CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES Section Outline

1.1. Introduction 1.2. Section objectives 1.3. development/Definition of key terms 1.3.1. Child developmental theories concept 1.3.2. Growth 1.3.3. Child development 1.3.4. Key questions in Child Development 1.3.5. Child development core issues 1.3.6. Laws of development 1.3.7. Child developmental milestones/landmarks 1.3.8. Motivational and Humanistic theories 1.3.9. 1.3.10. Introduction 1.3.11. Class assignments 1.4. Specific child Developmental theories 1.4.1. Introduction 1.4.2. Class assignments 1.4.2.1. Motivational and Humanistic theories 1.4.2.2. Attachment theory 1.4.2.3. Maturation and Language theories 1.4.2.4. Psychodynamic theories 1.4.2.5. Behaviorist theories 1.4.2.6. Social learning theory 1.4.2.7. Cognitivist theories 1.4.2.8. Constructivist, social, and situational theories 1.5. Summary 1.6. References 1.7. Self-test questions

1.1 Introduction

I am delighted to welcome you to this session on child development theories. From conception to , life is a journey of change. Though we begin the journey as a single cell full of potential, along the way, we undergo dramatic changes in our physical attributes, intellectual capacities, personal characteristics, social habits and skills. In order to understand children and adolescents well, some background knowledge of how children grow and change from birth through adolescence, is essential. Theory is the first part of the continuum for understanding the determinants of behaviors, testing strategies and disseminating effective interventions. In this session we will define key terms in child development; explore several specific child developmental theories; identify child developmental stages and milestones as well as discuss the concept of development appropriate clinical practice. I hope that you will enjoy this session and I wish you every success in your studies! We worry about what a child will become tomorrow, yet we forget that he is someone today. Stacia Tauscher

1.2 Learning objectives

At the end of the section you should be able to: 1. Define and use key child development terms.

2. Identify typical child developmental milestones/stages.

3. Identify major theories and theorists of child development.

4. Describe various theoretical perspectives relating to child development that inform developmentally appropriate clinical assessment, practice and research.

5. Apply understanding of child development stages to clinical psychology assessment, practice and research.

1.3 Child development/Definition of key child development terms

Activity 1. Do you think studying child development is important? 2. Give at least two (2) reasons to support your view. 3. What are your personal beliefs about how children develop? 4. Reflect on what you already know about child development. Does your current knowledge impact on your practice?

1.3.1 Definitions a) Child developmental theories describe how children differ from one age to the next, describe how different aspects of development are interrelated (e.g., influence of on peer relations), and explain why development proceeds in a certain direction.

Activity 1. What is growth? 2. Does development mean change? 3. Does change mean development? 4. What is development? b) Growth- is a quantitative change and in the context of child psychology, growth is a child's physical increase in size or amount that is easily observed. c) What Is Development? Development is a qualitative change and in the context of child psychology, development refers to changes in the child that occur over time. Development is about change, changes in size, behavior, thinking, and personality during any age period. Development and change not the same thing. Development involves a very specific kind of change. For change to be developmental, it must be systematic, organized and have a successive character. It is the ability of a child to do things that are complex and difficult. d) Development occurs in a relatively orderly sequence. Children follow the same growth and development sequence. However, the rate of development varies across children and within children, so the rate of a child’s growth and development may progress differently. e) Development shows increasing complexity; skills and abilities are refined over time f) Development is affected by maturation and by the child’s environment and the people in the environment. g) Development in one area impacts development in other areas. A child’s readiness for learning and the achievement of development milestones are directly tied to interactions with other people and the child’s surroundings. h) Knowledge of child development is essential to identify possible delays, disabilities or disorders. Timely child observations and assessment can facilitate early identification and early interventions. Take Note ! Child development refers to the sequence of physical, language, thought and emotional changes that occur in a child from birth to adolescence. In this process a child progresses from dependency on their parents/guardians to increasing independence.

