ABSTRACT EFFECTS OF TRAINING IN VOCALISES ON SINGING PERFORMANCE By Ruchita Rao Motor learning literature demonstrates that training in a specific motor movement can improve performance for that movement and other similar tasks. Vocalises are exercises used in vocal training to improve quality and precision in singing performance. It was hypothesized that a short-term training program using a specific vocalise would improve singing performance on the practiced vocalise and vocalises of similar and greater complexity. Twelve female sopranos were divided into two groups, only one of which completed the short-term vocalises training program. Performance was assessed for pitch and rhythm accuracy. Results indicated that the group that completed the short-term training program did not significantly improve their pitch and rhythm accuracy on the three vocalises compared to the group that did not complete the training. Also, no carryover effect was seen after a 1-week rest-period for either group. This study demonstrates that short-term training in vocalises may not improve motor performance. Effects of Training in Vocalises on Singing Performance A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Miami University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Arts Department of Speech Pathology and Audiology by Ruchita Rao Miami University Oxford, Ohio 2005 Advisor_________________________________ Susan E. Baker, Ph.D. Reader__________________________________ Barbara Weinrich, Ph.D. Reader__________________________________ Wendy LeBorgne, Ph.D. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: Introduction..........…………………………………………….............................1 Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………………….6 Research Questions………………………………………………………………………..6 CHAPTER 2: Review of the Literature.................……………………………………………..8 Review of the Anatomy and Physiology of the Larynx…………………………………....8 Neural Control of the Laryngeal Mechanism……………………………………………10 Motor Learning…………………………………………………………………………..12 Theories of Motor Learning……………………………………………………...12 Three-stage model......................................................................................13 Closed-loop theory.....................................................................................13 Schema theory............................................................................................14 Evidence of Motor Learning……………………………………………………..14 Transfer of Learning……………………………………………………………..15 Pre-practice and Practice Conditions…………………………………………...17 The Underlying Rationale for Vocalises…………………………………………………20 Vocal Pedagogy………………………………………………………………………….21 History……………………………………………………………………………21 Literature in Vocal Exercises…………………………………………………….24 Purpose of the Study……………………………………………………………………..26 Research Hypothesis……………………………………………………………..27 Null Hypothesis…………………………………………………………………..28 CHAPTER 3: Methods……………………………………………………………………........29 Participants……………………………………………………………………………....29 Sight-Singing Abilities.......................................................................................................30 Laryngeal Screening……………………………………………………………………..31 Experimental Procedure………………………………………………………………....31 Experimental Group Protocol……………………………………………………………31 Pre-training Phase..........................................................................................…...31 ii Training Phase…………………………………………………………………...38 Post-training Phase………………………………………………………….......39 Control Group Protocol…………………………………………………………….…....39 One Week Post-training………………………………………………………………….39 Data Measurement……………………………………………………………………….39 Statistical Analysis……………………………………………………………………….40 CHAPTER 4: Results......…………………………………………………………………......41 Descriptive Statistics……………………………………………………………………..41 Inferential Statistics……………………………………………………………………...46 Inter-rater Reliability…………………………………………………………….46 Intra-rater Reliability…………………………………………………………….47 Secondary Analysis………………………………………………………………49 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION………………………………………………………………….50 Implications of the Present Study……………………………………………………......52 Perceptual Judgment and Inter/Intra-rater Reliability……………………………….....53 Limitations……………………………………………………………………………….55 Future Directions………………………………………………………………………...56 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….58 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………..59 APPENDICES...............................................................................................................................63 Appendix A Health Questionnaire.................................................................................................63 Appendix B Pitch Accuracy Ratings from Raters for Individual Participants..............................64 Appendix C Rhythm Accuracy Ratings from Raters for Individual Participants..........................70 iii LIST OF TABLES 1. Vocal Training Range (in months) for the Experimental and Control Groups.................29 2. Distribution of Sight-Singing Courses and Self-Rating Score..........................................30 3. Pitch Accuracy Averages on a 100 pt Visual Analog Scale..............................................41 4. Rhythm Accuracy Averages on a 100 pt Visual Analog Scale.........................................44 5. Pearson Product-Moment Correlation between the Three Expert Raters for Pitch Accuracy............................................................................................................................46 6. Pearson Product-Moment Correlation between the Three Expert Raters for Rhythm Accuracy............................................................................................................................47 7. Intra-rater Reliability for Pitch and Rhythm Accuracy......................................................48 iv LIST OF FIGURES 1. Example of a Vocalise........................................................................................................2 2. Experimental Group Protocol with Training in Practice Vocalise....................................32 3. Control Group Protocol with no Training in Practice Vocalise........................................33 4. Practice Vocalise...............................................................................................................34 5. Simple Vocalise................................................................................................................35 6. Complex Vocalise.............................................................................................................36 7. Mean Pitch Accuracy Scores for the Practice Vocalise....................................................42 8. Mean Pitch Accuracy Scores for the Simple Vocalise......................................................43 9. Mean Pitch Accuracy Scores for the Complex Vocalise...................................................43 10. Mean Rhythm Accuracy Scores for the Practice Vocalise................................................45 11. Mean Rhythm Accuracy Scores for the Simple Vocalise.................................................45 12. Mean Rhythm Accuracy Scores for the Complex Vocalise..............................................46 v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to thank Dr. Susan Baker, my committee chairperson, for her guidance and support. Dr. Baker constantly encouraged me at times when we could barely see the “light” at the end of the tunnel. Through all the ups and downs in this past year, thank you for believing in me and helping me get through this project so wonderfully. I would also like to thank my committee member, Dr. Barabara Weinrich for her insights and ideas to make this a better study. A special thank you to Dr. Wendy LeBorgne, who also served as my committee member and whose inputs have been instrumental to this project. My heartfelt gratitude to Mr. Edward LeBorgne, who created the music CDs for this project. This help was truly appreciated. I would also like to extend my sincere appreciation to Ms. Alison Acord, a voice instructor at Miami University, who was instrumental in recruiting participants for the study. I would also like to acknowledgment the cooperation and enthusiasm of all the participants from the Department of Music at Miami University. To my friends, who patiently sat through all my bickering and all the excitement through these past two years, thank you for standing by me. Finally and most importantly, to my parents and sister, who have been incredibly supportive and encouraging, thank you for all your love and undying belief in me. You have kept me strong. This one is for you ma and papa! vi CHAPTER 1 Introduction Most activities of daily living involve a high level of motor planning and execution. Tasks, such as riding a bicycle, driving a car, or even searching the internet, all require motor planning and control. The act of speaking requires an extensive amount of motor planning and execution; in that, the brain has to plan and execute muscle contractions of the respiratory muscles, laryngeal muscles, lips, tongue, and other articulators in order to produce the desired output (Shumway-Cook & Woollacott, 2001). The act of singing requires a heightened degree of coordination, requiring the muscles of respiration, phonation, and resonance to be precisely planned and executed in order to provide an acceptable vocal performance. Singing often requires extensive intensity and frequency manipulations (beyond the spoken word), which must be performed with apparent ease and artistry (Titze, 1993).