Advances in Research

12(3): 1-10, 2017; Article no.AIR.37878 ISSN: 2348-0394, NLM ID: 101666096

Organic Minerals in Poultry

Vinus, Nancy Sheoran1*

1Department of Animal Nutrition, College of Veterinary Sciences, Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Hisar 125004, Haryana, India.

Author’s contribution

The sole author designed, analyzed and interpreted and prepared the manuscript.

Article Information

DOI: 10.9734/AIR/2017/37878 Editor(s): (1) Csilla Tothova, Clinic for Ruminants, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Kosice, Slovakia. (2) Jinyong Peng, Professor, College of Pharmacy, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China. Reviewers: (1) Matheus Ramalho de Lima, Federal University of South Bahia, Brazil. (2) Claudia Yolanda Reyes, University of the Amazon, Colombia. Complete Peer review History: http://www.sciencedomain.org/review-history/21902

Received 31st October 2017 th Review Article Accepted 13 November 2017 Published 14th November 2017

ABSTRACT

Poultry is one of the most important source of animal protein for humans and now a days poultry production system is highly advanced and in context of nutritional advances a number of feed additives are now used to improve the efficiency of birds e.g. prebiotics, probiotics, organic acids etc. But in addition to these, chelated minerals/organic minerals has gained very much popularity. The word chelate derives from the Greek “chele”, which means tweezers or claw. They are the result of electron sharing between a metal and a ligand. A ligand is usually an anion or a molecule, which has an atom or a pair of electrons with available valences. Common ligands contain oxygen, nitrogen, , halogens, or a combination of these due to their electronic structure. Chelated minerals have non-metallic ligands, and are therefore organic. Proteins and carbohydrates are the most frequent candidates in organic combinations. After absorption, organic minerals may present physiological effects, which improve specific metabolic responses, such as the immune response.

Keywords: Organic minerals; bioavailability; preparation; poultry.

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*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected];

Vinus; AIR, 12(3): 1-10, 2017; Article no.AIR.37878

1. INTRODUCTION immune response. is very important in the biological systems. Most enzymes require a In commercial poultry diets, mostly trace chelated metal in their structures to become minerals are supplemented as inorganic forms effective. Vitamins, such as vitamin B12 (sulphate or oxide salts). But, inorganic trace (cyanocobalamin), have a metal (Co) complexed minerals can suffer from high rates of loss due to to a tetradent porphyrin group, nitrogen, and a presence of interfering substances in the diet. pseudonucleotide. Porphyrin is also important for Usually inorganic trace minerals are the chelation of on hemoglobin. supplemented upto two to ten times more than the amounts recommended by National The presence of trace minerals (TM) in feed is Research Council (NRC) [1] for poultry diets [2], vital for the birds’s metabolic processes [7,8]. because of the wide safety margins of ITM TM, such as (Zn), manganese (Mn), and (inorganic trace minerals) and their low retention (Cu) are essential to maintain health and rates [3], excess of which sometimes leads to productivity in chickens. They are part of waste and environmental contamination from hundreds of proteins and organic molecules excessive excretion [4]. So use of organically involved in intermediary metabolism, hormone complexed/ chelated trace minerals can help to secretion pathways, and immune defense prevent these losses, due to increased stability in systems [9]; they act as catalysts in many the upper gastrointestinal tract of the animal and enzyme and hormone systems as a result, they have greater bioavailability of organically influence growth, bone development, feathering, complexed trace minerals, which in turn would egg production, enzyme structure and function, allow for lower inclusion rates and reduced and appetite of chickens [10]. excretion [5,6]. Variable availability and presence of Organic minerals include any mineral bound to contaminants, are important considerations when organic compounds, regardless of the type of we supplement trace minerals in poultry diet. For existing bond between mineral and organic instance, and copper sulfate are molecules. Proteins and carbohydrates are the sources commonly utilized in poultry feeding, but most frequent candidates in organic mineral as they are often derived from residues of the combinations. Atoms, which are able to donate steel industry, they can potentially carry high their electrons, are called donor atoms. Ligands levels of contaminants, such as cadmium, with only one donor atom are called , and lead to the feed. Also mineral monodented, whereas those with two or more absorption can suffer many interferences, such are called polydents. Organic fraction size and as mutual antagonisms, which potentially reduce bond type are not limitations in organic mineral absorption and metabolism rates of some definition; however, essential metals (Cu, Fe, Zn, minerals. But in case of metal and Mn) can form coordinated bonds, which are chelates, these are chemically inert due to the stable in intestinal lumen. Metals bound to covalent and ionic bonds between the mineral organic ligands by coordinated bonds can and the ligand, and therefore are not affected by dissociate within animal during metabolism factors that lead to precipitation, as it happens to whereas real covalent bonds cannot. Chelated minerals ionized after salt solubilization [11]. Due minerals are molecules that have a metal bound to their stability and small size, most chelated to an organic ligand through coordinated bonds; minerals are not altered during their passage but many organic minerals are not chelates or through the digestive tract, and are completely are not even bound through coordinated bonds. absorbed with no break down of their amino acids. Utilization of organic minerals is largely dependent on the ligand; therefore, amino acids Poultry feeds contain a range of different and other small molecules with facilitated access compounds that possess anti-oxidant activities, to the enterocyte are supposed to be better many of them being minerals or mineral– utilized by animals. Organic minerals with ligands dependent. The most important step in balancing presenting long chains may require digestion oxidative damage and anti-oxidant defence in the prior to absorption. Mineral utilization by animals poultry is enhancing anti-oxidant capacity by primarily depends of their absorption from the optimizing the dietary intake of anti-oxidant ingested feed. After absorption, organic minerals compounds. The key minerals in anti-oxidation may present physiological effects, which improve [10,12] are: - essential part of specific metabolic responses, such as the glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), thioredoxin

