42, 44, 46Ð47, See also Feasting complexes, 49, 51, 53, 65, 206 merit-generating and Lufti, 50 Identifications and Politics, 46 affect of language and context on, 17 and religious reform, 43, 47, 65, 206 “authority defined” verses “everyday seven demands by, 40 defined”, 64 Halal, 4, 70, 91, 93, 97, 100, 130, 132, 155, Khaek, 74 171Ð172, 182, 197, 208 sources of funds for merit-making, 91, 130, Malay, 41, 45, 69 208 ore jawi, 68, 70, 74 See also Haram ore nayu, 70, 74 , 29 primordialist and Circumstantialist theories Haram, 9, 93, 195, 197 of ethnicity, 67 See also Halal Thai Muslim, definition, 39, 41, 75, 78 Haramnya, 45Ð47, 177, 180Ð181, 194, 198 Thai Muslim, as oxymoronic, 72 See also Mecca Thai Muslim, past rejection and recent Hari Rayo selective adoption, 207, 209 description of, 167Ð169 Id Il-Adha, see Hari Rayo Haji merit-making for the dead during, 159 Id-Il-Fitri, see Hari Rayo Hari Rayo Haji Ihram, see Haj connection to haj, 1, 114, 116, 163, 182 Ikhalah description of, 176 definition of and general importance of, 94, merit-making for the dead during, 181 98Ð100 sacrifice of cow during, 176 importance in sedekoh and feasts, 98, 130, Hassanah, 3, 135, 137, 161 137Ð138, 155, 197, 208 arabic terms for, see Merit, Arabic terms as Islamic ideation, 91, 98 for synonymous with anonymity, 99, 155 Hatu, 113, 199 Incense, 146, 169 Hijaz, 16, 26, 42Ð44, 206 See also Mecca transport and communication across, 26, Hijrah, 45, 206 46, 206 from a Dar-al-Harb as religious obligation Indian Ocean trade for, 45 connection of trans-peninsula trading Hikayat Patani, 33 routes in, 31Ð33 Hope (importance of), 127, 147 description of, 16, 31, 44 House-warming feasts role in connecting Patani/Pattani to Middle description of, 124, 140, 151 East, 44 importance of semaye hajat in, 151 role of Patani’s harbour in, 31 Index 227

Indic Influences Judgment, 46, 142, 186, 188Ð189, 199Ð200, adoption by Southeast Asian elites for own 209 means, 26 Juz, see Qur’an and “Greater India”, 26 in Langkasuka and Patani before Islam, 27, K 31, 205 Kaum Muda, 44 in Southeast Asia, 25, 51 See also Reformism/reformists in Yarang complex, 27 Kaum tua, 44, 47, 64 See also Sanskrit cosmopolis See also Traditionalism/traditionalists , 1, 10, 30, 45, 63, 70, 73, 97, 142, Kawase al-Haram (PM.), see Haj 151, 200, 209 Kedah, 31, 35, 38, 52, 68, 70, 206 Insurgency in South Thailand (post-2004), 15 Keda kopi, 1, 77, 125, 136 Intercession by the prophet, 190, 196 Kelantan, 37Ð38, 46, 48, 52, 70Ð71, 73Ð76, Intercessory prayer, see Du’o 140, 206 Interviews, 11Ð12, 72, 134, 174, 178 Kenduri, see Feasting complexes, Iqama, 117 merit-generating See also Fardu prayers Keroh, 150Ð154 Islam Khet al-Haram (Th.), see Haj adhesion to in Patani, 26, 51, 197 Kin bun, see Merit-making feasts adoption of in Patani, 51, 197 Kitab Jawi, 45 appreciation of by Muslims in Cabetigo, Koto 206, 209 destruction in Kruset and relocation to conversion to in Patani, 33 Cabetigo, 2 embeddedness in South and Southeast as pillar of the Patani kerajaan, 3 Asia, 29 Kruset, 3, 33, 37Ð38, 44, 120 essential element of Malayness, 69 Kubor provision of detail in, 91 in Cabetigo, 2Ð3, 78, 112Ð114, 142, 144, southeast Asian expansion of, 16, 28, 30, 169, 182, 188, 189 33Ð34 Merit-making for the deceased in, 111Ð112, Islamicate, 9, 201 114, 127, 142, 147, 168Ð169, 182, Islamic texts