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A Review of Psychosocial and Psychological and
its Related Issues in the Occupational Settings
Nuruzzakiyah Bt Mohd Ishanuddin Occupational Safety and Health Program Faculty of Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang 26300, Gambang, Pahang, Malaysia [email protected]
Ezrin Hani Bt Sukadarin Occupational Safety and Health Program Faculty of Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang 26300, Gambang Pahang, Malaysia [email protected]
Hanida Bt Abdul Aziz Occupational Safety and Health Program Faculty of Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang 26300, Gambang Pahang, Malaysia
Abstract—Psychosocial risk and psychological risk were different from each other although they were associated to the term of mental health. Both are related to a condition of a person mental health that they are not physically visible specifically in the workplace. The study regarding mental health at the workplace has been conducted long time ago by many researchers, thus psychosocial and psychological issues in the workplace were quite familiar due to the emergence of new types of hazards and associated risks in the workplace settings. In respect to that, no one should be harm by their work nature had driven more studies on these invisible aspects. To avoid more confusion between these terms, proper understanding must be developed in order to use any of these terms in research. This paper draws a clear distinction between these two terms (psychosocial risk and psychological health) and the related issues in the workplace settings.
Keywords—Psychosocial risk; psychological health; mental health
1. INTRODUCTION
The study on mental health at the workplace was not very prominent among safety and health researchers, this might be due to their nature as the unseen hazards compared to other types of occupational hazards. But, those unseen were not remaining the same since the adverse effect on workers can be physically visible. It was said that France Telecom suicide that occurs between 2008 and 2009 had dramatically projected the reality of mental health adverse effect to the front stage [1]. This issue shows the psychological and physical health of a person can be affected by psychosocial work environment [2, 3] if the emergence risk were not managed properly. Since then, the study on mental health of workers to manage psychosocial risk at the workplace [4-6] had been developed to enhance the work environment conditions and the well-being of the workers at the workplace. However, in Malaysia, the scenario of psychosocial issues was neglected and little is being done in the aspect of occupational safety and health generally [7].
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2. OBJECTIVES
The aim of this paper is to :
1) To define literally psychosocial risk and psychological health risk. 2) To explore scientific literature on psychosocial risk factors and psychological health.
3. METHODOLOGY
A. Study Design
The systematic review was conducted from various scientific publications using electronic databases such as Science Direct, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, and Scopus to find the definition of psychosocial and psychological respectively.
B. Search Strategy
The keywords were used to find the articles includes, psychosocial hazards, the psychosocial risk at workplace/industries, occupational psychology, mental health, psychological health, mental health at work and combinations of the search terms using Boolean operator “AND” to narrow down the search restricted on the title. The databases of Science Direct, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, and Scopus were assessed from late August until early November 2017.
C. Inclusion Criteria for the Articles Searched
Figure 1.0 shows the outline of selection of articles from electronic databases. There are 93 articles that have been selected roughly from the keywords that were searched through the electronic databases. In the screening process, the abstract and title were examined, and duplicated articles were removed, left with 73 articles. After reading the full text and applying the inclusion criteria, only 29 articles were considered eligible to the focused topic. The inclusion criteria that were applied to the articles include articles that are in Malay or English, published from 1990 until 2017 and were addressed with psychosocial risk and psychological health at work.
Science Direct (43), Google Scholar (27), Webcience of S (10), Scopus (4), Cochrane Library (8)
Screen for definitions of psychosocial risk and psychological health at the work
Screen for reasonable and reliable articles which related to the title (apply all inclusion and exclusion criteria)
65 excluded articles
27 eligible articles
Figure 1.0: Flow chart on the selection of the articles of the reviews.
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4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
A. Psychosocial Risk Definition
The term psychosocial in general is the combination of the word ‘psycho’ and ‘social’. The word ‘psycho’ originated from the word psykho in Greek which means mental. ‘Psycho’ means relating to the mind or mental processes, [8] whereas the word ‘social’ originated from the word socius in Latin which means friend. Other than that, the word social is defined as relating to society or organizations [9]. Therefore, psychosocial is defined as the correlation between 3 factors which are social factors, individual thought and behaviour [10]. In the context of workplace setting, psychosocial is consider as the aspect of both psychological and mental aspect relationship with the work environment factors. It will become a problem if these psychosocial issues become a risk to the workers. Psychosocial aspect in the workplace sometimes considered as issues pertaining to work organization [1]. Thus, it is important to understand what the psychosocial risk is about. Table 1.0 shows the definition of psychosocial risk from various literature. In short, to understand the psychosocial risk both reference [1] stated that it is risk- related with the way work is designed, coordinated and managed. While [11] defined psychosocial risk as potential psychosocial hazards to cause harm. Authors [4, 5, 12, 13] highlighted psychosocial risk as the work organizational context that can cause psychological and physical harm to the workers. Conclusively, the psychosocial risk is defined as organizational characteristics and working environment that causes harm such as role ambiguity and work overload. These aspects of the workplace can be optimized to maintain a healthy work environment and promote productivity and development in terms of job task of the workers.
Table 1.0: Description of psychosocial risk with respective authors Author Description of psychosocial risk [1] Risk-related with the way work is designed, coordinated and managed.
The potential of psychosocial hazards to cause harm such as consensus in terms of their [11] incidence and prevalence in the work environment, the particular groups they affect, and the measures taken to prevent them or alleviate their impact.
Related to a variety of job and organizational characteristics and working environments. Range [14. 15] from bullying and harassment to an array of organizational risks such as work overload, lack of social support, role ambiguity, and demand control or effort balance.
[4, 5, 12, 13]
Work design, work management, work organizational context and social factors at work that are likely causing physical and psychological harm other than affect organizational performance.
B. Summary of Literature Review on Psychosocial Risk
Data extraction was applied to the selected articles and put into table systematically which includes title, authors, study population, methods used in the study, and the result of the study. This data extraction intended to review the study methodologies used other than to find literature that supports the study. Psychosocial risks are the risks associated with the aspect of work organization, other than work design and work management [1, 12]. Psychosocial risks are dimensions that possibly associate with psychological occurrences to the social environment and to pathophysiological alteration of a person [16]. Other than that, these studies also agreed that work organization settings have potentials for causing psychological and physical harm, at the end will cause harm to the workers [4, 5, 12, 17]. These studies inferred that organizational work environment did affect both physical and mental health of the workers in a certain way which it might be seen as trivial to the organization and unaware of the consequences. Based on the previous studies in Table 2.0 and 3.0, psychosocial risk issues quite popular within services industries in the European countries; and prominent method used to conduct the studies were using questionnaires [14][18-19]. Some studies indicated that psychosocial management, policies, and preventive programs lead to positive consequences in terms of psychosocial performance among the workers [1, 19, 21]. For example, a study
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Table 2.0: Previous studies on psychosocial issues in workplace
Methods No. Authors Sample Results Industry Country Q R I O 1 [27] 13 x Negative association between stress and quality of life among university Education Brazil students. 2 [28] 1812 x The analysis showed a convincing correlation of job resources, job Oil and gas Norway demands and work-related stress symptoms. There are also differences in terms of psychosocial risk factors and work-related stress symptoms both at offshore and onshore. 3 [20] 36000 x x The improvement of psychosocial performance in European countries by Manufacturing Spain implementation of management systems and preventive activities in the company. 4 [18] 75 x 70% of the respondents think that the salary is more important than safety. Management and Romania service 5 [12] 730 x x The practice of psychosocial risk performance indicator in the Oil and gas Norway organization help the psychosocial risk management. 6 [23] N/A x Benchmark Dose (BMD) Modelling can be used to identify critical N/A Australia exposure level for psychosocial risk. 7 [22] N/A x OHSM systems certified do not assure the management of psychosocial N/A Denmark risk were regulated as expected by the standard. 8 [29] 548 x Psychosocial health risks (cognitive load, temporal autonomy, job Agriculture Spain description, supervision-participation, role definition, worker interest, and personal relationships) encountered by the workers are acceptable.
*N/A : Not available or not applicable *Q : Questionnaire or Survey *R: Review *I : Instrumentation *O: Others
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Table 3.0: Previous studies on psychosocial issues at the workplaces
Methods No. Authors Sample Results Industry Country Q R I O 9 [19] 2984 x Policy level intervention decrease reported concern on psychosocial risks Management Europe over time and improve work-related stress management. 10 [30] 216 x x Heat illness at construction site is a consequence of environmental hazards, personal physiological conditions, and organizationally enabled Construction China individual autonomous adaptation 11 [1] N/A x By making distinction between issues related to work organization and N/A Europe psychosocial risk factors, the risk prevention is more effective. 12 [21] N/A x Appropriate training and sufficient resources have potential positive outcomes of inspectorate intervention on psychosocial risk other Management Europe supportive settings. 13 [24] N/A x x Psychological stress factors are related to a wide range of adverse health N/A Europe outcomes in patients with cardiovascular disease. 14 [25] 349 x There are higher prevalence of minor mental disorders among healthcare Healthcare Taiwan workers compared to other general workers. 15 [14] 125 x Despite, initiatives by Australian jurisdictions, psychosocial hazards Management Australia remain a marginal area of Inspectorate activity. 16 [26] 1500 x The workers under studied were having positive symptoms of common Construction Netherland mental disorders. *N/A : Not available or not applicable *Q : Questionnaire or Survey *R: Review *I: Instrumentation *O: Others
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C. Psychological Health Definitions
The term psychological is derived from the word psychology. It is the combination of the word psychology(y) and the prefix – ical which is used to form adjectives. Literally, psychological means mental or something that related to psychology. Basically, psychology is a combination of ‘psycho’ and ‘-logy’. ‘Psycho’ was originated from the Greek word which means mental while ‘-logy’ means science or study of. It was originated from Greek word logos. Psychological is something related to the mind and feelings [31] and also can be defined as related to the mental and emotional state of a person [32]. In relation to the psychological meaning, the psychological state of a worker does become a major concern because it can affect work performance in the workplace. In workplace settings, psychological aspect is interpreted as the state of mental health or emotional well-being of workers. The psychological health term is used to determine the mental state of the workers mainly in the workplace settings. Other than that, psychological health at the workplace also associated with the way people interact with each other, work settings and the way organizational practices are implemented other than the process of decision making are made and communicated [6]. Therefore, the understanding of psychological health at the workplace is vital to ensure the safety and well-being of workers. Table 4.0 shows the description of psychological health at the workplace. In sum, psychological health define by [33] is the potential of an individual to function normally and cope with normal stresses of life. While [34], define psychological health as the underlying issues at the workplace other than [35] it can be expressed as performing dysfunction and ill-being in the workplace.
Table 4.0 Description of psychological health from several authors. Authors Descriptions
[33] A well-being of a person to aware their potential, able to cope with common stresses of life, able to work productively also afford to make contribution to society.
[35] Expresses performing effective dysfunction and of ill being.
[34] The hidden issues at work which outdo with other workplace health issues and causing bigger problem unconsciously.
D. Summary of Literature Review on Psychological Health
Psychological health or often recognized as mental health is also known as the well-being of the workers in the workplace. Psychological injuries are the hardest to manage compared to other types of hazards. They have the least recognition, are often neglected or even misunderstood with, and had the least support whereby nobody ever wants to deal with; unless an intervention has to be forced [34]. The aspect of psychological issues in the workplace which often considered intangible would cause latent adverse health effects among employees. Due to the exposure for a certain period of time, eventually, the risk of getting mental disorder become prominent and affect the workers’ productivity in work. Internationally, most developed countries such as European countries have recognized the negative effect of mental illness on the countries’ economy. For this specific purpose, there is a need to conduct more studies regarding this issue, especially in Malaysia. This lead to the focus on a variety of initiatives to manage this issues throughout most of the industrialized world globally [36]. The research found that mental health issues are prominent in the working adults and were related to significant disability among employees [37]. Based on previous studies in Table 5.0 and 6.0 regarding psychological health in the workplace, most of the studies were conducted by the researchers in the European countries [38, 39, 40, 43, 44, 45]. This shows the awareness of European countries on the issues of psychological health at work. Furthermore, most of the studies conducted in healthcare industries were among medical professionals such as doctors and pharmacists [40, 42, 45, 46]. The most common methods used to conduct the study was by reviewing scientific articles [38, 39, 41, 42, 43]. Managing psychological health in the workplace is mainly the employers and work management responsibilities. But many employers misrecognized and ignored the psychological health aspects in the workplace [40]. These issues lead to the adverse health effect to the workers due to the long period of exposure and latent or inactive prevention of work organizations. The healthcare industries highlighted the work environment affects the mental health, and well-being of the workers [46], and are also prominent psychological distress among these workers compared to the general population [45]. A study conducted by [42] on the presence of violence among healthcare professionals causing physical, psychological, and emotional has adverse effect on the worker. Correspondingly, among the initiatives suggested, senior workers or the management are supposed to promote conducive work settings, and systematic policies and practices in order to intervene and prevent others. Rather than managing psychosocial risks, causing psychological health adverse effects [47].
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Table 5.0: Previous studies on psychological health issues in the workplace Methods No. Authors Sample Results Industry Country Q R I O 1. [38] 20 x Due to lack of focus on intervention of the risk, the rating systems N/A Europe of the guidelines are low. The recommendation provided were not include instruction to implement and individual focus. 2. [39] N/A x Alternative approaches including the application of guardianship N/A Europe and related principles from the routine activity approach, which are well-established strategies for prevention of victimization in a range of contexts.
3. [40] 87 x Most employees and workers misrecognized and ignored the Healthcare Canada psychological health and safety hazards at the workplace.
4. [48] 9986 x Attaining and maintaining higher physical activity level related N/A Europe with psychological well-being independently.
5. [47] 274 x These factors should take into consideration by company to prevent Public sector Vietnam psychosocial hazards. There are positive work condition and effective systems of policies, procedures and practices. *N/A : Not available or not applicable *Q : Questionnaire or Survey *R: Review *I: Instrumentation *O: Others
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Table 6.0: Previous studies on psychological health issues at the workplace
Methods No. Authors Sample Results Industry Country Q R I O 6. [41] N/A x 1/3 of studies used a combination of individual, groups, and Service Europe organization level interventions. Most often supported by psychosocial intervention or participatory research. These components brought positive and significant results with regard to work and mental health outcomes towards workers. 7. [42] N/A x The studies identified seven categories of consequences of Healthcare Canada workplace violence which are physical, psychological, emotional, work functioning, and relationship with patients or quality of care, social or general, and financial. 8. [43] N/A x Veterinary nurses with a clearer understanding of the detrimental Veterinary Ireland effects it can potentially have on an individual’s well- being if they are unable to utilize the appropriate style of coping mechanisms.
9. [44] N/A x Work and non-work factors were often interrelated pressures prior Construction Australia to death. 10. [46] 62 x Workplace environment is prime factor to the occurrence of mental Healthcare Singapore health problems and affect well-being of workers. 11. [45] 1900 x There are higher prevalence of psychological distress with 63% to Healthcare Australia 80% compared to general workers. *N/A : Not available or not applicable *Q : Questionnaire or Survey *R: Review *I: Instrumentation *O: Others
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5. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, a psychosocial risk is the association of mental and organizational work environment that causes harm to the workers. While psychological health is a mental or emotional state of the workers. Scientific pieces of literature on psychosocial risk factors determined that it can affect the psychological well-being of the workers. In this review, there are 27 scientific articles that were selected and applied the inclusion criteria as to study the psychosocial risk and psychological health among working populations. As psychosocial risk and psychological health are related to each other, psychosocial aspects eventually will affect the psychological health aspect of the workers. In this review, psychosocial risk and psychological health are defined literally from various studies to draw a clear distinction between them and the association of the two aspects in the workplace. It is found that the psychosocial risk factors such as work overload could lead to adverse health effect of the workers which over a period of time can become visible by the psychological health indicators such as workers performance and productivity. Hence, it is important to conduct psychosocial studies in Malaysia as to ensure the safety and well-being of the employees in the workplace.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This study was supported by the grant of Developing a Safety Culture in Manufacturing Industry Based on Human Behavior under Universiti Malaysia Pahang (Grant No.: RDU170308).
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[21] R. Weissbrodt, D. Giauque, “Labour inspections and the prevention of psychosocial risks at work: A realist synthesis,” Saf. Sci., vol. 100, pp. 110-124, 2017. [22] P. Hohnen, P. Hasle, A. H. Jespersen, C. U. Madsen, “Hard Work in Soft Regulation : A Discussion of the Social Mechanisms in OHS Management Standards and Possible Dilemmas in the Regulation of Psychosocial Work Environment,” Nord. J. Work. Life Stud., vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 13-30, 2014. [23] S. M. Kyaw-myint, L. Strazdins, M. Clements, P. Butterworth, L. Gallagher, “A method of identifying healthbased benchmarks for psychosocial risks at work : A tool for risk assessment,” Saf. Sci., vol. 93, pp. 143-151, 2017. [24] A. Neylon, et al., “A Global perspective on psychosocial risk factors for cardiovascular disease,” Prog. Cardiovasc. Dis., vol. 55, no. 6, pp. 574-581, 2013. [25] W. J. Cheng, Y. Cheng, “Minor mental disorders in Taiwanese healthcare workers and the associations with psychosocial work conditions,” J. Formos. Med. Assoc., vol. 116, no. 4, pp. 300-305, 2017. [26] J. S. Boschman, H. F. van der Molen, J. K. Sluiter, M. H. W. Frings-Dresen, “Psychosocial work environment and mental health among construction workers,” Appl. Ergon., vol. 44, no. 5, pp. 748–755, 2013. [27] Í. J. S. Ribeiro, R. Pereira, I. V. Freire, B. G. de Oliveira, C. A. Casotti, and E. N. Boery, “Stress and quality of life among university students: A systematic literature review,” Heal. Prof. Educ., 2017. [28] L. I. V. Bergh, S. Leka, G. I. J. M. Zwetsloot, “Tailoring Psychosocial Risk Assessment in the Oil and Gas Industry by Exploring Specific and Common Psychosocial Risks,” Saf. Health Work, pp. 18, 2017. [29] Á. J. Callejón-ferre, M. E. Montoya-garcía, J. Pérez-alonso, “The psychosocial risks of farm workers in southeast Spain,” vol. 78, pp. 77-90, 2015. [30] Y. A. Jia, S. Rowlinson, M. Ciccarelli, “Climatic and psychosocial risks of heat illness incidents on construction site,” Appl. Ergon., vol. 53, pp. 25-35, 2016. 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Dewa, “A systematic review of preventive interventions regarding mental health issues in organizations,” Work, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 81–116, 2009. [42] N. Lanctôt, S. Guay, “The aftermath of workplace violence among healthcare workers: A systematic literature review of the consequences,” Aggress. Violent Behav., vol. 19, pp. 492–501, 2014. [43] C. Lloyd, D. P. Campion, “Occupational stress and the importance of self-care and resilience: focus on veterinary nursing,” Lloyd Campion Irish Vet. J., vol. 70, 2017. [44] A. Milner, H. Maheen, D. Currier, A. D. Lamontagne, “Male suicide among construction workers in Australia: a qualitative analysis of the major stressors precipitating death.” [45] T.-Y. Pan, H. S. Fan, C. A. Owen, “The work environment of junior doctors: their perspectives and coping strategies.,” Postgrad. Med. J., p. postgradmedj-2016-134362, 2016. [46] L. Picco, et al., “Positive mental health among health professionals working at a psychiatric hospital.” [47] D. T. N. Nguyen, S. T. T. Teo, S. L. Grover, N. P. Nguyen, “Psychological safety climate and workplace bullying in Vietnam’s public sector,” Public Manag. Rev., vol. 19, no. 10, pp. 1415-1436, Nov. 2017. [48] E. S. Kim, L. D. Kubzansky, J. Soo, J. K. Boehm, “Maintaining Healthy Behavior: a Prospective Study of Psychological Well-Being and Physical Activity,” Ann. Behav. Med., vol. 51, no. 3, pp. 337-347, 2017.
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Effect of Steam Explosion Pretreatment Method
in Pulp Production on Pilot Scale
Muhammad Arif Fahmi Supian Faculty of Chemical & Natural Resources Engineering Universiti Malaysia Pahang 26300 Gambang, Pahang, Malaysia [email protected]
Khairatun Najwa Mohd Amin Faculty of Chemical & Natural Resources Engineering Universiti Malaysia Pahang 26300 Gambang, Pahang, Malaysia [email protected]
Shahril Mohamad Faculty of Chemical & Natural Resources Engineering Universiti Malaysia Pahang 26300 Gambang, Pahang, Malaysia [email protected]
Saidatul Shima Jamari Faculty of Chemical & Natural Resources Engineering Universiti Malaysia Pahang 26300 Gambang, Pahang, Malaysia [email protected]
Abstract— The study on pulp production at a pilot scale and the implementation of steam explosion pretreatment in the process. The pulp production using the physic-chemical process that includes steam explosion pretreatment and mild alkaline treatment. The physicochemical and morphological characteristics, elemental composition and size distribution of the fiber were characterized using the scanning electron microscope (SEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR). The difference on the morphology of the raw and exploded can be clearly seen when the smooth structure of raw fiber turn ruptured and the size decreases from 213.6µm to 9.5µm. FTIR and TGA analysis provided clear evidence from the peak of lignin and hemicellulose were decreasing from the raw to the exploded fiber and pulp. The crystallinity of the fiber changes when treated. Thus, pulp can be produced in a large scale by using the steam explosion treatment.
Keywords— EFB; Pulp; Steam explosion treatment; Pilot scale; Characterization
1. INTRODUCTION
Lignocellulosic biomass is one of the most abundant and low cost renewable resource available in Malaysian and has a great potential of bio-fuel and chemical derivatives [1]. Lignocellulosic biomass usually comprised of lignin, hemicellulose, and cellulose. Cellulose is aligned parallel to each other in fibrils, which are surrounded by a matrix of lignin and hemicellulose. In order to produce the designated product, effective pretreatment is required to disrupt the this complex and heterogeneous matrix [1]. In recent years, Malaysia’s largest solid lignocellulosic biomass contributor comes from the oil palm industries [2]. Lignocellulosic biomass produced from the oil palm industries which are the oil palm trunks, oil palm fronds, empty fruit bunch (EFB) and palm pressed fibers [3]. EFB as an oil palm biomass product attracted interest among researcher due to its cellulosic content, and easy to obtain. A few years back, EFB was a valueless biomass produced from the oil palm mill and it will casually be thrown back to the oil palm plantation or burnt in the incinerators for it ash. Abdullah and Sulaiman stated in 2013, EFB has a huge potential but currently being wasted.
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With the current raw material for the production of pulp and paper. The industry is facing a serious problem due to raw material shortages. While wood is the main resource, there are plenty lignocellulosic biomass that can be applied for pulp production. However, problems encountered in the pretreatment of this lignocellulosic biomass, Pretreatment is an important step to deal with lignocellulosic biomass complex structure by rupturing its structure and making it easier to be digested throughout the process [4]. Until now, many have develop several type of pretreatment method such as biological, physical, chemical, physiochemical and combination of several method [5,6,7,8]. I most cases, removing of lignin and hemicellulose, plant cell wall structure disruption, and increase the surface area are the primary target of the pretreatment [9,10,11]. From the developed technology for the pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass, steam explosion in which can be categorized in the physic-chemical process. This is because the process itself involving high pressurizes saturated steam and a sudden decompression of the system causing the biomass fiber to rupture and release of organic acid that triggered the autohydrolyzing of hemicellulose and depolymerization of the lignin [12]. Steam explosion has been adapted on the pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass more regularly due to its promising improvement in enzymatic digestibility or solvent accessibility [13]. Steam explosion also will greatly decrease the chemical consumption for further treatment and has low energy consumption value. The aim of this study was for pulp production using the steam explosion treatment and other treatments that was hot water treatment and mild alkaline treatment using 5% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in a pilot scale production line. The characteristic and changes of the pulp was characterized throughout the process using scanning electron microscope (SEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR)
2. MATERIALS AND METHOD
A. Material
Empty fruit bunch (EFB) was obtained from LKPP Corporation Sdn. Bhd. palm oil mill, Lepar, Pahang. 99% industrial grade caustic soda (NaOH) obtained from the local vendor Kong Long Huat Chemicals Sdn. Berhad.
B. Sample preparation
EFB was dried at room temperature for 1 week. Then the EFB was ground using the SIMA grinder model FG 400×200 equipped with 200 mm mesh.
C. Pulp production
Production of pulp was performed at a Cellulose Pilot Plant located at Lepar, Pahang.
D. Steam explosion treatment
Steam explosion treatment of EFB was carried out using the pilot plant 700-L pressure vessel. Saturated steam was provided by the LCSB oil palm mill. Grounded EFB were weighed and loaded into the pressure vessel. Saturated steam was supplied into the pressure until the pressure of the vessel reached 20 bar and the countdown for the steam explosion started. When the countdown ended the blowdown valve was opened and the sudden release of pressure created the steam explosion. Exploded EFB fiber was collected in the collecting tank and transferred into the first mixing tank.
E. Hot water treatment
Hot water treatment was carried out using a 1000L jacketed mixing tank equipped with an overhead stirrer. The transferred exploded fiber was mixed with water at 1.25% consistency. The mixing tank was heated using low pressure steam until the desired temperature, 80°C was reached. After 1 hour of mixing, the slurry solution was filtered using a cotton bag and transferred into the second mixing tank for mild alkaline treatment.
F. Alkaline treatment
Alkaline treatment also using the 1000L jacketed mixing tank equipped with an overhead stirrer. 5% NaOH solution was prepared and heated to 80°C. Then hot water treated fiber was transferred into the tank and stirred for 1 hour. After 1 hour the produced pulp was filtered using the cotton bag and washed using deionized water until the pH reached 6.5-7.5. Then the produced pulp was dried at 80°C in an oven for 12 hours.
G. Characterization
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H. Determination of fiber consistency
Fibers were dried in the oven at 105˚C for 2 hours before being weight using analytical balance. The calculation for consistency of the fiber for the synthesis was done using equation (1).
표푣푒푛 푑푟푦 푤푒𝑖푔ℎ푡 표푓 푝푢푙푝 × 100% (1) 푤푒𝑖푔ℎ푡 표푓 푝푢푙푝+푤푎푡푒푟
I. The thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
The thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of raw, exploded fiber and pulp were analyze using the TGA Q500 by TA Instruments. TG and DTG curves were obtained under a dynamic atmosphere of synthetic air (flow rate of 35 mL min−1) heating rate of 10 °C min−1 from 30 to 900 °C.
J. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR)
The Infrared (IR) spectroscopy of the produced pulp was performed between bands 4000 to 500 cm-1 using The Nicolet iS50 FT-IR Spectrometer. The tests were carried out on the raw EFB, steam exploded fiber and the produced pulp.
K. Surface morphology
The scanning electronic microscopy (SEM) was carried on a FEI Quanta 450 under 1-15-kV was used to analyze the morphology of raw and exploded fiber. The morphology of sample is performed with difference magnification using scanning electron microscope (SEM). Samples were mounted on aluminium stubs. The average length and diameter of fiber were calculated using a digital image analysis, Image J software.
L. X-ray Diffraction (XRD)
The crystallinity of the raw, exploded fiber and pulp were monitored using Broker D8 Advance X-ray diffractometer (XRD) with Ni-filtered CuKα radiation. The test samples are scanned with in 2θ angle range from 5°to 60°at 2 per minute. The crystallinity index Crl value is calculated using the following Equation (2):
퐼 −퐼 퐶푟푙(%) = 002 푎푚 × 100% (2) 퐼002
Where the I002 is the maximum intensity of the (002) lattice diffraction peak and Iam is the intensity scattered by the amorphous part of the sample. The mean size of crystalline region was evaluated to show the changes in the crystalline structure and was calculated using the Debre-Scherrer Equation (3):
휅휆 퐷 = (3) 훽푐표푠휃
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
A. Surface morphology analysis
The effects of steam explosion treatment on the morphology of the fiber were observed using the SEM at 100x and 500x magnification. Figure 1 shows the morphology of the raw fiber (Figure 1A and 1B), show a long smooth fibril with a diameter of 213.6 µm. On the contrary, the steam exploded fiber show that the fiber was ruptured and the fibril began to individualized (Figure 1C and 1D) and the mean for the fibrils are diameter 9.5 µm. Steam explosion treatment had led to changes in morphological smooth structure and size of the raw fiber to a ruptured structure and decrease in size of the fibrils. During the steam explosion treatment, the saturated steam will penetrates into fiber through high vapor-phase diffusion and condensate to form liquid water inside the fiber. But at the end of the treatment when sudden release of pressure occurs, water inside biomass fiber will evaporates and explosion occur inside the biomass fiber causing the breakdown of the lignocellulosic structure of the fiber [11,13].
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A 100 X B 500 X al al p p h h a a ce c
ll el ul Raw Fiber (Alu and B) Cos 100 X Dlo 500 X ale Ds p ale Fibrils h p a Fibrils h c a
el c lu Exploded fiberel (C and D) Figurelo 1: SEM micrographs of raw fiber (A & B) and explodedlu fiber (C & D) at a magnification 100x and 500x.
B. Chemical scomposition lo
The effect of esteam explosion pretreatment at 10 min retention times on the chemical composition of the fiber was evaluated using the FTIR spectroscopy. The normalization of the FTIR peak was done by the peak (950-1200 cm-1) with maximum at 1034 cm- 1 with respect to the cellulose ring in which attributed to the C-O-eC stretching of pyranose ring. Figure 1 shows the spectra for all the fiber showing similarities in spectra pattern indicating the chemical composition of the fiber remain unchanged throughout the process. The infrared spectra can be separated into two regions that are the low wavenumber in this case the finger print part (400-1800 cm-1) and at high wavenumber which are -OH and CH stretching vibration [14].
From the figure 2, it can be observed that spectra of exploded fiber and pulp showing a decrease in peak (downward arrow) after the treatment. The peak at the O-H stretching and bending vibration which are the hydrogen bonded hydroxyl (OH) group of cellulose and absorbed water [14,15]. The decrease in the spectra was indicating that the hydrogen bonded hydroxyl was broken or ruptured during treatment [16]
The peaks in the finger print region which are the 1734 cm-1 is indicating to the C=O stretching of the acetyl and easter bond; 1612 cm-1 to 1508 cm-1 are referring to the C=C aromatic ring and C=H vibration of lignin; 1375 cm-1 are to the C-H deformation of cellulose and lignin; 1234 cm-1 are correspond to the axial asymmetric strain of =C-O- in ether, ester, and phenol group of lignin; and lastly the 1108 cm-1 and 1033 cm-1 are attributed to C-O stretching and C-H rocking vibration of cellulose [14,15,16,17]. The decrease of the spectra peaks on the low and high wavenumber region were attributed to breakage of the linkages of the bonds that linkages to the carboxylic group further indicating that both the steam explosion and alkaline treatment have causes the breakage of bonds and the hydrolysis of the hemicellulose fraction and de-polymerization of lignin components from the lignocellulosic structure of the EFB fiber [16]. Hemicellulose and lignin had been partially removed during the pulp production.
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Raw EFB Fiber
0.08 Steam Exploded Fiber Pyranos ring Pulp
0.06
0.04
C-H C-H stretching
O-H stretching
axial asymmetric strain of =C-O- in ether, ester and phenol
Aromatic ring & C=H vibration
Absorbance (%) Absorbance
C=O stretching (acetyl & easter bond) 0.02
0.00
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 Wavenumber (cm-1)
Figure 2: Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra of raw, exploded fiber and pulp.
C. Crystallinity
10000 (002) Raw EFB Fiber Steam Exploded Fiber Pulp
5000
(101)
Intensity (Arbitary Unit) (Arbitary Intensity
I I (040) am 002
0 10 20 30 40 2 Theta
Figure 3: Crystallinity of raw, exploded fiber and pulp
The comparison X-ray diffraction patterns of raw, exploded fiber and pulp are presented in Figure 3. The 110 and 200 cellulose crystallographic planes are found at peaks 22° and 15° for all samples are associated with the crystalline structure in cellulose I. The crystallinity index of the fiber increases from 69.48% to 72.39% after the steam explosion treatment and further increases to 85.36% after the alkaline treatment. But for the crystallinity domain size of the fiber it increases from 2.11 nm to 2.36 nm after the steam explosion treatment but decreases after alkaline treatment to 2.02 nm. This shows that when the steam explosion occurs the organic acid produced had penetrates and hydrolyzed the amorphous region of the fiber and alkaline treatment further hydrolyzed the amorphous structure causing the cleavage of the glycosidic bonds and the releasing of individual crystallites [14,16]. The removal of the amorphous region cases the intermediate crystalline region to rearrange changing the domain size of the crystalline [16]. Table 2 show the crystallinity index and crystalline domain size of raw, exploded fiber and pulp.
Table 2: Degree of crystallinity index and crystalline domain size raw, exploded fiber and pulp Sample Crystallinity index (%) Crystallinity domain size (nm) Raw 62.48 2.11 Exploded fiber 72.39 2.36 Pulp 85.36 2.02
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D. Thermogravimetric analysis
Figure 4 show the thermogravimetric analysis on the raw, exploded fiber and pulp. From the graph, it can be seen small fraction of weight loss before 120˚C were mainly due to moisture within the fiber evaporated and low molecular substances. [18]. it has been seen that the raw, exploded fiber and pulp start to decompose at an almost similar temperature. The onset temperature is the beginning of weight loss while the final temperature is the end of degradation. It was found that the decomposition of raw started at 218℃ and completed at 325℃ while exploded fiber started to decompose at 234℃ and completed as 330℃ and for pulp started decomposition at 260℃ and completed at 336℃. Based on the result obtained, the degradation of the raw is the slowest followed by the exploded fiber and pulp. This change in behavior can be attributed by the removing of the hemicellulose and lignin throughout the process of pulp production [18]. This process also shows that the process does slightly change the thermal stability of the fiber and confirmed that the produced pulp has a high thermal stability.
1.0 Raw Exploded fiber Pulp
0.5
0.0
200 400 600 800 Temperature (deg C)
Figure 4: TGA curve of raw exploded fiber and pulp
4. CONCLUSION
Pulp has been successfully produced in a pilot scale. The integration of steam explosion pretreatment has improved the process by improving the other treatment by increasing the surface area of the fiber. The results obtained from FTIR and TGA analysis confirmed that hemicellulose and lignin structure has been successfully removed from the fiber. TGA analysis also shows the produced fiber has a high thermal stability. Furthermore, XRD show that the crystallinity of the fiber increase slightly from 69.48 to 72.39% after the steam explosion and further increases to 85.36% after the alkaline treatment.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank financial support from grants (RDU1603128 and UIC171004) funded by Universiti Malaysia Pahang, lecturers of Faculty of Chemical & Natural Resources Engineering and LCSB company for their supports.
REFERENCES
[1] M. Kapoor, S. Soam, R. Agrawal, R. P. Gupta, D. K. Tuli, R. Kumar, “Pilot scale dilute acid pretreatment of rice straw and fermentable sugar recovery at high solid loadings,” Bioresource Technology. 224 (2017) 688-693. [2] N. A. Harun, A. S. Baharuddin, M. H. Mohd Zainuddin, E. K. Bahrin, M. N. Naim, R. Zakaria, “Cellulose production from treated oil palm empty fruit bunch degradation by locally isolated thermobifida fusca,” BioResource. 8(1) (2013) 676-687. [3] I. S. Jacobs, C. P. Bean, “Fine particles, thin films and exchange anisotropy,” in Magnetism, vol. III, G. T. Rado and H. Suhl, Eds. New York: Academic, 1963, pp. 271–350. [4] N. Abdullah, F. Sulaiman, “The oil palm wastes in Malaysia,” Biomass Now – Sustainable Growth and Use. 3 (2013) 75- 100. [5] K. Karimi, M. J. Taherzadeh, “A critical review of analytical methods in pretreatment of lignocelluloses: Composition, imaging, and crystallinity,” Bioresource Technology. 200 (2016) 1008-1018.
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[6] L. Liang, J. Li, J. Zeng, N. Ma, Y. An, R. Ju, Q. Wang, “Effects of Steam Explosion on Bagasse Specific Surface Area and Grafting Degree of Acrylamide-Grafted Bagasse,” BioResources. 11(3) (2016). [7] M. Li, G. Han, Y. Song, W. Jiang, Y. Zhang, “Structure, Composition, and Thermal Properties of Cellulose Fibers from Pueraria lobata Treated with a Combination of Steam Explosion and Laccase Mediator System,” BioResources. 11(3) (2016). [8] H. Chen, Z. Liu, “Steam explosion and its combinatorial pretreatment refining technology of plant biomass to bio-based products,” Biotechnology Journal. 10(6) (2015) 866-885. [9] H. Rabemanolontsoa, S. Saka, “Various pretreatments of lignocellulosics” Bioresource Technology. 199 (2016) 83-91. [10] J. L. Ramos-Suárez, D. Gómez, L. Regueiro, A. Baeza, F. Hansen, “Alkaline and oxidative pretreatments for the anaerobic digestion of cow manure and maize straw: Factors influencing the process and preliminary economic viability of an industrial application,” Bioresource Technology. 241 (2017) 10-20. [11] H. Xu, B. Li, X. Mu, “Review of Alkali-Based Pretreatment To Enhance Enzymatic Saccharification for Lignocellulosic Biomass Conversion,” Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research. 55(32) (2016) 8691-8705. [12] N. Jacquet, G. Maniet, C. Vanderghem, F. Delvigne, A. Richel, “Application of Steam Explosion as Pretreatment on Lignocellulosic Material: A Review,” Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research. 54(10) (2015) 2593-2598. [13] X. Zhang, Q. Yuan, G. Cheng, “Deconstruction of corncob by steam explosion pretreatment: Correlations between sugar conversion and recalcitrant structures,” Carbohydrate Polymers. 156 (2017) 351-356. [14] R. Martin-Sampedro, M. E. Eugenio, E. Revilla, J. A. Martin, J. C. Villar, “Integration of kraft pulping on a forest biorefinery by the addition of steam explosion pretreatment,” BioResources. 6(1) (2011) 513-528. [15] F. Fahma, S. Iwamoto, N. Hori, T. Iwata, & A. Takemura, “Isolation, preparation, and characterization of nanofibers from oil palm empty-fruit-bunch (OPEFB),” Cellulose. 17(5) (2010) 977-985. [16] Y. Chen, C. Liu, P. R. Chang, X. Cao, D. P. Anderson, “Bionanocomposites based on pea starch and cellulose nanowhiskers hydrolyzed from pea hull fibre: Effect of hydrolysis time,” Carbohydrate Polymers. 76(4) (2009) 607-615. [17] M. Rosa, E. Medeiros, J. Malmonge, K. Gregorski, D. Wood, L. Mattoso, S. Imam, “Cellulose nanowhiskers from coconut husk fibers: Effect of preparation conditions on their thermal and morphological behavior,” Carbohydrate Polymers. 81(1) (2010) 83-92. [18] N. Amiralian, P. K. Annamalai, P. Memmott, D. J. Martin, “Isolation of cellulose nanofibrils from Triodia pungens via different mechanical methods,” Cellulose. 22(4) (2015) 2483-2498. [19] P. Sukyai, P. Anongjanya, N. Bunyahwuthakul, K. Kongsin, N. Harnkarnsujarit, U. Sukatta, R. Chollakup, “Effect of cellulose nanocrystals from sugarcane bagasse on whey protein isolate-based films,” Food Research International. 107 (2018) 528-535. [20] J. L. Morán, V. A. Alvarez, V. P. Cyras, A. Vázquez, “Extraction of cellulose and preparation of nanocellulose from sisal fibers,” Cellulose. 15(1) (2007) 149-159.