1.3.2 Key questions in Child Development (a) Are developmental changes the same across all people or do some appearing more in some populations than others? (b) Which aspects of development stay mostly the same over a lifetime? (c) What causes the change to happen? Is development affected more by a child's biological genes or their social environment? (d) Does development happen in separate areas? (e) Does development happen in stages? (f) Understanding how children think, feel, learn and grow, as well as how they change and stay the same, is essential to the ability to foster positive development. Knowledge of the areas of child development and the understanding of healthy brain development is basic when caring for children.

1.3.3 Child Development core issues

(a) Nature versus nurture. To what extent is development a function of innate biological processes, environmental conditions, or some interaction of the two? (b) Stability versus plasticity. Are there critical periods in which a child must have certain social or cognitive experiences in order to develop normally? Are developmental processes highly malleable and open to change at any point in the course of development?

(c) Continuity versus discontinuity. Is development a continuous process that occurs gradually in small increments? Is development a series of discrete stages that represent major and abrupt transformations in functioning?

(d) Passive versus active child. What is a child’s role in the developmental process? Is the child a passive organism that is simply shaped by genetic or environmental influences? Are children active agents who shape, control, and direct their own development? (e) Endpoint versus no endpoint. What is it that develops? Is there an endpoint to development? Do all children follow a universal sequence of development?

1.3.4 Laws of development:

(a) Phases: Each developmental phase has characteristic traits. Every individual normally passes through every stage of development. (b) Holistic: All aspects of development are inter-related. It’s important to understand that a child’s development progresses in a holistic way. As ’ motor skills are developing their language, communication, cognition and social skills are also developing through making sounds, discovering the changing world around them, and interacting with others. (c) Sequence: Changes follow an orderly pattern that moves toward greater complexity and enhances survival. Children’s developmental patterns follow the same sequence for all children but individual children develop at different rates. E.g., a baby must have head control before they can sit unsupported. (d) Normative development: Normative development refers to what is considered ‘normal’ for that age and stage of development. Significant points in a child’s developmental progress are often known as ‘milestones’. Milestones are used to track ‘normal’ development. They allow the measurement of an individual child’s progress and can indicate any deviation from the norm. For example, a milestone which demonstrates an ’s physical development at age 3 months is their ability to lift up their head when lying on their front. Milestones are useful in helping us to ensure that activities chosen are appropriate to the stage of development that children have reached. Milestones are also a good measuring tool for progress. (e) Milestones of development are the indicators of development in these four aspects. (f) Delay: Delay in progress of one developmental aspect may result from or lead to delays in others. A child can only progress when he or she is ready and cannot be pushed. (g) Rate: Though there are variations in rate at which child development takes place, milestones will always occur in the same sequence. Development in one aspect of development does not necessarily mean it will be the same in other development aspects. Take Note Knowledge of normal developmental processes as they relate to emotional, behavioral and social functioning is the yardstick against which children’s clinical observations are gauged in distinguishing between normal and abnormal behavior and development.

When a four-year child is still crawling instead of walking it is time to cry out. ~African Proverb

1.3.5 Child developmental milestones/landmarks a) [1]. – fertilized egg (0 - 2 weeks); [2]. –Heartbeat; sex differentiation; (2–9 wks) and [3]. –Rapid growth of body & brain (9wks-b

b) Child stages of development are:

i. Infancy -- birth to 12 months.

ii. -- 12 months to 3 years.

iii. -- 3 years to 6 years.

iv. School age -- 6 years to 12 years.

v. Adolescents -- 13 years to 18 years

Childhood is a period of massive development. The brain rewires itself several times during childhood and the body goes through extraordinary transitions. This has huge effects on emotions, cognition, intelligence, behavior and the way children interact socially with others. Child development is a very broad term, encompassing several biopsychosocial theories, which tell us how children grow and develop. Children grow at individual rates. However, the sequence of development is generally the same for all children. Many theorists have discovered a great deal concerning how children develop. Their theories add insight and information to the understanding of child development. Developmental psychologists have determined developmental milestones and stages of childhood and their profound consequences. Developmental milestones/landmarks are average ages at which specific physical, social, or cognitive achievements are attained. Developmental milestones provide markers to assess normal development. These form basis of developmentally appropriate practices. Activity 1. Brainstorm five (5) different things that children (birth to age 5years) do at different stages in their development