and traditions 187Ð189, 195 in anthropology of Islam, 8, 208Ð209 See also Alam al-barzakh Islamization importance of creole personalities in, 31 L of Malay language, 30 Lailahlailahallah, see Tahli processes and personalities in, 44 Lailatul adr, see Ramadan of Sanskrit cosmopolis, 27 Lamaat, 84Ð85, 87, 94Ð95, 98, 108, 115, of Thai merit-making rhetoric, 197 122Ð123, 125, 133, 136, 142Ð143, Ismail Lutfi Japakiya 150, 163, 165Ð166, 197, 218 diverse assessments of, 53 Langkasuka, 27Ð28, 31, 51 influence and contributions of, 50 Language relationship to Haji Sulong, 51 bilingualism in Cabetigo, 76 and Saudi-style salafism in South Thailand, default languages in Cabetigo, 1, 12Ð15 50 importance in this study, 1 I’tikaf, 162Ð164, 180 language hierarchy in Thailand, 71 See also Ramadan linguistic relativity, 89 religious language, 205 J situational bilingualism, 77 Jago kubor, 112Ð113, 149, 189, 195 See also Merit-making rhetoric, Malay controversies over, 112Ð113 Language, Malay description of, 112Ð113 among non-Muslims, 1, 78 , 50 as key component of Malay identity, 43 228 Index

Language, Malay (cont.) description of, 130Ð131, 140, 149Ð151 as language of Islam in the far-south, 41 role of blessing in, 143Ð144 loss among young urban Malays, 206 Salawat in, 118Ð119, 140, 142Ð144, Language, Pattani Malay dialect, 1, 11, 17, 69, 149Ð150 76 Mecca Language, Thai as Islam’s sacred centre, 160, 171, 182, adoption by Thais, 33Ð35 194 among non-Muslims, 1, 14, 78 Masyid Al-Haram and Ka’bah, 177, 194 in Cabetigo, 6, 11 multiplications of merit, 159, 176Ð177, as language of Thai Islam, 72 179Ð180, 194, 196 in PSTI, 206 see Shaykh Daud al-Fatani, Shaykh Ahmad Lesser pilgrimage, see Umroh al-Fatani, Haji Sulong See also Haj; Ligor, see Nakhon Si Thammarat Umroh Little traditions, 6, 52 Mecca’s Patani School, 44Ð46 Lombok, 134, 141, 188 See also Shaykh Daud al-Fatani; Shaykh Luck, 7, 150, 153Ð154, 186, 191 Ahmad al-Fatani Lutfi, 50Ð51, 62 Melacca fall in 1511, 31, 33 M importance of, 31Ð33, 69 Make pulot patani as vassal of, 35 criticism of, 152 Melayu, see Malayness lack for merit-generation from, 98 Merit Malay Merit-making rhetoric, see accumulation of, 101, 103, 189 Merit-making rhetoric, Malay arabic terms for, see Bun Malayness comparisons to conventional currency, 192, contestations over, 17, 74 201 importance of language in South Thailand, conceptualizations of, 93, 188, 207Ð208 17 as cosmic cash or capital, 197, 207Ð208 middle class Malays (Melayu baru), 71 differences to conventional currency, 192, origins, 73 201 relationship with Islam, 72 leakages of and patches for, 187 in South Thailand, 39, 52, 70, 73, 75, merit from sunnat ritual elements as 196 compliments, 94 See also Ore nayu; Ore jawi ontological superiority of merit from wajib Malay printing presses, 45 ritual elements, 94, 186 Malay, see Malayness ontological superiority of wajib merit, 188 Malaysia, 41, 47, 63, 65, 68, 70Ð71, 74, 152, 174, 196 quantifiability of, 192 Mandoob, see Sunnat records of in account book, 132 Mappila, 30 Sanskrit and PALI terms for, 86 Marco Polo, 30 See also Bun, pahalo, phonlabun Market as spiritual insurance, 192 demise in Patani, 37 Thai and Malay terms for, 86 Ore kayo in, 172 See also Bun; Pahalo; phonlabun as pillar of the Patani kerajaan, 35 transferability of, see Merit transference rise in Patani, 26 weight of in comfort in the grave and Masuk jawi, 52, 87, 100, 152 judgement, 147, 199 See also Feasts, social Merit-making feast, 6Ð7, 85, 98, 103, 129Ð130, Masyid, see Mosque 140, 142, 152, 155Ð156, 192 Mawlid Merit-making motivations Barzanji/Zanji in, 140, 143, 149 hope, 114, 127, 136, 141Ð142, 147, 167, controversies surrounding, 49, 126, 181 127 the needs of the living in dunio, 186, 208 Index 229