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Applications of Solid Wastes based Heterogeneous Catalyst: A review
Chi Cheng Chong Faculty of Chemical & Natural Resources Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang (UMP), Pahang, Malaysia. [email protected]
Herma Dina Setiabudi Faculty of Chemical & Natural Resources Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang (UMP), Pahang, Malaysia. [email protected]
Abstract—Solid wastes arose as an apprehension nowadays because of their handling and disposal issues. The major solid wastes are eggshell, fly ash, oil palm based wastes and rice husk ash, which are discarded over million tonnes around the world. Rather than to be served as no economic value waste, these residues consist of high silica content, which prompted its other applications, such as its adoption as an economical and environmental-friendly catalyst. In the present work, an attempt to provide an overview of the applications of solid wastes as heterogeneous catalysts in various processes was done. According to the literature reviewed, the vast feasibility of the solid wastes as heterogeneous catalysts was proven, in which tremendous variation of highly valuable products could be obtained via the assistance of the synthesized cheap and green catalysts. The reported literature provided a benchmark for further widen the possible applications of these solid waste based heterogeneous catalysts.
Keywords— Solid wastes; Heterogeneous catalysts, Applications
1. INTRODUCTION
The limitation and the awareness towards environmental conservation and preservation in the recent decade have urged the researchers to find alternative fuel. The demand for porous materials is kept escalating in parallel with the alternative fuel exploring, thus led to immense focus towards comparative efficiencies, inexpensive materials. Generally, the major silica composition in porous materials was originated from commercially alkoxysilane compounds such as sodium silicate, tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS) as well as tetramethylorthosilicate as reported in the literature [1]. Regrettable, these silica precursors are detrimental to human body due to its high toxicity, in which only a mild exposure can cause death [2]. Therefore, economic and environmentally friendly and even safe handling alternatives need to be identified. Major solid wastes such as eggshell, fly ash, oil palm based wastes and rice husk ash contain natural silica source, which are the keys to act as natural silica precursors’ replacement. Thereupon, the abundant and cheap freely acquired silica alternatives from those solid wastes have been adopted in heterogeneous catalysts synthesis for vast applications. To the best of our knowledge, to date, there is almost no literature review on the applications of several types of solid wastes based heterogeneous catalyst. Intentionally, this review paper focuses on the discussion and comparison of the catalyst preparations and reaction performance of various solid wastes based catalysts. The successful synthesis and applications of green, inexpensive heterogeneous catalysts will be discussed to provide a benchmark for future exploration of their applications in wide-ranging fields.
2. EGGSHELL CATALYSTS
Eggshell is basically made up 10% of an egg, in which it was produced in bulk quantity by egg processing industries, thus resulted vast quantity of this solid waste was dumped as trash in landfills. This disposal method in the absence of any pretreatment raised the issue of organic contamination [3, 4]. Generally, the eggshell is a perfectly aligned polycrystalline structure throughout the calcined shell, which can be considered as a natural porous bioceramic [5]. The composition of eggshell composed of approximately 96% calcium carbonate, minor quantities of calcium phosphate, organic components (mainly proteins), water and magnesium carbonate [4]. The superfluous no economic value eggshell solid resides prompted an
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Taufiq-Yap and co-authors [6] evaluated the performance of eggshell catalyst towards hydrogen generation through wood gasification [6]. The study was done in conjugation with the challenge of reducing problematic CO2 that contributed to the major composition of greenhouse gases, which emitted via anthropogenic activities, therefore a lot of attention has been focused on the development of clean alternative fuel such as hydrogen. Particularly, hydrogen generation through gasification is a fascinating research matter in the past few ten years, in which these processes can be enhanced with the assistance of catalysts [7]. Therefore, impregnation of CaO was done on the eggshell catalyst support and then carried out Azadirachta excelsa wood biomass gasification. Few gases (H2, CH4, CO, and CO2) were yielded from the biomass decomposition, accompanied with some side products such as tar and coke. CO2 production was suppressed for eggshell catalyzed reaction as compared to reaction without a catalyst, which was absorbed by CaO and thus stimulated water gas shift reaction to generate H2. Tar and coke gasification resulted in an increment in the gaseous product also promoted by eggshell catalysts. Maximum hydrogen yield was 73% which increased with the increment in catalyst loading.
Likewise, methane emerged as another potential reactant to produce syngas (H2+ CO), in which methane can be generated by organic wastes anaerobic digestion or obtained in natural gas preserves [8]. Therefore, in term of economic and technical aspects, partial oxidation of methane (POM) is an advantageous route for syngas production [9]. Consequently, Karoshi and co-researchers [9] inspected the catalytic performance of eggshell catalyst after calcined over POM in a packed bed reactor [9]. Higher hydrocarbons (C2-C7) were yielded by the means of the POM on calcined eggshell. Additionally, the authors indicated oxidative coupling of methane happened to convert the methane into ethylene and ethane, which was even altered to C3-C7 hydrocarbons through aromatization or coupling. In the work, it was also signified that particular orientation magnitude could be preserved by the calcined eggshell’s CaO active sites which procured surface bound aromatization or coupling processes.
Furthermore, dimethyl carbonate (DMC) appeared as a crucial carbonylating and methylating agent on account of its unsatisfactory bioaccumulation and persistence, biodegradability and its less toxicity. Interestingly, unfavorable phosgene in the synthesis of polycarbonate dimethylsulfate and methylhalides in methylation reactions can be replaced by DMC[3]. In the year of 2012, Gao and Xu [3] developed an eggshell-based catalyst for DMC synthesis by the methanol and propylene carbonate transesterification. Under the optimum conditions (0.8 wt% eggshell catalyst, 10:1 molar ratio of methanol/propylene carbonate, ambient temperature, and pressure), the propylene carbonate conversion and the DMC yield were 80 and 75%, respectively after 1 h.
In the meantime, different bioactive compounds can also be synthesized by eggshell based catalysts. 2-aminochromenes was produced under thermal solvent-free condition using eggshell, as reported by Mosaddegh [10]. Sonicated eggshell was found to perform better reaction than CaCO3 and ball milling obtained eggshell powder. It is worth mentioning that up to six times regeneration can be performed without any activity loss. Additionally, this same author [11] synthesized 7,8-dihydro-4H- chromen-5(6H) ones at room temperature by employing eggshells as a catalyst. This catalyst could be repeatedly used for five cycles while maintained the high performance.
Meanwhile, prebiotic lactulose obtained from lactose isomerization aid in inhibiting pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella in the body, at the same time stimulating the lactobacilli and bifidobacteria growth in the gastrointestinal tract [12, 13]. Montilla et al. [14] inspected the influence of loadings of catalyst, pH as well as lactose concentration over lactose isomerization, by adopting eggshell based catalyst. After 90 min time-on-stream (TOS) and 98 °C reaction temperature, 25% lactulose production was accomplished from milk permeate by adopting catalyst loading of 4 mg/mL. In the same year, lactulose was obtained by Nooshkam and Madadlou [15] via ultrafiltration permeate of milk using the same protocols [15]. Roughly 17% conversion of lactose were transformed lactulose. Thereafter, lactose crystallization by methanol was done to purify the isomerized permeate to a lactulose-rich product. Hence, the study indicated the potential of eggshell as a catalyst for lactulose production via lactose isomerization.
Intriguingly, eggshells solid waste can also be used for waste (soil, water, and air) treatment and environmental protection by playing the role as an adsorbent. Eggshell adsorbent can effectively remove a wide range of pollutants such as heavy metals, dyes, pesticides, phenols, organic and inorganic compounds. For instance, calcium zeolite type A (CaNaAlSi2O7) was synthesized by the sol-gel method by employing the starting material of CaO yielded via the pyrolysis of chicken eggshells [16]. The synthesized eggshell adsorbent was physically and chemically comparable with commercial zeolites, with the specific surface area and the average pore diameter were 55.15 m2/g and 37.19 nm, respectively. These authors confirmed the feasibility of eggshell based catalyst in wastewater treatment.
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Table 1: Comparison of eggshell catalyst found in the literature. Product Catalyst preparation Process Reference Hydrogen Wash with deionized water, eliminate the membrane, Wood gasification [6] ground and sieve (250 mm), dry and calcine (900 °C, 2 h). Syngas Rinse using deionized water, dry and calcine (100 °C, Partial oxidation of [9] 4 h) methane Dimethyl carbonate Rinse using deionized water, dry (100 °C, 24 h), Propylene [3] calcine (1000 °C, 2 h) and ground. carbonate and methanol transesterification 2-aminochromenes Wash with deionized water, eliminate the membrane, Heterogeneous [10] dry (120 °C, 1 h). Crush and mix the CH2Cl2 with base catalyzed eggshell powder, put in an ultrasonic bath (50 °C, 60 organic synthesis Hz, 1 h), filter and dry at ambient temperature. 7,8-dihydro-4H- Wash with deionized water, eliminate the membrane, Heterogeneous [11] chromen-5(6H)-ones dry at ambient temperature. Ground and crush by base catalyzed pestle mortar. organic synthesis Lactulose Wash with deionized water, dry (105 °C, 4-24 h), Lactose [14] crush and sieve (~5 mm) isomerization Wash with deionized water, dry (105 °C, 12 h), crush [15] and sieve (177 mm) - Eggshell as the starting material, catalyst was Reduction of dyes [16] synthesized with CaO: Al2O3: Na2O: SiO2 of 1:1:2:8 in wastewater molar ratio using the sol-gel method. Calcine at (300 ° C, 1 h).
3. COAL FLY ASH CATALYSTS
Coal fly ash (CFA), which also known as bottom ash are waste residue generated from electric power, coal and biomass combustion [17]. The various metal oxides composition in CFA possesses high thermal stability, with a major composition made up of alumino silicates [18]. Therefore, CFA has exceptional potential to be employed as praiseworthy porous catalysts by impregnation with other active components and adsorbents, owing to its high aluminum and silicon content. In each year, bulky quantities of CFA are generated and disposed of in the land and subsequently lead to long-term financial burden and environmental impacts. Therein, a great interest has been devoted to the vast utilization of CFA in catalytic reaction as listed in Table 2.
The catalytic performance of CFA was studied by Chen et al. [19] as early 1980 over the steam reforming of methane and water-gas shift reaction using a fluidized bed reactor at the temperature range of 370-900 °C. In fact, steam reforming of methane and water-gas shift reaction are one of the principal gas phase reactions in syngas production. Iron-based catalysts are proven with its efficiency for these reactions [20]. CFA catalysts successfully catalyzed both reactions, in which the reactions rates for both reactions were few times fold of the corresponding non-catalytic reactions. Moreover, CFA catalyst led to the water-gas shift reaction was dominant over steam reforming of methane reaction, owing to the larger quantity of iron oxide in the CFA.
Meanwhile, Kastner et al. [21] applied CFA as a heterogeneous catalyst for catalytic oxidation of odorous sulfur compounds [21]. The result indicated that CFA successfully catalyzed the H2S and ethanethiol oxidation at room temperature (23-25 °C). In a continuous packed bed reactor, inlet 400-500 ppmv H2S concentration of a gaseous stream was diminished to 200 ppmv within 4.6 s residence time. 50% removal efficiency remained within 4.6 time-on-stream (TOS). Similarly, Kolar et al. [22] also employed wood fly ash as a catalyst for catalytic air oxidation in and aldehydes catalytic ozonation [22]. 2-methylbutanal (2-MB) and 3-methylbutanal (3-MB) as typical volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were tested using wood fly ash in catalytic air oxidation. First order overall oxidation rate appeared with respect to 3-MB for 3-MB continuous catalytic oxidation using wood fly ash. Furthermore, 20% representative conversion of 67 ppmv inlet concentration and 2 s residence time at 25°C, 1 atm, GHSV 1800 h-1 was achieved [22].
On the other hand, Babajide et al. [23] presented the utilization of CFA dumped in South Africa to produce biodiesel (methyl esters) via sunflower oil transesterification reaction with methanol [23]. A maximum oil conversion of 86.13% at a reaction temperature of 160ºC for 5% wt KNO3 loaded CFA based catalyst. The fuel natures of the methyl esters (biodiesel) synthesized
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(NCON -PGR) were tested and compared with ASTM biodiesel standard. The overall biodiesel production cost was reduced greatly due to the easy separation of catalysts and combined application in continuous process.
It is a publicity-known that wet oxidation (WO) with H2O2 and air process is vital for the chlorophenol and other organic contaminants mineralization in water. Deka et al. [24] synthesized catalysts by using solid waste by a thermal power plant, CFA as the support and then impregnated with three divalent metal cations, Ni(II), Co(II) and Mn(II), and separately for 4- chlorophenol (4-CP) mineralization [24]. The catalytic performance of the catalysts were examined under several parameters such as catalyst loading, feed concentration, reaction time, temperature, pH and 4-CP/H2O2 reactant mole ratio. The activity of the catalysts declined with the trend of Ni(II)-fly ash > Co(II)-fly ash > Mn(II)-fly ash. Almost 50 % 4-chlorophenol (4-CP) oxidative destruction was achieved at 5×10-3 M concentration (which is equivalent to ~640 mg L-1) with equimolar hydrogen peroxide by a CFA-based catalyst, even under different reaction conditions. As soon as the hydrogen peroxide to 4-CP mole proportion increased to 20, the oxidation ameliorated to more than 90%.
In the meantime, the biodiesel production is usually executed by refined vegetable oils transesterification with methanol with the aid of homogeneous or heterogeneous base catalysts. Helwani et al. [25] make use of the abundant quantity of SiO2 and Al2O3 in CFA to be employed as low-cost catalyst support [25]. Impregnation of CaO of calcium nitrate tetrahydrate (Ca(NO3)2.4H2O) onto the CFA successfully synthesized an efficient catalyst. The effect of calcination temperature and Ca(NO3)2.4H2O and CFA weight ratio determined the optimum catalyst preparation conditions. Results indicated highest activity of the catalyst was marked at 800 °C calcination temperature and 80:20 of Ca(NO3)2.4H2O to fly ash proportion. 71.77% biodiesel yield attained under 6 wt% catalyst dosage, a reaction temperature of 70 °C for 2 h and oil: methanol ratio of 1:6.
Table 2: Comparison of fly ash catalyst found in the literature. Product Catalyst Preparation Process Reference Syngas Pulverize, sieve (~40 and 100 mesh), calcine (1000 °C, 2 h) Steam reforming of [19] methane and water-gas shift reaction. Rinse with deionized water, dry (100 °C, 24 h), calcine Catalytic Oxidation [21] (1000 °C, 2 h) and ground. of Hydrogen Sulfide and Methanethiol - Lignite as feedstock, no any pretreatments on the materials. Catalytic oxidation of [22] aldehydes Biodiesel Wet impregnation with different loadings % of potassium Sunflower oil [23] on fly ash. transesterification - Wash, reflux with solution of Mn(II), Co(II) and Ni(II) 4-chlorophenol [24] separately (40 ml, 1.0 M, 6 h). Filter, wash and dry. mineralization Biodiesel Impregnation method with different loadings % of calcium Transesterification [25] nitrate tetrahydrate (Ca(NO3)2.4H2O) on fly ash. process off palm oil
4. OIL PALM BASED CATALYSTS
Palm oil industry is one of the major agro-industry in Southeast Asia in which this industry generated a tremendous quantity of wastes such as empty fruit bunches (EFB), oil palm fibers, and oil palm shells [26]. In the meantime, palm oil fuel ash (POFA) was acquired when palm oil kernel shell and palm oil husk were subjected to burning in palm oil mill boilers. However, this conventional method to dispose of oil palm wastes raised severe environmental issues, owing to excessive black soot and large amounts of ash produced during combustion [27]. Therefore, researchers proposed numerous oil palm wastes utilization to alleviate the negative impacts from the disposal problem. Summaries of the utilization of oil palm waste as a solid catalyst in the catalytic reaction were tabulated in Table 3.
As shown in Table 3, the vast feasibility of palm-oil based catalysts involved the utilization oil palm kernel shell (OPKS) as catalyst support for FAME production by Kathirvel et al. [28] at distinct oil to catalyst loadings and reaction temperatures [28]. Generally, biodiesel is a form of diesel fuel, which mainly consists of fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) produced by catalyzed vegetable oil transesterification reaction with methanol. FAME attracted considerable attention among researchers and industries, as it is non-toxic, low emissions, carbon-neutral renewable and biodegradable [29]. Percentage of FAME produced indicated the successful NaOH incorporation of on OPKS. The experiment was conducted in a batch system which involved the parameters of ratio catalyst to oil (1-3 wt %), reaction temperature (30-60 °C), molar ratio oil to methanol (1:6-1:12) and reaction time (3-6 h). The potential of oil palm based catalyst to be used as an active catalyst to yield FAME was proven.
In addition, Ho et al. [30] investigated on the performance of palm oil mill ash (POFA) supported on CaO on biodiesel production through the transesterification of crude palm oil (CPO) [30]. The optimum catalyst preparation conditions were
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(NCON -PGR) found to be at 850 °C calcination temperature for 2 h with 45 wt.% calcined calcium carbonate (CaCO3). 79.76% biodiesel yield and 97.09% FAME conversion were marked at the transesterification conditions of 6 wt.% catalyst loading, 3 h reaction time, 45 °C reaction temperature, 12:1 methanol to oil molar ratio and 700 rpm stirring speed. Regenerated catalyst by washing with methanol followed by re-calcination at 850 C for 2 h was reused up to three subsequent cycles without significant reaction loss. This study further evidenced low-cost heterogeneous POFA based catalyst has vast feasibility for transesterification purposes.
On the other hand, Maniam et al. [31] conducted a research on the methyl esters production using oil palm fruit ash (OPFA), OPFA supported by rice husk silica (OPFA-RHS) and potassium-OPFA-RHS as catalysts through transesterification process using waste frying oil [31]. In comparison with homogeneous alkali catalysts, the catalysts adopted higher stability activity. 3 % catalyst loadings of OPFA and K-OPFA-RHS; 5 % catalyst loading of OPFA-RHS; 9:1 methanol to oil molar ratio; and 2h reaction time were found to be the optimum conditions for the reaction. 96.6–98.2 % process conversion was achieved at 65 °C to transesterify oil to methyl esters. High reusability up to 5 cycles shown by the catalysts with up to 83% of methyl esters. Regeneration of the catalysts was performed in an easy way by simple filtration to separate out the catalysts from the reaction mixtures.
Previously, heavy metal ions contaminated wastewater was treated using an effective adsorbent, activated carbon. In recent years, this effective but costly activated carbon was replaced by low-cost adsorbent materials such as fly ash derived from the coal and agricultural wastes combustion. The capacity of these materials to remove heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions have been examined [32, 33]. The attempt to remove the organic or inorganic contaminants by using adsorbents derived from high abundance solid wastes as low-cost adsorbents is the most encouraging idea. Chu et al. [34] examined the performance of POFA as adsorbent over Cr (IlI) and Zn (II) heavy metals removal [34]. Results indicated that maximum adsorption capacities of ash for Cr(III) and Zn(II) removal were 251.6 and 126.7 u.mol/g dry weight ash respectively. Zn(II) uptake was significantly suppressed in the presence of Cr(III) as indicated in binary metal adsorption studies. In addition, Salleh et al. (2018) also utilized POFA as high efficient adsorbent over Hg (II) ions removal from wastewater [35]. 98.93% of mercury removal has successfully achieved under the optimum condition at 5 hr contact time and 150 rpm agitation, declared the excellent Hg (II) ions adsorption capability of POFA. The potential of POFA for mercury removal in wastewater has been proven.
Previous literature has also reported on the critical effects of 4-nitrophenol, which is an effluent generated from petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, petroleum refineries, coke oven, steel foundry, pesticides, preservatives and other industries [36]. Al-Aoh et al. [37] studied the 4-nitrophenol removal from an aqueous solution using activated POFA as economical adsorbent [37]. The dynamical adsorption behavior of 4-nitrophenol followed the pseudo-second-order kinetic model corresponding to the correlation coefficients values. Activated POFA was verified as a promising low-cost adsorbent for wide range 4-nitrophenol concentrations removal from aqueous solutions.
Table 3: Comparison of palm oil-based catalyst found in the literature. Product Catalyst preparation Process Reference Fatty acid Wash, dry OPKS (120 °C, 3 h), carbonize at furnace Transesterification process [28] methyl ester (600°C, 3 h). Grind and sieve (~1-2 mm). of palm oil with methanol Sieve and dry POFA (105 °C, 24 h). Wet impregnation Transesterification of crude [30] method of 45 wt.% calcined CaCO3. palm oil Methyl esters Wash and dry OPF (105 °C), calcine (500, 600 and 700 Transesterification of [31] °C, for 5 h). Waste Frying Oil. - Rinse POFA with water, sieve (~ 0.5-1.0 mm). Heavy metals removal [34] from wastewater - Wash, dry POFA (110 °C for 24 h), activate by H2SO4 (0.5 Mercury removal from [35] M, 24 h). wastewater - Sieve POFA (~200 and 150 μm), wash and dry (118°C, 4-nitrophenol adsorption [37] overnight), activated by the amino silane coupling agent
5. RICE HUSK ASH CATALYSTS
Rice husk (RH) is the outer sheaths that form on rice grains amid their growth while was eliminated during the processing process. In general, RH made up by 20% of ash, 38% of cellulose, 22 % lignin and other organic components [38, 39]. Rice husk ash (RHA) was obtained through the burning of the rice husk, in which much of the RHA produced being dumped as waste. Lately, approximately 70 millions tonnes of RHA was yielded each year [40], in parallel with around 220 kg (22%) of husk yielded per 1000 kg of paddy milled [41]. Regrettably, the abundant RHA has resulted in severe environmental pollution and disposal issue due to the open burning and landfill of RHA. RHA with no economic value has recently gained significant attraction in terms of low cost, eco-friendly catalysts/supports for various applications [38, 42].
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Table 4 tabulates the various researches have been done on the RHA catalysts. Chen et al. [43] have reported on the utilization of RHA as support for synthesis of a solid base catalyst to aid the catalytic conversion of palm oil into biodiesel [43]. Publicity known, biodiesel emerged as a promising renewable and clean biofuels, which can be obtained through refined vegetable oils transesterification with methanol with the addition of homogeneous/heterogeneous base catalysts [44]. In the research, several parameters such as the catalyst preparation method, calcination temperature, reaction conditions and catalyst reusability were studied. Results indicated that around 91.5% of biodiesel was yielded under the reaction conditions of 4 h time-on-stream (TOS), 7 wt.%, catalyst loading and methanol-to-oil molar ratio of 9:1. Even though the catalyst was being reused for up to 8 cycles, the excellent performance of biodiesel yield was achieved with above 80%. On the other hand, bio-oil was obtained through the catalytic pyrolysis studies executed on Brunei RHA in a fixed-bed pyrolysis rig as reported by Abu Bakar and Titiloye [45]. In fact, the highly oxygenated, corrosive, comparatively unstable free-flowing bio-oils consist of organic components such as aromatic hydrocarbons, esters, alcohols, ketones, organic acids, furans and anhydro-sugars [46-48]. There are improvements in term of the acidity, viscosity as well as heating values of the bio-oil as evidenced in the catalytic pyrolysis studies conducted on rice husks. This can be claimed to the RHA’s high ash content, it can be served as a cheaper alternative to the zeolite catalysts to enhance the quality if bio-oil.
On the other hand, hydrogenation is one of the strategies for chemical conversions of CO2, which also considered as the crucial step in offering sustainable energy and environmental development. In fact, fuels and valuable chemicals have resulted via the reaction by the increment quantity of CO2 in the atmosphere [46]. Chang at al. [49] investigated the application of RHA supported Nickel catalyst using deposition-precipitation technique over CO2 hydrogenation with the H2/CO2 (4/1) mixture [49]. 80% high selectivity for CH4 formation was demonstrated for the reaction at the reaction temperatures ranged 673-873 K. The influence of the reduction and calcination temperatures, nickel loading quantity and deposition-precipitation time were also studied exhaustively. From the temperature-programmed desorption techniques and reaction performance, RHA has proven to be a promising alternative over silica gel as a catalysts support. In addition, Maheswari and co-researchers [50] also reported the usage of an eco-friendly, reusable, biodegradable and efficient heterogeneous catalyst, bamboo RHA on the tetrahydro-4H- chromene-3-carbonitriles synthesis. The reaction involved was the one-pot three-component reaction of malononitrile with aromatic aldehydes and dimedone or 1,3-cyclohexanedione. In the past decades, strong interest has been paid on the synthesis of tetrahydro-4H-chromene-3-carbonitrile derivatives owing to their vast of biological and pharmacological properties range, such as anticancer, anticoagulant, spasmolytic, and antianaphylactin activity. The only slight decline in catalytic activity was noticed when bamboo RHA was reused for seven times.
Moreover, the high bioaccumulation of toxic and highly distributed environmental contaminants, chlorinated organic pollutants affected the ozone layer in the atmosphere. This issue also raised the humanity concern towards environmental and health. As such, their widespread usage is a major cause of environmental and health concern. Thus, it is utmost important to important to detoxify such species using eco-friendly approach. Thabet et al. [51] proposed the chlorobenzene detoxification in a glass capillary reactor using RHA supported platinum (RHA-Pt) and titanium (RHA-Ti) as catalysts. Optimization of various detoxification experimental conditions was done as well. In comparison with 24 h reaction time marked by conventional catalysis, only 20 min was needed to completely detoxify chlorobenzene in the capillary microreactor using RHA supported catalysts [51].
In the meantime, the fast-growing rice mills industries which built the world-class economy was always accompanied by a large amount of pollutant-filled toxic wastewater being generated. Rice mills are the fast-growing industries that play a key role in shaping the progress of world economy [52]. In order to address this challenge, the Fenton-like process was performed using the RHA-supported iron catalyst as an eco-benign and economically efficient approach for the rice mill wastewater treatment. Satisfactory results were achieved with the 75.5 % of maximum COD reduction under response surface-optimized conditions of 4.12 g/L catalyst dose, 4.2 g/L H2O2 concentration and pH 3.2. The study has successfully proposed an applicable scheme towards various waste generated from rapidly growing rice mills [52].
Meanwhile, ionic liquid immobilization at the solid surface is an advantageous technique to combine the beneficial natures of ionic liquids and solid properties [53]. Shirini et al. [53] used RHA as natural silica support for the 1-methyl-3- (trimethoxysilylpropyl)-imidazolium hydrogen sulfate immobilization. In very short reaction times, the products were produced in high yield and none of catalysis activity loss even though reused for ten times. The experiments further convinced the high thermal stability and regeneration of RHA–[pmim]HSO4 catalyst to be applied in other organic reactions. Interestingly, partial oxidation of methanol (POM) was carried out by deposition-precipitation method synthesized ZnO-promoted copper catalysts supported on rice husk ash (Cu/ZnO/RHA) to yield hydrogen by Chen et al. [54]. Optimization of the ZnO promoter amount, pH, calcination and reaction temperatures over the catalytic activity of the Cu/ZnO/RHA catalysts was accomplished. Cu/ZnO/RHA catalysts showed comparable activity and selectivity with that of Cu/ZnO/SiO2 catalysts. This was related to the high copper surface area and copper dispersion on the RHA support surface with led to the stabilization of ZnO on support.
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Table 4: Comparison of rice husk ash catalyst found in the literature. Product Catalyst preparation Process Reference Biodiesel Filter, air-dried (105 °C until constant weight), calcine Transesterification of palm [43] (400 °C, 600 °C and 800 °C) for 4 h. oil Bio-oil Calcine (550 ◦C, 3 h), ground and mix with Catalytic pyrolysis [45] montmorillonite clay binder (ratio of 3:1). Fuel Extracted silica by acid leaching, pyrolysis, and carbon- Hydrogenation of CO2 [49] removing processes. Tetrahydro-4H- Filter, air-dried (105 °C, 12 h), calcine (800 °C, 4 h). Component reaction of [50] chromene-3- malononitrile with carbonitriles aldehydes and 1,3- cyclohexanedione - Extract silica by modified advanced alkali extraction Chlorobenzene [51] process. detoxification - Extract silica by modified advanced alkali extraction Fenton-like process [55] process. Formamides Suspend in dry CH2Cl2 (20 mL). Add concentrated N-formylation of amines [53] H2SO4 (97%, 2.9 mmol) in an ice bath. Hydrogen Using deposition-precipitation method. Partial oxidation of [54] methanol
6. CONCLUSION In this work, the utilization of four solid wastes – eggshell, rice husk ash, oil palm waste and coal fly ash as heterogeneous catalysts were presented. The broad pathway was found for utilization of these highly abundant solid wastes, owing to its high silica content and inappropriate disposal in landfill or open-burning. The vast amount of published experimental data verified the strong capabilities of those solid wastes in catalyzing chemical conversion reactions, synthesizing fine chemical components and environmental pollutants. It can be predicted that the solid wastes will be generated in increasing amount and will deteriorate the environmental concerns, increase disposal costs and even insufficient landfill space. Thus, new technologies have been developed to recycle and convert the solid waste into value-added products, such as an efficient catalyst to minimize the dependence on the non-renewable sources. To conclude, the successful applications of the solid wastes provided a new prospect for their future applications in various fields.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to thank Universiti Malaysia Pahang for Master Research Scheme (MRS) scholarship to Chong Chi Cheng.
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[32] V. K. Gupta, D. Mohan, and S. Sharma, ">Removal of Lead from Wastewater Using Bagasse Fly Ash—A Sugar Industry Waste Material," Separation Science and Technology, vol. 33, pp. 1331-1343, 1998/01/01 1998. [33] A. Singer and V. Berkgaut, "Cation Exchange Properties of Hydrothermally Treated Coal Fly Ash," Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 29, pp. 1748-1753, 1995/07/01 1995. [34] K. H. Chu, M. A. Hashim, P. C. Ng, and M. T. Chong, "Palm oil fuel ash as an adsorbent for heavy metals " in Adsorption Science and Technology, ed: WORLD SCIENTIFIC, 2000, pp. 154-158. [35] I. S. Mohd Salleh, N. A. Mustazar, and H. W. Yussof, "Mercury Removal from Wastewater Using Palm Oil Fuel Ash," MATEC Web of Conferences, vol. 150, // 2018. [36] Y. Chang, X. Lv, F. Zha, Y. Wang, and Z. Lei, "Sorption of p-nitrophenol by anion–cation modified palygorskite," Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol. 168, pp. 826-831, 2009/09/15/ 2009. [37] H. A. Al-Aoh, M. J. Maah, A. A. Ahmad, and M. R. B. Abas, "Adsorption of 4-nitrophenol on palm oil fuel ash activated by amino silane coupling agent," Desalination and Water Treatment, vol. 40, pp. 159-167, 2012/02/01 2012. [38] F. Adam, J. N. Appaturi, and A. Iqbal, "The utilization of rice husk silica as a catalyst: Review and recent progress," Catalysis Today, vol. 190, pp. 2-14, 2012/08/01/ 2012. [39] I. J. Fernandes, D. Calheiro, F. A. L. Sánchez, A. L. D. Camacho, T. L. A. d. C. Rocha, C. A. M. Moraes, et al., "Characterization of Silica Produced from Rice Husk Ash: Comparison of Purification and Processing Methods," Materials Research, vol. 20, pp. 512-518, 2017. [40] M. Balakrishnan, V. S. Batra, J. S. J. Hargreaves, and I. D. Pulford, "Waste materials-catalytic opportunities: an overview of the application of large scale waste materials as resources for catalytic applications," Green Chemistry, vol. 13, pp. 16-24, 2010/11/12 2011. [41] Rice Husk Ash [Online]. Available: http://www.ricehuskash.com/details.htm [42] F. Adam and A. Iqbal, "The oxidation of styrene by chromium–silica heterogeneous catalyst prepared from rice husk," Chemical Engineering Journal, vol. 160, pp. 742-750, 2010/06/01/ 2010. [43] G.-Y. Chen, R. Shan, J.-F. Shi, and B.-B. Yan, "Transesterification of palm oil to biodiesel using rice husk ash-based catalysts," Fuel Processing Technology, vol. 133, pp. 8-13, 2015/05/01/ 2015. [44] E. F. Aransiola, T. V. Ojumu, O. O. Oyekola, T. F. Madzimbamuto, and D. I. O. Ikhu-Omoregbe, "A review of current technology for biodiesel production: State of the art," Biomass and Bioenergy, vol. 61, pp. 276-297, 2014/02/01/ 2014. [45] M. S. Abu Bakar and J. O. Titiloye, "Catalytic pyrolysis of rice husk for bio-oil production," Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, vol. 103, pp. 362-368, 2013/09/01/ 2013. [46] A. V. Bridgwater, "Production of high grade fuels and chemicals from catalytic pyrolysis of biomass," Catalysis Today, vol. 29, pp. 285-295, 1996/05/31/ 1996. [47] A. V. Bridgwater, "Review of fast pyrolysis of biomass and product upgrading," Biomass and Bioenergy, vol. 38, pp. 68-94, 2012/03/01/ 2012. [48] D. Mohan, C. U. Pittman, and P. H. Steele, "Pyrolysis of Wood/Biomass for Bio-oil: A Critical Review," Energy & Fuels, vol. 20, pp. 848-889, 2006/05/01 2006. [49] F.-W. Chang, T.-J. Hsiao, and J.-D. Shih, "Hydrogenation of CO2 over a Rice Husk Ash Supported Nickel Catalyst Prepared by Deposition−Precipitation," Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, vol. 37, pp. 3838-3845, 1998/10/05 1998. [50] C. S. Maheswari, R. Ramesh, and L. A., "Synthesis, Characterization, and Catalytic Behavior of Bamboo Rice Husk Ash," Journal of the Chinese Chemical Society, vol. 64, pp. 889-895, 2017/7/26/ 2017. [51] A. Thabet, C. Basheer, T. Htun Maung, H. Al-Muallem, and A. N. K, Rice Husk Supported Catalysts for Degradation of Chlorobenzenes in Capillary Microreactor vol. 2015, 2015. [52] G. Rajesh, M. Bandyopadhyay, and D. Das, "Some studies on UASB bioreactors for the stabilization of low strength industrial effluents," Bioprocess Engineering, vol. 21, pp. 113-116, August 01 1999. [53] F. Shirini, M. Seddighi, and M. Mamaghani, "Bronsted acidic ionic liquid supported on rice husk ash (RHA- [pmim]HSO4): a highly efficient and reusable catalyst for the formylation of amines and alcohols," RSC Advances, vol. 4, pp. 50631-50638, 2014. [54] W.-S. Chen, F.-W. Chang, L. S. Roselin, and T.-C. Ou, "Production of Hydrogen by Partial Oxidation of Methanol Over ZnO-Promoted Copper Catalysts Supported on Rice Husk Ash," Science of Advanced Materials, vol. 4, pp. 68- 77, // 2012. [55] A. Kumar, S. Kumar, S. Kumar, and D. V. Gupta, "Adsorption of phenol and 4-nitrophenol on granular activated carbon in basal salt medium: Equilibrium and kinetics," Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol. 147, pp. 155-166, 2007/08/17/ 2007.
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Tourism Forecasting in Pahang: An Application
of Homestay by using Box-Jenkins Approach
Noratikah Abu Faculty of Science & Technology Industry, Universiti Malaysia Pahang Gambang, Malaysia [email protected]
Megat Muhammad Afif Bin Megat Muainuddin Faculty of Science & Technology Industry, Universiti Malaysia Pahang Gambang, Malaysia [email protected]
Abstract—Tourism forecasting can lead to important elements in tourism industry to ensure that each investment by individuals, companies and government was worth it. From economy perspective, homestay is a growing business nowadays and can be an important indicator to the tourism industry. It also generates income revenue to the owner and also surrounding communities. This paper applied Box-Jenkins (ARIMA) method to make analysis and forecast for the number of domestics tourist used homestay in Pahang. This method much accurate for short and long term forecasting with high frequency of data. Results obtained by applying the proposed model and numerical calculation shows that it is effective for forecasting the number of homestay used by domestic’s tourist and the number of homestay used also increase.
Keywords—forecasting; homestay; ARIMA
1. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, tourism industry is one of the main economy indicators in the world and is growing very fast from day to day. Tourism forecasting is a method to predict number of tourist arrivals or number of tourist receipt in certain area [5]. Fewer errors in determining the total number of tourist, the country is able to inhibit gains. Tourism forecasting can lead to important elements in the tourism industry to ensure that each investment by individuals, companies and government was worth it. According to [5], the number of tourist arrivals is a most popular measure for demand tourism. Generally, there are three elements that can differentiate tourism product all along the world; destination attractiveness, facilities of destination and ease of destinations.
All states in Malaysia tend to develop their state as the major tourist destinations in Malaysia and every year different state organize tourism programmes. For 2017, Pahang had been chosen as one of the place to be visit in Malaysia. ‘Visit Pahang 2017’ had been declared by Pahang Regent Tengku Mahkota, Tengku Abdullah Sultan Ahmad Shah. Pahang, which is located at East Coast Malaysia and the population around 5.1% from total Malaysian population always be the tourist attraction because of its natural beauty of flora and fauna, covered by thousands of hectares of rainforest. Estimated exist more than 130 million year’s old, national park located at Jerantut, gazetted as National Park since 1938, it is the largest national park more than 4000 square kilometres. Endau Rompin National provides limelight to the natural adventurous tourist. Besides that, the largest freshwater lake system in Malaysia known as Lake Bera which is at Temerloh. More than 200 species of birds, 65 mammal and thousands of freshwater fish can be main attraction in Pahang. Lake Chini which is covering more than 5000 hectares and as second largest natural freshwater also located at Pahang. The beautiful and unique natural scenery undeniable natural lovers around world. It is just a tip of an iceberg for tourist attraction in Pahang.
Based on this information, it can be seen that nature is the main source of tourism product in Pahang which lead to ecotourism product. In past, not many research about ecotourism, hence, this research attempt to study the forecasting of ecotourism product in Pahang. Ecotourism involved of natural, communities and sustainable travel. The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) defined ecotourism as responsible tourist to natural areas that maintain the environment, sustain the well-being of the local people and includes education.
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[2] proposed forecasting model for the stochastic volatility data in tourism demand by using Grey forecasting model (FGM) and Fourier residual modification models. The study suggested that forecasting short term tourism demand can bring to excellent prediction. [4] have recently forecasted tourism demand from ASEAN using SARIMA model. Mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) and root mean square error (RMSE) were useful measure to compare the accuracy of models. Results showed that seasonality does not have an effect on the number of tourist in ASEAN. [5] introduced forecast the demand for Hong Kong tourism by combining statistical and judgemental forecasts via a web-based tourism demand forecasting system. They suggested that inclusion of quantitative models such as Box-Jenkins, naïve and exponential smoothing techniques can be strengthening the result. [3] used Poisson regression model to estimate international tourism demand in ASEAN countries. Data covered from 1995 to 2013, obtained from World Bank. The variables includes gross domestic product of foreign direct investment, real exchange rate, inflation and openness of trade. Results showed negative relationship between inflation, real exchange rate and international tourism demand.