2. Place the events on the timeline

From infancy to adolescence, children grow physically, mentally and socially into mature beings. During the first 18 years of life, brain functioning expands, enabling children to develop from simple understandings at birth to complex levels of thinking during adolescence. Muscles, bones and internal organs become fully functioning. Personality and social skills begin as simple smiles and develop into unique, individual identities.

c) Brain Development. Brain development, also called neurodevelopment, is the foundation for development in the all domains. That’s because the brain is responsible for everything we do.

a. The brain begins developing and organizing in utero, and continues at an explosive rate through about age three. There is explosive development pre-birth and first year of life. Neurons increase and connect (through dendrites) with other parts of brain

b. Quality and quantity of neural connections critical to brain development

c. Experience stimulates some brain development. Years ago, it was thought that only genes contributed to brain development. Today scientists say both heredity and environment factors are critical to healthy brain development. Experiences in infancy and profoundly influence brain development. Of all the experiences throughout life, early experiences have the most powerful and enduring effects on brain organization and functioning. Optimal brain development depends on positive and nurturing experiences at critical and sensitive periods of neurodevelopment. Conversely, children rose with chaos and unpredictability develop neural systems and functional capabilities reflective of the disorganization of their environment. The ability of an infant’s brain to change according to stimulation is known as plasticity. Take Note

Healthy brain development results from healthy human contact. Positive stimuli are a major factor in brain development. These stimuli begin at birth. Therefore, it is vital for children to have loving caregivers. Young children need dependable, trusting relationships. They thrive in environments that are predictable and nurturing.

1.3.6 Aspects/domains of child development: The term ‘aspects/domains of child development’ refers the physical, cognitive, language and emotional and social developmental changes that occur from conception throughout the childhood years.

i. Physical development: Actual body growth changes - body size, proportions, brain development, appearance, motor development sensory development and physical health. Physical development milestones show in the development of gross and fine motor skills. Milestones also occur as the body changes at .

Activity Remembering that the sequence of development of motor skills is the same in all children, but children vary in their rate of development, draw a chart showing the sequence of development of motor skills in children aged 0 –16 years.

ii. Language Development: Development of speech and communication skills both verbal and non- verbal. It includes listening, talking, discussing, mixing and compromise. Language development milestones include , single , holding a conversation, discussing, negotiating and hypothesizing.

Identifying language development

•Working in groups, [each group member should choose one age group], use Internet to gather pictures which show children doing activities which encourage and enhance language development in children.

•Make a power point slide showing the activities which promote language development in children of your chosen age group

•Write a few sentences on another PowerPoint slide explaining and justifying why these activities were so helpful for each age group. iii. Cognitive development: Development of mind/thinking part of the brain - ability to think, learn, understand and reason. It includes imagination, memory, language, attention, concentration, problem solving, creativity and executive functions as well as the development of five senses – sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing. Cognitive development milestones include ideas, schemata, concepts and memory development iv. Social development: Changing behavior to mix and fit in with society and culture. It includes - sharing, social acceptance by child learning and discovering the expectations and rules for interacting with others, social behavior and involvement in social groups, mixing and developing relationships within and out with circle, social roles and adopting group values.

Identifying social development •Collect pictures of children carrying out activities that require the use of social skills, perhaps showing children in various roles, or groups or in different societies.