obligations to Allah, 126, 154, 181, Merit transference 186Ð188, 197, 199Ð200, 208 by anok soleh, 65, 111, 114Ð115, 120, obligations to deceased, 188Ð191 126Ð127, 147, 178, 188Ð189, 196, Merit-making rationales, 75, 185Ð201, 198Ð199, 207 208Ð209 in Buddhism, 52, 200Ð201 Buddhist merit-making rationales as methods of, 188, 194 template for Muslim ones, 199 by non-anok soleh, 127, 178, 188Ð189, Islamic ideation in, 197 196, 199, 208 mechanistic, 192 as responsibility, 111 personal merit accumulation, 104 by ritual specialists, 26, 65, 115, 127, 141 reformists, 196 See also Funeral feasts; Jago kubor; wa’ traditionalists, 193 upoh haji, Muslim economy of See also Alam al-barzakh, Merit transfer- merit ence, Merit-making motivations, Milieu, 6Ð7, 185, 209 Muslim economy of merit Thai and Malay Milieu, 7 Merit-making rhetoric Misfortune (PM. balo), 124, 150, 154 comparisons between Thai and Malay, 207 Mon, 68 delineation of, 84, 86 Monthon Patani, 18, 36 distinct from Buddhist merit-making , 10, 192Ð193, 209 rationales, 199 Mosque importance of Arabic in ideation, 31 Differences with surau, 98 islamic ideation in, 91Ð100 Kruset, 37 Malay, 83Ð101 Masyid Klang (Central Mosque), 2 Thai, 83Ð101 Masyid Pakistan, 72 Wa’ pahalo, 84, 86, 101, 196 Masyid Rajo, 5, 166 Wa’ wajike, 85, 152 as pillar of Patani keerajaan, 207 See also, Bun; Pahalo; Tham bun rewards from prayers performed at, 120 Merit-making rituals Motivations, 12, 17, 65, 108, 185Ð201 accessibility of, 10 Muhammad Abduh affect of gender on, 7 influence on Haji Sulong, 16 delineation of, see Merit-making rituals, Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab, see discrete elements; ritual complexes Wahhabiyyah discipline needed in, 95 , 44, 48 disposable income in, 194 Muhammad Rashid Rida, 43 importance of ama ‘ibadat, 155 Muharram, 9 Thai and Malay terms for, 85 Muk Sulaiman, 41, 139 Merit-making rituals, discrete elements description of, 87 Muslim economy of merit, 192Ð196 Qur’anic readings and recitations, 88, 96 Mustahabbt, see Sunnat sedekoh, 84Ð85, 88, 94Ð98, 100 semaye, 84Ð85, 88, 93Ð95 N See also Sedekoh;Qur’an Nahdlatul Ulama (NU), 44 Merit-making rituals, ritual complexes Nakhon Si Thammarat, 35, 37, 49, 63, 72, 78, description of, 185 125, 149 feasting complexes, 198 Nationalism , see pilgrimages Arab, 30, 46 Ramadan, 186 Malay, 38 See also Poso sunnat Thai, 42 See also Haj; Umroh; Ramadan; Feasting National Reconciliation Commission, 50 complexes, merit-generating Ngaan liang, see Feasts, social Merit-making, see Tham bun Ngatek, 140, 142Ð143, 145 Meritorious smorgasbords, see Feasting role in merit-generation and transference, complexes, merit-generating 155 230 Index