2. METHODOLOGY
In this paper, we implemented Box-Jenkins (ARIMA) method to forecast number of tourist arrival in Pahang. The ARIMA method is combination of autoregressive (AR) and moving average (MA). zt 1zt1 2 zt2 ..p zt p at 1at1 2at2 ..qatq (1) ARIMA method little bit different with others method because it does not assume pattern from historical data. It involves a few procedures for identifying, estimating, checking and forecasting with model. The first step in Box-Jenkins method is model identification. The purpose of this step is to determine whether the data stationary or not. The data can be converted to stationary series by using differencing. Then, parameter for model must be selected by minimizing the sum of squares of the fitting errors. Before run the model for forecasting, it must be checked for adequacy by using Ljung-Box Q statistic. m 2 rk (e) Qm n(n 2) (2) k 1 n k In order to forecasting ARIMA model, the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) is a useful measure for comparing the accuracy of forecast. Besides that, MAPE is computed by finding the absolute error in each period dividing the actual data for that period, and then averaging these absolute percentage errors. The formula as follow. 1 푛 |푌푡−푌̂푡| 푀퐴푃퐸 = ∑푡=1 (3) 푛 푌푡 Box-Jenkins methodology consists of five-step iterative procedures as follows:
Step 1: Removal of Non-Stationery Components. The first step in model identification is to determine whether the series is stationary or non-stationary. The stationary can be determined by looking at autocorrelation function (ACF) and partial autocorrelation function (PACF).
Step 2: Model Identification. The selection of an appropriate model is generally a complicated task. Analysis of the historical data is used to identify an appropriate Box-Jenkins model y looking at their ACF, PACF, and stationary and seasonality behavior if any. Once we select a tentative model, we can estimate the parameter of that model.
Step 3: Parameter Estimation. We use historical data to estimate the parameters of the identified model.
Step 4: Diagnostic Checking. Various diagnostic checking especially analysis of residual are used to check the adequacy of the tentatively identified model and, if need be, to suggest and improve as a tentatively new identified model.
Step 5: Forecasting. Once we obtain a final model, we can use it to forecast future time series values.
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Development of forecasting model was done by using Box Jenkins method with data of number of domestic tourist used homestay in Pahang from January 2009 until December 2016 gathered from tourism Pahang. There are five steps in Box Jenkins method: removal of non-stationery components, identification model, parameter estimation, model checking and forecasting. Figure 1 shows monthly number of domestic tourist used homestay in Pahang from January 2009 until December 2016.
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Time Series Plot of Full 09-16
1 2000
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Figure 1 Time series plot for monthly number of domestic tourist used homes in Pahang
From Figure 1, the data was separated into two sets of data; training data and testing data. Separating data into training and testing sets is an important part of evaluating data. When we separate a data set into a training set and testing set, most of the data is used for training, and a smaller portion of the data is used for testing. Training data is used to fit the model while testing data is used to validate the model. Training data are data from January 2009 until January 2016, while testing data from February 2016 until December 2016. Since there is a very significant difference in data, we apply concept of transformation data for this research.
Time Series Plot of log_jan09-jan16
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Figure 2 Time series plot for transforming data monthly number of domestic tourist used homes in Pahang
The time series plot in figure 2 shows that the transforming data from January 2009 until January 2016 by using log 10. As we can see, range for the data still significant. Thus we can start forecast the data using Box-Jenkins method.
Autocorrelation Function for log_jan09-jan16 Partial Autocorrelation Function for log_jan09-jan16 (with 5% significance limits for the autocorrelations) (with 5% significance limits for the partial autocorrelations)
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Figure 3 Autocorrelation Function (ACF) and Partial Autocorrelation Function (PACF) The first step in Box Jenkins method is removal of non-stationery components. For this step autocorrelation (ACF) and partial autocorrelation (PACF) were plotted to determine whether the data is stationary or not. From the figure 3, we conclude that the
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(NCON -PGR) data is nonstationary as ACF were persistently large and trailed off to zero rather slowly and PACF cuts off after lag 2. In Box- Jenkins model the data must be stationery. If the data not stationery, it must be converted by using differencing.
Time Series Plot of diff_log
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Figure 4 Time series plot non-seasonal difference
Autocorrelation Function for diff_log Partial Autocorrelation Function for diff_log (with 5% significance limits for the autocorrelations) (with 5% significance limits for the partial autocorrelations)
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Figure 5 Non-seasonal difference Autocorrelation Function (ACF) and Partial Autocorrelation Function (PACF)
The time series plot in figure 4 shows that the differencing data and it was already satisfy the stationary condition. The ACF and PACF for first non-seasonal differencing are also plotted to verify the stationary condition of the data as stated Figure 5. Hence, this condition also proves that we are able to use ARIMA model for the data. Second step is model identification which shown in figure 5, there is a spike at lag 1 and cuts off after lag 4 for the ACF, which indicates moving average term, MA (1) behavior. For the non-seasonal pattern, the autocorrelation seems to cut off after lag1, which indicates moving average term MA behavior for the first difference series. Examining the PACF plot, autocorrelations have spikes after lag 2 and cuts off after lag 10, indicating it follows autoregressive term, AR (2). Hence, we choose ARIMA (0,1,1), ARIMA (1,1,0), ARIMA (1,0,1) ARIMA (1,1,1), ARIMA (2,1,2), ARIMA (2,2,1) and ARIMA (2,2,2) for our tentative models.
So far, we have considered forecast domestic tourist used homestay in Pahang from January 2009 until December 2016 using Box-Jenkins. In the following, we compare the p-value from each model to select which model suitable to use for forecasting number of tourist. The selected models were estimated by using least square method as for step three; parameter estimation.
Table 1 Result for ARIMA Model Model p-value Result (0,1,1) 0.624 Not Significant (1,1,0) 0.739 Not Significant (1,0,1) 0.610 Not Significant (1,1,1) 0.599 Not Significant (2,1,2) 0.810 Not Significant (2,2,1) 0.269 Significant (2,2,2) 0.591 Not Significant
From Table 1, the parameters are not significant if the p-value greater than 0.05 and we can eliminate the parameters from the model. We can see that only one model give p-value significant. It means the ARIMA (2,2,1) model is suitable for forecasting
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(NCON -PGR) domestic tourist used homestay in Pahang. After following the procedures in Box Jenkins forecasting stages, ARIMA (2,2,1) model gives a fit model that can forecast the number of domestic tourist used homestay in Pahang. Thus, we check diagnostic checking to see whether the histogram follow the normal probability curve so the model is adequate.
Figure 6 Histogram residual ARIMA (2,2,1)
In figure 6 it shows that the histogram residual follows the normal curve probability. Thus the model ARIMA (2,2,1) is most suitable for forecasting. After select ARIMA (2,2,1) model, we calculated forecast error by using MAPE for both training and testing data. MAPE provides an indication of how large the forecast errors are in comparison to the actual values of the series.
Table 2 Result for MAPE Data MAPE Training 1.5% Testing 10.4%
The small MAPE result for both data indicates that the technique is not biased. Since the value is less than 10%. In this study, we intend to forecast for the next period of data from January 2017 December 2017. The analysis was made by the Minitab software as table 3:
Table 3 Forecasting data for domestic tourist used homestay in Pahang from January 2017 until Dec 2017. Month Forecast 95% Limit Lower Upper January 11702.9 7861.2 15544.7 February 12306.3 7772.3 16840.3 March 12433.5 7613.3 17253.7 April 12727.1 7394.9 18059.3 May 13110.9 7336.2 18885.5 June 13410.7 7312.3 19509.2 July 13712.1 7295.9 20128.2 August 14039.1 7322.9 20755.4 Sept 14356.6 7376.6 21336.7 October 14669.5 7446.8 21892.2 November 14986.9 7538.1 22435.7 December 15304.2 7647.9 22960.6
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Time Series Plot Domestic Tourist Used Homestay in Pahang 20000 15000 10000 Actual Jan 09- Dec 16 5000 Forecast Jan 17-
0 Dec 17
Jul-11 Jul-16
Jan-14 Jan-09
Sep-10 Sep-15
Mar-13
Nov-09 Nov-14 May-17 May-12
Figure 7 Time series plot for actual and forecasting value.
CONCLUSION
This paper discusses the forecasting of domestic tourist used homestay in Pahang by using Box-Jenkins method. We analyzed and discussed these data thoroughly and the plot of autocorrelation functions. However, by following the four steps in Box- Jenkins method, model identification, parameter estimation, diagnostic checking and forecasting, we conclude that ARIMA (2,2,1) model is the best model for forecasting domestic tourist used homestay in Pahang. As a conclusion, more forecasting method should be included in future studies in Malaysia.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research is supported by Faculty of Industrial Sciences & Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang. This support is gratefully acknowledged. The authors would like to thank to lecturers and friends for many helpful ideas and discussions.
REFERENCES
[1] J. E. Hanke, D. W. Wichern, A. G. Reitsch, "Business Forecasting.” New Jersey 2001 [2] Y. L. Huang, Y. H. Lee, “Accurately forecasting model for the stochastic volatility data in tourism demand.” Journal of Modern Economy, 2, 823-829. 2011 [3] A. Karimi, P. Faroughi, K. A. Rahim, “Modeling and forecasting of international tourism demand in ASEAN countries.” American Journal of Applied Sciences, 12(7), 479-486. 2015 [4] K. Loganathan, S. Thirunaukarasu, M. Kogid, “Is ‘Malaysia truly Asia’? Forecasting tourism demand from ASEAN using SARIMA approach.” An International Multidisciplinary of Tourism, 7(1), 367-381. 2012 [5] H. Song, B. Z. Gao, V. S. Lin, “Combining statistical and judgmental forecasts via a web-based tourism demand forecasting system.” International Journal of Forecasting, 29, 295-310. 2013
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Synthesis of Hydroxyapatite from Cockle Shell Wastes
Siti Hajar Saharudin Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering Universiti Malaysia Pahang Gambang, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia [email protected]
Jun Haslinda Shariffuddin Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering Universiti Malaysia Pahang Gambang, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia [email protected]
Aqeela Ismail Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering Universiti Malaysia Pahang Gambang, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia [email protected]
Abstract—Cockle shell wastes are abundant and easily available. It rich in calcium carbonate (CaCO3) that can be converted into hydroxyapatite. HAP has numerous benefits especially in biomedical applications. The overall objective of this study is to determine the effect of reaction time on producing HAP derived from cockle (Anadara granosa) shells waste. There are two reaction times used in this study which are 3 h and 5 h. The processes involved in synthesizing the HAP were pre-treatment of the cockle shells, formation of CaCO3 in aragonite form, calcination of the CaCO3 to form CaO, production of Ca(OH)2 and finally reaction of the Ca(OH)2 solution with the phosphate source to obtain HAP. All samples have undergone physicochemical analyses to determine their crystallinity, purity, functional group, surface morphology and elemental compounds using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Electron Dispersive X-ray Analysis (EDX). This study found that 5 h reaction time produced powder is better HAP compared to the 3 h powder. Overall, this study proved that reaction time plays a vital role in the quality of producing HAP. Longer the reaction time has enhanced the quality of the HAP formed.
Keywords—Hydroxyapatite; cockle shell; biomaterial; wet slurry precipitation; reaction time
1. INTRODUCTION
Cockles which known scientifically as Anadara granosa, live predominantly on intertidal mudflats and are an important protein source in the South East Asian region [1, 2]. It is one type of sea molluscan that is widely consumed in South East Asian countries in various delicacies. This, however could contribute to the generation of waste shells after the cockle were consumed and it became abundant. The shell wastes usually being dumped into landfill or in the sea since the proper disposal procedure is relatively expensive [3, 4]. The landfills often cause unpleasant view to surroundings and give out nauseating smell.
To minimise the negative impacts on the environment, researchers around the world are studying on transformation of shell wastes into valuable products. The cockle shells could be used as replacement material in concrete structure [5, 6], catalyst for biodiesel production [7-10], adsorbent for treating industrial effluent and polluted river water [11-13], drug delivery applications [14-18] and used in biomedical applications especially for bone and teeth [1, 19, 20].
In fact, this cockle shell consists of high composition of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) of more than 95% by weight [21-23]. The CaCO3 could be a promising source to produce hydroxyapatite (HAP). With the chemical formula of Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2, HAP is
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(NCON -PGR) widely used in biomedical applications mainly as bone replacement, regeneration, and dental restoration materials because of its biocompatibility and bioactivity [24-27] as well as due to it is chemically resemblance to the mineral phase of bone and teeth [24, 27-29].
Besides cockle shell wastes, there are plenty of wastes that have been used by other researchers around the world to produce HAP. For examples, egg shell wastes [30, 31], dead snail shell wastes [32, 33], green mussel shell wastes [9, 21], scallop shell wastes [34], abalone shell wastes [35], oyster shell wastes [36], fish scale wastes [37], bovine bone wastes [31, 37] and chicken bone wastes [31, 38]. Cockle shell waste is used in this study due to the excessive and easily available of cockle shell wastes in Malaysia.
The formation of HAP using cockle shell waste could reduce the production cost as well as the HAP price in the market. Thus, this study is aiming to synthesis HAP from cockle shell wastes by varying the reaction time during the process. The samples will be characterized using TGA, XRD, FTIR and SEM with EDX analyses.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
A. Materials
Cockle shells were purchased from local market at Kuantan, Pahang. Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate (KH2PO4) was purchased from Sigma Aldrich to be used as phosphate source for HAP production. Deionized water in this experiment was obtained directly from the lab.
B. Production of HAP
The cockle shells were boiled and cleaned to remove organic materials and impurities that were attached to it. The cleaned shells were dried in the oven for 1 h, at temperature of 110 °C. The cleaned shells were crushed using the mortar into small particles size and grinded into fine powder particles. Then, it was sieved using sieve shaker to get powders size ranging between 71 to 125 μm. The cockle shell powder was calcined at 800 °C for 3 h to get CaO. Afterwards, wet slurry precipitation technique was used to produce HAP based on Shariffuddin et al. [9]. The CaO was then dissolved in water to obtained Ca(OH)2. Afterwards, KH2PO4 solution was dropped into Ca(OH)2 solution to form hydroxyapatite. The mol ratio of CaO to KH2PO4 was fixed at 1.67. The reaction time was adjusted between 3 h to 5 h. The mixture was then centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10 min to get the milky white precipitate that is referred as hydroxyapatite.
C. Chemical Characterization
The phases of the powders were analyzed using X-ray powder diffractometer (XRD Rigaku MiniFlex II, Japan). Samples were scanned at 2θ from 20°-80° with step size 0.02° at 1 s step time. FTIR (Thermo Fisher Nicolet iS5, USA) with diamond attenuated total reflectance (ATR) system was used to identify functional groups in the powders over a range of 400 to 4000 cm-1. The morphology and elemental analysis of the powders were observed using SEM along with EDX (Hitachi TM3030 Plus, Japan). The samples were sputter-coated with platinum to prevent charging during analysis process.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. EFFECT OF REACTION TIME ON HAP PRODUCTION
Fig. 1 illustrates the XRD patterns of HAP produced at different reaction times. The HAP produced at 3 h reaction time shows broader peaks compared to 5 h reaction time. Broad peak indicated that the sample has less crystallinity. Besides that, there is calcium phosphate sulfide peaks appeared on XRD pattern of HAP with 3 h reaction time. This is probably due to impurity during pre-treatment of HAP powder. Meanwhile, HAP produced at 5 h reaction time has sharper and more apparent peaks. This indicated that HAP with 5 h reaction time has higher crystallinity compared to HAP with 3 h reaction time. Increase the reaction time has increased the crystallinity of the HAP. This finding was supported by [39] and [40].
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Figure 1 : XRD patterns of HAP at reaction time (a) 3 hours and (b) 5 hours.
Fig. 2 shows the FTIR spectra of HAP produced at 3 h and 5 h reaction time. HAP produced at reaction time of 3 h has C-O band presented at 1417 cm-1 and 877 cm-1. Meanwhile, bands 1089 cm-1, 1028 cm-1, 962 cm-1,602 cm-1 and 561 cm-1 is correspond with phosphate band. Other than that hydroxyl band can also be seen at 3347 cm-1. For HAP produced at reaction time of 5 h, C-O band at 1413 cm-1, 875 cm-1. P-O band can be presented at 1089 cm-1, 1029 cm-1, 963 cm-1, 603 cm-1 and 567 cm-1 indicated the presence of phosphate. Lastly, O-H band observed at 3343 cm-1. Since FTIR analysis is meant to detect the functional group of compounds, these results proved that HAP has been produced even at shorter reaction time which is 3 h. Basically, both reaction time show that it has carbonated constituent since common bands of carbonated HAP was detected. Similar findings were also obtained by previous scholars [41, 42]. However, HAP produced at 3 h reaction time has intense C- O band around 1417 cm-1 and 877 cm-1 compared to 5 h reaction time. This indicate that HAP produced at 3 h reaction time contained higher carbonate ion concentration. According to McElderry et al. [43], increase in carbonate ion concentration has reduced the crystallinity of the produced HAP. This FTIR results are supported by XRD results in Fig. 1 where HAP produced at 3 h reaction time has lower crystallinity compared to 5 h reaction time.
Figure 2 : FTIR spectra of HAP at reaction time (a) 3 hours and (b) 5 hours.
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The surface morphologies and EDX analyses of HAP are shown in Fig. 3. From the SEM micrographs, HAP crystals from both conditions were irregular in shape and varied in size. These HAP morphologies were in agreement with the study done by Dey et al. [44] and Bogdanoviciene et al. [45] where the produced HAP have irregular shapes. HAP produced at 3 h reaction time has smaller particle compared to 5 h. Increase in reaction time has increased the particle size of HAP. This findings are parallel with previous research done by Yusoff et al. [46] where longer reaction time has produced larger HAP particle due to agglomeration process.
The EDX analysis of HAP powder had confirmed that HAP powder contains calcium, oxygen and phosphorus. These elements are in agreement to the FTIR results in Fig. 2 where phosphate groups are present in the powder. Other than these three main elements, potassium bands were found as well. The potassium was originated from the potassium dihydrogen phosphate solution that was used as the phosphate source [9]. However, the potassium content could be eliminated by sufficient rinsing with sufficient amount of deionized water. Carbon is present due to absorption of carbon dioxide during reaction. The platinum peaks were detected because of the coating used for running the SEM analysis.
(a)
(b)
Figure 3 : SEM micrographs and EDX analyses of HAP at reaction time (a) 3 h and (b) 5 h at 1000× magnification.
4. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the results show in this study have proven that HAP powders have been produced for both samples (HAP 3 h and 5 h) using cockle shell wastes as shown by XRD, FTIR and SEM/EDX. Based on XRD and FTIR results, it is confirmed that 5 h reaction time is better compared to 3 h as it has longer reaction time and produce higher crystalline HAP. It can be concluded that reaction time is important parameter in HAP production.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors acknowledge Universiti Malaysia Pahang for the financial support through grant number RDU150394 and the Doctorate Research Scheme for student Siti Hajar Saharudin.
REFERENCES
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[3] Y. H-. Balkir, "Green Biodiesel Synthesis Using Waste Shells as Sustainable Catalysts with Camelina sativa Oil," Journal of Chemistry, (1), pp. 1-10. 2016 [4] M. Hayes, B. Carney, J. Slater, W. Bruck, "Mining marine shellfish wastes for bioactive molecules: chitin and chitosan--Part A: extraction methods," Biotechnol J, 3, (7), pp. 871-7. 2008 [5] S. Motamedi, S. Shamshirband, R. Hashim, D. Petković, C. Roy, "Estimating unconfined compressive strength of cockle shell–cement–sand mixtures using soft computing methodologies," Engineering Structures, 98, pp. 49-58. 2015 [6] K. Muthusamy, N. A. Sabri "Cockle Shell: A Potential Partial Coarse Aggregate Replacement In Concrete," Int J Sci Environ Technol, 1, (4), pp. 260 - 7. 2012 [7] A. Buasri, N. Chaiyut, V. Loryuenyong, P. Worawanitchaphong S. Trongyong, "Calcium oxide derived from waste shells of mussel, cockle, and scallop as the heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production," ScientificWorldJournal, pp. 460923. 2013 [8] P. L. 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Feng, J-. L. Gong, G. M-. Zeng, Q-. Y. Niu, H-. Y. Zhang, C-. G. Niu, et al., "Adsorption of Cd (II) and Zn (II) from aqueous solutions using magnetic hydroxyapatite nanoparticles as adsorbents," Chem Eng J, 162, (2), pp. 487- 94. 2010 [13] J. Sukaimi, S. Hamzah, N. A. Ali, M. S. M. Ghazali, "Study on adsorption behavior of alkaline protease on poly(ether sulfone) integrated with fish scale hydroxyapatite as self organized in ion exchange membrane," Malaysian Applied Biology Journal, 44, (3), 2015 pp. 49-54. 2015 [14] A. Z. Jaji, M. Z. Bakar, R. Mahmud, M. Y. Loqman, M. N. Hezmee, T. Isa, et al., "Synthesis, characterization, and cytocompatibility of potential cockle shell aragonite nanocrystals for osteoporosis therapy and hormonal delivery," Nanotechnol Sci Appl, 10, pp. 23-33. 2017 [15] L. Saidykhan, M. Z. A. Bakar, Y. Rukayadi, A. U. Kura, S. Y. Latifah, "Development of nanoantibiotic delivery system using cockle shell-derived aragonite nanoparticles for treatment of osteomyelitis," Int J Nanomedicine, 11, pp. 661- 73. 2016 [16] F. Ye, H. Guo, H. Zhang, X. He, "Polymeric micelle-templated synthesis of hydroxyapatite hollow nanoparticles for a drug delivery system," Acta Biomater, 6, (6), pp. 2212-8. 2010 [17] C. Zhang, C. Li, S. Huang, Z. Hou, Z. Cheng, P. Yang, et al., "Self-activated luminescent and mesoporous strontium hydroxyapatite nanorods for drug delivery," Biomaterials, 31, (12), pp. 3374-83. 2010 [18] F. Chen, P. Huang, Y. J. Zhu, J. Wu, C. L. Zhang, D. X. Cui, "The photoluminescence, drug delivery and imaging properties of multifunctional Eu3+/Gd3+ dual-doped hydroxyapatite nanorods," Biomaterials, 32, (34), pp. 9031-9. 2011 [19] M. Rusnah, M. Reusmaazran, A. Yusof, "Hydroxyapatite from cockle shell as a potential biomaterial for bone graft," Regenerative Research, 3, (1), pp. 52-5. 2014 [20] B. H. Bharatham, M. Z. A. Bakar, E. K. Perimal, L. M. Yusof, M. Hamid, "Development and characterization of novel porous 3D alginate-cockle shell powder nanobiocomposite bone scaffold," Biomed Res Int, pp. 1-11. 2014 [21] M. C. Barros, P. M. Bello, M. Bao, J. J. Torrado, "From waste to commodity: transforming shells into high purity calcium carbonate," J Clean Prod, 17, (3), pp. 400-7. 2009 [22] M. Mohamed, S. Yusup, S. Maitra, "Decomposition study of calcium carbonate in cockle shell," J Eng Sci Tech, 7, (1), pp. 1-10. 2012 [23] N. Nakatani, H. Takamori, K. Takeda, H. Sakugawa, "Transesterification of soybean oil using combusted oyster shell waste as a catalyst," Bioresour Technol, 100, (3), pp. 1510-3. 2009 [24] X. Y. Cao, F. Wen, W. Bian, Y. Cao, S. J. Pang, W. K. Zhang, "Preparation and comparison study of hydroxyapatite and Eu-hydroxyapatite," Front Mater Sci China, 3, (3), pp. 255-8. 2009 [25] E. Landi, G. Celotti, G. Logroscino, A. Tampieri, "Carbonated hydroxyapatite as bone substitute," J Eur Ceram Soc, 23, (15), pp. 2931-7. 2003 [26] M. Swetha, K. Sahithi, A. Moorthi, N. Srinivasan, K. Ramasamy, N. Selvamurugan, "Biocomposites containing natural polymers and hydroxyapatite for bone tissue engineering," Int J Biol Macromol, 47, (1), pp. 1-4. 2010 [27] S. M. Zakaria, S. H. S. Zein, M. R. Othman, F. Yang, J. A. Jansen, "Nanophase hydroxyapatite as a biomaterial in advanced hard tissue engineering: a review," Tissue Eng Part B Rev, 19, (5), pp. 431-41. 2013 [28] A. Anwar, M. N. Asghar, Q. Kanwal, M. Kazmi A. Sadiqa, "Low temperature synthesis and characterization of carbonated hydroxyapatite nanocrystals," J Mol Struct, 1117, pp. 283-6. 2016
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[29] M. Takemaru, Y. Sakamoto, T. Sakamoto, K. Kishi, "Assessment of bioabsorbable hydroxyapatite for secondary bone grafting in unilateral alveolar cleft," J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg, 69, (4), pp. 493-6. 2016 [30] I. Abdulrahman, H. I. Tijani, B. A. Mohammed, H. Saidu, H. Yusuf, M. N. Jibrin, et al., "From Garbage to Biomaterials: An Overview on Egg Shell Based Hydroxyapatite," J Mater, pp. 1-6. 2014 [31] M. Akram, R. Ahmed I. Shakir, W. A. W. Ibrahim, R. Hussain, "Extracting hydroxyapatite and its precursors from natural resources," Journal of Materials Science, 49, (4), pp. 1461-75. 2013 [32] M. D. Adak, K. M. Purohit, "Synthesis of nano-crystalline hydroxyapatite from dead snail shells for biological implantation," Trends in Biomaterials & Artificial Organs, 25, (3), pp. 101-6. 2011 [33] A. Singh K. M. Purohit, "Chemical Synthesis, Characterization and Bioactivity Evaluation of Hydroxyapatite Prepared from Garden snail (Helix aspersa)," Journal of Bioprocessing & Biotechniques, 01, (01), pp. 2011 [34] A. Buasri, P. Worawanitchaphong, S. Trongyong, V. Loryuenyong, "Utilization of Scallop Waste Shell for Biodiesel Production from Palm Oil – Optimization Using Taguchi Method," APCBEE Procedia, 8, pp. 216-21. 2014 [35] J.Chen, Z. Wen, S. Zhong, Z. Wang, J. Wu, Q. Zhang, "Synthesis of hydroxyapatite nanorods from abalone shells via hydrothermal solid-state conversion," Materials & Design, 87, pp. 445-9. 2015 [36] M. R. R. Hamester, P. S. Balzer, D. Becker, "Characterization of calcium carbonate obtained from oyster and mussel shells and incorporation in polypropylene," Mater Res, 15, (2), pp. 204-8. 2012 [37] S. Mondal, B. Mondal, A. Dey, S. S. Mukhopadhyay, "Studies on Processing and Characterization of Hydroxyapatite Biomaterials from Different Bio Wastes," J Miner Mater Charact Eng, 11, (1), pp. 55-67. 2012 [38] R. Rajesh, A. Hariharasubramanian, Y. D. Ravichandran, "Chicken Bone as a Bioresource for the Bioceramic (Hydroxyapatite)," Phosphorus, Sulfur, and Silicon and the Related Elements, 187, (8), pp. 914-25. 2012 [39] L. M. R-. Lorenzo, M. V-. Regı´, "Controlled Crystallization of Calcium Phosphate Apatites," Chem Mater, 12, pp. 2460-5. 2000 [40] N. S. A‐. Qasas, S. Rohani, "Synthesis of Pure Hydroxyapatite and the Effect of Synthesis Conditions on its Yield, Crystallinity, Morphology and Mean Particle Size," Sep Sci Technol, 40, (15), 2005 pp. 3187-224. 2005 [41] E. Mavropoulos, M. Hausen, A. M. Costa, S. R. Albuquerque, G. G. Alves, J. M. Granjeiro, et al., "Biocompatibility of Carbonated Hydroxyapatite Nanoparticles with Different Crystallinities," Key Engineering Materials, 493-494, pp. 331-6. 2011 [42] I. R. Gibson, W. Bonfield, "Novel synthesis and characterization of an AB-type carbonate-substituted hydroxyapatite," J Biomed Mater Res, 59, (4), pp. 697-708. 2002 [43] J. D. McElderry, P. Zhu, K. H. Mroue, J. Xu, B. Pavan, M. Fang, et al., "Crystallinity and compositional changes in carbonated apatites: Evidence from (31)P solid-state NMR, Raman, and AFM analysis," J Solid State Chem, 206, 2013 [44] S. Dey, M. Das, V. K. Balla, "Effect of hydroxyapatite particle size, morphology and crystallinity on proliferation of colon cancer HCT116 cells," Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl, 39, pp. 336-9. 2014 [45] I. Bogdanoviciene, A. Beganskiene, K. Tõnsuaadu, J. Glaser, H. J. Meyer, A. Kareiva, "Calcium hydroxyapatite, Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 ceramics prepared by aqueous sol–gel processing," Mater Res Bull, 41, (9), pp. 1754-62. 2006 [46] Y. M. Yusoff, M. N. A. Salimi, A. Anuar, "Preparation of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles by sol-gel method with optimum processing parameters." 2015.
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COMPARISON OF SELECTIIVE SEMULTANEOUS WATER ALTERNATING GAS NITROGEN (SSWAG (N2)) BETWEEN SANDSTONE AND CARBONATE RESERVOIRS (An experimental study) Abubaker Hamza Alagorni Chemical and natural resources Engineering Universiti Malaysia Pahang, UMP Gampang/ Malaysia E mail: [email protected]
Thulkefli Bin Yaacob Chemical and natural resources Engineering Universiti Malaysia Pahang, UMP Gampang/ Malaysia Email: [email protected]
Abduarahman H. Noor Faculty: Chemical and natural resources Engineering Universiti Malaysia Pahang, UMP Gampang/ Malaysia Email: [email protected]
Radzuan Bin Junin Faculty of petroleum and Geology Universiti Technologi Malaysia, UTM Johor Bahro/ Malaysia Email: [email protected]
Abstract-The method selective simultaneous water alternating gas SSWAG is an enhanced oil recovery process. According to Nitrogen injection reservoir criteria, there are two rock types of reservoir that are suitable for nitrogen injection. Sandstone and carbonate are strongly advised in literature review; therefore, an experimental study to compare the two rocks is very useful. The mechanism of this process was to perform the selective (modified) simultaneous water alternating gas (SSWAG). The process was initially started with water flooding (WF), as a secondary recovery, to displace the possible producible oil original in Place (OOIP). When no more oil had been produced by WF, the developed SSWAG was applied, where the gas nitrogen (N2) was injected at the bottom of the producing zone, while water was injected at the top of the producing zone. The results showed improvement in the Total Oil Recovery Factor, ORF%. Furthermore, the results illustrated that ORF% in Sandstone sand pack was slightly less than that in carbonate sand pack, where it was 73.43% and 73.72% in sandstone and carbonate respectively. Eventually, the gas break though (GBT) was earlier when SSWAG had been applied in carbonate compared with sandstone sand pack.
Key words: EOR, WF, WAG, SSWAG, ORF%, TORF%, GBT
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1. INTRODUCTION
After depletion of the oil that can be recovered by primary recovery process, and after implementation of secondary recovery, Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) techniques are applied to recover the residual oil in the reservoir. Only one third of oil initial in place (OIIP) can be recovered by primary and secondary methods, therefore, developing methods of EOR plays a crucial role in the life of any oil field. Injecting fluids to the reservoir, (regardless to the classification; thermal such as hot water, steam; non-thermal such as chemicals, and gases) by sophisticated techniques, for the purpose of recovering the residual oil, is the usual procedure of EOR. The gas injection processes are aimed at improving recoveries by lowering the interfacial tension between the injected gases and the crude oil to minimize the trapping of oil in the rock pores by capillary forces. The mobility ratio between injected gas and the displaced oil bank by CO2 and N2 and other miscible/immiscible gas displacement processes is typically very unfavourable because of low viscosity of the injected phase. The unfavourable mobility ratio and the difference in density refer to viscous fingering and density tonguing, and consequently reduced sweep efficiency.
Water Alternating Gas (WAG) is a process of injecting water followed by gas, followed by more water, followed by more gas, etc. When the gas mixes with water ahead of it, it causes a reduction in gas mobility. WAG injection technique has been proposed and used since the late 50’s of the last century, where different modifications of this technique were created and later developed. This process was by the combination of the two fluids injection, either alternately or simultaneously. The purpose was to avoid viscous fingering and density tonguing that occurs after gas injection. In addition, the mobility of gas is controlled by the WAG process. Although, water and gas are injected in the water alternating gas injection process, to solve these problems, the result is that injected fluids move towards the bottom and the top of the reservoir respectively due to their density difference with oil in the reservoir that caused to take place the under-riding and overriding phenomena. Therefore, large amount of oil remains in an area called Un-swept zone. Moreover, during the cycle of gas, the flow direction will be to the top of the reservoir, however, when the water cycle is implemented, the flow will be to the bottom as a result to gravity segregation of the fluids.
For the previous reasons, the main aim of this work was a necessity to develop the WAG technique to be much suitable for the resolution of the mentioned problems.
WAG process: WAG injection is a combination of two conventional EOR techniques; water flooding and gas injection. WAG process consists of the injection of water and gas either at alternate slugs or simultaneously in the well bore with the objective of reducing the impact of viscos fingering [1].
Figure 1: WAG PROCESS
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Classification of WAG methods: In general, WAG can be classified to miscible (MWAG) and immiscible (IWAG) processes. Hybrid WAG (HWAG), and simultaneous WAG (SWAG) are among these classifications [2]. Some details are illustrated here.
Miscible WAG Injection: When the reservoir is re-pressurized, in order to bring the reservoir pressure above the minimum miscibility pressure (MMP) of the fluids. In many cases a multiple-contact gas/oil miscibility may have been obtained, but much uncertainty remains about the actual displacement process [3].
Immiscible WAG Injection: Even though, if the gas cannot develop miscibility with oil, still some compositional exchanges between gas and oil may important for the fluid characterization and oil recovery [2].
Hybrid WAG Injection: The process is referred to as hybrid WAG injection, When a large slug of gas is injected, followed by a number of small slugs of water and gas.
Simultaneous WAG (SWAG) injection: SWAG injection occurs when water and gas are injected in the reservoir at the same time through a single injection well. However, when the water and gas are mixed at the surface and then injected in to the reservoir, the process is referred as SWAG injection [3, 4, 5].
Selective Simultaneous Water Alternating Gas (SSWAG) Injection: when the gas and water are pumped separately using a dual completion injector without mix the two phases on the surface, the process is referred as selective or modified simultaneously water alternating gas (SSWAG) [6, 7]. Some authors considered that this technique requires two wells for injecting water and gas separately.
Gravity Assisted Simultaneous Water and Gas Injection (GASWAG): GASWAG technique is based on controlling the injection by turning off inactive perforation, increasing the number of wells and selective control of gas injection points (bottom of reservoir) and water (top of reservoir) [8].
Foam Assisted Water Alternating Gas (FAWAG): a process uses foam for improving the sweep efficiency during gas injection while reducing gas oil ratio GOR and maximizing production rate in the producer well. Foam can be injected in to the formation by co-injection of surfactant solution and gas, where alternating solution of surfactant and gas are injected into the formation. Another method for injecting foam in to the formation is, injecting surfactant solution into the upper region and gas is injected into the lower region of the formation [9].
2. LITERATURE REVIEW OF SSWAG
There is little literature about this specific type of WAG technique. Algharaib, et al. [5] presented a simulation study, a new design of SWAG process using CO2, in which water is injected at the top of the reservoir and gas is injected at the bottom. From their conclusion, it was inferred that they injected water and gas not at the same time. The difference in water and gas densities provides a sweep mechanism in which water tends to sweep hydrocarbons down ward and the gas tends to sweep hydrocarbons upward. They investigated that for both homogeneous and heterogeneous reservoirs, several parameters such as mobility ratio between oil and gas phase’s viscosity ratio between gas and oil phases, location of water and gas injection wells and injection rates of water and gas. The results also showed that the fractional oil produced by water is more than by gas. Barnawi (2008) performed a simulation study to verify Stone’s simultaneous water and gas injection performance in a 5-spot pattern. Results showed that injecting water above gas may result in better oil recovery than WAG injection though not as indicated by Stone. Increase in oil recovery with SSWAG injection is a function of the gas critical saturation. The more gas is trapped in the formation, the higher oil recovery is obtained. SSWAG injection results in a steady injection pressure and less fluctuation in gas production rate compared to WAG injection.
To solve problems resulting by high and low permeability’s in different zones, Saif S. Al Sayari [10] suggested injecting gas at the lower zone, referring to the main purpose of the technique of SSWAG. He added: there is no force to cause the injected gas to flow from the upper zone to the lower zone as it has lower or similar density as oil therefore, a method is required that confines the injected gas to the lower zone. A possible way of achieving this is by keeping the upper zone pressurized by continuous water injection and simultaneously injecting gas into the lower zone [10]. Although Al Sayari used Hydrocarbon in his WAG experiments and CO2 for gas injection, he found that the flow of gas is to top zone as well to density force. Mohammad Javad Darvishnezhad and others performed a comparison between the different techniques of WAG such as Immiscible WAG (IWAG), Hybrid WAG (HWAG), Simultaneous WAG (SWAG) and Selective Simultaneous WAG (SSWAG) and water and gas injection to specify the appropriate injection method. Then ultimate oil
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(NCON -PGR) recovery, residual oil saturation, daily and total oil production are compared in these scenarios. Also these scenarios in four and five spot injection patterns were compared. Results indicated that, SSWAG injection has the higher oil production and lowest residual oil saturation. In addition, among these scenarios, SSWAG in 4-spot pattern had the highest recovery and daily oil production. 4-spot pattern had the higher recovery and lower residual oil saturation than 5- spot pattern [11].
Oranat Santidhananon (2011), in his research, described SSWAG technique that it requires two wells for injecting water and gas separately. A gas injector is usually placed at the bottom of the formation while a water injector is placed at the top with another producer well on the other side of the reservoir opposite these two injectors. He found that SSWAG might not be suitable to implement in dipping reservoirs.
Bednarz and Stopa [8] made a world offshore review about EOR methods, They referred that the method of SSWAG, was used in Kuwait which by injecting water and gas selectively to prevent gravity segregation effects, indicating that this method is similar to Gravity Assisted Simultaneous WAG (GASWAG) technique.
3. SSWAN2 PROCESS MECHANISM
SWAGN2 is a technique in which water and nitrogen are co-injected into a portion or the entire thickness of the formation, by using either a single wellbore or a dual completion injector where the two phases enter the pore zone at different depths (also called Selective SWAG - SSWAG). In fact, considering that injecting water and nitrogen at the same pressure, the injection process seems more uniform, gravity effects are less evident and, as a consequence, a better mobility control can be achieved. During injecting nitrogen at the bottom of the producing zone, the gas will displace the oil in the pores taking slight change in the direction, due to gravity effect, to the top. On the other hand, injection gas pressure would keep gas go forward if pressure was high enough. Contra versa, when water is injected at the top, the high pressure will keep water to flow forward, on the other hand, gravity is attracting water to the bottom Fig.2.
