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Praxis Chemistry Study Guide

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Praxis Chemistry Study Guide Chemistry Notes Praxis Chemistry Study Guide Table of Contents Glossary of Terms ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. pg 2 Equations and Variables ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. pg 13 Example Problems ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. pg 14 Tables ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. pg 19 Diagrams ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. pg 22 Historical Figures ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. pg 26 Applications ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. pg 28 Nomenclature ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. pg 29 Lab Techniques ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. pg 33 Practice Multiple Choice ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. pg 34 1 Chemistry Notes Praxis Chemistry Glossary of Terms A Acetones: Ketone hydrocarbons with 2 carbons; standard naming now uses ethanone. Acid Dissociation: The dissolution of an acid into aqueous solution which can also be described as a proton transfer. Acidity: How “acid” a substance is. Acidity for oxides increases down and to the right across the periodic table. (See alkalinity) Acids: less than 7 on the pH scale: (See Lewis Acids, Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Arrhenius acids). Covalent oxides with high oxidation states and high electronegativity are strong acids. Acids have a sour taste, dissolve metals and turn litmus paper red. ****Acid/Base Strength Trends: The strongest acid in a series with the same central atom is the acid with the central atom at the highest oxidation number. The strongest acid in a polyprotic series is the one with the most protons. The strongest acid in a series with different central atoms at the same oxidation number is usually the central atom at the highest electronegativity. Acid-Dissociation Constant: the equilibrium constant for the ionization of a weak acid to a hydrogen ion and its conjugate base (See + - Conjugate Acids/Bases). Ka = [H ][X ] / [HX], where HX is the weak acid. (See Acid/Base Dissociation Constants examples) Activated Complex: An activated complex is a collection of intermediate structures in a chemical reaction. This structure persists while bonds are breaking and new bonds are forming. Activation Energy: Activation energy (Ea) is the minimum energy to overcome the barrier to the formation of products. The formula can be written: ΔE = Eproducts – Ereactants; Ea = Eactivated complex – Ereactants. Alcohol: In the hydroxyl group, a hydrocarbon with a OH-1 ion. Name-ol, example propanol Aldehydes (Carbonyl group): one end carbon bonded to Hydrogen and a double bond to Oxygen. Name- al or name-aldehyde (old); for example, propanal or propionaldehyde. Aldose: containing a aldehyde group Alkali Metals (group 1): 1 valence electron (far from nucleus). These metals form weak metallic bonds and have low melting points; larger radius increases weakness of bonds. Appearance: soft, shiny, low density. Properties tend to decrease as atomic number increases. Alkaline: (See Bases) Alkalinity: How “base” a substance is. Oxides alkalinity increase up and to the left on the periodic table. (See acidity) Alkaline Earth Metals (group 2): 2 valence electrons: stronger than alkali metals. Appearance: grey, metallic solids. Alkanes: hydrocarbons with single bonds between carbons: can be straight chain or ring (cyclo-). Alkenes: hydrocarbons with at least one double bond between carbons and no triple bonds. Alkynes: hydrocarbons with at least one triple bond between carbons. Allotropes: Different forms of the element in the same phase 4 Alpha Particle: ( ) a particle of nuclear decay, equivalent to a helium nucleus ( 2 He) that is released when an unstable nucleus spontaneously releases energy. Alpha radiation has an ionization of +2 and low penetration. Amino: A hydrocarbon molecule with an ammonium group. Amino Group: both amine and amide. Amines C-NH2-H: Amides C double bonded to an Oxygen and single bond to a NH2 ion Anhydride Acid: Carbonyl (oxycarbon) group, similar to an ester but both adjacent carbons are double bonded to oxygen. Name-oic anhydride. Anion: negative ion Annihilation: positron + electron = 2 gamma photons Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Benzene molecules (C6H6) (cyclo-hydrocarbons) with a flat orientation and bonding electrons in the π-orbital are shared by all atoms in the molecule (free moving). Carbon molecules bonded with alternating double and single bonds. (See naming rules for hydrocarbons for additional information.) Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases: acids free H+ ions, bases free OH- ions (hydroxide) only. This is the most specific of all acid/base definitions. Atomic Radius: progression from small to large diagonally down to the left. Aufbau Principle: building up rule – filling orbitals at lowest energy. Avogadro’s Law: the number of molecules or atoms in a specific volume of gas is independent of their size or the molar mass of the gas. 23 Avogadro’s Number: The number of molecules per mole usually given as NA = 6.022 x 10 . 