Niat origins of, 73 and du’o, 96, 143, 188, 191 Patani Dynasty in, 36 example of Islamic ideation, 91 prosperity of, 72 importance in merit-generation, 91, 96 similarities with other port city-states, 26 importance of naming recipients in merit as Vassal, 36, 37 transference, 133 See also Vassal impure, 97, 138Ð140, 173, 197 Thai influences in, 69 See also Tham naa, phonprayoot traditional of Islamic scholarship, role in determining merit efficacious 196Ð200 operations, 199 Patani/Pattani, 1Ð2, 4Ð6, 11Ð18, 26Ð27, 31Ð33, in sedekoh, 130, 134Ð135, 138 35Ð42, 44Ð46, 48Ð53, 61Ð63, Non-anok soleh 69Ð71, 74Ð78, 85Ð86, 100, 108, as distinctive element of traditionalist 135, 139, 144Ð145, 148, 163, merit-making rationales, 185 167, 172Ð173, 175Ð176, 179, 197, efficacy of merit transference by, 186 205Ð206, 212 merit-making for the dead as community Patani (Thai Huamuang), 16, 18, 36Ð37 obligation, 147 Patani (Thai Monthon), 16, 18, 36Ð37 Nur al-Din al-Raniri, 29 Patronage of Islam Acts (1945), 40 Pattani Malay Language, see Language, Malay O Pattani Municipality (Th. thesebarn), 173 Obligations Pattani (Thai province), 18, 35Ð39, 48 merit-making rationales, and motivations, Persian influences, 34 185Ð201 Petty traders, see Ore meneko Ore isle, 68, 71, 74, 124 Phi, 64, 113 inseparability between Islam and Phibul Songkhram (General), 39Ð40 Malayness, see Identification, ore Phonlabun jawi elegant, 152 Ore jawi, see Identification, ore jawi see Bun Ore meneko Phonprayoot, 138Ð140, 173 forms of merit-generation among, 156 Phontoopthaen, 138Ð139 importance of sedekoh for, 194 Phuket, 73 relationtoblessing,7 Pilgrimages, see Haj; umroh; Mecca Ore nayu, see Identification, ore jawi Pillar of Islam, 160, 177, 194 Ore brao, 50, 65 See also Wajib; Fardu Orphans, 135Ð136, 138, 155 Political legitimacy, crisis of postÐ2004, 41 Poor, 87, 95, 112, 121Ð122, 131Ð132, 137Ð138, P 145, 151, 154Ð155, 161, 163Ð164, Padri wars, 43 172, 178, 194 Pahalo Poso, see Ramadan indic origins and Islamization of, 65, 207 Ramadan wajib abstinences, 160, 197 See also Merit Poso sunnat Pakistanis, 48, 61, 72, 92, 113, 137, 142, 144, forms of, 167 166, 178, 195 Rayo ne, 169Ð171 Palace, see Koto role in merit-generation, 159 Pali, 86, 197 Prayer room, see Surau Participant observation, 11Ð12 Prayer, see Du’o Pasai, 32Ð34, 51 Prem Tinsulanonda (general, prime-minister, Patani (Malay Kerajaan) and privy council chairman), 206 defeat of in 1785, 16, 26, 37, 42 Primordialism, 67 importance of trade in, 30Ð33 Protection, 31, 143, 152Ð153, 191 incremental integration of, 42 PSTI See also Huamuang Patan; Monthon controversies over, 49 Patani creation of by Thai state, 50 Kelantan Dynasty in, 35Ð36 definition, 41 Index 231

Puasa Rama VI, 38 Indic origins and Islamization of, 83Ð84, policies of, 37 86, 207 Rama V, see Chulalongkorn (Rama V) see Poso Ramadan as annual gracious provision for the Q religiously minimalist, 189 Qiblat biggest merit-making occasion of the year, in prayer, 120 181 Buko poso (PM. breaking the fast), 167 when reading the Qur’an, 51 description of, 5 Qirat, see Merit, quantifibility of emphasis on ummah, 161 , 118Ð119, 121 end of Ramadan celebrations, 216 Qulhuwallah see , Qur’an exemptions from, 190 Qul, see Qur’an as gracious provision, 164, 196, 199 Qur’an It’tikaf, 162Ð164, 180 connection with salat and sedekoh, 104, lailatul adr, 162 208 as merit-making complex, 17, 88, 103 as discrete merit-making element, 140 preparations in Sha’aban, 160 as food for souls, 110 ramadan scale of merit, 160, 164Ð165, on Fridays, 109, 111, 116, 137, 153, 175, 180Ð181, 187, 194, 208 190 Semaye taroweh, 