.
Figure 2: An SSWAG process mechanism
Advantages of SSWAG ( Nitrogen) tichnique
1. This technique can be applied in miscible and immiscible manner. 2. This method is applicable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs. 3. The cost is very low. Compared to other techniques such as chemicals. 4. Two injection wells can be used; one for gas; one for brine. 5. By using nitrogen gas, corrosion is very low if not exist compared with carbon dioxide.
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4. METHODOLOGY
Experimental setup
The flooding system is described in Fig.3., where all apparatus used in the experiments are labelled and below are named.
Figure 3.:The experimental setup that was used in the lab
Equipment Describtion
Nitrogen gas, cylinder and injection dystem
Nitrogen gas cylinder: the gas cylinder was set as pressure of 200 bar (2940 psi) to supply the injection system with N2 o to be used in the different methods of flooding. The N2 was pure 99%. The prperties of nitrogen at 70C were mentioned below in table 1.
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Pumps: There are two pumps used during the SSWAG. The used pumps were (dual piston pump, model 12-6) used to inject water from the top of mercury cylinder to push mercury through 1/8” stainless steel pipes. Both pumps are pressing murcury which compressed either gas or water to perform the process. The pumps were used separately in WF, WF, and WAG processes. However both pomps were used simultaneosly in SSWAG.
Oil/Gas/Water accumulators : there are three accumulators of size of 680 cc, for each fluid. All accumulator inlests were connected to the pumps, while the outlets were connected to the medeum inlet of th core holder for oil, in order to perforn oil saturation before starting flooding processes. Water and gas accumulators outlets were conneceted to all core holder inlets in order to carry out water saturation or to perform W.F, and SSWAG.
Core holder and out let system
Core holdre: the sand pack coreholder was made of stainless steel which could withatand a pressure of 3000 psi. it had three inlets ond outlet holes. The three inlets were made to receive the injected fluids while the outlet was for producing oil, gas, and water. The core holder was 35.29 cm in length and the inside diameter was 3.8 cm, while the hole diameter was 1/8”. Core holder confinement pressure: the core holder outlet was connected to a pressure regulator (PR). The purpose of this pressure regulator was to maintain the core holder , which represents the reservoir coditions, at a certain pressure and temperature. Production reciever (separator): this separator was connected to the outlet of pressure regulator (PR), in order to receive and separate the fluids: gas, water, and oil.the separator was actually a graded cylinder to record the volume of oil and water produced by each process. The gas was ventiled at the top of the cylinder. There was not a necessisity to record the volume of the gas produced.
Tubing and fitting system: All the setup system was connected to each other by 1/8” stainless steel pipes, and valves that they could withstand upto 2500 psi. on the other hand.
Materials
Brine: Sodium chloride (NaCl) was used to make the synthetic brine solution. 35 grams of NaCl were used in the total of 1000 ml of distilled water to make 35,000 PPM brine water. Crude Oil: crude oil was taken from Kemaman Crude Oil Terminal, Malaysia, supplied by UMP lab stores. Gas Nitrogen: The gas nitrogen that had been used in the all processes was with purity of 99%. The cylinder was provided by pressure regulator to press the gas accumulator cylinder with the pressure desired.
Preparation of sandpack for both sandstone and carbonate cores
Five micro meter filter cloth was lowered at the outlet of the core holder bottom hole to prevent sand escape from the core holder during flooding experiment experiments. The sandstone (glass beads, size of 90-150 micron meter) or carbonate (lime stone, size 150-250 micro meter) grains were washed and then regularly pushed into the core holder using deionized water to ease filling sand pores with water and to make the grains very homogenously compacted. Another filter cloth was put at the inside outlet of the holder. The outlet cover was tightly sealed. This procedure was done for both types of rocks.
Core flooding runs for SSWAG were carried out in the laboratory, using rig as shown in Fig 3. It consisted of gas (nitrogen) and water (brine), as they were simultaneously injected. We were working on a light crude oil 38.77 API, while brine to be injected was similar to sea water, 35,000 PPM. Sandstone and carbonate core properties as well as reservoir fluid properties were already taken. They were as figured in this table 1.
Calculation of porosity (ϕ), and permeability (k) of the sand pack core samples: Sandstone and Carbonate
Porosity measurement
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To measure porosity (ϕ), of the Core, the core holder was filled with sandstone/carbonate and compacted then the weight of the core holder was recorded. the sand was saturated of deionized water and vibration had been applied on the core for water saturation through sand pores. This operation was contiued until saturation was completed. Then the weight of the core holder with sand and water in it was taken. The diffrence in the weight readings gave the weght of the water in the core. Since the density of deionized water is 1 g/cc therefore, water weight represents the pore volume of the sand pack, then.
푝표푟푒 푣표푙푢푚푒 Porosity,ϕ (%) = X 100 퐵푢푙푘 푣표푙푢푚푒
Where Bulk volume is the total volume of the sand back. It was calculate by this formula Bulk volume = л r2 L Where л = 3.14 r = inside core radious, cm L = inside length of the core, cm Porosity values for sandstone and carbonate sand packs are recorded in table 1.
Callculation of permeability
After taking the porosity measurements of sandstone and carbonate samples, permeability (K) was also calculated. The sand pack was subjected to a differential pressure between inlet and outlet during water flow rate. It was calculated by recording the differential pressure between inlet and outlet points of the sandpack at different flow rates. Then Darcy law was applied.
퐾퐴훥푃 Q = - 휇퐿 Where Q = flow rate, μ = viscosity, A = area, ΔP = differential pressure and L = core length. Then 푄휇퐿 K= 퐴훥푃
K was calculated several times with different values of Q and the aveage K was recorded. The values for ϕ and K were recorded in table 1 By applying this formula we can find the slop of this curve which gives the value of K, therefore
Qμ/A = K ΔP/L
Where slope, m is K here The calculated values of porosities and permeabilities are in table 1
Table 1: Sandstone and carbonate sand packs, rock and Fluid (oil, nitrogen, and water at 70Co) properties
No properties Values 1 Oil viscosity (at 70 Co), Cp 2.4 2 Oil density (at 25 Co), g/cm3 0.812 3 Oil density (at 15 Co), g/cm3 0.83 4 Oil density (at 70 Co), g/cc 0.79 5 API gravityo (at 15 Co) 38.77 6 Water salinity, PPM 35,000 7 Water Brine viscosity, at 25Co, cp 0.959 8 Water Brine viscosity, at 70 Co, cp 0.4413 9 Water Brine density, at 25Co, g/cc 1.023387 10 Water Brine density, at 70 Co, g/cc 1.003215 11 Nitrogen gas viscosity at 70 Co, cp 0.000022378 12 Nitrogen gas density, at 70 Co, g/cm3 0.129821
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13 Nitrogen gas viscosity at 25 Co, cp 0.00002104216 14 Nitrogen gas density, at 25Co, g/cm3 0.152675 15 Sandstone (glass beads) sandpack permeability, md 3350 16 Sandstone (glass beads) sandpack (porosity), % 37.5 17 Sandstone (glass beads) sandpack size, miron meter 90-150 18 Carbonates (Limestone) permeability,md 3054 19 Carbonates (Limestone) sandpack porosity, % 40.75 20 Carbonates (Limestone) sandpack grain size, micron m 150-250
Procedure of the experiments
Two types of reservoirs Sandstone and carbonates have been tested using SSWAG process. These steps must be taken in each experiment
Sandstone Sample
Brine and Oil Saturation
Brine, which was prepared earlier, was pumped to accumulator 12 (see Fig.3) crude oil into accumulator 14 and N2 in accumulator 13. solution of brine was injected to the sandpack core until confirming complete saturation (saturation must take 24 hrs) After core had been saturated with brine crude oil was injected to find saturation of oil So in core and with this irreducible water saturation, Swi was also calculated (also oil saturation must take 24 hrs.)
Experiment
SSWAG nitrogen application (gas is injected at the bottom and water at the top)
The experiment was conducted at inlet pressure (2000 psi), outlet pressure (1990 psi), and the overburden was set to be 2000 psi and a temperature of 70 ºC was maintained. The core was saturated for 24 hrs. in brine before the run. The following steps were followed: Brine solution was injected to determine the volume recovered by secondary recovery (W.F.) to calculate irreducible oil saturation, Soir. The SSWAG (nitrogen) process was applied by by injecting gas (N2) from accumulator 13 at the bottom injection inlrt and brine solution from accumulator 12 at the top inlet. They were injected simultaneously to recover the remaining crude from the core. Produced Oil and water are collected at the outlet manually and the reading is noted. The times when gas breakthrough and water break through were recorded during the experiment.
Carbonate (lime stone) sample
The same steps and procedure had been done for sandstone was repeated for carbonate for SSWAG (N2), and all results were recorded.
5. RESULTS
Results are illustrated in the tables 2, 3, 4, and 5. They are classified as per type of rock and different processes
Sandstone sand pack results
Water flood process
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Table 2: parameters and results of water flood experiment
Water Pore Water Oil Initial In place, Injection Inj. Time, Recovered. oil Volume, Saturation, S , R.F % wi OIIP, cc Pressure (W. I. hours Volume, cc PV, cc % P.), psi 151 15.23 128 2000 4. 85 66.4
SSWAG process
Table 3: parameters and results of SSWAG experiment
W.I. time G. I. time. R. R.F,% R.F % (related OIP (oil W.I. P., Total G. I. P., psi for 1/2 for 1/2 P.V, oil, (related to to the rem. Oil remaining), cc psi R.F.% P.V., hrs hrs cc OOIP) (OIP) 43 2000 2000 1:00 2:00 9 7.03 20.93 73.43
Carbonates sand pack results
Water flood process
Table 4: parameters and results of water flood experiment
Water Pore Water Oil Initial In Place, Injection Inj. Time, Recovered oil, volume saturation, S , R.F % wi OIIP, cc Pressure, W. I. hours cc P.V, cc % P. , psi 162 15.43 137 2000 4:30 87 63.50
SSWAG process
Table 5: parameters and results of SSWAG experiment
G. I. time. R.F,% R.F % (related OIP (oil Gas. I. W.I. W.I. time for R. oil, Total for ¼ P.V, (related to to the rem. Oil remaining), cc P., psi P., psi ¼ P.V., cc cc R.F.% cc OOIP) (OIP) 50 2000 2000 2:15 2:15 14 10.22 18.00 73.72
All results in one table
Table 6: ORF, % regarding to rock type before and after developing SSWAG process
Recovery factors (RF), % Rock type Recovery Factor, RF Sandstone Carbonate ORF related to OIIP, % 7.03 10.22 ORF related to OIP, % 20.93 18 Total Oil Recovery Factor, % 73..43 73.72 Gas break through(GBT), minuts 39 35
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A. Results discusion
Each Experiment starts with W.F then SSWAG. The comparison between sandstone and carbonate for the recovery is shown in the results table 6. From the point of view of applying the SSWAG as a an EOR method to avoid the problems that occur during implementation of water alternating gas (WAG), such as gas gravity ride, and gas water segregation, that usually occur after some time of starting water injection. Water and gas trend to separate. Water goes down and gas goes up. Therefore, it was necessarly to find a way how to avoid this problem. Selective simultaneous water alternating gas (SSWAG) could have partialy a solution to this problem. But the segregation and the separation and the gravity on gas and water still can affect. developed SSWAG can prolong the time before gas break through occur. Table 10 shows that by using the developed SSWAG the total recovery factor TRF had increased in both sandstone and carbonates sandpacks from 66.4% by using WF to 73.43% in sandstone, and from 63.5% by using WF to 73.72% in carbonate sand pack.. Furthermore, the time of gas breakthrough (GBT) in SSWAG process, was earlier in carbonate (35 min), while it was 39 min. during sandstone process injection. In sandstone, the increament of production after W.F, was the higher in sandstone 20.93%, compared with 18% in carbonate when the reference of evaluation was the values of oil remaining in place (OIP). Fig.4 shows applying SSWAG processe, on sandstone sand pack. Fig.5 shows the applying SSWAG processe, on carbonates sandpack.
B. Interpretation of results
Water flooding process, which is usually the first step in every EOR method, is a method of secondary recovery processes. The mechanism is to displace the oil by taking the benefit of viscous forces.
Conventional oil recovery involves improving volumetric sweep efficiency via a variety of technologies and practices. In SSWAG, the difference in water and gas densities provides a sweeping mechanism in which water tends to sweep the hydrocarbons downward and the gas tends to sweep the hydrocarbons upward. It is expected that the two displacement mechanisms will work together to enhance the overall sweep efficiency and thus the oil recovery. During the injection of water from the top zone, water displaces the remaining oil as well as water used in W.F. pushing the oil before starting the effect of gravity that makes water goes down after the decline of injection pressure. However, injecting gas from the bottom will make the gas pushing the oil remaining before tonging as affected by gravity of gas. In sandstone sample WF gave better results compared with carbonate, while carbonate was much better when using SSWAG technique. The difference in total oil recovery factor between the two types of rocks was only 0.29 %. The literature review showed that wetting properties of the reservoir played a very important role for the efficiency of water flood. Experimental results clearly indicate improvement of the oil recovery without wettability alteration. Because about 80% of these geologic formations are oil-wet carbonate reservoirs pose a problem in oil recovery. The negatively– charged carboxylic acid anions in oil are attracted to positively-charged carbonate surfaces, thus generating oil-wet surfaces.
The ORF%, that gained from SSWAG process without involving WF in sandstone, was higher than in carbonate, while the quantity gained in WF was greater in sandstone. On the other hand ORF% by SSWAG, was greater in carbonate (10.22%), while it was 7.03% in sandstone.
By applying SSWAG in carbonate, GBT was after 35 minutes in sandstone, while it was after 39 minutes in carbonate sand pack see Fig 4 and Fig 5. That is because of difference in effective porosity. In carbonate, the porosity was 40.5% while it was only 37.75%, in sandstone see table 1. The mud in limestone (carbonate) was too much which made delay in case of WF and because of limestone is oil-wet. In sandstone case, and because it is water-wet, the sand absorbs water, which makes the gas delaying before reaching the outlet. In case of gas and due to the low density and viscosity, it moved faster in carbomate than sandstone.
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Acc. ORF% for SSWAG in sandstone sand pack 80.00 70.00 start of SSWAG at 4:10 60.00 50.00 40.00
TORF, TORF, % 30.00 GBT at 4:49 Acc. ORF% of SSWAG in 20.00 sandstone 10.00
0.00
0.10 6.15 0.00 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 1.00 1.10 1.30 1.55 2.06 2.20 2.40 3.00 3.30 4.10 4.23 4.43 4.49 5.10 6.15 Injection time, hours
Figure 4: SSWAG (nitrogen) process (sandstone) ; Injection Time V.S. Acc. TRF%
Acc. O.R. F, % for SSWAG for carbonate sand pack 80.00 start SSWAG 70.00 at 4:30 60.00 50.00 40.00
TORF, TORF, % 30.00 GBT at 5:05 Acc. O.R. F, % for 20.00 SSWAG 10.00
0.00
0.45 0.00 0.20 1.30 2.05 2.30 3.15 4.05 4.45 5.00 5.30 6.45 Injection time, hours
Figure 5: SSWAG (nitrogen) process (Carbonate) ; Injection Time V.S. Acc. TRF%
6. CONCLUSION
SSWAG (N2) process has proved improvement in oil recovery after WF. Gas breakthrough was earlier when applying SSWAG in carbonate than in sandstone. Applying SSWAG in carbonate sand pack has slightly given better in total recovery compared with sandstone’s. Comparing the results of recovery factor according to, OIP, RF in sandstone sand pack was better than the one in carbonate sand pack.
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7. RECOMMENDATIONS
In this paper, the operation pressure was only 2000 psi. Different values of injection pressure and temperature are recommended to test the effect of the injection pressure and temperature on the recovery factor.
REFERENCES
[1] F. Al-Mamari, H. Al-Shuraiqi, Y.M. Al-Wahaibi, "Numerical Simulation and Experimental Studies of Oil Recovery via First Contact Miscible Water Alternating Gas Injection within Shaley Porous Media," in SPE/EAGE Reservoir Characterization and Simulation Conference-111105-MS. 2007. Abu Dhabi, UAE: Society of Petroleum Engineers. [2] A. Skauge, E.I. Dale, "Progress in immiscible WAG modelling," in SPE/EAGE Reservoir Characterization and Simulation Conference SPE 111435. 2007. Abu Dabi, UAE: Society of Petroleum Engineers. [3] J.R. Christensen, E.H. Stenby, A. Skauge, "Review of WAG field experience," SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering, 2001. 4(02): p. 97-106. [4] 4W.W. Slack, R. Ehrlich, "Immiscible displacement of oil by simultaneous injection of water and nitrogen," in SPE/DOE Enhanced Oil Recovery Symposium SPE 9807. 1981. Tulsa, Oklahoma: Society of Petroleum Engineers. [5] M.K. Algharai, et al., "Parametric investigations of a modified swag injection technique," in SPE Middle East Oil and Gas Show and Conference-105071. 2007. Kingdom of Bahrain: Society of Petroleum Engineers. [6] H.L.M. Nangacovié, "Application of WAG and SWAG injection Techniques in Norne E-Segment," in Department of Petroleum Engineering and Applied Geophysics. 2012, Norwegian University of Science and Technology: Norway. [7] M. FOROOZANFAR, B. AMINSHAHIDY, "Efficiency evaluation of immiscible water alternating gas (IWAG) process in one of Iranian oil reservoirs," Global Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology. 2013(14, 2013,): p. 76-81. [8] P. Bednarz, J. Stopa, "Enhanced Oil Recovery methods on offshore fields in the light of world literature," AGH Drilling, Oil, Gas. 2014. 31No 2. [9] S.Q. Tunio, T.A. Chandio, M.K. Memon, "Comparative study of FAWAG and SWAG as an effective EOR technique for a Malaysian field," Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology. 4(6): 645- 648, 2012, 2012. [10] S.S. Al Sayari, "The influence of wettability and carbon dioxide injection on hydrocarbon recovery," 2009, Imperial College London: London. [11] M.J. Darvishnezhad, et al. "Study of Various Water Alternating Gas Injection Methods in 4-and 5-Spot Injection Patterns in an Iranian Fractured Reservoir," in Trinidad and Tobago Energy Resources Conferenc., SPE-132847- MS. 2010. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Society of Petroleum Engineers.
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Acid Mine Drainage in Abandoned Mine
Nur Athirah Mohamad Basir Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia
Abd Aziz Mohd Azoddein Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia
Nur Anati Azmi Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia
Abstract-Acid mine drainage (AMD) in abandoned mining operations related oxidation of sulfide mineral affording an acidic solution that contains toxic metal ions. Hence acidic water that flow into the stream had potential health risks to both aquatic life and residents in the vicinity of the mine. Study will be conduct to investigate water quality and AMD characteristics which are pH value of the stream or discharge area, mineral composition in the rock and neutralization value of the rock in AMD mining area. Result shows that pH value of water in Kg. Aur, Chini and Sg. Lembing are acidic with value of 2.81, 4.16 and 3.60 respectively. Maximum concentrations of heavy metals in the study area are: Pb (0.2 mg/L), Cd (0.05 mg/L), Zn (5.1 mg/L), Cu (5.2 mg/L), Mn (10.9 mg/L), Cr (0.2 mg/L), Ni (0.2 mg/L), As (0.005 mg/L) and Fe (202.69 mg/L). Prediction of acid formation using acid-base calculations from all samples shows high potential acid production between 22.84-2500.16 kg CaCO₃/tonne. The ratio of neutralization (NP) with acid potential (APP) shows a very low value (ratio < 1) Sg. Lembing (0.02), Chini (0.08) and Kg. Aur (0.81). The potential value of this acid production exceeds the neutralization potential value in the mine. It is inferred that AMD is being produced in the Sg Lembing, Cini and Kg Aur. It is recommended that an Environmental Impact Assessment of AMD must be carried out before the mine is reopened.
Keywords- Acid Mine Drainage; Acidic Water; Heavy Metals; Acid-Base Accounting
1. INTRODUCTION
Acid Mine Drainage is quite new environmental problem in Malaysia [22]. Mineral processing of hard rock, metal ores (e.g. Au, Cu, Pb, Zn) and industrial mineral deposits (e.g. phosphate, bauxite) involves the size reduction and separation of the individual minerals. Consequently, the end products of ore or industrial mineral processing are concentrated of the sought-after commodity and a quantity of residue wastes known as tailings [35].
Weathering of tailing contain pyrite mineral (FeS₂) and sulphide minerals can contribute to Acid Mine Drainage AMD [19]. The potential presence of acidic environment when these rocks contain metal sulphide, especially iron disulphide 2+ + (FeS2) which is pyrite, and or marcasite, they become oxidized by air and water producing Fe , H and SO₄²¯ ions. When these ions get into the solution, sulphuric acid is produced (AMD). Many researcher use Acid Base Accounting (ABA) as a screening tool, which for many mining situations provides an adequate prediction tool [18]. Since the methods for
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ABA were published in [31], ABA soon became the method of choice and began being used as screening tool in other countries as well [15, 36]. tatic tests involve determination of net-acid production potential (NAPP) and/or net acid generation (NAG) values (expressed in either kg H2SO4/t as used here or kg CaCO3/t). NAPP is calculated through acid base accounting (ABA) procedures. Positive NAPP values indicate a potential to generate acid. NAG values are obtained through the reaction of pulverised sample with H2O2 to accelerate sulphide oxidation with the resulting liquor titrated with NaOH and NAG (kg H2SO4/t) values calculated. Its environmental impact, however, can be minimized at three basic levels: through primary prevention of the acid-generating process; secondary control, which involves the deployment of acid drainage migration prevention measures; and tertiary control, or the collection and treatment of effluent [2]. Obejctive of this study is to investigate water quality and AMD characteristics which are pH value of the stream or discharge area, mineral composition in the rock and neutralization value of the rock in AMD mining area. Scope of this study is to analysis samples of seepage water collected in four sites in the Bukit Ibam mining area will be analysis on heavy metal elements (Cd, Pb, Zn, Cu, Mn, Ni, As and Cr). Then to determination of all the in-situ (pH, temperature, conductivity, TDS, salinity) in the water sample. Determination of rock neutralization and toxicity of tailing content for AMD occurrence.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Mining Site Sampling Procedure
The studies were conducted at four abandoned mining sites (Table 1). These abandoned mining sites were choosing based on potential sulphide minerals contain in these locality. Samples such as water, rock, tailing and soil were collected. Water analysis of in-situ parameters such as pH, dissolved oxygen, potential production, temperature, salinity and conductivity were measured by using Quality meter YSI 656. For water sampling, one liter of water was collected from each sites and preserved by adding ultra-pure acid and then the samples were stored in a cooler box of approximately 4°C before being transported to the laboratory for further analysis. The waste rock samples were collected and put in plastic bag for each site. Meanwhile, tailings and soils were collected from nine sites and for each sampling site, 2-3 kg of the samples were packed and sealed in prewashed plastic bags to maintain its characteristics.
Table 1. The parameter and characteristic of the mining sites.
Mining Sites GPS coordinate Type of Status until Types of site minerals 2013 Kg. Aur N 03'08'11.8''/102'57'38.9'' Hematite Abandoned Stream Chini N03'23'34.9''/E102'56'46.1'' Manganese Abandoned Pond Sungai Lembing N03'54'35.2''/E103'01'51.1'' Tin Abandoned Stream Kuari JKR Kg. Awah N03'29'51.8''/E102'32'30.4'' Andesite Abandoned Pond
2.2 Analysis of Water from Mining Site
The water analysis procedures are obtained from following steps. Firstly, the AMD solutions were filtered through a membrane of 0.45µm pore to get the clear effluent before tested. Heavy metal elements (Cd, Pb, Zn, Cu, Mn, Ni, As and Cr) and major cation (Ca, Mg, K, Na as well as Fe) were determined by using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICPMS) model of Perkin Elmer Elan900. Meanwhile, for major anions (sulfate and chloride) analysis was conducted by filtered the solution through 0.2 µm pore size. Metrohm 850 Professional Ion chromatography with chemical suppression was performed to measure sulfate and chloride anion contents 2.3 Analysis of Rock and Soil
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Physical-chemical tests such as pH, neutralization potential, total sulfur of rock and soil were determined using standard method of USEPA [31]. A representative 250 g portion was prepared by splitting, dried and pulverized to less than 0.25mm for the titration test. The pH of the samples obtained by adding 10g of soil and mixed with 25 ml distilled water and then stirred with spatula continuously. The pH value was measured by using Hanna measurement pH instrument with the ratio of water and sample was 1:2.5. The pH meter calibrated with buffer solution at pH:4 and pH:7. Total sulfur in the sample represents the maximum potential of acidity followed by E1915-97 method (ASTM 2000a) (Smith et. al 1974).
2.4 Analysis of Tailings
Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) for these soils was determined using USEPA Method 1311. After sampling, holding time for metal have 180 days until leaching, except for mercury where leaching must start within 28 days. 10 g of soil was mixed with glacial acetic acid (adjusted to pH 4.93 with 1 N NaOH) at 20 L kgˉ1 in polypropylene bottle. Then the bottle was agitated with junior orbital shaker at 200 rpm for 18 h. After 18 h, the liquid was filtered through 0.45 µm membranes, acidified with concentrated nitric acid and stored in amber vials at 4ᵒC. TCLP tests are completed in a short (18-hour) contact duration. The metal concentrations such as As, Ba, Cd, Cr (VI), Pb, Se, Ag, Hg were determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS).
2.5 Prediction of AMD
Static tests are geochemical analyses of sulfide waste which are used to predict the potential of a waste sample to produce acid. A significant part of the static test is Acid Base Accounting (ABA), which refers to the numerical data used to predict acid generation. The three components of the ABA are: (i) determination of acid production; (ii) determination of acid consumption; and (iii) calculation of net acid production or consumption using the data from (i) and (ii). Here, (i) Determination of acid production from tailings samples deals with the measurement of total sulfur, which is the main goal of research. Acid production potential (APP) based on the assumption that two moles of acid will be produced for each mole of sulfur present in the mine waste. The total sulfur content in percent is multiplied by 31.25 to yield the APP in units of tons acidity as CaCO3 per 1000 tons rock (or equivalently, kg CaCO3/metric ton). Neutralization potential (NP) test was performed to determine the quantity of acid-consuming minerals in a sample [31]. The NP test started with “a fizz test” which was done by adding one or two drops of 25 % HCl solution to about 0.5g of sample and observing the degree of effervescence. The fizz test was used to rank sample as none, slightly, moderate and strong. The appropriate amount and concentration of HCl was added to 2.0g of sample in a flask and placed on a hot plate until the sample was just beginning to boil. The flask was taken off the heat and swirled intermittently until no more effervescence was observed. More distilled water was added to make a total volume of 125 ml. After heated for 1 minute, the sample was left to cool down above room temperature before titration. The sample is then titrated with 1.0 N sulfuric acid until a pH of 7.0 is reached. The pH 7 was selected since this pH represents the amount of acid that a mine waste could neutralize while maintaining drainage pH in a range that meets quality standards. Prediction of acid is determined by the Net Neutralization Potential (NNP), which is the difference between these values (NNP = NP – APP). Typically, this difference is initially assessed by acid– base accounting (ABA) to determine the net acid production potential (NAPP) of a sample. ABA test was developed by [29] and subsequently modified by [31] to evaluate the acid producing capacity of coal mine wastes. [31] indicated that waste would produce acid if and only if NNP was less than -5 kg CaCO3/ ton.
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3. RESULTS
3.1 Characterization of AMD Samples
Table 2 indicates the results of pH, conductivity (EC), potential production (Eh), temperature (T), total dissolved solid (TDS), dissolved oxygen (DO) and salinity. Figure 1 show AMD is in acidic phases at pH 2.81- 4.16 for Kampung Aur, Sungai Lembing and Chini respectively. The highest reading of D.O was recorded at Kg. Besul at 10.06 mg/L and the lowest value recorded at Kg. Aur (7.45 mg/L). The value of D.O for water pollution index in clean water class V is more than 1 mg/L and all mining sites were considered safe due to the value of dissolved oxygen. The potential production (Eh) showed a high value were recorded at Kg. Aur, Chini and Sungai Lembing (153.0 mV, 195.8 mV and 244.0 mV) respectively while electrical conductivity was recorded between 438.0 μs/cm to 1699.67μs/cm in some places respectively. Table 3 illustrates the average of concentration of heavy metals such as Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu, Mn, Cr, Ni and As obtained from all mining sites and calculated concentration is shown in Figure 1. The concentration of lead, Pb(II) found very high at Kg. Aur upper (0.215 mg/L) while the concentration of cadmium and zinc were highest recorded at Sungai Lembing (0.047 mg/L and 5.07 mg/L respectively). AMD was strongly acidic and contained significant levels of metal ions, especially Fe.
The acidic characteristic of the AMD results from the percolation of water through sulfide minerals generally pyrite, which oxidizes and dissociates when in contact with air and water. The concentration of Fe was found very high at Kg Aur (bottom part) of 202.69 mg/L, Kg Aur (upper part) of 129.43 mg/L, while the lowest content of Fe found at Batu Malim of 0.05 mg/L. There were no significant differences between mine waters for the concentration of kalium while other metals (Pb, Zn, Cr, Cd, Cu, Ni and As) show significantly differences in terms of concentration. The lead and chromium exceeded for concentration of standard WQA 2000 in Kg. Aur, Sungai Lembing, Selinsing and Chini and the concentration of cadmium in Sungai Lembing exceeded the standard too. The content of heavy metal at Kg. Aur and Sungai Lembing displays very low concentration of Cu but high content of Mn. The mean values for Mn was higher at Chini with concentration of 36.91 mg/L. The anion values of sulfate were found maximum at lower part of Kg Aur (5180.86 mg/L) while very minimum at Cheroh (20.22 mg/L). Meanwhile for chloride was found very high at lower part of Kg Aur (48.56 mg/L) but the concentration at Sungai Lembing was very low (1.21 mg/L).
3.2 AMD Prediction
Table 4 lists AMD prediction results using acid-base accounting method for each mine sites. The values of pH identified the host rock of each mining sites. Kg. Aur has pH value 2.34 which host rock is hematite and Chini with pH value of 2.00 which host rock is manganese. Only five mining sites have sulfur content which are Chini, and Sungai Lembing with total values of APP of 924.27 kg CaCO /ton and 2500.16 kg CaCO /ton respectively. Analyses of rock samples from other sites which are JKR Kg. Awah not detected any sulfur content. From total sulfur analysis, the highest value of total sulfur content recorded at Sungai Lembing which are 2500.16 kg CaCO /ton. The amount of neutralizing bases, including carbonates, present in overburden materials is found by treating a sample with a known excess of standardized hydrochloric acid [29]. The values of neutralizing potential (NP), obtained from the titration test in decreasing order, Chini > Kg Aur > Sungai Lembing were calculated as 337.43 kg CaCO3/ton , 41.18 kg CaCO3/ton and 7.32 kg CaCO3/ton respectively. Meanwhile the classification of acid-bases for rock walls were found at low values of NP/APP at Kg. Aur, Chini and Sungai Lembing of 0.81, 0.37 and 0.003 respectively..
3.3 Toxicity of Tailing and Soil
The toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) test is used to determine the mobility of toxic contaminants present in waste materials and to define hazardous wastes under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), 1984). The results from TCLP experiment showed that the concentration of As leached from sediment in the Kg. Aur bottom samples after an 18h extraction time was 7.955 mg/L, which is exceeding the current maximum US EPA TCLP value for
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As. This would be characterized as a hazardous waste. The comparison of the sample between sediment in the Kampung Aur (bottom part) and tailing in the Sungai Lembing show different result of TCLP.
Table 5 identified heavy metals content with the highest concentration of Pb (17.42 mg/L) at Sungai Lembing tailing and the lowest concentration found at Kg. Aur (bottom part), which is 1.21 mg/L. The concentration of Cd found in Sungai Lembing tailing was 1.3 mg/L and soil in Sungai Lembing showed below the limitation value of concentration.
Table 2: In situ water quality parameters of mine water.
Mining Sites Temp. (ᵒC) pH DO (mg/L) Eh (mV) Salinity Conductivity TDS (µs/cm) (g/L) Kg. Aur 29.9 2.81 7.45 244.0 1.46 1699.67 1.57 Chini 29.7 4.16 8.05 195.8 0.20 312.00 0.27 Sungai Lembing 29.6 3.60 8.36 153 0.09 135.33 0.12 Kuari JKR Kg. Awah 33.3 7.89 9.27 -37.4 0.16 260.00 0.22
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 pH 2 1 0 Kg. Aur Chini Sungai Kuari JKR Kg. Lembing Awah locality
Figure 1: pH value show AMD is in acidic phases at pH lower than 7.
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Table 3: The concentration values of heavy metals in mine water as compared to EQA and WQS standard.
Locality/ Symbol 1 3 5 8 Environment quality Water quality act standard Element (mg/L)/ Kg Aur Sungai Chini Kuari Kg EQA 1974 WQS 2000 Locality Upper Lembing Awah Pb 0.215 0.102 0.040 0.000 0.1 0.01 Average (0.199-0.22) (0.098-0.103) (0.037- ( - ) n=9 0.047) Cd 0.022 0.047 0.018 0.000 - 0.03 Average (0.012-0.025) (0.044-0.05) (0.015- ( - ) n=9 0.019) Zn 1.005 5.070 1.685 0.000 2.0 0.3 Average (0.998-1.00) (4.77-5.554) (0.999- ( - ) n=9 1.037) Cu 1.185 5.232 0.154 0.003 0.2 - Average (0.988-1.100) (4.978-5.55) (0.138- (0.001-0.005) n=9 0.197) Mn Average 2.157 10.945 36.914 0.006 - 0.1 n=9 (1.922-2.00) (10.14-11.70) (33.58- (0.001-0.011) 39.24) Cr Average 0.026 0.0182 0.009 0.010 0.05 0.05 n=9 (0.015-0.029) (0.013-0.027) (0.006- (0.005-0.015) 0.012) Ni Average 0.036 0.126 0.025 0.002 0.2 - n=9 (0.026-0.037) (0.120-0.131) (0.022- (0.002-0.003) 0.027) As Average 0.003 0.002 0.003 0.001 0.05 0.01 n=9 (0.001-0.004) (0.002-0.002) (0.002- (0.0005- 0.003) 0.001) FeAverage 129.433 1.203 0.269 0.142 1.0 0.3 n=9 (115.20- (0.974-1.532) (0.188- (0.118-0.165) 130.00) 0.984) SO₄²ˉ 3179.6 75.67 48.94 65.86 0.5 250 Clˉ 21.52 1.21 2.36 2.38 2. 250
Table 4: The AMD prediction results of Acid-Base Accounting method for each mine sites .
Locality Total of APP Total of NP NPP NP/APP pH Samples (kg CaCO (kg CaCO (NP-APP) /ton) /ton) Kg. Aur 50.79 41.18 -9.61 0.81 2.34 Hematite
Chini 924.27 337.43 -586.84 0.37 2.00 Manganese Sungai 2500.16 7.32 -2492.84 0.003 2.90 Tailings Lembing
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Table 5: The concentration of As, Cd, Cr and Pb for TCLP test.
TCLP Sungai Lembing soil Sungai Lembing Kg. Aur bottom USEPA (mg/L) Tailing(mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) Arsenic 1.86 0.814 7.955 5 Cadmium 0.319 1.3 0.096 1 Chromium 0.213 0.35 0.223 5 Lead 3.864 17.417 1.207 5
4. DISCUSSION
Based on the result in table 2, the pH values recorded very low at Kg Aur, Chini and Sungai Lembing. Meanwhile, Kg. Aur, Chini and Sungai Lembing have the highest value of Eh showed solution that accept more proton and undergoes an oxidation process. According to [27], the low pH of discharge mine water results in the further dissolution of minerals and release of toxic metals, when it allowed getting discharge into other water bodies. The value of pH can be as low as 2 and continues to be an important water pollution problem in mining industry around the world [27, 32].
The conductivity of the water in the studied was found high. This high conductivity in the water is an indication of its effect on the water quality. Changes in conductivity were not always coincident with changes in Eh and pH, indicating that conductivity may be a more sensitive tool for locating specific zones focus on sulfate reducing bacteria activity [21]. TDS indicates the general nature of water quality or salinity. Based on TDS classification, it can be said all water in the mining area except at Batu Malim where brackish water. Maximum value of sulfate ions at lower part of Kg. Aur exceeds WHO (2000) limited set at 250 mg/L. For example, as a result of weathering of oxidized sulfide scarlet precipitation can be found up to a thousand meters from the AMD polluted river [16]. An excess of chloride ion in water is usually taken as an index of pollution. The high chloride content of water may have originated from natural sources such as rainfall and the dissolution of fluid inclusions.
Fe, Na, K, Ca and Mg were the major cations for the current study and showed significant differences between all samples. Due to the lower pH, the higher oxidation process, hence value of Fe will be higher. Fe was found highest in areas with low pH and found low in areas with high pH. [13] stated due to the low pH, the solubility of the toxic metals contained in could be attributed to the oxidation of H₂S and Fe(II). Calcium and sulfate concentration decreased as the precipitation proceeded. Precipitation using alkaline reagents for this research is the most widely used treatment method for removing metals as hydroxides [4, 19]. The decrease in the chloride concentration probably could be ascribed due to the formation of some metal chloride. Thus, water reservoir in Chini has high value of Mn compared to others. Acidic water facilitates the movement of Mn that easily soluble in acidic condition. In another place, pH values closer to 9.0, manganese ions precipitate as manganese hydroxide, Mn(OH)₂ allowing its removal [9]. The concentration of Ni and As were found safe for all water samples.
Prediction of AMD was calculated from APP and result recorded from table 5. The value of NP/APP is below than 1, interpreted as high potential for acid production. Kg. Aur, Chini, Selinsing and Sungai Lembing have been identified as having high acid generation potential (50.79 – 2500.16 kg CaCO₃/ton) compare to neutralization potential. ABA considers two factors, total S and NP, assumed to represent FeS2 and CaCO3 [31]. Total S can consist sulfide, sulfate, and organic sulfur components, and acid can be produced by each of these. Pyrite generally is the acid producer and [8] have shown that the dissolution of iron and aluminium-sulfate minerals and the subsequent hydrolisis of iron and aluminium can produce substantial quantities of acidity. [14] have suggested that some forms of organic S also may be acid-producing. Although there were many pyrite minerals in the mining site of Bukit Ibam, AMD did not occur as they were naturally
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neutralized by calcite minerals. Previous studies in Penjom showed that drainage will remain neutral to basic if the rate of acid consumption equals or exceeds the rate of acid production [23]. [30] evaluated if the value of NNP is less than zero, the acid-producing potential of the rock exceeds its neutralization potential and if mined, therefore would be expected to produce AMD. Four localities except Bukit Ibam showed negative values of NPP, then the potential exist for the waste to form acid as suggested by [34]. The values of ABA for Bukit Ibam have lower risk for the formation of acid mine drainage. [6] suggested if the ratio is greater than 3:1, experience indicates that there is lower risk for acid mine to develop, meanwhile samples with a ratio of 1:1 or less are potentially to generate acid.