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reductase (TrxR), iodothironine deiodinase (ID), stimulated, causing enterocyte damages and physiological requirement is low, but if not met, decreased absorption of nutrients [14,15]. If iron anti-oxidant system is compromised with is included in the premix in inorganic form, it can detrimental consequences for bird’s health. stimulate vitamin oxidation during storage. There are two major sources of Se: a natural Therefore organic iron is a solution to avoid source in the form of various selenoamino acids these problems and improve the iron status of including selenomethionine and selenocysteine animals. or inorganic selenium in the form of selenite or selenate. Organic selenium supplementation has NRC [1] specifies Zn:Cu:Mn requirements for physiological and biochemical benefits for broilers as 40:8:60 mg/kg. Many commercial poultry. nutritionists supply the trace minerals at twice this level in the diet for Zn and Mn. Although the Zinc is the second most abundant trace element physiological requirements of the bird are met by in birds and is a component of over 300 enzymes absorption of a fraction of this amount and in participating in their structure or in their catalytic practice the majority of the trace mineral supply and regulatory actions in most species. It takes is excreted into the environment via the faeces part in anti-oxidant defence as an integral part of and urine. Broiler and layer litter in England and SOD, hormone secretion and function Wales have been calculated to contain 217 (somatomedin-c, osteocalcin, testosterone, mg/kg and 583 mg/kg Zn respectively. Zinc input thyroid hormones, insulin, growth hormone), rates into agricultural soils in England and Wales keratin generation and epithelial tissue integrity, (2004) from layer litter was calculated as 2.5 bone metabolism being an essential component g/ha/yr which was about 60% of the input rate of the calcified matrix, nucleic acid synthesis and from sewage sludge. cell division, protein synthesis, catalytic, structural and regulatory ion for enzymes, Organic minerals can be classified into two proteins and transcription factors and participates categories: natural and synthetic. Natural mineral in the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids and complexes are formed during normal digestion, proteins, immune function. Organic Zn has absorption, and metabolism in a living system. higher availability in comparison to inorganic During digestion, a variety of natural mineral sources and is considered to be more beneficial complexes are formed which either enhance or for bird’s health. diminish the usefulness of the ingested minerals. Herrick [16] categorized natural organic minerals Copper is an essential component of into three types based on their function in metalloenzymes and takes part in anti-oxidant biological systems. These include complexes defence as an integral part of SOD, cellular which: (1) transport and store metal ions, (2) are respiration, bone formation, carbohydrate and essential to physiological activity, and (3) lipid metabolism, immune function, connective interfere with metal ion utilization. Amino acids, tissue development, tissue keratinization, EDTA (ethylene diamine tetra acetate) and other myelination of the spinal cord. Inorganic copper synthetic ligands are important as metal binding has a strong pro-oxidant effect and (if not bound and transporting agents in the gastrointestinal to proteins) can stimulate lipid peroxidation in tract, which enhance uptake of metal ions from feed or the intestinal tract [13]. Organic copper the intestinal lumen into the mucosal cells. For does not possess pro-oxidant properties and can instance, transferrin is essential for gut improve the copper status of birds. Manganese absorption, transport, and storage of iron. plays an important role in anti-oxidant protection Additionally, metal complexes may form in as an integral part of SOD, bone growth and egg biological systems to allow physiological activity shell formation, carbohydrate and lipid of certain compounds. Hemoglobin contains iron metabolism, immune and nervous function, and vitamin B12 contains a central cobalt atom. reproduction and Iron also has a vital role in many anti-oxidant defence as an essential Synthetic mineral complexes (usually by dietary component of catalase, energy and protein supplementation) conversely, are used to metabolism, heme respiratory carrier, enhance mineral utilization efficiency. Synthetic oxidation/reduction reactions, electron transport organic minerals are produced in an attempt to system. Iron is a very strong pro-oxidant and if increase the utilization of dietary minerals. By not bound to proteins can stimulate lipid complexing metal ions with a variety of organic peroxidation. This is especially relevant to the ligands, an effort is made to enhance mineral digestive tract where lipid peroxidation can be absorption across the intestinal mucosa.