112, 165Ð166, 181, 198 handwritten by , 53 Suhoor (Ar. pre-dawn meal), 162 Ikhalas, and concentration while reading, three-fold division of, 84, 86 98 Umroh during, see Umroh importance in Ramadan, 103 wajib abstinences, 159Ð160, 177, 181 lack of ability in reading, 103 zakat fitrah, 161, 163 material accompaniments to, 134, 141 See also Poso; Hari Rayo; Merit-making other rewards of, 142 complexes potency of, 141, 155, 191, 208 Reformism/reformists Qul, 96, 106Ð107 in Cabetigo, 78 Qur’anic classes in Cabetigo, 107 general description of, 26 reverence for, 104, 110 history of in Southeast Asia, 29 role in merit-making for the dead, 110, 148, importance of anok soleh in, 120 181 merit-making rationales, 75 studying as meritorious, 133 methods of merit transference by, 188 Wudu before, 109 objections to traditionalist practices, 148 Thai and Malay terms for, 85 See also Merit-making rituals, discrete elements; Surah al-fathiha; Religious identity, 13Ð14, 38, 66 Surah al-ikhlas, Surah Ya Sin; importance of in religious anthropology, Qulhuwallah; Jago kubor; Ritual 205 Specialists Repentance, 123, 126, 154, 190 Resurrection and judgment, 186 Revivalism/Revivalists, see Tablighi Jama’at R Riski (PM. material blessings), 109, 133, 154, Rabi’ Al-Awwal, see Mawlid 161Ð162, 186, 191, 195 Rahimmula, 45Ð46 Ritual specialists Raja Phaya Tu Antara, 32Ð34, 51 criticism and cynicism towards, 69, 91, 98, See also Islamization 125 Raka’at, 96, 111, 117Ð119, 122Ð123, 165Ð166, payment/sedekoh to, 114, 124, 130, 132, 170, 181, 219Ð220 134, 137, 148, 155, 179, 189, 195 Rama I See also Tok babo, Tok guru, Tok ime, Tok establishment of Chakri dynasty, 26, 37 pakir, Tok seh See also Bangkok Rukon Islam, see Pillar of Islam 232 Index

S Thai and Malay terms for, 85 Sacrifice, 10, 63, 176, 209 See also Sedekoh jariyah ethnographic approaches to, 10 Sedekoh jariyah Sadaka, see Sedekoh description of, 135 al-Salih, 31, 43 DISCONTINUATION of merit from, 14 Salafiyyah forms of, 136 attitudes to Tablighi Jama’at, 66 as functional substitute for funeral feasts, history in , 25 148 as method and movement, 43, 49 Semangat, 150 and Salaf al-Salih, 31, 43 Semaye duho, see Semaye sunnat Saudi-style, see Wahhabiyyah Semaye godo, 116, 123, 170 See also Lutfi; Haji Sulong; Muhammad Semaye hajat Rashid Rida, Reformism/reformists controversies concerning, 121 Salaf, see Salafiyyah description of, 111 Salat, 10, 13, 17Ð18, 63, 72, 84Ð86, 88, 92, 94, importance in house-warmings, 140 96, 103Ð104, 106, 110, 115Ð118, odd numbers in, 124 120Ð123, 126, 135, 140, 143, refreshments in, 124 160, 166, 175, 178, 182, 197Ð198, sedekoh to prayers, 7 208Ð209, 215, 217Ð222 Semaye mayat Salawat, see Mawlid description of, 110 Sanskrit as fardu khifayah, 121Ð122 in Bengali, 89 paying prayers, 121 as Indic influence in Southeast Asia, 25 role in merit-making for the dead, 110 in Malay, 89 Semaye sunnat See also Merit-making rhetoric description of, 122 Sanskrit cosmopolis, 16, 25Ð27, 51, 83, 86, during Ramadan, 103 101, 205 repairing leaks, 123 Satangt, 91, 118, 164, 171 as tham bun, 119 Satun, 7, 38Ð41, 71Ð73, 206 Semaye tahajud, 11, 122Ð123, 154 Saudi-style salafism, see Wahhabiyyah Semaye taroweh, see Ramadan Saum, 83, 86, 197 Semaye tuhar, see Semaye sunnat not replacing puasa as default, see Puasa; Sembahyang, 83Ð84, 86, 165, 197, 207 poso indic