From TCLP analysis, hazardous waste was identified at Sungai Lembing and Kg. Aur. This is due to the fact that As element in Sungai Lembing had high concentration that exceed the limitation. As in tailing at Sungai Lembing and Pb in Kg. Aur were mobile in characteristic. Exceed value concentration of TCLP element showed element was mobility and of great danger to environment. Hence, labeled as hazardous waste. The proportion of metals leached by the TCLP depends on a sludge’s neutralization potential. A sludge with small neutralization potential is incapable of neutralizing all the acid added, and the resultant low pH will cause a substantial proportion of the metals present to be leached [10].
The immobilization of heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions is quite a complicated process, consisting of ion exchange and adsorption and is likely to be accompanied by precipitation of metal hydroxide complexes on active sites of the particle surface [26]. The removal of heavy metals from AMD using different types of adsorbent materials. All sorbents produced similar trends of removal the heavy metals with an abrupt decrease within 8 days. LFS is the best material for absorption of Zn, Mn and Cu in the contaminated water followed by bentonite, zeolite, and active carbon. Various researchers including [25, 28] have identified steel slag as a suitable candidate to remediate waters contaminated by acid mine drainage (AMD), since it has been shown to have a significant acid neutralizing potential that can be exploited to precipitate out a majority of dissolved metals by increasing solution pH. The Acid Neutralization Potential of steel slag was determined to be approximately 83% as calcium carbonate (CaCO3) [25]. Meanwhile, bentonit was the best to adsorb more Ni, Fe and Cd. The concentration of heavy metal was decreased greatly due to owning of precipitation, co- precipitation and huge absorbency. Therefore, the utilization of LFS can achieve the purpose to neutralize the high acidity, minimize the release of heavy metal and improve the water quality of drainage.
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5. CONCLUSION
Analysis was done at the mine which has a watershed. Water is an important indicator to determine the level of acidity of mine drainage. Overall, Kg Aur, Cini and Sungai Lembing found very acidic with low pH and contain high concentration of heavy metals. Therefore, the acidity and neutralization test were applied for waste rock, tailings or soil at the mining site. Acid-base accounting showed the possibility of field sites to form and produce acid especially for Sungai Lembing with the highest value of APP. TCLP element was made to test the nature of mobility and thus labeled as hazardous waste. Sungai Lembing and Kg. Aur have hazardous waste of Pb and As elements respectively. The AMD levels are identified from low pH and sulfate ions or high of heavy metal. Supported by this static test, results showed that the potential mine suffered of excessive acid production. Overall, AMD identified from all these tests at Kg Aur, Sungai Lembing, Selinsing and Chini. The most dangerous among others is Sungai Lembing and if no action is made, it can affect surrounding area with high generation of acid potential. There are known treatment methods which can be applied before the AMD situation can worsen and consequently source river pollution. By conducting continuous tank experiment tests for about 30 days using synthetic solution prepared, it was found that by product material such as LFS and natural material such as bentonite can effectively adsorb and remove various heavy metals simultaneously. Besides, these adsorbents can also efficiently neutralize the acidic drainage due to its high alkalinity production by calcite dissolution.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The Author would like to express gratitude to the UKM for providing research laboratories and as well as Pahang state government where research is done.
REFERENCES
[1] A. M. Abdelaal, “Using a natural coagulant for treating wastewater.” Eighth International Water Technology Conference, IWTC8, Alexandria, Egypt. 2004 [2] A. Akcil, S. Koldas, “Acid Mine Drainage: Causes, treatment and case studies.” Journal of Cleaner Production, 14(12- 13), 1139–1145. DOI:10.1016/j.jclepro.2004.09.006 2006 [3] D. Barrie, B. Kevin, “Acid mine drainage remediation options: A review. Science of The Total Environment,” 338(2005). 3-14 2005 [4] M. Balintova, A. Petrilakova, “Study of pH Influence of Selective Precipitation of Heavy Metals from Acid Mine Drainage,” Chemical Engineering Transactions, 25, 1-6 2011 [5] M. A. Barakat, 2011. “New trends in removing heavy metals from industrial wastewater.” Arabian Journal of Chemistry, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 361– 377. 2011 [6] M. J. Brodie, L. M. Broughton, A. M. Robertson, “A Conceptual Rock Classification System for Waste Management and a Laboratory Method for ARD Prediction From Rock Piles.” In Second International Conference on the Abatement of Acidic Drainage. Conference Proceedings, Volumes 1 - 4, Montreal, Canada 1991 [7] R. Coulton, C. Bullen, C. Hallet, “The design and optimization of active mine water treatment plants.” Land Contam Reclam., 11:273–9. 2003 [8] C. A. Cravotta III, 1991, “Geochemical evolution of acidic ground water at a reclaimed surface coal mine in western Pennsylvania, in Oaks,” Proceedings of the 1991 National Meeting of the American Society of Surface Mining and Reclamation, Durango, Co.: Princeton, W.Va., American Society of Surface Mining and Reclamation, p. 43-68. 1991 [9] A. N. D. Silveira, R. Silva, J. Rubio, “Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) in South Brazil.” International Journal of Mineral Processing, 93 (2), 103-109. DOI: 10.1016/j.minpro.2009.06.005 2009 [10] M. M. Danny, A. W. John, “Chemical Stability of Acid Rock Drainage Treatment Sludge and Implications for Sludge Management.” Environ. Sci. & Technol. 2006 [11] J. M. Dias, M. C. M. A-. Ferraz, M. F. Almeida, M. S-. Polo, “Waste materials for activated carbon preparation and its use in aqueous-phase treatment: a review.” Journal of Environmental Management, vol. 85, no. 4, pp. 833–846, 2007 [12] M. Z. Haider, M. Vakili, D. Irvan, “Waste Material Adsorbents for Zinc Removal from Wastewater: A Comprehensive Review.” International Journal of Chemical Engineering, Article ID 347912, 13 pages, 2014 [13] K. B. Hallberg, “New perspectives in acid mine drainage microbiology.” Hydrometallurgy, 104, 448- 453. 2010 [14] K. C. Harvey, D. J. Dollhopf, “Acid production from organic sulfur, in Acid minesoil reclamation advancements in the northern plains: Montana State University, Reclamation Research Publication, 86-01, p. 54-60. 1986 [15] J. Hughes, D. Craw, B. Peake, P. Lindsay, P. Weber, “Environmental characterisation of coal mine waste rock in the field: An example from New Zealand.” Environ. Geol., 52: 1501-1509 2007
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[16] S. R. Jennings, D. R. Neuman, P. S. Blicker, “Acid Mine Drainage and Effects on Fish Health and Ecology : A Review (p. 26). Alaska: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage Fish and Wildlife Field Office, Anchorage, Alaska,” 99501. 2008 [17] T. Jeff, P. Sophie M. Nigel, “A summary of passive and Active treatment technologies for acid and metalliferous drainage.” Fifth Australian Workshop on Acid Drainage, 1-5 2005 [18] J. Skousen. “A methodology for geologic testing for land disturbance: Acid-Base Accounting for surface mines.” Geoderma, 2017 [19] D. B. Johnson, K. B. Hallberg, “Acid mine drainage remediation options: a review.” The Science of the total environment, 338(1-2), 3–14. DOI:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2004.09.002 2005 [20] T. N. Konig, S. Shulami, G. Rytwo, “Brine wastewater pretreatment using clay minerals and organ clays as flocculants.” Applied clay science, 67(68):119-124 2012 [21] D. Lyew, J. Sheppard, “Technical note use of conductivity to monitor the treatment of acid mine drainage by sulphate- reducing bacteria.” Water resources, 35(8), 2081-2086, 2001 [22] Z. Madzin. F. M. Kusina. F. Yusof, “Water quality monitoring for heavy metal contamination associated with acid mine drainage at abandoned and active mining sites in Pahang.” International Conference on Agricultural and Food Engineering (Cafei2016) 2016 [23] M. Z. M. Syahrir, K. P. Seong, 2012. “Study of Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) Potential at Penjom Gold Mine, Pahang Using Static and Kinetic Test Method.” 2nd International Conference on Water Resources, n.p. URL: http://seminar.utmspace.utm.my/icwr2012/dow nload/Icwr-prog-schedule-31102012.pdf, 2012 [24] L. J. R. Nunes, J. C. O. Matias, J. P. S. Catalao, “Biomass combustion systems: A review on the physical and chemical properties of the ashes.” Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 53(235-242) 2016 [25] C. Ochola, H. K. M-. Young, “Reclaimed Limestone Residuals (RLR) for the Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage.” Proceedings International Conference on Energy, Environment, and Disaster, 2005 [26] C. A. Rios, C. D. Williams, C. L. Roberts, “Removal of heavy metals from acid mine drainage (AMD) using coal fly ash, natural clicker and synthetic zeolites.” Journal of hazardous Materials, 156: 23-35. 2008 [27] G. U. Sangita, P. Bably, “Studies on environmental impact of acid mine drainage generation and its treatment: An appraisal.” IJEP, 30(11):953-963, 2010 [28] J. Simmons, P. K. Ziemkiewicz, D. C. Black, “Use of Steel Slag Leach Reds for the Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage.” National Association of Abandoned Mine Lands Annual Conference, Athens, Ohio, 2001 [29] R. M. Smith, W. E. J. Grube, T. J. Arkele, A. Sobek, 1974. “Mine Spoil Potentials for Soil and Water Quality.” Environment Protection Agency, West Virginia, U.S, 1974 [30] M. W. Smith, K. B. C. Brady, “Evaluation of acid base accounting data using computer spreadsheets,” Proceedings of the Mining and Reclamation Conference and Exhibition, Charleston, West Virginia, Morgantown, W.Va., West Virginia University, v. 1, p. 213-219, 1990 [31] A. A. Sobek, W. A. Schuller, J. R. Freeman, R. M. Smith, “Field and laboratory methods applicable to overburdens and minesoils: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Protection Technology EPA” 1978 [32] T. K. Tsokamoto, G. C. Miller, “Column control. In: Proceedings, Nineteenth Annual experiment for microbiological treatment of West Virginia Surface Mine Drainage Task acid mine drainage.” Water Res, 33:1365- 1370 Force Symposium, Morgantown. West Virginia. 2004 [33] USEPA Method 1311:TCLP. “Test methods evaluating solid waste, physical/chemical methods.” 3rd ed.Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste. U.S. Government Printing Office; 1999 [34] USEPA., “Technical document of acid mine drainage prediction.Office of Solid Waste,” Washington, USA; p. 48, 1994 [35] S. H. Young, J. Y. Seung, O. Chamteut. C. C. Yong, S. Joo, “Geochemical and eco-toxicological characteristics of stream water and its sediments affected by acid mine drainage.” Catena, 148 (52-59) In: 7th International Conference on Acid Rock Drainage (ICARD). 2017 [36] P. Younger, D. Sapsford, “Acid drainage prevention guidelines for Scottish opencast coal mining: the primacy of the conceptual model.” 2006
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Fundamental Study of Waste Oil Potential as Base Oil Alternative in Grease Formulation
N Suhaila A Japar Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering Universiti Malaysia Pahang Kuantan, Malaysia
M Aizudin A. Aziz Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering Universiti Malaysia Pahang Kuantan, Malaysia [email protected]
Mohd Najib Razali Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering Universiti Malaysia Pahang Kuantan, Malaysia [email protected]
Abstract—Large consumption of crude oil in lubrication industry might adversely affected by the reduction of crude oil production due to the decline of petroleum reserves. Environmental pollution caused by the improper disposal of waste oils and the recyclability of waste oils has brought interest to study the potential use of the waste oils. The main purposes of the current research were to formulate grease using different types of base oils from waste oils and to study the grease structure formation ability. Waste lubricating oil (WLO), spent hydraulic oil (WHO) and used brake oil (WBO) were used as base oils. Sodium hydroxide and molybdenum disulfide were used as thickener and additive. The formulated greases were studied by observing the grease’s appearance and measuring the oil separation during storage. The overall results show that the formulated greases have achieved the desired grease structure of semisolid form using WLO and WHO as base oil with oil separation up to 10%.
Keywords— Grease; Waste Oil; Waste Lubricating Oil; Spent Hydraulic Oil; Used Brake Oil
1. INTRODUCTION
The use of grease has been implemented since ancient time. Today, there are many different types of greases, but the basic structure of these grease is similar [1].American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) defined lubricating grease as a solid or semi-fluid lubricant consisting of a thickening agent in a liquid lubricant or other ingredients imparting special properties may be included [2]. As rule of thumbs, the formulations to make grease were consisting of three components base oil (70-90%), thickener (20-10%) and additive (10-5%).
Base oil of greases are commonly mineral oils, synthetic hydrocarbons and other synthetic compounds Most greases produced today are using mineral oil as their base fluid. The thickener is a material that, when disperse in the base oil, it will form a semisolid structure of grease. The primary type of thickener used in current grease is metallic soap of lithium, aluminum, clay, polyurea, sodium and calcium. Lately, complex thickener-type greases are gaining popularity due to their high dropping points and excellent load-carrying abilities. Non-soap thickeners are also gaining popularity in special applications such as high temperature environments. Additives can play several roles in lubricating grease such as enhancing the existing desirable properties, suppressing the existing undesirable properties, and imparting new properties. The most common additives are oxidation and rust inhibitors, extreme pressure, anti-wear, and friction reducing agents [3].
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In modern industrial years, grease had been modified to achieve the variety of difficult lubrication problems, particularly those where the fluid lubricant is no practicable. Over the last decades, grease making technology throughout the world, has undergone rapid change to meet the growing demands of the sophisticated industrial environment. Unfortunately, the increase in demand lead to the increase of waste oil generation. Waste oil is categorized as schedule waste for which it can threatens public health and the environment if it is disposed improperly. In Malaysia, approximately 150 million of waste lubricating oil being disposed annually [4].
Other than that, the world petroleum resources have been decreasing and had led to the limited sources of oil available. The decline of crude oil production worldwide has adverse effect in lubricant market because almost 97 – 99 percent of the lubricant base fluid is obtained from the petroleum resources (mineral oil) [5,6]. Consequently, the limited petroleum reserves and unpredictable oil prices have led to the interest in finding the alternative base oil. Interestingly, waste oil is known to be recyclable into new product and the government worldwide had been encouraging in recycling these oils to reduce the volume of waste oil disposed [7,8]. Other study related to the used of waste oil in grease formulation have been conducted to study the potential of the waste oil as grease base oil’s replacement [9–11].
In this study, the idea on reusing waste oils, the limited petroleum reserves, unpredictable oil prices and environmental concern have brought an interest in the use of waste oil as the potential grease’s base oil in lubricating grease production. Therefore, the waste oil such as waste lubricating oil, spent hydraulic oil and used brake oil, are utilized in this study as base fluid in the grease formulation. In this study, it was aimed to formulate grease from waste oil and to analyse the properties of grease formulated based on different ration of waste oil by using the American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) grease testing methods.
2. EXPERIMENTAL WORK
A. Materials
Different types of base oils were used which are waste lubricating oil, spent hydraulic oil and used brake oil. These oils were collected from workshop nearby area of Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Gambang Campus. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was chosen as thickening agent, for which it was reacted with fatty acid found in waste cooking oil (WTO) and form sodium stearate (soap thickener). Sodium soap greases have higher dropping points about 175°C, inherent rust protection properties but, they are not water resistant and emulsify in the present of water [12]. Molybdenum disulphide (MoS2) was used as additive to enhance the properties of grease formulation. It has the durability to withstand heat and pressure [13].
B. Preparation of sodium soap thickener
The saponification process is a must to formulate soap grease. It is a process of alkali hydrolysis of fatty matters to form soap. In this study, the soap is prepared by mixing thoroughly 6M of NaOH solution with WCO in the ratio of 1:2 and heated to 37°C [14]. The mixture was stirred continuously until the smooth paste of soap is obtained. The soap formed was then be heated to 120°C to remove water by evaporation.
C. Formulation of grease samples
In this stage, waste oil was heated to 100°C for 30 minutes and the soap was dispersed in the base oil by gradual addition and continuous homogenization for at least 1 hour until smooth paste of grease was formed. The amount of base oil and thickener added was as in Table 1. The additive of fixed amount of 3% of the total composition was then added slowly and homogenized for another 1 hour and the grease was allowed to cool to room temperature for 2 days and observed.
Table 1: Grease composition.
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Composition (%wt) Type of base oil Sample identification Base oil Soap thickener MoS2 WLO 80 17 Waste lubricating oil 1 WLO2 70 27 WHO 80 17 Spent hydraulic oil 1 3 WHO2 70 27 WBO 80 17 Used brake oil 1 WBO2 70 27
D. Oil separation of grease
The test was done as complied with the Standard Test Method for Oil Separation from Lubricating Grease during Storage (ASTM- D1742). It is known as oil separation test in which it determines the stability of the grease formulated. All grease samples were stored in enclosed container and the initial level of the grease is observed and recorded. In this study, the formulated greases were left for 2 months at room temperature. The amount of oil separated was measured using the measuring cylinder and weighed. Theoretically, the lesser the oil separated, the better the stability or quality of the grease. The sample is considered stable if and only if the amount of the oil separated less than 4% [15].
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
A. Formation of grease structure
Table 2 shows the observation of the formulated grease structure by using three different type of waste oils. Both formulation using WLO shows better result for which the grease structure is obtained. Grease structure also was obtained by using base oil of WHO. However, the amount of oil need to be reduce in order to reduce the number of oil separated from the grease and to achieve better grease structure. Unfortunately, greases formulated using WBO were unable to form any grease structure at which, it is believed that the thickener was unable to hold the oil in its thickener system. This is might be due to the different oil base in brake oil for which it is not mineral-based oil as WLO and WHO [16]. Moreover, greases are often formulated either using mineral oil and synthetic oil.
Table 2: Grease structure observation.
Grease Observation sample Semi-solid structure of grease is formed with butter-like consistency but, some oil is separated on the WLO 1 surface. Semi-solid structure of grease is formed with viscous liquid-like consistency. Some oil is separated on the WLO 2 surface WHO1 Half of the volume formed grease structure and another half is oil separated from grease. Semi-solid structure of grease is formed with viscous liquid-like consistency. Some oil is separated on the WHO 2 surface WBO1 There is small amount of grease structure formed at which most likely all the product remained as WBO2 precipitate at the bottom.
B. Oil separation during storage
Greases tends to release their base oils during storage (static bleeding) [17]. Static oil bleeding can be affected by storage conditions and is more pronounced if the grease is soft in consistency (NLGI grades 00, 0 and 1) [18]. Oil separation often relates to the base oil and thickener combination with kinematic viscosity of the base oil [19]. Table 3 shows the actual amount of oil separated from the formulated grease.
Table 3: Oil separation from grease.
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Oil separation, Grease samples Amount of oils separated, g % WLO1 30 6 WLO2 6 0.12 WHO1 250 50 WHO2 50 10 WBO1 450 90 WBO2 (base oil and thickener mixture)
Base on Table 3, it is shown that the best base oil candidate for grease formulation using waste oil is waste lubricating oil (WLO). This is due to the small amount of oil separated from 500g of grease sample. The formulated grease of WLO2 shows excellent stability with the amount of oil separated less than 4%. By comparing the greases formulated as per tabulated in Table 1 and 2, it was inferred that the structure and amount of oil separation of formulated greases using WLO and WHO can be improved by decreasing the oil-to-thickener ratio [20]. Unfortunately, WBO is not practical to be used as base oil in grease formulation due to the inability of grease structure to form as the thickener is unable to hold the oil in its matrix.
4. CONCLUSION
Waste oils can be used as base oil. However, not all type of waste oils can be utilized in the formulation of grease. Based on the result obtained, waste lubricating oil and waste hydraulic oil can be the base oil alternative to replace the fresh mineral oil in grease formulation due to the ability of thickener and the oil to form grease structure. The waste oil-based greases were successfully formulated but the greases oil-to-thickener ratio need to be reduced or proper selection of additive were required to reduce the amount of oil separated of the formulated grease. Further study on these greases still need to be done to study the properties such as consistency and dropping point, and the performance of these formulated grease.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The researchers would like to extend their gratitude to Universiti Malaysia Pahang (UMP) for providing the grants for this study under the grant number RDU160382.
REFERENCES
[1] Singh, G. Singh, S. C. Sati, and S. Sachdeva, “An overview on manufacturing of lubricating greases and testing processes,” Int. Conf. Adv. Res. Innov., pp. 43–6, 2014. [2] J. Wright, “Grease Basics,” Noria, 2008. [3] E. Donley, Handbook of Advances in Additive Lubricants and Grease technology, Auris Reference, 2012. [4] M. A. A. Mastor, “Negara dibanjiri minyak hitam” in Utusan Malaysia, pp.7, December 2011. [5] T. Bhaskar, M. A. Uddin, A. Muto, Y. Sakata, Y. Omura, K. Kimura, and Y. Kawakami, “Recycling of waste lubricant oil into chemical feedstock or fuel oil over supported iron oxide catalysts,” Fuel, vol. 83, pp. 9–15, 2004. [6] GVS, “Lubricants Market Analysis By Product, Industrial (Process Oils, General Industrial Oils, Metal Working Fluids, Industrial Engine Oils), Automotive (Heavy-Duty Engine Oils, Hydraulic & Transmission Fluid, Gear Oil, Passenger Vehicle Engine Oils, Automatic),” in Grand View Research, 2016. [7] EPA, “Managing, reusing, and recycling used oil,” United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2017. [8] TN50, “Trend: environment” in TN50, 2017. [9] S. Hegazi, “Conversion of used oil into lubricating grease and characterictic evaluation,” Int. J. Sci. Res., vol. 4, pp. 1894–1898, 2015. [10] K. Ebisike, B. E. A. Daniel, M. N. Anakaa, H. M. Kefas, and S. O. O. Olusunie, “Effect of sodium hydroxide thickener on grease production,” Am. Chem. Sci. J., vol. 13, pp. 1–8, 2016. [11] M. N. Razali, M. A. A. Aziz, W. N. A. W. M. Hamdan, N. A. M. Salehan, and R. M. Yunus, “Synthesis of grease from waste oils and red gypsum,” Aus. J. Basic & Appl. Sci., vol. 11, pp. 154–159, 2017. [12] T. M. Verdura, G. Brunette, and R. Shah, Lubricating Greases Fuels and Lubricants Handbook: Technology, Properties, Performance, and Testing, ASTM International, pp. 225, 2003. [13] IMOA, “Molybdenum-sulfur compounds in lubrication,” IMOA, 2007.
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[14] C. Iheme, J. C. Offurum, and F. O. Chukwuma, “Production and blending of sodium based water-resistant lubricating greases from petroleum and petrochemical by-products,” Am. J. Comput. Sci. Eng. Surv., vol. 2, pp. 70–8, 2014. [15] P. M. Lugt, Grease Lubrication in Rolling Bearings, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2013. [16] Advancepetro, “Different types of Brake Fluid,” 2009. [17] D. M. Pirro, M. Webster, and E. Daschner, Lubrication Fundamentals, 3rd ed., CRC Press, 2016. [18] L. G. Ludwig, “Storing grease to avoid bleed and separation,” in Machinery Lubrication, February 2012. [19] A. Rezasoltani, and M. M. Khonsari, “On monitoring physical and chemical degradation and life estimation models for lubricating greases,” Lubricants, vol. 4, pp. 24, 2016. [20] D. Doyle, “General grease overview and bearing lubrication,” ALS Tribol.,2015.
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Parametric Study of Soxhlet Extraction of Phenolic Compounds from Vernonia amygdalina Leaves
Oluwaseun Ruth Alara Centre of Excellence for Advanced Research in Fluid Flow (CARIFF), Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Lebuhraya Tun Razak, 26300, Gambang, Pahang, Malaysia [email protected]
Nour Hamid Abdurahman Centre of Excellence for Advanced Research in Fluid Flow (CARIFF), Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Lebuhraya Tun Razak, 26300, Gambang, Pahang, Malaysia
Siti Kholijah Abdul Mudalip Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Lebuhraya Tun Razak, 26300, Gambang, Pahang, Malaysia
Chinonso Ishmael Ukaegbu Faculty of Industrial Sciences and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Lebuhraya Tun Razak, 26300, Gambang, Pahang, Malaysia
Nour Hamid Azhari Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, International University of Africa, Khartoum, Sudan
Nassereldeen Ahmed Kabbashi Bioenvironmental Engineering Research Centre (BERC), Department of Biotechnology Engineering (BTE), Kulliyyah of Engineering (KOE), International Islamic University Malaysia, Gombak, 50728, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Abstract—Phenolic compounds are important secondary metabolites with different pharmacological activities. The effects of extraction parameters of Soxhlet extraction method which include extraction time, solid-to-solvent ratio and ethanol concentration on the recoveries of extraction yields, total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) from extracts of Vernonia amygdalina leaves were investigated in this study using one-factor-at-a-time experiment (OFAT). Then, the functional group characterization of the extracts at maximum conditions was carried out. The results obtained showed that the three considered extraction parameters significantly influence the recoveries of extraction yield, TPC and TFC. Highest recoveries of extraction yield (14.22±0.19% w/w), TPC (75.94±2.15 mg GAE/g d.w.) and TFC (46.53±1.14 mg QE/g d.w.) were obtained at extraction time of 2 h, solid-to-solvent ratio of 1:20 g/mL and ethanol concentration of 60% v/v. Moreover,
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(NCON -PGR) six major peaks were identified from the Soxhlet extraction of V. amygdalina leaves at maximum conditions using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis. Thus, this study showed that V. amygdalina leaf is a potential source of phenolic compounds which can be influence by the extraction parameters.
Keywords—Vernonia amygdalina; Soxhlet extraction; Total phenolic content; Total flavonoid content
1. INTRODUCTION
Phenolic compounds are secondary metabolites that exhibit a different range of physiological activities such as anti- inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-allergenic, anti-thrombotic, anti-diabetic, vasodilatory, and cardioprotective effects [1]. Reports had shown that higher consumption of beverages, vegetables and fruits increase the intake of phenolic compounds [2]. Besides the health benefits, phenolic compounds provide protection against predators and pathogens, contribute towards the sensory and colour characteristics of vegetables and fruits [3].
Vernonia amygdalina is commonly known as “bitter leaves” in English due to its bitter taste. Also, it is referred to as ironweed with a soft-wooded shrub that can regenerate rapidly. The extracts from this plant had been reported to possess several pharmacological activities such as antibacterial, anti-diabetic, anti-allergic, anti-fungi, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti- leukaemia, analgesic, antipyretic, and antioxidant [4]. Several extraction methods which include traditional and unconventional are used in the extraction of phenolic compounds from plant materials. Soxhlet extraction method had been used to extract bioactive compounds from V. amygdalina leaves using ethyl acetate and n-hexane as extracting solvents whereby the extracts exhibited antibiotic activity [5]. This method had been used to extract bioactive compounds from other plant materials [6, 7]. Adama et al. had used the Soxhlet method to extract substitute for hops from V. amygdalina leaves. The phytochemical analysis showed that the sample extracts had brewing properties: total resin (20.4%), iso-alpha (8.52%), essential oil (1.20%), fat contents (7.00%), and alpha acid of 9.27% [8]. However, the studies did not report the effect of each Soxhlet extraction parameters on the yield of extract, total phenolic content and total flavonoid content in V. amygdalina leaf using ethanol as the extracting solvent. Thus, this study employed Soxhlet extraction method to investigate the effects of extraction parameters which include extraction time, solid-to-solvent ratio and ethanol concentration on the recoveries of extraction yields, total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) from the extracts of V. amygdalina leaves using one-factor-at-a-time experiment (OFAT). The functional group characterization of the extracts at maximum condition was as well evaluated.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
A. Plant Sample and procurement of chemicals
Fresh samples of V. amygdalina leaves were obtained from Gambang, Malaysia. The leaves were washed in tap water and dried at room temperature until constant weight was reached. Afterwards, the dried leaves were ground using a blender, sieved to an average particle size of 0.105 mm and stored in an airtight dark container prior to the Soxhlet extraction process.
The following chemicals and reagents were purchased from Sigma Aldrich (M) Sdn Bhd, Selangor: Methanol (99.9% purity), ethanol (99.5% purity), quercetin, gallic acid, Folin-Ciocalteu reagent, aluminium chloride salt, and sodium carbonate anhydrous. The distilled water was obtained from the Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering laboratory.
B. Soxhlet extraction of V. amygdalina leaves
The plant sample (10 g) was weighed and loaded inside a thimble of Soxhlet extractor. A volume of aqueous ethanol based on the experimental design was measured into a 250-mL round bottom flask (Table 1). The extractor was placed on a heating mantle. The experimental process kick-started by randomly varying the extraction time as 1, 2, 3, and 4 h (Table 1). As the solvent was being heated using a mantle heater, at the boiling temperature, it began to evaporate by moving through the apparatus to the condenser. The condensate dripped into the reservoir containing the thimble with plant matrix. Once the level of solvent reached the siphon, the solvent containing extract refluxed back into the round bottom flask and the recycling began again. After the extraction time has been reached, the extract was allowed to cool down to room temperature, filtered and concentrated to dryness using a rotary evaporator. Then, the extraction yield, TPC and TFC were calculated. The experimental process was carried out in triplicate. The yield of extracts of V. amygdalina leaves was evaluated as follows:
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Weight of extracts from plant sample() w %*100%Yield of extracts (1) Weight of dried plant powderw()
Table 1: Randomly selected experimental design for the Soxhlet extraction of V. amygdalina leaf using OFAT.
Extraction time F:S Ethanol concentration (h) (g/mL) (% v/v) 1 1:10 20 2 1:15 40 3 1:20 60 4 1:25 80
C. Evaluation of total phenolic content
Folin-Ciocalteu (FC) colourimetric assay was used to evaluate the content of phenolics in the extract from V. amygdalina leaves using Soxhlet extraction technique. The reported method by Alara et al. was employed for the assay [9]. In brief, the extract was re-dissolved in aqueous ethanol to make a concentration of 5 g/L. Then, 0.2 mL of FC was mixed with 1000 µL of the extract. A 600 µL of 0.2 mM Na2CO3 solution was then added to the mixture after 5 min of leaving it to incubate at room temperature. Afterwards, the mixture was left for 2 h in the dark and the absorbance was recorded at 765 nm against the blank (sample solvent) using a UV-vis Spectrophotometer (Hitachi U-1800, Japan). Gallic acid was used as the standard at concentration of 50-500 mg/L (y = 0.0006x + 0.0169, R2 = 0.9903) and the analysis was carried out thrice. The results were given as milligram gallic acid equivalent per gram dry weight (mg GAE/g d.w.) as shown in Equation (2).
cV* TPC (2) m where c is the sample concentration from the calibration curve (mg/L), V is volume (L) of solvent used in the extraction, and m represents the weight (g) of the dried sample used.
D. Evaluation of total flavonoid content
The method described by Alara et al. was used to evaluate the total flavonoid in the extract from V. amygdalina leaves [9]. In brief, the extract was re-dissolved in aqueous ethanol to make a concentration of 1 g/L. Afterwards, 1 mL of extract was thoroughly mixed with 1 mL of AlCl3 solution. The absorbance of the mixture was recorded at 420 nm after leaving it for 60 min at room temperature using a UV-VIS Spectrophotometer (Hitachi U-1800, Japan). Quercetin was used as the standard at concentration of 50-500 mg/L (y = 0.112x + 0.178, R2 = 0.9945) and the analysis was carried out thrice. The results were given as milligram quercetin equivalent per gram dry weight (mg QE/g d.w.) as shown in Equation (3).
cV* TFC (3) m where c is the sample concentration from the calibration curve (mg/L), V is volume (L) of solvent used in the extraction, and m represents the weight (g) of the dried sample used.
E. Functional characterization of the extract
The functional groups in the dried extract from V. amygdalina leaves were identified using Fourier transform infrared (Nicolet iS5 iD7 ATR; Thermo Scientific, Germany) equipped with OMNIC software. The spectra were scanned from wave number between 4000 and 500 cm-1 with a resolution of 4 cm-1 [10]. The spectra obtained for the extracts were interpreted with a chart for characteristics infrared absorption frequencies of functional groups.
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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figures 1 to 3 illustrate the effects of individual extraction factors, namely, extraction time, solid-to-solvent ratio and ethanol concentration on the recoveries of extraction yields, TPC and TFC from extracts of V. amygdalina leaves. The influences of each factor are discussed in the followed subsections.
A. Influence of extraction time on the recovery yields
The effect of extraction time was studied by varying time between 1 to 4 h at the fixed solid-to-solvent ratio of 1:10 g/mL and ethanol concentration of 20% v/v as presented in Figure 1. The yields increased as the extraction time increased from 1 to 2 h, however, the yields tends to reduce as the extraction time was increased beyond 2 h. This might be attributed to the degradation of phenolic compounds due to longer exposure to localized heating [11]. Thus, the extraction time of 2 h was used to investigate the effects of other parameters.
Extraction yield TPC TFC 70 a b a c 60
50
40 b a c 30 d
20 b d.w.), d.w.), TFC (mg d.w.) QE/g a a 10 c
Extraction yield (% w/w), Extraction yield (% w/w), TPC(mg GAE/g 0 1 2 3 4 Extraction time (h) Figure 1: Influence of extraction time on the yields of extract, TPC and TFC from V. amygdalina leaves. Different letters along the column indicate a significant difference (p < 0.05).
B. Influence of solute-to-solvent ratio on the recovery yields
The solute-to-solvent ratio is another important parameter that influences the yields from plant sample using Soxhlet extraction method. At fixed extraction time of 2 h and ethanol concentration of 20% v/v, the solid-to-solvent ratio was varied as 1:10, 1:15, 1:20, and 1:25 g/mL. The results showed that solid-to-solvent ratio of 1:20 g/mL allows the best extraction of yield and phenolic compounds (Figure 2). This can be correlated to the mass transfer principles, whereby the driving force for mass transfer in the extraction process is appraised to be the solute concentration gradient between solid and solvent used [12]. Therefore, the solid-to-solvent ratio of 1:20 g/mL was considered to study the effect of ethanol concentration on the recovery yields.
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Extraction yield TPC TFC 80 b c 70 a a
60
50
40 c a b b
30 TFC (mg TFC (mg d.w.) QE/g 20 c a b b 10
Extraction yield (% w/w), Extraction yield (% w/w), TPC(mg GAE/g d.w.), 0 1:10 1:15 1:20 1:25 Feed/solvent (g/mL)
Figure 2: Influence of solid-to-solvent ratio on the yields of extract, TPC and TFC from V. amygdalina leaves. Different letters along the column indicate a significant difference (p < 0.05).
C. Influence of ethanol concentration on the recovery yields
Furthermore, the effect of ethanol concentration varied as 20, 40, 60, and 80% v/v at constant extraction time of 2 h and a solid- to-solvent ratio of 1:20 g/mL. As illustrated in Figure 3, the recovery yields improve as the concentration increases from 20 to 60% v/v, further increase in ethanol concentration caused a decline in the yields of extracts, TPC and TFC from V. amygdalina leaves. Studies had shown that binary-solvent system is more efficient than mono- solvent in the extraction of phenolic compounds from the plant matrix [12]. It has been reported that the presence of some amount of water can aid the mass transfer process in increasing the relative polarity of the solvent, thus enhance its solubilizing ability through effective swelling of the plant matrix. Therefore, the surface area for solute- solvent interaction increases [13]. Thus, the addition of water to ethanol enhance extraction efficiency of phenolic compounds as illustrated in Figure 3. Therefore, the highest recoveries of extract, TPC and TFC from V. amygdalina leaves were 14.22±0.19% w/w, 75.94±2.15 mg GAE/g d.w. and 46.53±1.14 mg QE/g d.w., respectively at extraction time of 2 h, solid-to-solvent ratio of 1:20 g/mL and ethanol concentration of 60% v/v.
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Extraction yield TPC TFC 90 c 80 d a b 70
60
50 c a b b 40
30
d.w.), TFC (mg QE/g d.w.) QE/g TFC (mg d.w.), 20 c a b b 10
Extraction yield (% w/w), TPC (mg GAE/g GAE/g (mg TPC (% yield w/w), Extraction 0 20 40 60 80 Ethanol concentration (% v/v)
Figure 3: Influence of ethanol concentration on the yields of extract, TPC and TFC from V. amygdalina leaves. Different letters along the column indicate a significant difference (p < 0.05).
D. Characterization of the extracts using FTIR analysis
The infrared spectra obtained at the highest conditions of Soxhlet extraction method for recoveries of TPC and TFC from extracts of V. amygdalina leaves is illustrated in Figure 4. Six major peaks were identified from the extract of V. amygdalina leaves. The stretch absorption band at 1065.59 cm-1 and 1104.88 cm-1 reveal the presence of alcohols group C-O, the presence of amines stretching absorption band at 1632.81 cm-1, the presence of C-H absorption bands was observed at 2849.29 cm-1 and 2917.11 cm-1, the presence of broad absorption band at 3328.50 cm-1 shows the presence of O-H stretching vibration of water molecules. This strongly suggested the presence of phenolic compounds in the extract. Soxhlet spectra show similar peaks as reported by Zakaria et al. [14].
Figure 4: The identified functional groups in extract from V. amygdalina leaves.
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4. CONCLUSION
The influences of extraction time, solid-to-solvent ratio and ethanol concentration on the recoveries of extraction yields, TPC and TFC from the extracts of V. amygdalina leaves using Soxhlet extraction method had been evaluated in this study. The results showed that the highest recoveries of extraction yield, TPC and TFC were 14.22±0.19% w/w, 75.94±2.15 mg GAE/g d.w. and 46.53±1.14 mg QE/g d.w., respectively at extraction time of 2 h, solid-to-solvent ratio of 1:20 g/mL and ethanol concentration of 60% v/v. However, six major peaks were identified from the Soxhlet extraction of V. amygdalina leaves at maximum conditions using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors of this manuscript appreciate the financial support of Universiti Malaysia Pahang under the grant number RDU180329.