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2. ABSORPTION OF ORGANIC ligand bounded to the minerals act as their MINERALS transporter and protect them from interaction with the various antagonists present there from the After intake of the organic minerals from the diet like phytic acid, oxalic acid, gossypol etc. feed, mineral absorption can occur in any region Then these ligand-mineral complexes get of the intestine but metals are usually absorbed absorbed through the enterocytes while the in the duodenum part of the digestive tract. After inorganic minerals only get absorbed when there gastric hydrolysis these inert complexes of is any inorganic metal transporter otherwise they minerals reaches the intestinal lumen where will be excreted in feaces.

Table 1. Nutritional requirements of the trace minerals for the poultry (NRC) [1]

Trace minerals White-Egg-Laying Strains Broilers (mg/kg diet) 0 to 6 6 to 12 12 to 18 18 Weeks 0 to 3 3 to 6 6 to 8 Weeks Weeks Weeks to First Weeks weeks weeks Egg Manganese (mg) 60 30 30 30 60 60 60 Zinc (mg) 40 35 35 35 40 40 40 Iron (mg) 80 60 60 60 80 80 80 Copper (mg) 5 4 4 4 8 8 8 (mg) 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 Selenium (mg) 0.15 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.15 0.15 0.15

Fig. 1. Figure showing the absorption of organic minerals in digestive tract of poultry

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3. PREPARATION OF ORGANIC MINERALS

Mineral salt+ enzymatically prepared amino acid/peptide (Controlled conditions) (Hydrolysis of protein and separation by centrifugation and ultrafilteration)

Ligand bind the metal atom at one or more point

Form ring

Mineral proteinates are obtained by means of 5. EFFECT OF ORGANIC MINERALS ON hydrolysis of a protein source which results into a BIRD’S PERFORMANCE mixture of amino acids and small peptides with chains of different lengths. In this way stable Organic minerals can be utilized at a much lower chelates are formed that protect trace elements concentration in the diet than inorganic minerals, against chemical reactions taking place in the without a negative impact on production course of digestion. This protection maintains the performance. Inclusion of the metal specific solubility of these substances during their amino acid complex had a significant effect on passage through the gastrointestinal tract to the FCR (feed conversion ratio) over the 45 day sites of absorption [17]. Such absorption would growth period when compared to inorganic explain the apparent decrease in interaction mineral but not on growth performance [33]. between mineral forms shown in various reports Incremental additions of a number of different as well as allowing inorganic and organic forms organomineral sources of Zn were compared to to be used together to advantage. Greater the sulphate showed a significant improvement in stability during digestion, along with absorption weight gain with the organic versus the inorganic and transport via peptide and amino acid routes, treatments and no impact on FCR [34]. Chicks results in higher biological availability [18,12] due fed diets containing 100% organic minerals (Zn, to increased absorption of organic trace mineral Cu, Mn and Fe) had significantly higher body source. Organic sources include mineral complex weight and better feed conversion on with methionine, polysaccharide complexes, comparision with those of inorganic minerals lysine, glycine, proteinate, and amino acid [35]. Significantly (P<0.05) lower serum complexes. cholesterol and higher SGPT and ALP levels were observed on feeding of organic Zn in 4. BIOAVAILABILITY OF ORGANIC broilers diet [36]. The trace elements Zn, Mn, and MINERALS Cu influence the organic matrix of eggshells and therefore can influence the mechanical properties of the eggshell. Rodriguez-Navarro et Bioavailability of organic mineral in poultry are al. [37] stated that membranes that compose the inconsistent. Table 2 shows the bioavailability of organic matrix may provide a network of fibrous chelated minerals reported from different reinforcement within the shell that can contribute studies. to the resistance to breaking of the egg.