•Make a collage/PowerPoint showing children aged between 0 –16 years from a variety of cultures or traditions.

v. Emotional development: Coping with and expressing feelings. It reflects experiences child has seen – excitement, jealousy, anger, contentment. It includes development of independence, self- identity, sex-identity and self esteem; ability to recognize, understand feelings and how to respond to them appropriately – e.g.: child feeling jealousy due to a new baby in family, child feeling love for another person, a child being afraid of the dark. Social/emotional development milestones achieved when we identify our own & others’ emotions and are aware of and behave towards other people in appropriate ways in many different settings, situations and contexts.

Social/Emotional development activity •How does children’s interaction with other people (including strangers), and children while developing socially, change or show developmental progression. •Use the internet and books to list at least 3 examples for each age range. •0-3; •3-5; •5-8; •8-12; and •12-16years

vi. Moral development - identifying personal values. E.g.: right or wrong, behaving as per what others need/want, respecting human rights, developing principles to guide behavior. vii. Cultural Identity: An important part of a child’s self-concept is their cultural identity. Cultural factors include ethnic heritage, religious influences, language, and community interactions, among others. All children develop within and communities, giving them a sense of belonging. They are able to feel proud about who they are and where they come from. Language is an important part of cultural identity, and families need to be supported in teaching their children their home language. 1.3.7 Developmentally Appropriate Practice: (a) Refers to clinical decisions that vary with and adapt to the age, experience, interests, and abilities of individual children; (b) Requires meeting children where they are, taking into account their physical, emotional, social, and cognitive development and characteristics; (c) Includes identifying goals for children that are both challenging and achievable – a stretch but not an impossible leap; and (d) Recognizes that what is challenging yet achievable will vary, depending upon the individual child’s development, experiences, knowledge, skills, and the context in which the child’s developing and learning takes place. (e) Core Considerations for Developmentally Appropriate Practice (i) What is age appropriate? (ii) What is individually appropriate? (iii) What is appropriate to the social and cultural context?

1.4 SPECIFIC CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES In the 20th century, several biopsychosocial theories about children’s development expanded around the world and currently it is clear, that knowledge about child development is not only important but essential for all workers who come into contact with children. a) Why so many theories of development?

i. Developmental theories provide frameworks for understanding and interpreting children’s behavior. Generally, there are multiple explanations for a particular pattern of behavior, and most theorists agree that one theory of development is not sufficient to explain all we know and observe about children. Therefore, it is best to have a repertoire of different child development theories from which to draw.

ii. Knowledge about child development is also a vital component of family support, assessment and planning interventions. iii. Child development theories, tell us how children grow and develop and describe, explain and predict children's behavior from birth through adolescence. Some theories of child development might be more useful than others in certain aspects, but none of them would be an all-encompassing, they are most useful in combination than they are alone. Child development theories provide points of reference to explain what we observe. Child Developmental Theories assignment: The purpose of this assignment is to study the various child development theoretical perspectives. [1]. Prepare a presentation on one Child Developmental Theory from the following theoretical perspectives: Arnold Gesell (1880-1961), Noam Chomsky (1928-), Maria Montessori, (1907-1990), (1913- 1999), (1856-1939), B.F. Skinner, Howard Gardner (1943-), (1902–1994), Watson John B (1787-1958), Albert Bandura (1925- ), (1896-1980), Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934), Lawrence Kohlberg (1927- 1987), Jerome Bruner (1915-), John Dewey (1859–1952), Mildred Parten (1916– 2009), Jerome Singer (1924-), Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005), Sara Smilansky (1922 - ), Kenneth Rubin, Abraham Maslow or any other child development theory you choose. [2]. Be able to answer following: i. What is the name of your theorist? ii. What is your theorist theoretical perspective? Was this person best known for research about the social-emotional, intellectual or physical development of children? iii. Briefly explain this person's development theory. iv. Do you agree with or like this theory? Why or why not? v. Using children you know or have observed give an example of this theory. vi. Give an example of an African proverb and relate it to the theory vii. What are the theory’s strengths and shortcomings?

1.5 References 1. African textbook of psychiatry and mental health, Ndetei et al 2006 2. Introduction to psychology textbook by Charles Stangor, 2006