REFERENCES
[1] Singh, G. Singh, S. C. Sati, and S. Sachdeva, “An overview on manufacturing of lubricating greases and testing processes,” Int. Conf. Adv. Res. Innov., pp. 43–6, 2014. [2] J. Wright, “Grease Basics,” Noria, 2008. [3] Donley, Handbook of Advances in Additive Lubricants and Grease technology, Auris Reference, 2012. [4] M. A. A. Mastor, “Negara dibanjiri minyak hitam” in Utusan Malaysia, pp.7, December 2011. [5] T. Bhaskar, M. A. Uddin, A. Muto, Y. Sakata, Y. Omura, K. Kimura, and Y. Kawakami, “Recycling of waste lubricant oil into chemical feedstock or fuel oil over supported iron oxide catalysts,” Fuel, vol. 83, pp. 9–15, 2004. [6] GVS, “Lubricants Market Analysis By Product, Industrial (Process Oils, General Industrial Oils, Metal Working Fluids, Industrial Engine Oils), Automotive (Heavy-Duty Engine Oils, Hydraulic & Transmission Fluid, Gear Oil, Passenger Vehicle Engine Oils, Automatic),” in Grand View Research, 2016. [7] EPA, “Managing, reusing, and recycling used oil,” United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2017. [8] TN50, “Trend: environment” in TN50, 2017. [9] S. Hegazi, “Conversion of used oil into lubricating grease and characterictic evaluation,” Int. J. Sci. Res., vol. 4, pp. 1894– 1898, 2015. [10] K. Ebisike, B. E. A. Daniel, M. N. Anakaa, H. M. Kefas, and S. O. O. Olusunie, “Effect of sodium hydroxide thickener on grease production,” Am. Chem. Sci. J., vol. 13, pp. 1–8, 2016. [11] M. N. Razali, M. A. A. Aziz, W. N. A. W. M. Hamdan, N. A. M. Salehan, and R. M. Yunus, “Synthesis of grease from waste oils and red gypsum,” Aus. J. Basic & Appl. Sci., vol. 11, pp. 154–159, 2017. [12] T. M. Verdura, G. Brunette, and R. Shah, Lubricating Greases Fuels and Lubricants Handbook: Technology, Properties, Performance, and Testing, ASTM International, pp. 225, 2003. [13] IMOA, “Molybdenum-sulfur compounds in lubrication,” IMOA, 2007. [14] Iheme, J. C. Offurum, and F. O. Chukwuma, “Production and blending of sodium based water-resistant lubricating greases from petroleum and petrochemical by-products,” Am. J. Comput. Sci. Eng. Surv., vol. 2, pp. 70–8, 2014. [15] P. M. Lugt, Grease Lubrication in Rolling Bearings, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2013. [16] Advancepetro, “Different types of Brake Fluid,” 2009. [17] M. Pirro, M. Webster, and E. Daschner, Lubrication Fundamentals, 3rd ed., CRC Press, 2016. [18] L. G. Ludwig, “Storing grease to avoid bleed and separation,” in Machinery Lubrication, February 2012. [19] A. Rezasoltani, and M. M. Khonsari, “On monitoring physical and chemical degradation and life estimation models for lubricating greases,” Lubricants, vol. 4, pp. 24, 2016. [20] Doyle, “General grease overview and bearing lubrication,” ALS Tribol.,2015.
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Ethanol CO2 Reforming over Cu/Al2O3 Catalyst for Syngas Production
Mohd-Nasir Nor Shafiqah Faculty of Chemical & Natural Resources Engineering Universiti Malaysia Pahang Lebuhraya Tun Razak, 26300 Gambang, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia
Mahadi B. Bahari Faculty of Chemical & Natural Resources Engineering Universiti Malaysia Pahang Lebuhraya Tun Razak, 26300 Gambang, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia
Lau N. Jun Faculty of Chemical & Natural Resources Engineering Universiti Malaysia Pahang Lebuhraya Tun Razak, 26300 Gambang, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia
Fahim Fayaz Faculty of Chemical & Natural Resources Engineering Universiti Malaysia Pahang Lebuhraya Tun Razak, 26300 Gambang, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia
Dai-Viet N. Vo Faculty of Chemical & Natural Resources Engineering Centre of Excellence for Advanced Research in Fluid Flow Universiti Malaysia Pahang Lebuhraya Tun Razak, 26300 Gambang, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia [email protected]
Abstract— ethanol CO2 reforming (ECR) over 10%Cu/Al2O3 catalyst was investigated for production of syngas. The catalyst was synthesized by implemented incipient wetness impregnation method and characterized by using X-ray diffraction (XRD). ECR was evaluated in a stainless steel fixed-bed reactor by varying reaction temperature from 973 K to 1023 K. XRD analysis indicated the formation of CuO phases and eventually reduce to Cu metallic during H2 reduction. The ethanol and carbon dioxide conversion reached until 55.39% and 38.91% respectively at 1023 K reaction temperature. Furthermore, H2/CO ratio was obtained below 2 which is ideal for Fisher-Tropsch synthesis (FTS).
Keywords—Ethanol; CO2 reforming; Catalysts; Temperature; Syngas
1. INTRODUCTION
The dependence on fossil fuels to achieve energy requirements create negative impacts towards environments such as global warming and the released of greenhouse gases. Fossil fuels also categorize as nonrenewable sources which can diminished in the future. Therefore, there is a dire need of renewable and environmentally friendly energy sources to fulfill the upcoming energy demands.
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Therefore, introduction of ethanol as feedstock is an optimistic option due to its affordable cost, high availability and low toxicity [1-3]. In addition, ethanol can be converted into valuable syngas by applying ECR technology. ECR is eco-friendly and an innovative way for syngas production because of consuming bio-ethanol and capable in utilizing the unwanted greenhouse gas which is CO2. Synthetic gas produced from ECR can be applied for the downstream production of higher chain hydrocarbons through Fischer-Tropsch reaction and methanol production [4,5]. C H OHCOCOHH 33(296.7 kJ m ol)-1 2522 rxn (1)
Syngas can be produced from different approaches such as steam reforming, partial oxidation and autothermal reforming [6]. Nevertheless, these technologies comprise the involvement of non-renewable source which is methane (CH4) and huge amount of CO2 emissions. Therefore, with the introduction of ECR that operated ethanol and CO2 as feedstock appears to be a notable option to replace natural resources.
Ni-based catalyst gain attention for reforming of ethanol because of its ability to break C-C bond. However, Ni-based catalysts usually deactivated due to the deposited carbon and sintering [7,8]. Hence, it is crucial to explore another type of metals such as copper to be implemented in this study. Additionally, catalytic performances hugely depend in operating conditions especially operating temperature. Thus, it is important to study the effect of operating temperature towards reactant conversions and product yields.
Currently, there is no previous research about Cu/Al2O3 catalyst on ECR reaction. Hence, it is very essential to study the catalytic performance of Cu/Al2O3 for ECR process. Therefore, the objective of this research is to study the influence of operating temperature of ECR process on 10%Cu/Al2O3.
2. EXPERIMENTAL
The γ-Al2O3 support (Puralox TH 100/150 from Sasol) was calcined to maintain the thermal stability of the support in -1 carbolite furnace at 1023 K for 6 h using 5 K min heating rate. The 10%Cu/Al2O3 catalyst was synthesized by using incipient wetness impregnation. The alumina support was impregnated with calculated amount of Cu(NO3)2.3H2O aqueous solution (supplied by Sigma-Aldrich) to obtain 10%Cu/Al2O3 catalyst. Thereafter, the mixture was stirred using rotary evaporator (BÜCHI Rotavapor R-200) under vacuum for 3 h at 323 K and later dried in oven overnight (UFB-500) at temperature of 393 K. Then, the dried catalyst was further calcined in air for 5 h at 873 K with 5 K min-1 ramping rate. The calcined catalyst was crushed and sieved for ECR evaluation.
For this study, XRD analysis was performed employing Cu monochromatic X-ray radiation accompanied by 1.5418 Å wavelengths (λ) at 30 kV and 15mA on a Rigaku Miniflex II system. The step increment of 0.02° was applied and the XRD patterns were noted from 3° until 80°. Match! Software was applied to analyze the data obtained.
ECR was performed in a fixed-bed reactor and situated in a tubular furnace at 20 kPa with reaction temperature of 948-1023 K. About 0.1 g of catalyst was placed inside the reactor using quartz wool. Ethanol was injected into the reactor from KellyMed KL-602 syringe pump whilst CO2 reactant and N2 gas were precisely controlled by mass flow controller (Alicat) -1 catalyst was reduced first for 2 h at reduced at 973 K with 50 ml min of 50%H2/N2 reducing mixture before reaction. -1 -1 Thereafter, ethanol and CO2 at stoichiometric C2H5OH:CO2 feed ratio of 1:1 was passed through the reactor at 42 L gcat h of gas hourly space velocity (GHSV). Throughout 8 h of reaction, the total flow rate was retained at 70 ml min-1. Then, the effluent gas was evaluated on gas chromatograph (GC) (Agilent GC 6890)
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Fig. 1 shows the XRD analyses for γ-Al2O3 and 10%Cu/Al2O3. The calcined γ-Al2O3 provided to make comparisons with other catalyst. The peak for γ-Al2O3 at 2θ recorded of 32.67°, 37.34°, 45.65°, and 67.02° (JCPDS card No. 04-0858) [9]. Meanwhile, for 10%Cu/Al2O3, CuO phase was detected at 2θ of 32.53°, 35.56°, 38.75°, 48.75°, 58.36°, 61.57°, 75.28° (JCPDS card No. 41-0254) [10].
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Figure 1: XRD analysis of fresh (a) γ-Al2O3 (b) 10%Cu/Al2O3
The outcome on temperature effect of ECR on catalytic performance was investigated at stoichiometric feed ratio which is P P CO2 = C H25 OH = 20 kPa by varying reaction temperature from 973 K until 1023 K. Fig. 2 shows the effect of temperature on ethanol and carbon dioxide conversion over 10%Cu/Al2O3 catalyst. Based on results, the trend visibly indicated upwards trend as the temperature increase. The highest conversion of ethanol and CO2 obtained at temperature 1023 K followed by 998 K and 973 K. Furthermore, at temperature 1023 K the ethanol and CO2 conversions are 53.2% and 37.2% % respectively. This is due to the endothermic nature of ECR process that favors high temperature reaction [11].
Figure 2: Temperature effect on ethanol and CO2 conversion over 10%Cu/Al2O3 catalyst at = = 20 kPa.
The effect of temperature on product yield over 10%Cu/Al2O3 catalyst was presented in Fig. 3. The product yield for H2, CO and CH4 shows trend aligned with the increasing temperature. Moreover, highest yield for hydrogen at 1023 K with 31.7 %, 20.3% of CO yield and 10.8% for CH4. These trend previously reported by Jankhah and Abatzoglou (2008) that credit enhance of the CH4 dry reforming reaction. CH4 yield proposed similar increasing trend due to rate of ethanol decomposition is relatively higher compared to methane dry reforming with increasing temperature [12].
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P P Figure 3: Temperature effect on product yield over 10%Cu/Al2O3 catalyst at CO2 = C H25 OH = 20 kPa.
Fig. 4 indicates the H2/CO and CH4/CO ratio from temperature effect of ECR reaction for 10%Cu/Al2O3 catalyst. H2/CO ratio improves with enhancement of temperature and the ratio greater than 1 because of concurrent ethanol dehydrogenation reaction during ECR process [13]. H2/CO ratio varied from 1.51 until 1.56 which is acceptable for Fisher-Trospch synthesis [14]. The enhancement CH4/CO ratio with the increasing of temperature is because of ethanol decomposition is more active compared to reforming of methane.
Figure 4: Temperature effect on product ratio over 10%Cu/Al2O3 catalyst at PC2H5OH = PCO2 = 20 kPa.
4. CONCLUSIONS
10%Cu/Al2O3 catalyst has been evaluated for ECR reaction at different reaction temperature of 973 K to 1023 K with constant ethanol and carbon dioxide partial pressure. ECR undergo 8 h reaction time. From XRD results, CuO phase was dispersed throughout the surface of catalyst with crystallite size of 32.4 nm. The performance of 10%Cu/Al2O3 based on reaction temperatures are as follow 1023 K > 998 K > 973 K. The ethanol and carbon dioxide conversion reached until 53.2% and 37.2% respectively at temperature of 1023 K. In addition, product yield and H2/CO ratio also rise with increasing of temperature. H2/CO ratio > 1 represents the availability of ethanol dehydrogenation.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors thankful for the financial aid from Universiti Malaysia Pahang (PGRS 180368, UMP Research Grant Scheme) for assisting this study. Mohd-Nasir Nor Shafiqah would like to thank Master Research Scheme (MRS) from Universiti Malaysia Pahang.
REFERENCES
1. A. Haryanto, S. Fernando, N. Murali, and S. Adhikari, “Current Status of Hydrogen Production Techniques by Steam Reforming of Ethanol: A Review,” Energy & Fuels, vol. 19, pp. 2098-2106, 2005. 2. L. V. Mattos, G. Jacobs, B.H. Davis, and F.B. Noronha, “Production of Hydrogen from Ethanol: Review of Reaction Mechanism and Catalyst Deactivation,” Chem. Rev, vol. 112, pp. 4094-4123, 2012. 3. W. Wang, “Production of Hydrogen by Steam Reforming of Bio-Ethanol Over Nickel-Copper Bimetallic Catalysts,” Int J Green Energy, vol. 6, pp. 92–103, 2009. 4. J. N. Armor, “ The Multiple Roles for Catalysis in the Production of H2,” Appl Catal A, vol. 176, pp. 159-176, 1999. 5. D.-V. N. Vo, T. H. Nguyen, E. M. Kennedy, B. Z. Dlugogorski, and A. A. Adesina, “Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis: Effect of Promoter Type on Alumina-Supported Mo Carbide Catalysts,” Catal Today, vol. 175, pp. 450-459, 2011. 6. L. S. Neiva and L. Gama, “Study on the Characteristics of the Reforming of Methane: A Review,” Braz J Petroleum Gas, vol. 4, pp. 119-127, 2010. 7. Y. C. Sharma, A. Kumar, R. Prasad, and S. N. Upadhyay, “Ethanol Steam Reforming for Hydrogen Production: Latest and Effective Catalyst Modification Strategies to Minimize Carbonaceous Deactivation,” Renew Sust Energ Rev, vol. 74, pp. 89-103, 2017. 8. T. Hou, S. Zhang, Y. Chen, D. Wang, and W. Cai, “Hydrogen Production from Ethanol Reforming: Catalysts and Reaction Mechanism,” Renew Sust Energ Rev, vol. 44, pp. 132-148, 2015. 9. Fayaz, H. T. Danh, C. Nguyen-Huy, K. B. Vu, B. Abdullah, and D.-V. N. Vo, “Promotional Effect of Ce-dopant on Al2O3-supported Co Catalysts for Syngas Production via CO2 Reforming of Ethanol,” Procedia Eng, vol. 148, pp. 646-653, 2016. 10. H. Yahiro, K. Nakaya, T. Yamamoto, K. Saiki, and H. Yamaura, “Effect of Calcination Temperature on the Catalytic Activity of Copper Supported on γ-alumina for the Water-gas-shift Reaction,” Catal Comm, vol. 7, pp. 228-231, 2017. 11. W. Wang and Y. Wang, “Dry Reforming of Ethanol for Hydrogen Production: Thermodynamic Investigation,” Int J Hydrogen Energy, vol. 34, pp. 5382-5389, 2009. 12. S. Jankhah, N. Abatzoglou, and F. Gitzhofer, “Thermal and Catalytic Dry Reforming and Cracking of Ethanol for Hydrogen and Carbon Nanofilaments Production,” Int J Hydrogen Energy, vol. 33, pp. 4769-4779, 2008. 13. A. Zawadzki, J. D. A. Bellido, A. F. Lucrédio, and E. M. Assaf, “Dry reforming of ethanol over supported Ni catalysts prepared by impregnation with methanolic solution,” Fuel Process Technol, vol. 128, pp. 432-440, 2014. 14. M. B. Bahari, N. H. H. Phuc, B. Abdullah, F. Alenazey, and D.-V. N. Vo, “Ethanol Dry Reforming for Syngas Production over Ce-promoted Ni/Al2O3 Catalyst,” J Environ Chem Eng, vol. 4, pp. 4830-4838, 2015.
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Interaction Analysis of Thin Film Composite Membrane Using Trimesoyl Chloride – Piperazine by Dynamic Molecular
Wan Zulaisa Amira Wan Jusoh Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Kuantan Pahang Malaysia
Sunarti Abdul Rahman Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Kuantan Pahang Malaysia [email protected]
Abdul Latif Ahmad Pusat Pengajian Kejuruteraan Kimia, Kampus Kejuruteraan, Universiti Sains Malaysia 11800 Universiti Sains Malaysia Pulai Pinang, Malaysia
Nadzirah Mohd Mokhtar Faculty of Engineering Technology, University Malaysia Pahang, 26300, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia
Abstract- Polyamide thin film composite (TFC) membranes are well known for their performance and strength which normally utilized in pervaporation dehydration and reverse osmosis field for. TFC is produced by the rapid reaction between aqueous and organic monomer. However, the interaction between monomers is not well discussed at the atomic level and the likelihood to produce a loose TFC membrane. Thus, this paper aims to analysis the interaction between aqueous monomer - organic monomer using Molecular Dynamic (MD) simulation to form TFC membrane. This work was done by the Piperazine (PIP), aqueous monomer with the organic monomer, Trimesoyl Chloride (TMC) in the binary systems. The simulation involved the setting of Ewald Summation Method, COMPASS force field, equilibrium phase by microcanonical, NVE (constant volumes and total energy) and run-production stage by NPT (constant pressure and temperature). Analysis by the Radial distribution function (RDF) explicates the intermolecular interfacial of 5.75 Å between the bonding of N (Amine) - C (TMC) atoms at the distance 1.0 Å. This study suggested that the TFC formed by the interaction between TMC - PIP is very much stable based on interaction higher interaction at very short distance.
Keywords- Aqueous Monomers; COMPASS Force Field; Dynamic Molecular; Interfacial Polymerization; Thin Film Composite Membrane
1. INTRODUCTION
Thin Film Composite (TFC) is generally produced by a quick Interfacial Polymerization (IP) reaction between amine (aqueous monomer) – and acyl chloride (organic monomer). As the acyl chloride-based monomer come to contact with the amine-based monomer, it is rapidly speculated the growth of the thin polyamide layer at the bi-solution interface. This technique offers selective layer formed on top of the substrate is very thin, which
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enhanced membrane flux increasing. This would provide TFC to perform the outstanding flux and selectivity, meanwhile, subtract membrane would deliver the mechanical stability but does not interfere with the mass transport. TFC is considered as one of the modification types on the dense membrane surfaces and commonly purposed in the previous researches. However, the typical dense membrane problem is getting wet easily which shorten the period of time when contacting with the liquid in the process such as pervaporation (PV), nano-filtration (NF), reverse osmosis (RO) and etc. To avert such flaws with effective and economic way, TFC is a good choice to enclose thin layer of hydrophilic polymer on top of the substrate produced by the interfacial polymerization (IP) method [1–3]. Zuo et al. applied the interfacial polymerization technique to the TFC membranes with m- phenylenediamine (MPD) and hyperbranched polyethyleneimine (HPEI) (aqueous monomer) with the trimesoyl chloride (TMC)[4,5]. However, there were few studies found that utilizing the TFC did contribute to the major escalation in the separation factor [6,7]. This may due to the loose TFC membrane formed and swipe out during operation. Choi et al. stressed that in the end, the importance of the fundamental study of membrane structure- performance relationship to development better TFC membranes [8]. Thus, in addition of the parameter for the interfacial polymerization mechanism, it is intrinsically to have an accurate selection of monomers. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation is purposely used to simulate the interaction between the molecular structures at the atomistic level. It is widely used in chemical process and pharmaceutical field. The study on the compatibility of the materials blended is reported by researchers on polyvinylmethylether/polystyrene, polymers/carbon nanotubes and Poly (vinyl alcohol) and Chitosan using COMPASS force field setting [9–11]. Moreover, the system process, and error of the actual process can be firstly estimated using the simulation which assists to reduce the time and cost [12]. MD is known for its accurate data compared with the results obtained from the actual process [13–15]. Any defects and international stresses on the surfaces could deteriorate the membrane mechanical strength. As one of the simple and economic alternative, IP provides a good strategy to overcome this limitation by TFC polymer matrix. Thus it is very important, to ensure a good interfacial binding for improving the polymer function and properties to be applied to processes. However, the strength of the interfacial binding very dependable on the selection type of the aqueous – organic monomers. In our simulations study, we focus on the chemical interaction between TMC and organic monomers specifically Piperazine (PIP). For that reason, molecular dynamics simulations with the COMPASS force field were the best for examining inter -molecular bonding during IP process. 2. METHODS
2.1 Monomers selection using Molecular Dynamic. The membrane simulations were applied to define the interaction of organic and aqueous monomers. In this study, amines PIP were chosen to undergo IP reaction with TMC to produce the TFC membrane as shown in Table 1. TMC is considered superior as organic solvents and applied in the most TFC membrane [2,3,16]. Table 2.1: Density of TMC-aqueous monomers
Monomers Name Density (g/mol)
Organic TMC 265.47
Aqueous PIP 86.14 Source: Open Chemistry Database. https://pubchem.ncbi.nl m The best pair of organic and aqueous monomer was analysed by radial distribution function (RDF) analysis in the MD for the shortest distance for the interaction happen as well as the magnitude of the attraction forces intra-molecules. The strongest bonding purposed the best depositing of PA TFC on the subtract membrane. The common molecular structures of the monomers with the different number of functional groups and chain length were presented in Figure 1. Generally, TMC having three acyl chloride groups attach to a benzene ring and PIP contains two amine groups to create the polyamide with the crosslinking structure.
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Figure 1: The repeat unit in the monomers chain molecule: (a) TMC, (b) PIP. Colour code: red: O; light grey: H; dark grey: C; Green: Cl; Blue: N.
2.2 Molecular Dynamic simulations on the Interfacial Polymerization Process
MD simulation study of crosslinking between aqueous monomer-TMC had been performed using Material Studio version 7.0 software provided by Accelrys. The simulation involved the setting of Ewald Summation Method and COMPASS force field The equilibrium phase was performing in the microcanonical, NVE (number molecules, volumes, and total energy) followed by run-production stage by NPT (number molecules, pressure, and temperature). The computer simulations have been performed in three dimensions [17] for an MD cell of a volume V = (22.810 x 22.812 x 22.814) Å3 under both the energy and temperature control ensembles at T = 298 K as shown in Figure 2. Starting with a 10:10 (by molecules) TMC-aqueous monomer solution, with a corresponding density of about 1.00 g/cm3.The simulations were run for a 1000 picoseconds (ps) with the time step set 1 femtosecond (fs) for each NVE and NPT runs. The magnitude of the attraction or repulsion interaction between PIP – TMC was analysed by Radial distribution function analysis (RDF).
Figure 2: 3D box represent the simulation of crosslinking of 10:10 (a) TMC-PIP in a binary system with the dimensions.
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3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
3.1Final cross-linking density The final cross-linking density of the TFC membranes were computed in the run-production stage by NPT ensembles for 1000 ps was found about 1.337. This result is in good agreement with the most simulation works and varies from 1.1-1.38 g/cm3 [18–20]. These validations are acceptable to support the force field parameters run in these MD simulations. According to Huang et al., higher the cross-linking density acquired by the shorter aqueous monomers structure [6]. It was revealed in the simulation of the shortest molecular chain, pointed out the highest cross-linking density. In the meantime, lower degree of crosslinking yield higher polymerization rate [21].
3.2Cross linking between acyl and amine functional group Cross-linking is a process of announcing of bonding connection between a component to the pre-existing polymer to form a large and complex repeating unit of polymer molecules. All network chains have reacted on both ends, and each end of all chains is attached to the network at different junction points. There are two main interaction forces involved for cross-link to fabricate TFC membrane which are intra-molecular and intermolecular interaction. These forces can be identified using RDF analysis from the MD simulations. Intermolecular is the major attractive forces among the atoms from different molecules nearby to form larger molecules structure, while intramolecular is considered as minor atoms interaction. Basically, intra-molecular is the repulsive forces between atoms with their adjacent atom in a molecule. Hidrogen atoms leaving amine main chain form a covalent bond with Chloride atoms which drawn from TMC molecule to form by-product of HCl. The bonding was assigned by the Van der Waal’s (VDW) parameters.
3.3 RDFs analysis on the intermolecular interaction Referring to Figure 3, the main correlations to form a polymeric network is the bonding between Carbon(C) atom TMC molecule and Nitrogen (N) atom from amine molecule. Results show that the most preferential sites of interactions are the between C atom in TMC with the N atom from monomers (maximum of the first peak). The trend shows that the distance between N(amine) - C(TMC) atoms are in the range 5.75 Å to start the intermolecular interaction with the intensity between 1.0 Å with each other. Higher the density of chain packing donated to the larger transformation in the mean-square bond length and mean-square bond angle which contributed to rising the bond stretching and bond bending inside the chain [22]. The factors significantly elaborate the enhancement of the intermolecular interaction as well.
Figure 3: Inter-molecular attractions between Carbon atoms of TMC and Nitrogen of PIP at 298K.
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The finding is consider lower compared with the work by Shen et al., which attained the C – N atoms binding at the distance of 3.5 Å between TMC and m-phenylenediamine respectively using AMBER Force Field (GAFF) in MD simulation. This can be described by considering the structure of the PIP [23]. PIP reported to have weakest reaction rate during the interfacial polymerization may due to the steric hindrance effect. The results obtained agreed with the previous work carried by Huang et al.,[6]. Existing of the steric bulk effected the IP reaction to become much slower. However, the binding between TMC - PIP is still considered stable as the interaction occurred within the 10Å distance. Monomer affinity with each other is an important characteristic to generate sufficiently thin TFC layer but excellent perm-selective membranes performance. Both repulsive and attractive forces presented in the molecules are strongest which also attributed to the thin layer within the nano scale which very desirable for solvent-solvent separation relatively [24]. RDFs Trend described that the PIP owned the alicyclic ring still able to form more stiff TFC molecular chain however TMC-PIP system only produced semi-aromatic chain [25]. In the PIP-TMC interaction, there were two significant peaks which at the 5.75 and 10.25 Å with average intensity of 1.11 Å suggested that longer time step required. This also can include that the polymerization rate of this binary system is weak. The stable and compact TFC membrane is consequently reflected the membrane performances. TFC membrane chain packing density was significantly related to the IP reaction rate. Furthermore, according to Tsai et al., (2017) membrane created by lower chain density can be less rigid due to penetration of aqueous monomers into TMC solution during reaction process compared with aqueous monomer which have greater molecule size monomers which resulting to the poor selectivity result[26].
4. CONCLUSIONS
The idea to form a compact TFC structure on the support membrane is to avoid the loose TFC membrane and wash away when contacting with the feed solutions. The stability of the aqueous –organic monomers interfacial polymerization reaction was examined by the intermolecular atomic interaction analysis. RDFs analysis shows the main bond between N-atoms in PIP and C-atoms in TMC within the distance less than 10 Å. The high intensity at this short distance indicates that the structures of cross-linked PA formed are compact and stable. The RDFs analysis also show that the interaction between TMC with PIP depending on the cross-linking density and monomers molecule size.
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"Multilayered polyamide membranes by spray-assisted 2-step interfacial polymerization for increased performance of trimesoyl chloride (TMC)/m-phenylenediamine (MPD)-derived polyamide membranes," J. Memb. Sci. 446 (2013) 504–512. doi:10.1016/j.memsci.2013.07.031. [6] S.H. Huang, C.J. Hsu, D.J. Liaw, C.C. Hu, K.R. Lee, J.Y. Lai, "Effect of chemical structures of amines on physicochemical properties of active layers and dehydration of isopropanol through interfacially polymerized thin-film composite membranes," J. Memb. Sci. 307 (2008) 73–81. doi:10.1016/j.memsci.2007.09.014. [7] Y. Zhang, N.L. Le, T.S. Chung, Y. Wang, "Thin-film composite membranes with modified polyvinylidene fluoride substrate for ethanol dehydration via pervaporation," Chem. Eng. Sci. (2014). doi:10.1016/j.ces.2014.07.040. [8] W. Choi, S. Jeon, S.J. Kwon, H. Park, Y.I. Park, S.E. Nam, P.S. Lee, J.S. Lee, J. Choi, S. Hong, E.P. Chan, J.H. Lee, "Thin film composite reverse osmosis membranes prepared via layered interfacial polymerization," J. Memb. Sci. 527 (2017) 121–128. doi:10.1016/j.memsci.2016.12.066. [9] A. Ahmadi, J.J. Freire, "Molecular dynamics simulation study of compatibility for the polyvinylmethylether/polystyrene mixture," Mol. Simul. 34 (2008) 1253–1258. doi:10.1080/08927020802175233. [10]M. Yang, V. Koutsos, M. Zaiser, "Interactions between polymers and carbon nanotubes: A molecular dynamics study," J. Phys. Chem. B. 109 (2005) 10009–10014. doi:10.1021/jp0442403. [11]S.S. Jawalkar, K.V.S.N. Raju, S.B. Halligudi, M. Sairam, T.M. Aminabhavi, "Molecular modeling simulations to predict compatibility of poly(vinyl alcohol) and chitosan blends: A comparison with experiments," J. Phys. Chem. B. 111 (2007) 2431–2439. doi:10.1021/jp0668495. [12]V. Kolev, V. Freger, "Hydration, porosity and water dynamics in the polyamide layer of reverse osmosis membranes: A molecular dynamics study," Polym. (United Kingdom). 55 (2014) 1420–1426. doi:10.1016/j.polymer.2013.12.045. [13]C. Meddah, A. Milchev, S.A. Sabeur, A.M. Skvortsov, "Molecular weight effects on interfacial properties of linear and ring polymer melts: A molecular dynamics study," J. Chem. Phys. 145 (2016). doi:10.1063/1.4967339. [14]K. Kholmurodov, E. Dushanov, K. Yasuoka, H. Khalil, A. Galal, S. Ahmed, N. Sweilam, H. Moharram, "Molecular dynamics simulation of the interaction of ethanol-water mixture with a Pt surface," Nat. Sci. 3 (2011) 1011–1021. doi:10.4236/ns.2011.312126. [15]M.A. González, "Force fields and molecular dynamics simulations," Collect. SFN. 12 (2011) 169–200. doi:10.1051/sfn/201112009. [16]B. Khorshidi, B. Soltannia, T. Thundat, M. Sadrzadeh, "Synthesis of thin film composite polyamide membranes: Effect of monohydric and polyhydric alcohol additives in aqueous solution," J. Memb. Sci. 523 (2017) 336–345. doi:10.1016/j.memsci.2016.09.062. [17]M. Li, X.Y. Liu, J.Q. Qin, Y. Gu, "Molecular dynamics simulation on glass transition temperature of isomeric polyimide," Express Polym. Lett. 3 (2009) 665–675. doi:10.3144/expresspolymlett.2009.83. [18]M. Ding, A. Szymczyk, F. Goujon, A. Soldera, A. Ghoufi, "Structure and dynamics of water confined in a polyamide reverse-osmosis membrane: A molecular-simulation study," J. Memb. Sci. 458 (2014) 236–244. doi:10.1016/j.memsci.2014.01.054. [19]M. Shen, S. Keten, R.M. Lueptow, "Dynamics of water and solute transport in polymeric reverse osmosis membranes via molecular dynamics simulations," J. Memb. Sci. 506 (2016) 95–108. doi:10.1016/j.memsci.2016.01.051. [20]Y. Xiang, Y. Liu, B. Mi, Y. Leng, "Hydrated polyamide membrane and its interaction with alginate: A molecular dynamics study," Langmuir. 29 (2013) 11600–11608. doi:10.1021/la401442r. [21]K.M. Hutchins, C.Y. Lee, B. Luo, Q. Chen, J.S. Moore, "Effects of Cross-Linking Density on Interfacial
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Lean Management and HRM Practices in Relation towards Operational Performance: Confirmation of Measurement Model
Azhani Ismail Faculty of Industrial Management University Malaysia Pahang (UMP) Pahang, Malaysia [email protected]
Yuserrie Zainuddin Faculty of Industrial Management University Malaysia Pahang (UMP) Pahang, Malaysia [email protected]
Abstract— This study explores the influence of human resource management (HRM) practices on the adoption of lean management (LM) that affect operational performance (OP) in Malaysia local authorities (LAs). The purpose of this paper is to empirically investigate the latent constructs of and the scale for evaluating LM and HRM practices in relation towards OP in organization. This research analyzes the data using Partial Least Square-Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) and utilizes SmartPLS 3 to investigate the impact of HRM practices on LM and OP in organization. With data collected from 177 Malaysia LAs, a one-stage approach is conducted in the assessments of the measurement model through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and adjusted according to the guidelines set to verify reliability and validity. The empirical findings suggest that the measurement model demonstrates satisfactory reliability and validity. This study contributes to the literature on empirical examination of the constructs of LM, HRM practices and OP, and to the practices of managers with validated measurement scales to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses in different facets of implementing LM in improving OP through the role played by HRM practices in the organizations.
Keywords— lean management; HRM practices; operational performance; measurement model
4. INTRODUCTION
Increased competition and globalization have raised the need for lower costs and higher quality in producing goods and services, which generally explains the success of lean management (LM) as a concept [12, 26, 42]. LM is well-known to pursue waste elimination and reducing non-value-added activities in the organization [17] to create a streamlined, high quality system that enhances operational performance, ultimately yielding competitive advantage [8, 102]. It has been promoted as enabling public service providers to ‘do more with less’ [78, 79], and capable to fulfil the needs of key stakeholders, and to stretch public sector limited resources towards producing more value for the customers [77].
LM is very much a people-driven system. In fact, recent literature identifying barriers to LM transformation suggests that the largest hurdles faced by organizations pursuing LM transformation are people-related [42, 86]. Accordingly, some researches suggests that LM and human resource management (HRM) practices are closely related and can interact in order to improve operational performance (OP) in organization [10, 56, 90, 97, 102, 107]. One of the distinctive features of LM and HRM practices is that better performance is achieved through the people in the organization. The greatest impact the human resources (HRs) organization can have on a LM transformation is the education and training on skills and behaviours on what respect for people really means and looks like to buy in engagement and commitment from everyone in the organization. [56] in his study stated that establishing a LM organizational culture very much depends on the organization’s ability to select, develop, engage, and inspire HRs through effective performance management strategies.
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There has been a spate of research that has sought to test whether LM increases OP [84, 98]. However, the role of the HRM practices as mediation variables has not been analysed in the relationship. Therefore, this study is timely and necessary to better aid organizations in the management of LM principles, as well as to cover the gap by means of scrutinizing the impact of HRM practices on the LM-OP relationship. To advance investigation and practice of LM in improving OP with the effect of HRM practices in organization, appropriate measurement scales are needed. In general, identification of appropriate measurement scales for emerging concepts and theories is necessary to complete robust research and to advance the body of knowledge in a field. [23] stated that, measurement is a fundamental activity of science and that measurements and broader scientific questions interacting with each other within their boundaries are almost imperceptible.
The field of LM, HRM practices and OP are arguably in their early development phases, both academically and practically. Academically, to effectively and empirically advance theory within these fields, some useful and testable multi-item measurement scales are needed. Thus, greater attention will need to be focused on employing multi-item latent constructs, assessing them for content validity, and purifying them through field-based testing [55]. Using literature in LM, HRM practices and performance of organization, the study introduces a number of scales that may be used to help evaluate practices in the areas of LM, HRM practices and OP in Malaysia public sector. Practically, organizations can also benefit from development of reliable and valid scales to measure LM, HRM practices and OP in organization. Practitioners can use these scales for benchmarking, continuous improvement and project management activities when seeking to implement LM to improve OP via HRM practices. One contribution of this study is to help public sector in Malaysia understand the different facets of LM implementation and identify the strengths and weaknesses of the LM implementation in improving OP of organization with the role played by HRM practices.
Given the theoretical and practical importance of developing LM, HRM practices and OP measurement scales in public sector, this study introduces a research based on an empirical survey of Malaysia public sector. The public sector in Malaysia is a major service provider, particularly business services and social services [64]. Hence, the importance of OP in public sector should be given due emphasis as this sector contributes significantly to the Malaysian economy and society. In 2016, Malaysia has 1.3 million employees in the public sector contributing to 9% of Malaysia’s total employment. This will have a major impact on the country’s productivity as this sector accounts for almost 30% of Malaysia’s gross domestic product (GDP) [64]. These factors mean that any changes in the public sector often have an impact on productivity and have significant economic implications. Therefore, in order to sustain OP enhancement effectively in the public sector, the measurement’s intention should focus on both efficiency and effectiveness of the organization. However, in Malaysia, LM is still yet to be considered as mature state as there are still many organizations that are not applying LM either as a system-wide approach or partial LM implementation. The lack of widespread use of LM in Malaysia can be potentially due to many factors such as lack of awareness in LM, not knowing the appropriate guidelines to apply LM in organizations, and the research theme that is not well-studied yet in Malaysia [17].
The aim of this study is to investigate the LM, HRM practices and OP constructs and their defining measurement items emphasizing Malaysia public sector with broader implications for application of these scales to other environments. The present paper is structured into five parts. Section 1 discusses the introduction, while Section 2 underlines literature review of main variables conceptualization. The methodology used to develop and validate the main variables scales is presented in Section 3. Section 4 presents the analysis and empirical results of this study, followed by discussion on findings in Section 5. Section 6 concludes the discussion by summarizing the findings, implications, limitations, and potential for future research.
5. LITERATURE REVIEW OF MAIN VARIABLES CONCEPTUALIZATION
There are three main variables in this study namely: (1) lean management, (2) HRM practices, and (3) operational performance. Concise explanations for each main variable are as listed in the following subsections.
A. Lean Management Conceptualization
Over the years, there has been considerable development of LM concept, and many views of what constitutes LM. LM research has evolved from early conceptualization [66, 88] to the purported benefits of implementation [28, 32, 80, 84] and to a unified definition [83], with various extensions such as agility [35], and even the possibility of becoming “too lean” [27]. LM roots in the Toyota Production System (TPS) [44, 61], which was originated within the Japanese automobile industry following World War II and was developed by a production executive named Taiichi Ohno. [50] stated that outside of Toyota, TPS is often 233
known as lean, since this was the term made popular by the two best-selling books, “The Machine that Changed the World: The Story of Lean Production”, and “Lean Thinking: Banish Waste and Create Wealth in Your Corporation” [104].
From the current review, LM has been implemented in various kind of manufacturing sector in developed countries. In manufacturing, the concepts of LM tools are ultimately useful in the shop floor practices that involved continuous improvement elements [17]. As such, numerous studies have concluded that LM is a multifaceted concept that may be grouped together as distinct bundles of organizational practices [9, 10, 21, 54, 59, 63, 84, 97, 101]. A list of bundles of LM practices includes just- in-time (JIT), total quality management (TQM), total productive maintenance (TPM), HRM, kaizen, kanban, 5S, pull, flow production, low setup, controlled processes, and involved employees [17, 51, 58, 83, 84, 85, 89, 93]. However, these studies have mainly focused on manufacturers, and mostly in developed countries. Each of them has introduced a group of dimensions particular to the setting of their study. Thus, their results cannot be freely generalized to Malaysia public sector, which incorporates a different culture [70], traditions [7], and management paradigms [49] from the western world manufacturing context.