origins and Islamization of, 83, 86, Search for equivalence 197, 207 as alternative to syncretism, 88 Seru, see Haj case-studies of, 111 Sewaeng bun, see Haj; Umroh See also Stewart, T.K. Sha’aban, Nisfu, 160Ð161 Sedekoh Shared cosmology, 52, 199, 201, 208 connection with merit-making feasts, 103 Shawwal, 160, 167, 169Ð170, 181, 187 connection with Qur’an, 42 See also Hari Rayo; Poso Sunnat, rayo ne for the deceased, 17 Shaykh Ahmad al-Fatani, 16, 26, 44Ð45 as discrete merit-making element, 129, as editor, 45 141, 159 Shaykh Daud al-Fatani, 16, 26, 44Ð46 forms in Cabetigo, 6 as writer, 45 as good deeds, 97 Shaykh Said of Pasai, 33, 51 importance of ikhalah and halal funds in, See also Islamization 91 Siam, 36, 38Ð39, 74 importance for ore meneko, 73, 78, 132, As former name of Thailand, 37 137, 161, 194Ð195 Siam/Siamese, 4, 6, 16, 36Ð39, 48, 51Ð53, 74, See also Ore meneko 83, 205Ð206 as payment for du’o, 121 See also Ayutthaya recipients of, 132, 137 , 43, 71 revealing heart, 116 Situational bilingualism, 77 Index 233

Slametan Tahli, see Ngatek Islamic credentials of, 140 Tahmid, 142Ð143 ritual elements in, 130 Takbir, 117Ð118, 121, 142Ð143 studies of, 144 Talqin, see Funerals Songkhla, 6, 36Ð37, 52, 63, 72Ð73, 145, 185 Tamil, 30Ð31 Songkran, 220 Taqlid, 43, 65 SriWijaya, 26, 68 Tasbih Stewart, T. K., 88Ð90, 101 after semaye, 118 Subahanaallah, see Tasbih definition of, 142 Sufism at funeral feast, 143Ð144 importance in 12th and 13th century, 30 merit-generating ability, 143 Indian influence in, 28 Tea shops, see Keda kopi relationship to Sharia, 46 Tengku Mahmud Mahyiddeen, 40 role in Islamization, 34 Terengganu, 35, 38, 52, 70, 73 , 118Ð119, 163 Thai Sunnah, 18, 51, 65, 113, 122, 138, 147Ð148, influences, 17, 25Ð53 177, 188Ð189, 196, 207 nationalism, 38, 42 See also Ahl sunnah nation-state, 64, 72 Sunnat See also Language, Thai; Cosmopolis, comparison with wajib, 91 Thai; Siam/Siamese definition of, 94Ð95 Thai Custom Decree (1939), 39Ð40 denoted as tham bun, 83 Thai Merit-making rhetoric, see Merit-making elements of, 94 rhetoric, Thai as extra merit accumulation, 7, 156 Thai Muslim including mandoob and , 93, in Bangkok and their Malay origins, 7, 73 122 in Cabetigo, 197 performance in Ramadan and Mecca, 93, of the upper south being leaves of the same 96 tree with southern Malays, 199 Supererogatory, see Sunnat See also Identifications, Thai Muslim, Suplication, see Du’o definition Surah al-fathiha, 107Ð108, 111 Thai Rathaniyom, see Thai Custom Decree Surah al-ikhlas, 109 (1939) Surah Ya Sin, 7, 105, 108Ð111, 113, 143 Thai-zation Surau, 52, 63, 77Ð78, 93, 98, 100, 120, 125, of Cabetigo, 197 139, 146, 151Ð153, 166 Malay resistance to, 12, 207 Surau Rim Khlong, 77Ð78, 93, 100, 125, 139, through legislation in twentieth century, 146, 153, 166 83Ð84 Malay language at, 100 Tham bun Syncretism, 17, 84, 88, 91, 101 confusion surrounding, 87 Syukur, 152 denoting non-merit-generating feasts, 86 as denoting ritual obligations, 84 T as general religious activity, 15, 86, 101 Tablighi Jama’at importance in Thai religious rhetoric, 7, 17, arrival in South Thailand, 48Ð51 84, 91, 101, 197, 205 in Bangkok, 48 increasing Islam’s comprehensibility, 209 methodology and Success in South instinctive knowledge of by Thais, 86 Thailand, 49 islamization of in Thailand, 25Ð53 origins, 49 as merit-generation, 86 presence of both traditionalists and past assessments of, 208 reformists in, 49 as religious idiom, 86Ð87 relationship to salaf, 49 in Buddhism, 7, 185, 209 as revivalists, 47Ð48 three-fold conceptualization of, 84, 86Ð87 spread to Southeast Asia, 46Ð48 See also Merit-making rhetoric 234 Index