2 Chemistry Notes B Base-Dissociation Constant: the equilibrium constant for the addition of a proton to a weak base by water to + - form its conjugate acid and a hydroxide ion (See Conjugate Acids/Bases). Kb = [X ][OH ] / [weak base]. (See Acid/Base Dissociation Constants examples) Bases: more than 7 on the pH scale. (See Lewis Bases, Bronsted-Lowry Bases and Arrhenius Bases.) Strongest bases are largest size and lowest metal ion charge. Bases taste bitter, feel slippery and turn litmus paper blue. Benzene: (See Aromatic Hydrocarbons) 0 Beta Particle: ( ) A particle of nuclear decay: Beta decay can be positive (conversion of a proton to a neutron and a positron 1 e), or 0 negative (conversion of a neutron to a proton and an electron -1e). This process also frequently involves the release of a neutrino. Beta has an ionization charge of -1 or +1. Boiling: The phase change process going from liquid to gas; also called vaporization. Boiling Point Elevation: (See Colligative Properties) Boyle’s Law: There is an inversely proportional relationship between pressure and volume in an isothermally closed gas system. Bronsted-Lowry Acid/Base: Acids transfer protons to bases regardless of the nature of the anion accepting the proton (more general than the Arrhenius definition). Bronsted acids and bases exist in conjugate pairs with and without a proton. (See Conjugate Pairs and Bronsted-Lowry acid/base reactions). If two or more acid/base conjugate pairs are present, the stronger acid will transfer a proton to the conjugate base of the weaker acid. Buffer Solutions: A solution that resists a change in pH after the addition of small amounts of an acid or base. Buffer solutions require the presence of an acid to neutralize an added base and the presence of a base to neutralize an added acid. The two components must not neutralize each other; a conjugate acid-base pair is present in buffers. They are prepared by mixing together a weak acid or base and a salt of the acid or base. (See Buffer Solutions in examples). Buffering Capacity: The amount of acid/base that a buffer solution can neutralize before large pH changes begin to occur. Buret: Also spelled burrette. A device that allows the slow, gradual addition of a liquid substance. C Calibration Curve: Use of positive samples or known data to determine the standard response of a measurement device or experimental set-up. Carbohydrates: Hydrocarbon molecules formed from monosaccharides – simple sugars (CH2O). Monosaccharides contain multiple hydroxyl groups and may be aldose (containing a aldehyde group) or ketose (containing a ketone group). Carboxyl Acid: hydrocarbon acid. Carbon on one end bonded to an OH-1 ion and a double bond to an Oxygen. Name-oic acid. Usually written as –COOH Catalyst Reaction: A and B are reactants, C is the catalyst. (A + C → AC then AC + B → AB + C) Net Reaction: A + B → AB Catalysts: a substance that increases the rate of reaction without being permanently changed during the reaction (involved in intermediate reaction steps) and has no impact on the chemical equilibrium. Catalysts reduce reaction energy. Homogeneous catalysts are in the same physical phase as the reactants. Biological catalysts (enzymes) are usually homogeneous catalysts. Heterogeneous catalysts are in a different physical phase as the reactants, such as a solid surface in which molecules of a liquid or gas can temporarily attach. Catalytic converters are heterogeneous catalysts. Cation: positive ion Charles’s Law: There is a direct relationship between temperature and volume in an isobarically closed gas system. Chemical Equilibrium: (See Equilibrium.) Chemical Properties: heat of combustion, heat of reactivity, pH and pOH, electromotive forces, explosiveness and flammability. Chiral: molecules that lack an internal plane of symmetry. cis-trans Isomers: Stereo-isomers where the elements are in the same order but have a different spatial arrangement (bond angles). cis-trans Isomers only occur when π-bonds prevent rotation, such as in alkenes, alkynes, and cycloalkanes. (See Isomers, Structural Isomers, Functional Group Isomers, Position Isomers, Structural Isomers) Colligative Properties: Properties that depend on the number of solute particles present in a solution. Example: the addition of non-volatile solutes to a liquid solvent causes a reduction in the number of molecules that can evaporate – reducing vapor pressure and driving equilibrium toward the liquid phase and increasing boiling point (decreasing melting point). (See Colligative Properties Table). Common problems: consider the number of particles formed. Glucose does not ionize, so 1 mole glucose forms 1 mole of solvent particles. Sodium Chloride splits
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