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Table 2. Bioavailability of different minerals from organic and inorganic sources

Sr. Organic minerals Bioavailability References no. 1. Mn-methionine 74.4% more available than an inorganic Fly et al.,1989 [19] complex source (MnO) using Mn concentration in bone 2. Proteinates and Had higher bioavailability and lowered Wedekind and aminoacid chelates excretion. Baker, 1990; of minerals Wedekind et al., 1992 [20,21]. 3. Copper and zinc Organic minerals were 120% and 106% Aoyagi and Baker., (complex with lysine) more available than sulfate (inorganic) 1993 [22] form(100%). 4. Organic Zinc Higher bioavailability indicates more zinc Cao et al., 2000; was deposited in bone tissue from organic Pierce et al.,2006 sources compared to inorganic sources. [23,24] 5. Organic Zinc Relative bioavailability (RB) of Zn from Swiatkiewicz et al., organic Zn was calculated at 121, 116 and 2001 [25] 139% (versus ZnSO4/inorganic source at 100%) 6. Organic Manganese Higher expression of the gene encoding Luo et al.,2007 [26] manganese-containing superoxide dismutase in broiler heart tissue than inorganic source. 7. Organic Zinc Higher expression of m-RNA for Richards et al., 2007 metallothionein in tissue from the small [27] intestine exposed to organic Zn sources. 8. Organic Zinc Organic zinc had RB of 164% than zinc- Star et al.,2012 [28] sulfate (RB=100%) on the basis of tibia zinc content. 9. Mn proteinate Higher relative bioavailability of Mn Brooks et al., 2012 proteinate (139%), as compared to inorganic [29] Mn sulphate (100%) in bone. 10. Organic Zn (80 ppm, Addition of organic Zn and prebiotic (Mono Yalcinkaya et al., Bio-Plex® Oligosaccharides) increased serum Cu and 2012 [30] Fe levels. 11. Zn proteinate Higher relative bioavailability of Zn on the Brooks et al., 2013 basis of tibia zinc content. [31] 12. Zinc amino acids and High RB (147-200%) than inorganic Zn Sahraei et al., 2013 peptides chelates sulphate calculated from the regression of [7] (Bio-Plex®) BWG by slope ratio methods. 13. Chelated Zinc Higher expression of the metallothionine Varun et al., 2017 (indicator of zinc status) in intestinal tissue [32] than the inorganic salt.

Table 3. Effect of different organic minerals on bird’s performance

Sr. Organic minerals Results References no. 1. Zinc/Manganese Reported that enhanced humoral and cell Ferket and methionine mediated immune function in turkeys, and Qureshi.,1992 [38] improved feed efficiency. 2. Mineral specific amino Had a significant effect on FCR over the 45 Burrell et al., 2004 acid complex day growth period when compared to [33] inorganic mineral but not on growth performance.

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Sr. Organic minerals Results References no. 3. Organic Zn or organic Reported that birds exhibited a significantly Richards et al., Cu improvement in antibody immune 2006 [39] response against coccidiosis. 4. 100% organic Significantly higher body weight and Abdallah et al., minerals (Zn, Cu, Mn better feed conversion than those with 2009 [35] and Fe) inorganic minerals. 5. Zn glycine (90-120 Had a beneficial effect on growth performance Feng et al., 2010 ppm) and immunological characteristics [40] (Immunoglobulin A, Immunoglobulin G and Immunoglobulin M blood concentrations). 6. Organic Zn Reduced oxidative stress and improved Bun et al., 2011 immune responses indices. [41] 7. Zn-proteinate The serum glucose and serum cholesterol Idowu et al., 2011 levels were significantly (p<0.05) lower in [42] organic Zn fed group than inorganic. 8. Zn glycine Improvement in of Cu/Zn superoxide Ma et al., 2011 dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activity, [43] a decrease in liver malondialdehyde content. 9. Zn glycine Increase in the height of intestinal villi, Ma et al., 2011 decrease in crypt depth and thickness of [43] intestinal walls 10. Mn proteinate Better results (weight gain, egg weight, % Yildiz et al., 2011 undamaged eggs and tibia bone quality [44] indices) than inorganic Mn sulphate. 11. Cu proteinate (50, Decreased plasma cholesterol, low-density Jegede et al., 100, and 150 ppm) lipoprotein (LDL) and triglyceride in 2012 [45] comparison to Cu sulphate. 13. Organic Zn Significantly (P<0.05) lowered serum Mishra et al., 2013 cholesterol and higher Serum Glutamate [46] Pyruvate Transferase and Alkaline Phosphatase levels in broilers. 14. Cu proteinate Alleviated the detrimental effect of Shamsudeen and aflatoxicosis, improved the growth Shrivastava,2013 performance of birds as compared to inorganic [47] Cu sulphate. 15. Organic minerals (Zn, During 2nd, 3rd and 4th weeks organic mineral Baloch et al., 2017 Cu, Fe, Mn and Se) supplementation showed better growth [48] performance than inorganic.

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Peer-review history: The peer review history for this paper can be accessed here: http://sciencedomain.org/review-history/21902

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