Tham naa, 97, 197 Translation Tham thaan, see Sedekoh forms of translation, 88 Toba, see Repentance as search for equivalence, 88 Tok babo search for equivalence by Bengali Muslims, blessing sedekoh, 155 101 cynicism about, 134 search for equivalence by Chinese definition, 155 Muslims, 101 reading Qur’an for the deceased, 114 of shariah into Thai, 90 Tok guru using “non-Muslim” languages, 89 blessing sedekoh, 155 reading Qur’an for the deceased, 114 U respect for, 155 Umroh roles performed by, 150, 153, 155 description of, 84 Tok ime as merit-making complex, see blessing sedekoh, 143Ð146 Merit-making complexes as leader of feasts, 130Ð131 during Ramadan, 159Ð160 as prayer leader, 143Ð144 reasons for performance, 176Ð177 reading Qur’an for the deceased, 141Ð144 role in merit accumulation, 176Ð180 respect for, 124, 137 as sunnat pilgrimage, 179Ð180 responsibilities of, 137, 141 Upper south roles performed by, 120, 124, 130, 141, comparison with far-south (Pattani, Yala, 143, 151Ð154, 181, 189 and Narathiwat), 52, 66, 73Ð75, 199 and semaye haja, 125 See also Satun; Songkhla; Nakhon Si Tok pakir Thammarat reading Qur’an for the deceased, 189 role in jago kubor, 112Ð113 V Tok seh Vajiravudh, see Rama VI definition of, 174 Vassal, 36, 37, 51 misconduct by and suspicion of, 179 Vassal System in Southeast Asia, 36Ð37, 51 See also Wa’ upoh haji Vernacular terms Toopthaen, 138–139 abbreviations of, 213 Torture of the grave (Ar. Adhab al-Qabr) importance of, 1 dialectic function of, 190 effect of merit transferred to the dead on, W 188Ð191 Wa’ arwo, see Funeral feasts effect of weight of merit accumulated on Wahhabi, see Wahhabiyyah dunio on, 188 Wahhabiyyah exemptions from, 190 definition, 42Ð43 a motivation of merit transference, differences to Salafiyyah, 43Ð44 188Ð190 history in Saudi, 42Ð44 Munkar and Nakir, 190 occupation of Mecca and Medina, 43Ð44 retributive or purgatorial nature of, 190 relationship to resurgent Shi’ism, 41 See also Alam al-barzakh Wajib Traditionalism/traditionalists contention about being denoted as tham in Cabetigo, 49Ð50 bun, 93Ð94 general description of definition of, 53 history of in Southeast Asia, 47Ð48 elements of, 93Ð94 importance of ritual specialists in, 47, 49 as Islamic ideation, 93Ð94 membership in Tablighi Jama’at, 47Ð49 See also Fardu merit-making rationales, 52Ð53 Wakaf (endowment), see Sedekoh jariyah methods of merit transference by, 53Ð54 Waktu asar, 115 Thai and Malay terms for, 39, 41, 43Ð44, Waktu iso, 166 47, 50Ð51 Waktu norib, 119 Index 235

Waktu suboh, 119 Witir, see Semaye sunnat Waktu suhur, 119 Wudu Sanga, 33 description of, 116 Wa’ make, see Feasting complexes, before reading the semaye and reading merit-generating Qur’an, 116 Wan di, 134, 137, 168, 208 See also Defilement Wa’ ngatek, see Funeral feasts Wan Muhammad Nor Mata, 41 Wa’ upoh haji Z contentions concerning, 189, 195 Zakat, 5, 92Ð93, 95Ð96, 119, 130Ð131, practice of, 181Ð182 161Ð164, 180 See also Tok seh See also Sedekoh Wa’ wajike, 85, 130, 152 Zanji, 140, 144, 149Ð150, 199 Widows, 134, 138, 155 See also Mawlid