There is a significant need for exploring the key dimensions of LM that suit best to the Malaysia public sector context. Following the theoretical stance of the present research, the researcher defines LM as “an integrated socio-technical system” [26, 29, 63, 65, 83], with a long-term philosophy, where the right processes will produce the right results and value can be added to the organization by continuously developing people and partners, while continuously solving problems to drive organizational learning [50, 76]. This study then follows [24], who conceptualize LM from the four principles (4P) dimensions of LM developed by [50] to guide the understanding of the key elements associated with LM which include four dimensions: (1) philosophy; (2) process; (3) people and partners, and (4) problem solving. This 4P dimensions of LM being chosen to measure LM in the current study because the researcher believes that organizations can dramatically improve their OP by successfully implement LM strategy which stems from a deeper business philosophy based on the understanding of people and human motivation, the ability to cultivate leadership, teams, and culture to devise strategy, to build supplier relationship, and to maintain a learning organization. Furthermore, this 4P dimensions encompasses a more comprehensive variable set than the ones developed by past studies in manufacturing industry in Western world. It is also based on a broad consensus that the success of a LM transformation not only depends on the application of tools and techniques [107], but that for the sustainable benefits of these to be achieved, it is necessary to pay attention to the human factor [22, 60, 92] and the establishment of a culture that sustains the LM transformation [50].
B. HRM Practices Conceptualization
In the literature, there appears to be no consensus on the nature of HRM practices. Some studies focus on the effectiveness of the HRM department [95], some on the value of HRM in terms of knowledge, skills and competencies [43], several define HRM in terms of individual practices [6] or systems or bundles of practices [13, 69] and yet others acknowledge the impact of these practices or systems on both the human capital value in terms of knowledge, skills and abilities, and directly on employee behavior in terms of higher motivation, increased satisfaction, less absence and increases in productivity [105].
[11] examine the enormous variety of different practices being used in the 104 analyzed articles. There is not one fixed list of generally applicable HRM practices or systems of practices that define or construct HRM. In total they are able to list 26 different practices, of which the top four are: careful recruitment and selection, training and development, performance management (including appraisal), and contingent pay and reward schemes. These four dimensions are also agreed by [4]. [6] comes to the same conclusion which suggests that four practices can be seen to reflect the main objectives of the majority of strategic HRM programs, namely, to identify and recruit strong performers, provide them with the abilities and confidence to work effectively, monitor their progress towards the required performance targets, and reward staff well for meeting or exceeding them. In the services context, [53] made the same conclusion, which stated that the HRM practices that fit the context of a service sector are not duplicates of the HRM practices of a manufacturing context. A number of HRM practices, which are considered to be the appropriate practices for the service sector, are: staffing, training, employee involvement and participation, performance management and appraisal, compensation and rewards, and caring. The literature on advanced HRM practices [47, 54, 75] identifies HRM factors that have a good fit with LM, including teamwork, job rotation, ongoing training, contingent rewards, job security, versatility and participation [57]. [67] identify LM- oriented work organization strategies, including standardization, ongoing training, teamwork, participation and empowerment, versatility, commitment to company values, and contingent rewards. Meanwhile, [10] point to LM production-oriented companies promoting flexibility and versatility, investing in training and committing to variable compensation. [56] in his study on lean transformation, suggested that the HRM practices should be comprised of four primary dimensions: selection and hiring, training and development, performance evaluation, and rewards and incentives. He then defined HRM practices from the lean
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viewpoint as a set of practices, processes, and procedures that are utilized to select, develop, appraise and reward the organization’s HR as a mean of achieving lean transformation success.
Following the theoretical stance of the current study, this study follows [56] and defines HRM practices from the LM viewpoint as a set of practices, processes, and procedures that are utilized to select, develop, appraise, and reward the organization’s HRs as a means of achieving LM implementation efficiently and effectively. Based on this definition, the study then conceptualizes HRM practices along the four most commonly recognized areas of HRM: selection and hiring, training and development, performance evaluation, and rewards and incentives [4, 6 ,11, 56]. These four dimensions of HRM practices were chosen based on the reasons that: first, they have a role to play in influencing OP [73, 99]; second, they are theoretically linked to the extended concept of LM [10, 56, 57, 87, 96, 107] and finally, they are among the most popular in both the research literature and organizational practice [11, 56] and fit the context of a service sector [53].
C. Operational Performance Conceptualization
Business performance index (BPI) is the key to evaluate the achievement and effectiveness of LM system in an organization [17, 52, 81, 83]. There are several dimensions of BPI that could be used for the assessment effectiveness of LM such as OP, financial and marketing [31]. For OP, non-value-added activities, defect rates, scrap and rework processes are crucial in measuring the BPI in this dimension. These are wastes that will cause losses to the organization and lead to low BPI [14, 52, 81]. For financial aspect, return on assets (ROA), return on investment (ROI), and return on sales (ROS) are basically covered all the financial aspects of performance in the organization. Finally, marketing performance is usually represented by the market share, sales volume and product delivery cycle time that contribute in the evaluation of BPI [14, 52, 81, 83]. Nevertheless, this study will focus on OP in measuring the achievement and effectiveness of LM system in the organization as other two dimensions, namely financial and marketing focus on the manufacturing industry, whereas this study focuses on the public sector. Furthermore, majority of research in public sector operations management is to improve the OP, where the main focus is on customer, quality, and process efficiency [78].
However, OP is a concept that is still being debated by scholars to this day [4]. The debate is on what is meant by performance and how can it best be measured in the public sector: should the focus be on input indicators (units of output/service provided), outcome indicators (the results of service provided), the cost effectiveness indicators, or the productivity indicators [106]. The OP of public sector is a multi-dimensional construct [48]. There is no single, widely accepted definition of public sector performance in the social sciences. Consensus on the measurement of public sector performance, in particular, is conspicuously absent in the literature. The most widely used terms to measure OP of public sector in the literature are productivity indicators which focus on efficiency and effectiveness [62]. [91] in his study on measuring performance of Malaysia local authorities (LAs) also measures OP through both efficiency and effectiveness. This measurement is in line with [45], which stated that, in both profit and non-profit organizations, OP can be defined as an appropriate combination of efficiency and effectiveness. [64] also defined OP through these two dimensions.
Thus, the researcher looks hard at what is working well and what is not working well at present and by looking for what priority to measure performance in public sector, since the main focus of the current study is on the public sector OP. The public sector is a non-profit organization, so the profit is not a main focus [106]. Following the theoretical stance of the current study, then of interest for this study to defines OP from logistics point of view, which is the extent to which an organization is successful in achieving its planned targets by carefully and considered use of limited government resources [45] as well as being able to conduct its internal operations smoothly and efficiently [106]. This study then conceptualizes OP through productivity indicators which focus on an appropriate combination of two dimensions: efficiency, and effectiveness [45, 62, 64, 91]. These organizational efficiency indices should more directly reflect the impact of implementing the management practices [8, 19, 71, such as LM. [21] consider that productivity is a crucial indicator of employee performance and represents a direct link between human capital and OP.
6. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
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Following [18] paradigm for construct development and measurement, after conceptualizing the three main variables under study, the study then operationalized the constructs by developing a multi-item seven-point likert measurement scale to evaluate the different facets of LM, HRM practices and OP in Malaysia LAs. To help support scale generalization, it is important to collect data from a broad variety of organizational and contextual characteristics. Even though we focus on one agency, the features that exist, particularly in terms of resources, capabilities, position, roles and responsibilities, services provided, and the system practiced within Malaysia LAs provides a robust contextual environment that may indirectly reflect the real state of the public sector in Malaysia in terms of quality of service delivery to customers.
The measurement scale instrument in the form of a survey questionnaire developed from the various literature sources was initially pre-tested with seven industry experts and three academics to ensured content and face validity of the measurement items. The study then refined the measurement items with feedback from the pre-test to improve the wording and seminal meanings of some individual measurement items. Subsequently, the refined scale was administered to capture LM, HRM practices and OP in a cross-sectional survey among Malaysia LAs. To evaluate the construct of LM, HRM practices and OP, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) tests were performed in the study to examine the measurement properties of these three main variables.
A. Measurement Development
The model specification in this study has been achieved by a theoretical review of the literature. A great deal of measures was carried out to address the three main variables included in the research, namely LM, HRM practices and OP. In the questionnaire, all the 49 indicators covering LM, HRM practices and OP were measured at the organizational level with the use of perceptual measures by using seven-point likert scale, ranging from 1=strongly disagree to 7=strongly agree. Respondents were asked to indicate to what degree they agreed or disagreed with each statement. The scale measuring each construct employed a seven-point likert scale as it had been shown to achieve the upper limits of reliability [3].
Firstly, to develop a measurement scale for the implementation of LM, this study utilized the 14 Principles that have been developed by [50] as measurement items in measuring the 4P dimensions of LM. However, most measurement items are adopted and modified to make them more suitable for this study setting (see details in Table 1). The 4P dimensions of LM are conceptualized as first-order constructs (FOCs) which are measured by their respective reflective indicators. The LM scales comprises 17 indicators: philosophy (4 indicators), process (7 indicators), people and partners (3 indicators) and problem solving (3 indicators).
Table 1: Measurement items of 4P dimensions of lean management.
Philosophy (LMph) LMph1 Base management decisions on a long-term philosophy, even at the expense of short-term financial goals LMph2 Focus on long-term rather than short-term results LMph3 Reinvestment in people, service and organization LMph4 Unforgiving commitment to quality into workplace system Process (LMpr) LMpr1 Create continuous flow to bring problems to the surface so that waste time and resources can be eliminated LMpr2 Use pull systems to avoid overproduction LMpr3 Level out the workload (Heijunka) LMpr4 Build a culture of stopping to fix problems or when there is a quality problem to get quality right the first time (Jidoka) LMpr5 Standardize tasks as the foundation for continuous improvement and employee empowerment LMpr6 Use visual control so no problems are hidden LMpr7 Use only reliable, thoroughly tested technology that serves employees and processes People and Partners (LMpp) LMpp1 Grow leaders who thoroughly understand the work, live the philosophy and teach it to others LMpp2 Respect and develop exceptional people and teams who follow organization’s philosophy LMpp3 Respect extended network of partners and suppliers by challenging them and helping them improve Problem Solving (LMps) LMps1 Go and see to thoroughly understand the situation (Genchi Genbutsu / Gemba) LMps2 Make decisions slowly by consensus, thoroughly considering all options, and implement decisions rapidly LMps3 Become a lerning organizaton through relentless reflection (hansei) and continuously improvement (kaizen)
Secondly, to develop a measurement scale for the HRM practices, this study develops a data collection questionnaire based on the previous work of [56], whereby the study utilizes the same set of measurement items in measuring the four dimensions of HRM practices. However, most measurement items are adopted and modified to make them more suitable for this study setting
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(see details in Table 2). The four dimensions of HRM practices are conceptualized as FOCs, which are measured by their respective reflective indicators. The HRM practices scales comprises 22 indicators: selection and hiring (5 indicators), training and development (5 indicators), performance evaluation (6 indicators) and rewards and incentives (6 indicators).
Table 2: Measurement items of four dimensions of HRM practices.
Selection and Hiring (HRMsh) HRMsh1 Use problem-solving aptitude as a criterion in employee selection HRMsh2 Use attitude/desire to work in a team as a criterion in employee selection HRMsh3 Use work values and behavioural attitudes as a criterion in employee selection HRMsh4 Select employees who can provide ideas to improve the lean transformation process HRMsh5 Use pre-employment testing/screening to select employees Training and Development (HRMtd) HRMtd1 Offer developmental opportunities to employees HRMtd2 Ensure employees are well trained in problem solving skills HRMtd3 Use coaching as a significant component of employee development HRMtd4 Ensure employees are cross-trained to perform a variety of activities HRMtd5 Offer training to build the capabilities of employees Performance Evaluation (HRMpe) HRMpe1 Ensure performance evaluations account for performance outcomes/results HRMpe2 Ensure performance evaluations assess individual contribution to process/team performance HRMpe3 Ensue lean initiatives are a significant part of the performance evaluations HRMpe4 Ensue performance evaluations focus on achievement of goals/targets HRMpe5 Ensure performance evaluations focus on problem-solving aptitude HRMpe6 Ensure multiple people provide input to the performance evaluations of each employee Rewards and Incentives (HRMri) HRMri1 Offer rewards/incentives for performance HRMri2 Ensure incentives encourage employees to vigorously pursue lean objectives HRMri3 Ensure incentives are fair in rewarding people who accomplish lean objectives HRMri4 Ensure reward system really recognizes people who contribute the most to organization HRMri5 Ensure employees are rewarded for continuous improvement HRMri6 Ensure compensation and rewards are competitive
Thirdly, to develop a measurement scale for the OP, a combination of efficiency and effectiveness scales is used to provide more comprehensive measurement of OP in public sector. Efficiency is measured by 6 items, which are derived from several researchers [1, 9, 25, 76, 91, 97, 100]. Effectiveness is measured by 4 items, 3 items are adopted from [91], and 1 item from several researchers [9, 25, 76, 97, 100]. However, most measurement items are adopted and modified to make them more suitable for this study setting (see details in Table 3). The two dimensions of OP is conceptualized as FOCs, they are: efficiency and effectiveness, which are measured by their respective reflective indicators. The OP scales comprises 10 indicators: efficiency (6 indicators) and effectiveness (4 indicators).
Table 3: Measurement items of two dimensions of operational performance.
Efficiency (OPey) OPey1 Show reduction in customer lead time OPey2 Show improvement in labor productivity OPey3 Show reduction in the cost of services OPey4 Show reduction in service cycle time / processing time OPey5 Show improvement in service delivery time OPey6 Ensure the number of staff sufficient to provide the best service to cusomers Effectiveness (OPes) OPes1 Show reduction in rewok/error OPes2 Show achievement of the targeted tasks is exceeded the expectations OPes3 Always be an example, reference and is often praised for services performed OPes4 Does not have a problem to achieve the targeted tasks although there are directions or work outside the scope of tasks to be completed
The use of reflective FOCs is evident in the past research in operations management. For example, [56] conceptualized HRs performance management with four dimensions: selection, development, evaluation and rewards as FOCs, and lean transformation with three dimensions formed by achievement of objectives, improved organizational capabilities, and alignment
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with organizational strategy as FOCs. [17] specified determinants of lean as FOCs and used these to examine their impact on lean manufacturing and business performance.
B. Data Collection and Sample Characteristics
The population of this study included all 149 LAs in Malaysia having any good practices of process or operations improvement that have resulted in a reduction of waste, improved the flow and provided a better concept of customers and process views. The population was derived from the database of Ministry of Urban Wellbeing, Housing and Local Government (MUHLG). The respondents were senior level management, because high ranking informants tend to be more valuable sources of information [68, 74, 97].
The questionnaires were sent out through ordinary postal mail and internet-based survey on October 2017, to 447 senior level managements from three departments of each LAs, i.e. chairman office, corporate and HRM departments. Each questionnaire was accompanied by an explanatory note which highlighted the purpose of the research and encouraged the chairman to participate. After a follow-up process by telephone, 177 (39.605) questionnaires were attained, each completed to the furthest extent. The resultant response rate of 39.60% is quite high, given the length of the survey instrument and the position within the organisation of the senior level managers targeted, the rate of response is acceptable [82]. Regarding the nature of respondents, only 1 of the respondent is president, 51 are head of departments, 19 are senior managers, and 106 are from other managerial level. The geographical distribution of the organizations was also considered. It is reported that the distribution of the organizations covered the entire Malaysia except Perlis. The majority of the organizations are located in Perak (18.64%), Sarawak (16.95%) and Selangor (15.25%). The sample encompasses that majority (53.11%) of participating organizations were district councils, followed by municipal councils (34.46%) and city councils (12.43%).
7. ANALYSIS AND EMPIRICAL RESULTS
This research utilizes Partial Least Square-Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) approach for data analysis and utilizes SmartPLS 3 to investigate the impact of HRM practices on LM and OP in organization. In PLS-SEM, the measurement model evaluates the validity and reliability of the indicators before testing the structural model in order to ensure that the indicators are representing the constructs of interest [15, 38]. The measurement model defines how each block of indicators relates to their latent variable [38, 41]. Reliability shows the stability and consistency of the scale in measuring the concept, while validity indicates the ability of a scale to represent the concept being measured [82].
The indicators representing the reflective FOCs in the measurement model need to demonstrate reliability as well as convergent and discriminant validity. Hence, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is performed to confirm unidimensionality of the indicators that reflect the underlying constructs [94, 103]. In other words, CFA aims to verify whether a set of indicators shares sufficient common variance to be regarded as measures of an intended single factor [5] Generally, CFA is used to identify and remove indicators that load weakly on intended constructs thus, establishing unidimensionality. By following SEM literature recommendations, the reliability and validity of the reflective measurement model can be evaluated in four different ways: (A) indicator reliability, (B) internal consistency reliability, (C) convergent validity, and (D) discriminant validity [16, 34, 37, 40]. These four conditions are therefore assessed for ten reflective FOCs in this study, which are philosophy (LMph), process (LMpr), people and partners (LMpp), problem solving (LMps), selection and hiring (HRMsh), training and development (HRMtd), performance evaluation (HRMpe), rewards and incentives (HRMri), efficiency (OPey), and effectiveness (OPes).
A. Indicator reliability
This study follows [30] and agreed by most of the researchers [37, 72] which suggest that item loadings should be at least 0.70 or more in order to achieve item reliability of approximately 0.5. Loadings are correlations and the items reliability are the square of the loading. Therefore, with the loading value at 0.70, the item reliability of 0.5 is yielded, showing that 50% or more of the variance in the observed variables is due to the latent variable [2, 46]. Table 4 shows that, all reflective indicators have loaded significantly and highly between 0.741 and 0.923 on their intended constructs achieving unidimensionality in the PLS- SEM model. Loadings above the threshold value of 0.70 are indicative of larger shared variance between a construct and its indicators than the variance of the measurement error [36]. Hence, results from CFA show strong evidence for reliability of the indicators [37, 68]. 238
Table 4: Outer loadings of reflective indicators.
Reflective Outer Reflective Outer Reflective Outer Reflective Outer Reflective Outer Indicator Loading Indicator Loading Indicator Loading Indicator Loading Indicator Loading s s s s s s s s s s LMph1 0.840 LMpr7 0.791 HRMsh4 0.869 HRMpe4 0.904 OPes1 0.747 LMph2 0.777 LMpp1 0.923 HRMsh5 0.741 HRMpe5 0.882 OPes2 0.905 LMph3 0.876 LMpp2 0.897 HRMtd1 0.815 HRMpe6 0.783 OPes3 0.860 LMph4 0.829 LMpp3 0.863 HRMtd2 0.900 HRMri1 0.769 OPes4 0.848 LMpr1 0.819 LMps1 0.865 HRMtd3 0.859 HRMri2 0.841 OPey1 0.819 LMpr2 0.781 LMps2 0.895 HRMtd4 0.879 HRMri3 0.894 OPey2 0.855 LMpr3 0.798 LMps3 0.897 HRMtd5 0.860 HRMri4 0.884 OPey3 0.828 LMpr4 0.748 HRMsh1 0.832 HRMpe1 0.870 HRMri5 0.877 OPey4 0.834 LMpr5 0.830 HRMsh2 0.882 HRMpe2 0.872 HRMri6 0.882 OPey5 0.879 LMpr6 0.778 HRMsh3 0.895 HRMpe3 0.813 OPey6 0.850
B. Internal consistency reliability
There are two measures on internal consistency reliability, namely cronbach’s apha and composite reliability. Cronbach’s alpha indicates lower bound estimates of reliability compared to composite reliability [39]. As such, composite reliability is generally regarded as the more appropriate criterion to establish internal consistency reliability of a construct compared to cronbach’s alpha [39]. Therefore, composite reliability should be assessed in the current study as it is a reliable alternative measure of internal consistency reliability. In exploratory research, composite reliability of 0.6 or higher is acceptable, but in higher stages of the research, this reliability measures should be 0.7 or higher [17]. [2] noted that 0.7 as a benchmark for modest composite reliability, whereas value below 0.6 indicates a lack of reliability [68]. Table 5 presents values of composite reliability. As depicted in the table, all FOCs displayed composite reliability values between 0.899 and 0.944, which is well above the threshold value of 0.7. This result indicates the internal consistency reliability [68]. Hence, the results from composite reliability suggest that the indicators are appropriate for their respective latent variables.
Table 5 : Internal consistency and convergent validity.
First Order Composite Average Variance Constructs Reliability Extracted HRMpe 0.942 0.731 HRMri 0.944 0.738 HRMsh 0.926 0.715 HRMtd 0.936 0.745 LMph 0.899 0.691 LMpp 0.923 0.801 LMpr 0.922 0.628 LMps 0.916 0.785 OPes 0.907 0.709 OPey 0.937 0.713
C. Convergent validity
The quality of the measurement model or convergent validity is evident when each measurement item correlates strongly with its intended theoretical construct [33]. Convergent validity of the FOCs in this thesis was examined via average variance extracted (AVE) values as suggested by [30]. AVE shows the average variance shared between a construct and its measures relative to the amount of measurement error [15, 46]. Sufficient convergent validity is achieved when AVE value of a construct is at least 0.5 [30]. This means that a construct explains more than 50% of the variance among the scale indicators [36, 38]. Table 5 provides adequate convergent validity because all the AVE values for reflective FOCs are within the range of 0.628 and 0.801, which are significantly greater than the generally accepted cut-off value of 0.50 [30, 37]. These results demonstrate that there is convergent validity in the measurement model. This implies that the measurements items of each latent variable measures them well and are not measuring another latent variable in the research model.
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D. Discriminant validity
To assess discriminant validity, the study uses two tests: (1) analysis of cross loadings, and (2) analysis of the square roots of AVE. Discriminant validity was examined through the cross-loading table (Table 6). The table shows that in all cases in the reflective measurement model, an indicator’s outer loading on its designated construct is greater than all its cross loadings with other reflective constructs (see the highlighted correlation coefficients) [37]. This analysis cross-loading thus indicates that all the 49 indicators loaded distinctly on the specified latent variables they measured hence demonstrating discriminant validity of the latent variables.
Discriminant validity was also supported by the correlation matrix of the reflective constructs as presented in Table 7. When comparing the square roots of the AVE for each construct with the correlations among other constructs, results in Table 4 shows that, in all cases, the square root of AVE for each reflective construct, as the diagonal elements are larger than the off-diagonal correlations in rows and columns. Hence, the discriminant validity at the construct level is supported [16, 40, 46]. This result shows that there was no correlation between any two latent variables larger than or even equal to the square root AVEs of the two latent variables. Hence discriminant validity test does not reveal any serious problem, and this shows that all the latent variables are different from each other. In sum, the reliability and validity of reflective construct measures have been confirmed.
Table 6 : The cross loadings among reflective constructs.
Indicators HRMpe HRMri HRMsh HRMtd LMph LMpp LMpr LMps OPes OPey HRMpe1 0.870 0.591 0.593 0.706 0.600 0.633 0.533 0.661 0.518 0.508 HRMpe2 0.872 0.665 0.591 0.740 0.633 0.612 0.563 0.615 0.586 0.561 HRMpe3 0.813 0.556 0.546 0.619 0.528 0.592 0.508 0.598 0.527 0.519 HRMpe4 0.904 0.618 0.683 0.715 0.614 0.619 0.575 0.696 0.585 0.556 HRMpe5 0.882 0.691 0.717 0.703 0.595 0.629 0.590 0.647 0.536 0.568 HRMpe6 0.783 0.537 0.538 0.543 0.489 0.504 0.526 0.613 0.469 0.465 HRMri1 0.650 0.769 0.567 0.547 0.498 0.511 0.439 0.495 0.501 0.419 HRMri2 0.581 0.841 0.456 0.535 0.542 0.478 0.478 0.407 0.446 0.470 HRMri3 0.631 0.894 0.530 0.591 0.580 0.515 0.538 0.521 0.554 0.604 HRMri4 0.656 0.884 0.598 0.637 0.537 0.512 0.588 0.532 0.583 0.611 HRMri5 0.571 0.877 0.566 0.573 0.527 0.490 0.554 0.517 0.561 0.585 HRMri6 0.601 0.882 0.583 0.625 0.557 0.553 0.552 0.535 0.515 0.591 HRMsh1 0.556 0.538 0.832 0.583 0.564 0.489 0.539 0.537 0.374 0.386 HRMsh2 0.647 0.576 0.882 0.635 0.613 0.643 0.638 0.643 0.492 0.513 HRMsh3 0.668 0.603 0.895 0.677 0.646 0.635 0.691 0.698 0.524 0.516 HRMsh4 0.578 0.498 0.869 0.647 0.601 0.576 0.563 0.612 0.396 0.496 HRMsh5 0.574 0.487 0.741 0.595 0.518 0.491 0.482 0.531 0.341 0.376 HRMtd1 0.601 0.452 0.658 0.815 0.508 0.561 0.593 0.543 0.410 0.419 HRMtd2 0.683 0.591 0.634 0.900 0.626 0.649 0.534 0.610 0.522 0.498 HRMtd3 0.690 0.635 0.686 0.859 0.639 0.630 0.588 0.618 0.461 0.532 HRMtd4 0.685 0.657 0.634 0.879 0.629 0.625 0.568 0.568 0.518 0.563 HRMtd5 0.734 0.590 0.600 0.860 0.607 0.609 0.517 0.632 0.541 0.485 LMph1 0.545 0.515 0.546 0.542 0.840 0.538 0.574 0.594 0.447 0.469 LMph2 0.477 0.499 0.573 0.533 0.777 0.482 0.542 0.536 0.306 0.427 LMph3 0.602 0.576 0.621 0.619 0.876 0.603 0.616 0.604 0.478 0.521 LMph4 0.614 0.497 0.581 0.626 0.829 0.680 0.684 0.591 0.483 0.481 LMpp1 0.628 0.571 0.608 0.641 0.624 0.923 0.683 0.644 0.535 0.567 LMpp2 0.671 0.544 0.661 0.694 0.659 0.897 0.664 0.769 0.496 0.506 LMpp3 0.579 0.472 0.541 0.576 0.586 0.863 0.613 0.628 0.528 0.492 LMpr1 0.593 0.574 0.642 0.598 0.699 0.635 0.819 0.661 0.482 0.537 LMpr2 0.433 0.465 0.499 0.497 0.542 0.552 0.781 0.473 0.376 0.431 LMpr3 0.522 0.475 0.565 0.473 0.513 0.587 0.798 0.536 0.467 0.429 LMpr4 0.425 0.373 0.459 0.407 0.482 0.474 0.748 0.459 0.353 0.361 LMpr5 0.568 0.545 0.575 0.570 0.651 0.639 0.830 0.602 0.520 0.567 LMpr6 0.482 0.437 0.534 0.512 0.531 0.491 0.778 0.520 0.344 0.349 LMpr7 0.509 0.498 0.556 0.500 0.584 0.639 0.791 0.566 0.429 0.485 LMps1 0.588 0.479 0.579 0.503 0.569 0.656 0.571 0.865 0.506 0.519 LMps2 0.692 0.518 0.682 0.660 0.620 0.650 0.606 0.895 0.489 0.522 LMps3 0.697 0.555 0.646 0.656 0.665 0.718 0.666 0.897 0.578 0.553 OPes1 0.436 0.451 0.316 0.318 0.412 0.405 0.391 0.431 0.747 0.658 OPes2 0.596 0.579 0.461 0.544 0.440 0.525 0.472 0.550 0.905 0.710 OPes3 0.502 0.541 0.445 0.494 0.428 0.491 0.488 0.469 0.860 0.608 OPes4 0.573 0.494 0.483 0.542 0.473 0.523 0.473 0.538 0.848 0.548 240
OPey1 0.443 0.485 0.426 0.416 0.391 0.378 0.432 0.464 0.568 0.819 OPey2 0.666 0.624 0.589 0.638 0.557 0.604 0.574 0.642 0.658 0.855 OPey3 0.462 0.532 0.395 0.388 0.484 0.455 0.412 0.469 0.570 0.828 OPey4 0.439 0.540 0.362 0.431 0.477 0.443 0.424 0.415 0.586 0.834 OPey5 0.541 0.522 0.485 0.514 0.518 0.542 0.494 0.519 0.684 0.879 OPey6 0.549 0.532 0.476 0.510 0.449 0.496 0.563 0.493 0.708 0.850
Table 7 : Correlation matrix of the reflective constructs.
Construc HRMpe HRMri HRMsh HRMtd LMph LMpp LMpr LMps OPes OPey t HRMpe 0.855 HRMri 0.715 0.859 HRMsh 0.717 0.641 0.846 HRMtd 0.788 0.682 0.743 0.863 LMph 0.676 0.629 0.699 0.700 0.831 LMpp 0.701 0.593 0.677 0.714 0.697 0.895 LMpr 0.643 0.614 0.696 0.647 0.729 0.731 0.792 LMps 0.747 0.585 0.720 0.689 0.700 0.762 0.695 0.886 OPes 0.630 0.615 0.510 0.571 0.520 0.580 0.542 0.593 0.842 OPey 0.621 0.642 0.547 0.581 0.572 0.584 0.578 0.600 0.748 0.845
8. DISCUSSION ON FINDINGS
In this study, constructs for LM, HRM practices and OP, utilizing a survey instrument administered to Malaysia LAs, are examined and measurement scales for evaluating the different facets of LM, HRM practices and OP are tested for their validity and reliability. The measurement items in the scale for evaluating LM implementation are classified into 4P dimensions: philosophy, process, people and partners, and problem solving. The measurement items in the scale for evaluating HRM practices are classified into four dimensions: selection and hiring, training and development, performance evaluation, and rewards and incentives. The measurement items in the scale for evaluating OP are classified into two dimensions: efficiency and effectiveness. The constructs of all the main variables appear to adequately fit the data collected. The validity and reliability of the scales for evaluating the three main variables under study are established with the systematic and scientific procedures used in this study.
The one-stage approach measurement model provides acceptable fit. The results of the reflective measurement model evaluation suggest that the LM, HRM practices and OP scales in the current study have good overall face and construct validity, discriminant validity among the dimensions, and high reliability. These scales can be valuable tools for accumulating empirical evidence about the important of HRM practices in the relationship between LM and OP in organization.
The implication of these results is that, public sector believes that LM, HRM practices and OP should be multifaceted, and not limited to specific practices. For research investigations, these multiple factors and their measurement items should be utilized to arrive at a more complete picture of organizational LM implementation in improving OP with the role played by HRM practices. Practically, public sector should strive to improve on multiple dimensions of LM, HRM practices and OP, to arrive at the full realization of benefits which may include improved economic benefits.
The multidimensional conceptualizations provide insights into the constructs of LM, HRM practices and OP and their relationships with the underlying factors. First, the items and the factors of the construct provide direct and actionable information on the three main variables. Second, conceptualization of the construct at FOCs, provide managers with an opportunity to observe LM, HRM practices and OP at a higher level of abstraction beyond the individual items and factor tiers. At the individual item and factor levels, managers might consider the LM, HRM practices and OP for each individual item and factor and may identify areas in need of specific attention.
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9. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH
This study presents practitioners with a 49-item measurement scale for evaluating the different facets of the LM (17 items), HRM practices (22 items) and OP (10 items) in organization. The empirical results suggest that all 49 measurement items are critical attributes of the ten underlying factors under study. Public sector wishing to improve their LM practices need to constantly monitor their implementation. The measurement scale validated in this paper can be used as a self-diagnostic tool to identify areas where specific improvements are needed and pinpoint aspects of the public sector LM practices that require additional implementation.
This study has several limitations. Firstly, the data for this study was collected in a cross-sectional manner, indicating that the perceptions regarding LM, HRM practices and OP are collected at a single point in time and conditions and influences can change over time. Therefore, future research could expand of study using the case study methods or conduct a longitudinal study to investigate how organizations design their LM and how LM assists in managing OP through the effect of HRM practices.
Secondly, this research emphasizes measuring LM in terms of 4P dimensions covering philosophy, process, people and partners, and problem solving, which are less frequently examined by previous researchers. Further investigation in this area is obviously needed to explore whether it holds true in other research or industry contexts. This is particularly important in the validation of the scale employed in this present research to measure LM for public sector.
Finally, a more comprehensive consideration of other LM related practice scales could be incorporated. As we have stated that, the LM factors in our study are a starting point and future works should at minimum include these factors. There exists a wide scope for future research on the instrumentation issues of LM implementation. The validation of this scale is an ongoing process and validity is established only over a series of studies that further refine and test the measurement items across sectors and countries [23]. Development of valid and reliable measurement items will only be accomplished through the use and refinement of the measurement scale in subsequent studies. These measurements can evolve and progress into many new areas supporting the construction and confirmation of theories. Future research can also focus on measurement models’ comparisons of LM practices among different countries, to help determine if the construct is culturally robust, i.e. have a consistent fit for whatever country this measurement scale is measuring.
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Lean Management and HRM Practices in Relation towards Operational Performance: a Structural Model
Azhani Ismail Faculty of Industrial Management University Malaysia Pahang (UMP) Pahang, Malaysia [email protected]
Yuserrie Zainuddin Faculty of Industrial Management University Malaysia Pahang (UMP) Pahang, Malaysia [email protected]
Abstract—This study examined the relationship between lean management and operational performance with the mediating effect of human resource management (HRM) practices in Malaysia local authorities. Participants reported their perceptions of lean management implementation (philosophy, process, people and partners, and problem solving), resultant operational performance (efficiency and effectiveness), and four dimensions of HRM practices: selection and hiring, training and development, performance evaluation, and rewards and incentives. The evaluation of structural model of Partial Least Square- Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) using SmartPLS3 showed the superiority of the models in which: (1) philosophy significantly and positively affected effectiveness performance, (2) rewards and incentives significantly affected both efficiency and effectiveness performances, (3) philosophy significantly and positively affected all the four dimensions of HRM practices, and (4) rewards and incentives mediate the relationship between philosophy and both efficiency and effectiveness performance. The implications of these results are discussed, especially regarding the effect of philosophy on operational performance in organization.
Keywords— Lean Management; HRM Practices; Operational Performance; Structural Model
1. INTRODUCTION
Effort to introduce lean management (LM) in public sector with the role plays by the people in the organization have gained increased acceptance as public sector at the federal, state and local levels evaluate new methods to reduce waste, increase efficiency and effectiveness in organization. LM is about people and the foundation of LM is to instil in the employees a desire for continuous improvement [61, Latham, Almost, Mann and Moore, 2005). Recent literature identifying barriers to LM transformation suggests that the largest hurdles faced by organizations pursuing LM transformation are people-related [51, 85].
The relationship between LM-performance in organization is complex [65,83] and the existence of human resources (HRs) and cultural change can alter the nature of the relationship [10, 37, 65] found that establishing a LM organizational culture very much depends on the organization’s ability to select, develop, engage, and inspire HRs through effective performance management strategies. However, a number of recent studies state that not enough research has been conducted into the HRs aspects associated with the implementation of LM [6, 17], especially in public sector. It also was observed that most studies on LM have been conducted in Western context. It is argued that additional studies are required in different non-Western contexts
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in order to get a broader view of the concept [41] and to understand whether Western models could be applied in other contexts, particularly in the Asian countries.
Thus, this study offers a different perspective with the key focus is to investigate the mediating effects of human resource management (HRM) practices in the relationship between LM and operational performance (OP) in the Malaysia local authorities (LAs). This study examines LM from an organization’s resource-based view (RBV) theory, which explores HRs as key resources which are formed by employees' selection and hiring, training and development, performance evaluation, and rewards and incentive of the organization. It demonstrates the important role of HRM practices in developing resources that are imperfectly imitable and difficult to duplicate. Accordingly, an organization’s HRs can be identified as a strategic resource in achieving competitive advantage when it adds value to the organization, when it contributes uniquely to the organization’s success, when it is difficult to be substituted, and when continual investment in it decreases the likelihood of imitation by competitors [53, 93].
This study is crucial since the greatest impact the HRM practices can have on a LM transformation is to educate and train on skills and behaviors on what respect for people really means and looks like to buy in engagement and commitment from everyone in the organization for continuous improvement. One of the distinctive features of LM and HRM practices is that better performance is achieved through the people in the organization. The main research question addressed by this study is whether LM enhances OP directly or indirectly through the support of the HRM practices. Answers to this question may enlarge our knowledge about the role of HRM practices in mediating the relationship between LM and OP in organization. In order to address the question, the study employed data collected among LAs in Malaysia. The study empirically tested the hypotheses to elicit not only general support or reject conclusion but also to explore the nature of the relationship among LM, HRM practices and OP in organization.
The present paper is structured into five parts. Section 1 discusses the introduction, while Section 2 underlines the hypotheses development. The methodology used to measure the relationship between the exogenous and endogenous constructs is presented in Section 3. Section 4 presents the analysis and empirical results of the structural model, followed by discussion on findings and conclusion in Section 5.
2. HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT
A. The Relationship between Lean Management and Operational Performance
The relationship between LM and OP would appear to be an important characteristic of an effective LM journey. Historically, the resulting association between an organization's performance and LM has been ambiguous, the evidence therefore, is mixed at best on whether the importance placed on LM positively affects OP [5, 19, 51, 52, 69, 76, 78, 80, 88]. The relationship however varies depending on context and type of organizations involved. In fact, while there is no consensus in the debate on the direction of this relationship, the primary argument by academics is that implementation of LM will positively affect performance and lead to competitive advantage [35, 58, 59, 60, 63, 64, 84]. The four principles (4P) dimensions measuring LM such as philosophy, process, people and partners, and problem solving [34, 61] could be explored in the present study to predict OP in Malaysia public sector. Therefore, this research overall predicts the direct relationship is a positive one, and further hypotheses that: H1: LM has a positive and significant relationship with OP of the organization.
B. The Relationship between HRM Practices and Operational Performance
For the past two decades, researchers have linked HRM practices to manufacturing performance [54], OP [1, 13], organizational effectiveness and performance [33], and competitive advantage [57]. Even though the effects of HRM on performance have not been totally clarified, various studies from different countries produce evidence that the effective management of people results in better performance in organization e.g. [1, 7, 8, 16, 39, 56, 74]. Although, it has been generally agreed that HRM practices are positively associated with OP, however, there is still need for additional research to be undertaken to provide more evidence to support the HRM practices-OP relationship [4] from different cultural context such as public sector in Malaysia. The universal use of four dimensions measuring HRM practices such as selection and hiring, training and development, performance evaluation, and rewards and incentives [9, 11, 18, 64] could be explored in the present study to predict OP in Malaysia public sector. Therefore, this research overall predicts the direct relationship is a positive one, and further hypotheses that: 248
H2: HRM practices have positive and significant relationship with OP of the organization.
C. The Relationship between Lean Management and HRM Practices
The application of LM into service sector has further increased the relevance of HRM practices in a LM context [68]. LM provides HRM practices an opportunity to review its internal architecture and design to prove more useful in a LM context [68]. Some previous studies provide evidence that the employees evaluate their lean work experience favorably due to their exposure to multi-skills, team work and opportunities for participation, i.e. their exposure to HRM practices [93, 96]. Thus, HRM practices are relevant to LM for mainly three reasons: they aim to bring LM an integration of business strategy with quality and performance [12], a committed workforce and increased flexibility in terms of organization and job design [95], and positive employee attitudes [40, 100]. Therefore, this research overall predicts the direct relationship is a positive one, and further hypotheses that: H3: LM has a positive and significant relationship with HRM practices of the organization.
D. The Mediating Effect of HRM Practices
The previous researchers have suggested that LM and HRM practices can interact in order to improve OP in the organization. One of the distinctive features of LM and HRM practices is that better performance is achieved through the people in the organization. [30] showed how LM programs include some HRM practices. Their analysis made clear how the implementation of these human practices, together with JIT programs, provides significant explanation for the differences in performance measures [17]. [71] believed that supporting HRM practices were necessary for successful implementation of flexible work organization. Following the same line, [81] showed a strong relationship between JIT and what they called infrastructure practices, including employee management. This is consistent with [2] finding that HRM practices (training, compensation, multifunctional, and recruiting and selection) moderate the relationship between JIT and performance. A quantitative study of LM implementation in manufacturing has also found evidence that despite a positive role of HRM on the operations of an organization in a LM context, its role is indirect and mediated through LM [31, 84]. [55] also noted that HRM practices have a direct influence or effect on subordinate attributes such as human skills, attitudes and behavior, the so-called HRM outcomes, which in turn enhances OP. In a study of high performance work practices, [53] also found that investments in HRM practices resulted in lower turnover, greater productivity, and increased organizational performance through their impact on employee skill development and motivation [98].
The most influential articles about LM related to HRM practices are the studies by [64] and most recently research by [90]. A RBV is utilized as a theoretical foundation for the framework of their studies. [64] reviewed the study that analyzed the impact of HRM practices in the lean transformation success to improve competitive advantage. The author view HRM practices as a driver in the relationship between lean transformation success and performance of the organization. [90] reviewed the study that analyzed the role of workforce development in the relationship between lean production and OP. They view workforce development as a moderator in the relationship between LM and OP of the organization. Following the same line, the current study examines the mediating effect of HRM practices in the areas of staffing, training, performance evaluation and rewards [64]. It is expected that these practices can mediate the relationship between LM and OP in Malaysia public sector. Accordingly, it is hypothesized that: H4: HRM practices mediate the relationship between LM and OP of the organization.
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This research utilizes Partial Least Square-Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) approach for data analysis and utilizes SmartPLS 3 to investigate the impact of HRM practices on LM and OP in organization. The PLS-SEM analysis estimates the parameters for the link between the indicators and their respective latent variables (LVs), and the link between the different LVs. With this estimation approach, the results of PLS-SEM may be described and interpreted as a combination of two models: (1) measurement model, and (2) structural model [24, 43]. These two models are assessed separately in a two-step process [44]. This paper focuses on the second step, i.e. structural model evaluation.
Prior to the specific evaluation of the structural model, the study performed the measurement model to evaluate the validity and reliability of the indicators to ensure that the indicators are representing the constructs of interest [24, 44]. A confirmatory factor 249
analysis (CFA) is performed to confirm unidimensionality of the indicators that reflect the underlying constructs [89, 94], i.e. to ensure that all the variables included in the models were best represented by the LVs as the study framed them. This procedure is recommended in the literature to confirm that the tested models include highly coherent constructs that are clearly defined and measured [70]. The results of the measurement model evaluation suggest that measurement model has demonstrated satisfactory reliability and validity as all fundamental criteria has been achieved. For simplicity, these results are not included here but they imply that the measurement model which we finally applied, was the most appropriate in terms of fit and coherence with the data.
The structural model reflects the relationships between the exogenous and endogenous constructs [44, 48, 66], with the main focus is maximizing the variance explained (R²) for the endogenous constructs as well as determining the size and significance of all the paths coefficients. In the structural model, the hypotheses are tested by assessing the path coefficients, which are standardized betas [3, 28]. Table 1 illustrates the ten first-order constructs (FOCs) computed for LVs scores.
Table 1: First-order constructs computed for latent variable scores.
Second-Order First-Order Constructs Code for Code for Indicators Constructs (Code) Constructs
Lean Management Philosophy LMph LMph1 – LMph4
(LM) Process LMpr LMpr1 – LMpr7
People and Partners LMpp LMpp1 – LMpp3
Problem Solving LMps LMps1 – LMps3
HRM Practices Selection and Hiring HRMsh HRMsh1 – HRMsh5
(HRM) Training and Development HRMtd HRMtd1 – HRMtd5
Performance Evaluation HRMpe HRMpe1 – HRMpe6
Rewards and Incentives HRMri HRMpe1 – HRMpe6
Operational Performance Efficiency OPey OPey1 – Opey6
(OP) Effectiveness OPes OPes1 – Opes4
All possible outer and inner links are drawn in SmartPLS 3 software to test the proposed research model. Figure 1 presents the PLS-SEM model of the study. Given that the FOCs are reflective in nature, the mode of measurement for indicators is specified as Mode A, with Table 1 providing the legend for indicators and constructs. In the figure, the paths are the hypothesized relationships between exogenous and endogenous constructs. The rectangular boxes represent the indicators, which are the individual items on the questionnaire. The latent variable ‘philosophy (LMph)’ is measured by four indicators, ‘process (LMpr)’ is measured by seven indicators, ‘people and partners (LMpp)’ and ‘problem solving (LMps)’ are measured by three indicators each, ‘selection and hiring (HRMsh)’ and ‘training and development (HRMtd)’ are measured by five indicators each, ‘performance evaluation (HRMpe)’ and ‘rewards and incentive (HRMri)’ are measured by six indicators each, ‘efficiency (OPey)’ is measured by six indicators, and ‘effectiveness (OPes) is measured by four indicators. Based on these factors, the PLS-SEM model for this study contains only reflective measurement model.
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Figure 1: PLS-SEM Model.
4. ANALYSIS AND EMPIRICAL RESULTS
The PLS-SEM model tests hypotheses H1-H4 of the study. In testing the PLS-SEM model, the study uses interaction approach [66], which examine the relationship of LM and HRM practices as well as their effect on OP. First, the study reveals the nature of the relationships between LM and OP if the effects of the HRM practices are omitted (H1). Then the study examine the nature of the relationships between HRM practices and OP (H2). This analysis is followed by examining the nature of the relationships between LM and HRM practices (H3). Then the study explores the mediating effects of HRM practices on the relationship between LM and OP (H4).
Evaluation of Structural Model
Following the standard procedure in performing PLS-SEM [24, 42, 45], the assessment of structural model is based on five step guidelines, which includes: (1) assessment of collinearity; (2) assessment of significance and relevance of the path coefficients, (3) assessment of coefficient of determination (R²), (4) assessment of effect sizes (f²) and (5) assessment of predictive relevance Q².
Assessment of Collinearity
Variance inflation factor (VIF) is the core measure for assessment of collinearity issues in the structural model. The VIF indicates how much of an indicator's variance is explained by the other indicators of the same construct [91]. A rule of thumb states that VIF greater than 10 denotes a harmful level of collinearity [49]. However, [42] suggests that VIF above 5.0 in the predictor constructs implies high collinearity. There are no critical levels of collinearity when VIF values are less than 0.5 [43]. Table 2 presents the VIF values of all the predictor constructs in the structural model. Results indicate that VIF values are below the recommended threshold value of 5.0, indicating there are no significant level of collinearity among the predictor constructs [42]. These findings, collectively, signify the success of the present study in conceptualizing and measuring latent constructs as the reflective FOCs. 251
Table 2: Collinearity values among exogenous constructs.
Construct HRMpe HRMri HRMsh HRMtd OPes OPey HRMpe 3.819 3.819 HRMri 2.395 2.395 HRMsh 3.151 3.151 HRMtd 3.666 3.666 LMph 2.617 2.617 2.617 2.617 2.992 2.992 LMpp 3.041 3.041 3.041 3.041 3.315 3.315 LMpr 2.777 2.777 2.777 2.777 2.970 2.970 LMps 2.843 2.843 2.843 2.843 3.513 3.513
Assessment of Significance and Relevance of Path Coefficients
The higher the path coefficient, the stronger the effect of the exogenous construct on the endogenous construct. The t-values are used to evaluate the statistical significance of each path coefficient. As a rule of thumb [25, 46], a significant path coefficient can be represented by the two tailed p-value of 0.05 or less. Critical t-value for a two-tailed test is 1.96 at the 0.05 significance level [44]. Hence, in the present study, a path coefficient is significant if the critical t-value is equal to or greater than 1.96. Table 3 presents the bootstrap results for evaluating the relationship between the exogenous and endogenous constructs. The study bootstrapped the model with 5000 samples. It can be seen from the table that, with regard to the proposed relationships, the results provide support of positive significant relationships for fourteen hypotheses: H1.2d, H2.1d, H2.2d, H3.1a, H3.1b, H3.1d, H3.2a, H3.2c, H3.2d, H3.3a, H3.3c, H 3.3d, H3.4a, and H3.4b. These coefficients are significant at a level of p<0.05. Eighteen other hypotheses are not supported with t-statistics less than 1.96, thus are not significant at the level of p<0.05.
Table 3: Results of bootstrapping for structural model evaluation.
No. Hypotheses Path Coefficient T Statistics P Values Significant H1: LM OP 1 H1.1a LMph OPey 0.051 0.552 0.581 Not 2 H1.1b LMpr OPey 0.105 1.020 0.308 Not 3 H1.1c LMpp OPey 0.080 0.700 0.484 Not 4 H1.1d LMps OPey 0.173 1.486 0.137 Not 5 H1.2a LMph OPes -0.067 0.691 0.489 Not 6 H1.2b LMpr OPes 0.073 0.720 0.472 Not 7 H1.2c LMpp OPes 0.106 0.949 0.343 Not 8 H1.2d LMps OPes 0.229 2.011 0.044 Yes Table 3 continues … … Table 3 continues H2: HRM Practices OP 9 H2.1a HRMsh OPey -0.051 0.517 0.605 Not 10 H2.1b HRMtd OPey 0.015 0.129 0.897 Not 11 H2.1c HRMpe OPey 0.118 1.138 0.255 Not 12 H2.1d HRMri OPey 0.333 3.814 0.000 Yes 13 H2.2a HRMsh OPes -0.084 0.857 0.391 Not 14 H2.2b HRMtd OPes 0.002 0.019 0.984 Not 15 H2.2c HRMpe OPes 0.207 1.710 0.087 Not 16 H2.2d HRMri OPes 0.306 3.813 0.000 Yes H3: LM HRM Practices 17 H3.1a LMph HRMsh 0.242 3.123 0.002 Yes 18 H3.1b LMpr HRMsh 0.224 2.699 0.007 Yes 19 H3.1c LMpp HRMsh 0.103 1.243 0.214 Not 20 H3.1d LMps HRMsh 0.316 3.101 0.002 Yes 21 H3.2a LMph HRMtd 0.298 3.172 0.002 Yes 22 H3.2b LMpr HRMtd 0.068 0.781 0.435 Not 23 H3.2c LMpp HRMtd 0.301 3.455 0.001 Yes 24 H3.2d LMps HRMtd 0.204 2.167 0.030 Yes 25 H3.3a LMph HRMpe 0.206 2.863 0.004 Yes 26 H3.3b LMpr HRMpe 0.064 0.759 0.448 Not 27 H3.3c LMpp HRMpe 0.204 2.320 0.020 Yes 28 H3.3d LMps HRMpe 0.403 5.423 0.000 Yes 29 H3.4a LMph HRMri 0.283 3.033 0.002 Yes 30 H3.4b LMpr HRMri 0.214 2.361 0.018 Yes 31 H3.4d LMpp HRMri 0.137 1.410 0.159 Not 32 H3.4d LMps HRMri 0.134 1.325 0.185 Not
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Assessment of Coefficient of Determination (R²)
The R² is critical in evaluating a structural path model, as it represents the amount of variance in the endogenous constructs that is explained by the model [20, 24]. R² is a range from 0-1. When R² is closer to 1, the predictive accuracy is higher [44]. According to [25], R² values of 0.67, 0.33, or 0.19 for endogenous LVs in the inner model can be described as substantial, mediate, or weak, respectively. Whereas, the explanatory power of the exogenous LVs is “0” because they are not determined by other LVs [66] In the current study, the endogenous LVs are HRM practices and OP. Table 4 shows the explanatory power of the endogenous LVs in the PLS model. The results indicate quite robust model with 62.4% (R² = 0.624) of the variance in performance evaluation (HRMpe), 46.9% (R² = 0.469) of the variance in rewards and incentives (HRMri), 62.2% (R² = 0.622) of the variance in selection and hiring (HRMsh), and 60.8% (R² = 0.608) of the variance in training and development (HRMtd) are explained by the 4P dimensions of LM. The structural model also explains a considerable amount of 50.9% (R² = 0.509) of the variance in effectiveness (OPes), and 51.5% (R² = 0.511) of the variance in efficiency (OPey) are explained by the 4P dimensions of LM and four dimensions of HRM practices, thus explaining in the upper range of moderate R² values.
Table 4: Explanatory power of endogenous latent variables.
Endogenous Latent Variables R Square HRMpe 0.624 HRMri 0.469 HRMsh 0.622 HRMtd 0.608 OPes 0.509 OPey 0.511
Assessment of Effect Size (f²)
The effect size (f²) is calculated to measure the influence a selected exogenous construct has on the R² values of an endogenous construct [24, 43] Based on Cohen’s f² value, the effect size of the path is weak at the structural level if f² is 0.02, mediate if f² is 0.15, and strong if f² is 0.35 [24, 43]. Table 5 summarizes the results of the effect size.
Table 5: Summary of results of effect size
Hypotheses Effect Size Result Hypotheses Effect Size Result Lean Management Efficiency Lean Management Selection and Hiring LMph OPey 0.002 - LMph HRMsh 0.059 Weak LMpr OPey 0.008 - LMpr HRMsh 0.048 Weak LMpp OPey 0.004 - LMpp HRMsh 0.009 - LMps OPey 0.017 - LMps HRMsh 0.093 Weak to Mediate Table 5 continues… … Table 5 continues Lean Management Effectiveness Lean Management Training and Development LMph OPes 0.003 - LMph HRMtd 0.087 Weak to Mediate LMpr OPes 0.004 - LMpr HRMtd 0.004 - LMpp OPes 0.007 - LMpp HRMtd 0.076 Weak to Mediate LMps OPes 0.030 Weak LMps HRMtd 0.037 Weak
HRM Practices Efficiency Lean Management Performance Evaluation HRMsh OPey 0.002 - LMph HRMpe 0.043 Weak HRMtd OPey 0.000 - LMpr HRMpe 0.004 - HRMpe OPey 0.007 - LMpp HRMpe 0.036 Weak HRMri OPey 0.095 Weak to Mediate LMps HRMpe 0.152 Mediate
HRM Practices Effectiveness Lean Management Rewards and Incentives HRMsh OPes 0.005 - LMph HRMri 0.058 Weak HRMtd OPes 0.000 - LMpr HRMri 0.031 Weak HRMpe OPes 0.023 - LMpp HRMri 0.012 - HRMri OPes 0.079 Weak to Mediate LMps HRMri 0.012 -
Referring to Table 3 (Results of Bootstrapping for Structural Model Evaluation) and Table 5 (Summary of Results of Effect Size), the analysis reveals that:
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(i) Problem solving significantly and positively impacts effectiveness with a weak effect size. (ii) Rewards and incentives significantly and positively impact efficiency with a weak to mediate effect size. (iii) Rewards and incentives significantly and positively impact effectiveness with a weak to mediate effect size. (iv) Philosophy, process, and problem solving significantly and positively impact selection and hiring with a weak, weak, and weak to mediate effect size respectively. (v) Philosophy, people and partners, and problem solving significantly and positively impact training and development with a weak to mediate, weak to mediate, and weak effect size respectively. (vi) Philosophy, people and partners, and problem solving significantly and positively impact performance evaluation with a weak, weak, and mediate effect size respectively. (vii) Philosophy, and process significantly and positively impact rewards and incentives with a weak effect size.
Assessment of Predictive Relevance Q²
Q² measures the extent to which the model’s prediction is successful [91]. A value of Q² > 0 confirms the presence of predictive relevance [42, 49]. Table 6 summarizes the results of Q². All the Q² values of reflective endogenous constructs of the current study are above “0”, which confirms the presence of predictive relevance and showing that the model’s prediction is successful.
Table 6: Summary of results: Q²
Endogenous Constructs Q² HRMpe 0.425 HRMri 0.320 HRMsh 0.411 HRMtd 0.420 OPes 0.329 OPey 0.328
Evaluation of Mediating Effects
In testing the mediating effects of HRM practices, this study adopted [99] guidelines. These guidelines have recently been used by [70]. The typology of mediation models is used to determine the type of mediations or non-mediation according to the criteria listed below: (i) Complementary mediation occurs if indirect effect “a x b” and direct effect “c” are significant and have the same directions. (ii) Competitive mediation occurs if indirect effect “a x b” and direct effect “c” are both significant and have opposite directions. (iii) Indirect-only mediation occurs if indirect effect “a x b” is significant, but not “c”. (iv) Direct-only non-mediation occurs if direct effect “c” is significant, but not indirect effect “a x b”. (v) No effect non-mediation occurs if both direct “c” and indirect effect “a x b” are insignificant.
There are several implications for the type of mediation or non-mediation established. First, when the first three cases; complementary, competitive and indirect-only mediation occur, the data supports the hypotheses for mediation. Second, in both complementary and competitive mediation, the mediator identified is consistent with the hypothesised theoretical framework, and the significant direct effect “c” signals that there is second possibly omitted mediator which can be examined in any future study. The sign of the direct effect signals for the sign of an omitted indirect path. Third, indirect-only mediation implies that the mediator identified is consistent with hypothesised theoretical framework and there is no need to test for further indirect effects. The sign of the direct effect in direct only non-mediation implies that there is yet undiscovered mediators. Finally, the no effect non-mediation is a failure for testing mediation [99].
The classification of mediation or non-mediation is identified based on whether direct effect “c” is significant or not. The t- values for direct effect “c” (4P dimensions of LM two dimensions of OP) are obtained from Table 3 (Results of Bootstrapping for Structural Model Evaluation). The t-values are used to evaluate the statistical significance of each path coefficient. Critical t-value for a two-tailed test is 1.96 at the 0.05 significance level [44]. Table 7 summarizes the mediating effects of HRM practices.
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Table 7: Mediating effects of HRM practices.
No. Hypotheses Path Sig. Type of T Statistics P Values Coeff. Mediation H4.1.1a LMph -> HRMsh -> OPey -0.012 0.491 0.624 Not 5 H4.1.1b LMpr -> HRMsh -> OPey -0.011 0.486 0.627 Not 5 H4.1.1c LMpp -> HRMsh -> OPey -0.005 0.381 0.703 Not 5 H4.1.1d LMps -> HRMsh -> OPey -0.016 0.485 0.627 Not 5 H4.1.2a LMph -> HRMsh -> OPes -0.020 0.760 0.448 Not 5 H4.1.2b LMpr -> HRMsh -> OPes -0.019 0.793 0.428 Not 5 H4.1.2c LMpp -> HRMsh -> OPes -0.009 0.573 0.567 Not 5 H4.1.2d LMps -> HRMsh -> OPes -0.027 0.804 0.421 Not 5 H4.2.1a LMph -> HRMtd -> OPey 0.005 0.125 0.901 Not 5 H4.2.1b LMpr -> HRMtd -> OPey 0.001 0.077 0.939 Not 5 H4.2.1c LMpp -> HRMtd -> OPey 0.005 0.124 0.901 Not 5 H4.2.1d LMps -> HRMtd -> OPey 0.003 0.114 0.910 Not 5 H4.2.2a LMph -> HRMtd -> OPes 0.001 0.019 0.985 Not 5 H4.2.2b LMpr -> HRMtd -> OPes 0.000 0.012 0.991 Not 5 H4.2.2c LMpp -> HRMtd -> OPes 0.001 0.019 0.985 Not 5 H4.2.2d LMps -> HRMtd -> OPes 0.000 0.017 0.986 Not 4 H4.3.1a LMph -> HRMpe -> OPey 0.024 1.020 0.308 Not 5 H4.3.1b LMpr -> HRMpe -> OPey 0.007 0.549 0.583 Not 5 H4.3.1c LMpp -> HRMpe -> OPey 0.024 0.916 0.360 Not 5 H4.3.1d LMps -> HRMpe -> OPey 0.047 1.096 0.273 Not 5 H4.3.2a LMph -> HRMpe -> OPes 0.043 1.461 0.144 Not 5 H4.3.2b LMpr -> HRMpe -> OPes 0.013 0.633 0.527 Not 5 H4.3.2c LMpp -> HRMpe -> OPes 0.042 1.221 0.222 Not 5 H4.3.2d LMps -> HRMpe -> OPes 0.083 1.589 0.112 Not 4 H4.4.1a LMph -> HRMri -> OPey 0.094 2.444 0.015 Yes 3 H4.4.1b LMpr -> HRMri -> OPey 0.071 1.869 0.062 Not 5 H4.4.1c LMpp -> HRMri -> OPey 0.046 1.289 0.198 Not 5 H4.4.1d LMps -> HRMri -> OPey 0.045 1.190 0.234 Not 5 H4.4.2a LMph -> HRMri -> OPes 0.087 2.469 0.014 Yes 3 H4.4.2b LMpr -> HRMri -> OPes 0.066 1.811 0.070 Not 5 H4.4.2c LMpp -> HRMri -> OPes 0.042 1.290 0.197 Not 5 H4.4.2d LMps -> HRMri -> OPes 0.041 1.133 0.257 Not 4 Note: *Type of Mediation: (1) Complementary Mediation (Partial Mediation), (2) Competitive Mediation, (3) Indirect-Only Mediation (Full Mediation), (4) Direct-Only Non-Mediation, and (5) No-Effect Non-Mediation.
Results presented in Table 7 (Mediating Effects of HRM Practices) indicate that, there are two significant hypotheses:
i) H4.4.1a: Rewards and incentives serve as an indirect-only (full) mediator for the relationship between philosophy and efficiency. In this regard, philosophy does not have a significant direct effect on efficiency. Instead, philosophy impacts efficiency only through rewards and incentives. The variance accounted for (VAF) value shows that 64.83% of the total effect of philosophy on efficiency is explained by the indirect-only effect of rewards and incentives.
ii) H4.4.2a: Rewards and incentives has indirect-only (full) mediator on the relationship between philosophy and effectiveness. In this regard, philosophy does not have a significant direct effect on effectiveness. Instead, philosophy impacts effectiveness only through rewards and incentives. The VAF value shows that 56.49% of the total effect of philosophy on effectiveness is explained by the indirect-only effect of rewards and incentives.
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5. DISCUSSION ON FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION
A. Discussion on Hypothesis H1
Examining hypothesis H1, i.e. the relevance of significant relationships between LM and OP, the results show that only problem solving has a positive and significant relationship with effectiveness of the organization, the rest of the hypotheses are insignificant. However, the insignificant relationship between philosophy and OP is explainable by the fact that, philosophy impacts both efficiency and effectiveness through rewards and incentives.
This finding in general, supports the argument that the higher the leanness, the greater will be the positive effects on OP [30, 32, 84, 93]. It also provides support for the assertion made by [61], who stated that, the continuously solving problems in organization could drives organizational learning. This is because, identifying root causes of problems and preventing them from occurring is the main focus of continuous learning system. Tough analysis, reflection, and communication of lessons learned are central to improvement as is the discipline to standardize the best-known practices, which then lead to improve OP in organization. Interestingly, these findings respond to criticisms by previous scholars who point out that LM is focusing too much on internal efficiency and production metrics, so is only an improvement for internal efficiency not for the customer [35, 77]. Other researchers also agree with this issue and stated that most of the studies do not examines the effectiveness of LM implementation as a culture of problem-solving which consider it from a holistic perspective [35, 79].
As such, the result indicates that problem solving of LM is expected to assist Malaysia public sector to an improvement of their effectiveness performance. This suggests that, public sector in Malaysia wishing to attain a higher level of effectiveness should focus more on problem solving rather than philosophy, process, and people and partners in designing their LM systems.
B. Discussion on Hypothesis H2
Examining hypothesis H2, i.e. the relevance of significant relationships between HRM practices with OP, the results show that, only rewards and incentives have positive and significant relationship with both efficiency and effectiveness of the organization, the rest of the hypotheses are insignificant.
These results are consistent with a considerable body of previous researches which implied that rewards and incentives have positive impact on performance [14, 22, 36]. Most of the studies have found that an effective compensation and reward process enhances productivity, sales and overall performance of organization [33]. An organization that implements rewards system on performance will have workers that are more likely to engage and motivated to participate in activities that improve the organization’s overall performance [75]. In line with this, [4] stated that, a comprehensive, transparent and client-based performance appraisal system enhances organization performance. [92] conducted a survey of international food companies and positively linked the employee reward system to firm growth [64]. Accordingly, [27] stated that rewards and compensation considerably affect organizational outcomes. Competency-based rewards and pay enhances the quality of goods and services, improves subordinates’ behaviour, and decreases accidents rates in organizations, thereby improving OP. Therefore, there is clear evidence that compensation and reward effectively affect OP [4].
As such, the result indicates that rewards and incentives may help Malaysia public sector to improve their OP in term of both efficiency and effectiveness. This suggests that, public sector in Malaysia wishing to attain a higher level of OP in term of efficiency and effectiveness should focus more on rewards and incentives rather than other three dimensions of HRM practices in designing their HRM systems.
Discussion on Hypothesis H3
Examining H3, i.e. the relevance of significant relationships between LM with HRM practices, the results show that, three dimensions of LM (philosophy, process, and problem solving) positively contribute to explaining the variance in selection and hiring; three dimensions of LM (philosophy, people and partners, and problem solving) positively contribute to explaining the variance in both training and development, and performance evaluation; and two dimensions of LM (philosophy and process) positively contribute to explaining the variance in rewards and incentives.
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These results are consistent with a considerable body of previous researches which implied that LM is directly dependent upon the extent to which HRs within the organization actively support and participate in the LM transformation process. Previous studies suggest the importance of HRM practices in influencing the successful implementation of LM [15, 81, 93]; the organizations that combined LM practices with HRM practices outperformed the organizations that did not do so [32, 63]. Therefore, finding, selecting, and investing in individuals that fit within the broader LM strategy can lead to greater organizational transformation success rates [62, 64]. [38] in his study highlights the importance of recruiting in the success of LM implementation. In LM environment also, the extensive training and development is a necessary to advance employees capabilities of becoming more perceptive to the acquisition of new skills knowledge [17], and is a necessary prerequisite for empowerment to work [73], thus an increase in performance outcomes [21, 84] via enhanced productivity can be attained [63]. [82] also mentioned that investment in skills and capabilities are essential while keeping the employees as the most valuable resources. Employees also need training to engage in improvement activities and problem-solving techniques. [23, 97]. Besides, the relationship between employees and supervisors or managers is facilitated by performance [29]. [86] found a significant positive relationship between developmental performance evaluation and elements of LM, namely JIT. Lastly, there is also a need to adapt the reward systems when organizations implement LM [50].
It can be concluded that in general, the results are consistent with previous studies indicating that LM and HRM practices are closely related and can interact in order to improve OP [17, 64, 87, 90, 100]. Moreover, given that LM and HRM practices are valuable management system within the organizational structure, the findings supported the RBV theory [64, 90]. The result indicates the importance of selection and hiring, training and development, and performance evaluation in the success of LM implementation in Malaysia public sector. This is followed by rewards and incentives that also play the important part in the successful of LM implementation. This suggests that, public sector in Malaysia wishing to attain a higher level of LM implementation should focus more on selection and hiring, training and development and performance evaluation, followed by reward and incentives in designing their LM systems.
Discussion on Hypothesis H4
Examining hypothesis H4, i.e. the mediating role pf HRM practices, the results indicated that, rewards and incentives significantly mediate the relationship between philosophy and both efficiency and effectiveness performance. These results are consistent with [2] finding that compensation moderate the relationship between JIT and performance. Based on the issues of implementing LM to improve OP, an organization must understand LM as a long-term philosophy where the right processes will produce the right results and value can be added to the organization by continuously developing people and partners, while continuously solving problems to drive organizational learning [76]. The writers and some studies in this field suggest that the resource-based view (RBV) perspective can explain how superior performance can be achieved and maintained [64, 90], given the organization’s future lies in the degree of efficiency and continuous commitment to manage the key resources effectively that would be strengthened by the ability to continuously upgrade the level of efficiency and management skill [47]. [34] stated that, Toyota’s continued success at implementing tools and techniques stems from a deeper business philosophy based on its understanding of people and human motivation.
Conclusion
It can be concluded that in general, the results are consistent with a wide body of research indicating that LM represents a change in the production system model that calls for integration of human and technological practices [72]. The inclusion of some HRM practices related to employee development can boost certain aspects of LM which then results in increased OP outcomes due to higher inventory turns, lead-time reduction, and increased quality [67, 90]. [71] believed that supporting HRM practices were necessary for successful implementation of flexible work organization. Following the same line, [81] showed a strong relationship between JIT and what they called infrastructure practices, including employee management. A quantitative study of LM implementation in manufacturing has also found evidence that despite a positive role of HRM on the operations of an organization in a LM context, its role is indirect and mediated through LM [31, 84]. Moreover, given that LM and HRM practices are valuable management system within the organizational structure, the results are consistent with the theory, which illustrates the role of HRM practices that intervene in the relationship between LM and performance [64, 90].
In respect of the importance of operations management, the findings provide some revealing insights into how organizations have managed to improve their performance through adopt high level of LM. HRM practices are extensively undertaken to provide various additional improvements in OP. In other words, this study provided empirical evidence that LM can lead Malaysia LAs to improve their OP in terms of efficiency and effectiveness.
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The lack of significance to these findings may be due to sample frame, since the study focuses only on Malaysia LAs, and no other public sector agencies. Furthermore, in Malaysia, LM is still yet to be considered as mature concept as there are still many organizations that are not applying LM either as a system-wide approach or partial LM implementation [26]. It takes time and effort to use LM on a broader scale in Malaysia public sector, although the organization is less characterized by functional boundaries [35].
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Recent Trends and Practices in Malaysian Pharmaceutical Supply Chain – A Qualitative Case Study
Ahmed Zainul Abideen Faculty of Industrial Management Universiti Malaysia Pahang Gambang, 26300, Malaysia [email protected]
Fazeeda Binti Mohamad Faculty of Industrial Management Universiti Malaysia Pahang Gambang, 26300, Malaysia [email protected]
Abstract—The pharmaceutical industry in Malaysia is one of the fastest growing industries that help in increasing the overall country’s revenue to a great extent. Medicinal Drugs are supplied to all regions within the country and as well as to other parts of the world. Generic traditional medicines, vitamins and supplements tops the production output but some of the other rare branded medicines are imported from overseas. Handling a very large variety of product families and different type of medicines is a very challenging job nowadays. Sophisticated methodologies and principles are needed to be followed to suffice the requirements of this complex pharma supply chain network both internally and externally. Time consumed at each and every level of the supply chain plays an important role in deciding the on-time delivery of drugs. A qualitative case study was conducted in a top level Malaysian Pharmaceutical firm to learn about the recent practical strategies and methods adopted by them in achieving on-time delivery and tackle product complexity. This study could also help other middle level small scale industries to develop their supply chain and provide better results to their customers in the future. Success of a country’s economy not only depends on the top level multi-national industries but also depends on the effective running of small scale manufacturing industries. Many useful insights from this study were derived and applied to develop a conceptual framework on the requirements for the effective functioning of any given Malaysian Pharmaceutical supply chain.
Keywords—Pharmaceuticals; Malaysian Pharmaceutical Industry; Pharmaceutical Supply Chain; Halal Pharmaceuticals; Information Sharing; Supply Chain Resilience; Supply Chain Security; Customer Relationship
1. INTRODUCTION
Manufacturing of medicines should be given a great priority and care rather to other products in order to avoid adverse consequences. National Pharmaceutical Board should take up this responsibility and make sure there is smooth drug production that meets the whole nation’s medicinal needs. A quality and resilient supply chain is very much needed to complete the whole production process properly. All other regulatory issues should be solved to ease the supply chain process [1]. Competitive advantage can be created by proper advertisements and market campaigns coupled with easy distribution of products of different variety and different levels of quality [2]. Economic imbalances of a nation may drastically effect a pharma industry since demands may rise and drop anytime. Delivery of drugs at the right time may be lifesaving. Outsourcing some of the semi-finished goods is adopted to tackle this constraint [3]. Sometimes drug pricing fixed by the government and the cost of production may 262
contradict badly and affect the upstream network. Stack holders should take up the responsibility of maintaining the sustainability of the medicine system. Nominal pricing which satisfies everyone in the value chain should be the key to reformation of pharmaceutical industries [4]. Affordability and availability of medicines are given great priority by improving drug supply chain [5]. Pharmaceutical downstream supply chain faces a lot of hurdles under specific constraints like government regulations, medicinal expiry date and inventory control. Nowadays transportation and storage cost is also considered as a dominant factor which contributes to the firm’s overall output [6]. Drug track and trace protocol seems to be difficult because of identity change at every level of the supply chain. Secure databases are now being used to handle this issue and track information needed for drug authentication [7]. Economic performances need to be stable to meet competitions globally. Effective utilization of assets, best customer service, optimal inventory management, better demand forecasts and lenient government norms are few keys to success. Stringent regulations can severely affect products with good turnover [8].
A qualitative case study on the Pharmaceutical firm was really needed to better understand each and every activities that directly or indirectly contributes towards the better functioning of supply chain processes of Malaysian Pharma industry. A top level Pharmaceutical firm was approached to conduct a qualitative case study. This firm is a leading manufacturer, distributer and exporter of pharmaceutical products and medicines in Malaysia. It produces oral antibiotics, creams, dental products, eye drops, sterile injectable solutions, tablets and capsules. Most of the final medicines are generic and follow Halal Standards. The major export destinations are Singapore, Vietnam, Ethiopia, Southeast Asia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Hong Kong and other gulf countries. Business has been established with a huge number of suppliers and customers and the firm is one of the top five leading Pharmaceutical Manufacturing firms in Malaysia.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Drug control authority monitors and regulates the outbreak of seasonal diseases. Local firms help in the production of Therapeutic drugs and develop internal Malaysian Pharmaceutical value chain. Costly life-saving medicines are outsourced from overseas locations especially for cardiovascular diseases and diabetes. Pharmaceutical Inspection Co – Operation Scheme (PICS) helps in inspecting all the incoming medicines. Malaysia is considered as the Halal hub for the Southeast Asian countries. Halal standards are now incorporated in producing Halal drugs. Malaysia is one of the twelve key economic areas where other countries wants to establish their businesses. The Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) is followed to achieve both international and domestic benchmarks. Local manufacturers are producing off-patent generic medicines in a large volume and also export high value biological drugs to gulf and other Asian countries Health National Key Economic Area (NKEA) and Clinical Research Centre (CRC) are now conducting research on sophisticated clinical trials and biological drugs. Some of the nationally assisted firm’s drugs are waived from government tax and regulations. High profile treatment facilities have reduced the death rate significantly [9]. Malaysian government’s spending on health related affairs have grown significantly very high. Almost ten percentage of annual budget is allocated to healthcare which increases the percentage of importance and efforts that needs to be allocated towards the pharmaceutical supply chain. Better technologies and methods are being adopted to build a strong business in the pharmaceutical scenario [10].
A Pharma retailer’s agenda has direct impact on pharma-supplier’s profitability. Economic collaborative decision making combined with social collaborative decision-making and can resolve problems related to this issue economically. Waiting time between echelons must be reduced [11]. Governance and integrity also plays a major role in meeting several pharmaceutical supply chain challenges [12]. Anti-counterfeit measures are taken to track medicines across entire supply chain. It shall give information regarding the past position of the goods, present position and the anticipated future location. The true pedigree of information is accessible by all the partners of supply chain [13]. Pharma-supply chain success can only be achieved by collaborative activities and small scale manufacturing companies need to adopt collaborative activities between all the phases of the supply chain that may bring lot of advantages at operational, strategic and political level [14]. Counterfeiting of drugs is the major problem faced by the drug producers that leads to great loss and sales revenue shut down. The brand image of the firm would be at stake if not properly checked. RFID technology can help prevent malicious activities and enhance better drug traceability [15]. Companies must practice better inventory control policies and avoid stock-outs [16]. It is now clearly evident that information and security plays a major role in stabilizing the supply chain and also avoid various risk factors.
Lean tools and techniques should be implemented in pharma industry and not just limit to production facility but also to improve supply chain practices. Just in Time production is very important especially when pharmaceutical industry is involved. Adoption of Kanban can provide strategic benefits and convert a push type into a pull type of production [17]. There is a need to explore pharmaceutical supply chain vulnerabilities and its capacity of resilience [1]. The highest percentage of cost in pharmaceutical production in spent in R&D. Globally outsourcing drugs has become a basic strategic weapon. It helps in developing flexible production, reduce costs, customer satisfaction and also enhancing profit margin. All the risks pertaining to supply chain
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outsourcing must be closely checked and avoided [18]. Managerial decisions should not disturb the firm’s supply chain. The role of regulatory constraints on product proliferation and pedigree should not affect different service levels towards consumers [19]. The supply chain network is built by an enormous inventory and material flow that tends to change in time. Lean tools shall help in effectively eradicate wastes and waiting time and improve the efficiency of the supply chain.
3. METHODOLOGY
The best method to attain information on all the recent and up to date inventions and implementations in the industrial sector is to study them closely. Complex issues can be explored deeply with respect to real life situations and healthcare tops that list [20]. Case studies help us to understand the current situation in the firm at a very sophisticated phase [21]. Methodology adopted in this research article is the qualitative case study approach which includes semi structured interviews combined physical observation of the process. Interviewees were the firm’s supply chain managers, production managers, procurement managers, sales managers and IT managers inside the pharmaceutical firm. Information was collected mainly on the movement of inventory and information inside the firm. Procedures like procuring raw materials, outsourcing, inventory handling technology, demand forecasting techniques, lean principles implemented and various supply chain strategies applied inside the organization to run a smooth and efficient supply chain network were explored.
There are several methods to carry out a case study. Some of the techniques applied are data analysis, experiments, interviews and surveys. The objective and scope differ based on the respective research questions, literature study and individual scholar’s perspective. A case study can be exploratory and descriptive sometimes and need not be contemporary all the time. A researcher must be always be ready to avoid traditional criticism [22], [23]. This study is also based on this idea.
This case study on the supply chain practices of a state of the art Malaysian pharmaceutical firm may be helpful to formulate a conceptual framework on PSC that can be adopted by almost all the Pharmaceutical firms in Malaysia to attain better supply chain efficiency. Semi structured interviews were implemented to cover almost all the area of pharmaceutical supply chain. Each interview was about 50 to 60 minutes with a short break. Snowballing of the insights derived from the interview was done to gain better understanding. Many useful insights were also derived from the previous studies done by researchers in PSC at various different locations, scenarios and stages.
4. SUPPLY CHAIN STRUCTURE IN REAL TIME
Various strategies and procedures were followed in this current top level pharmaceutical firm, where this case study was implemented. After each and every step there is an accumulation of finished goods in every level of pharmaceutical production process. Contamination of drugs are avoided by inspecting each and every process. The name, composition and expiration date along with box numbers are labelled after preliminary production. The primary information is placed directly on the medicinal carton boxes. High safety standards are followed during packaging. Primary packaging is done inside the production facility and placed over pallets. Each pallet has a specific quantity of boxes depending on the category of medicine or product family. Unit load principle is followed in some special cases. The manually operated automated fork lift vehicles are used to shift the finished and packed finished good pallets from the production facility to warehouse.
Around 20 to 30 suppliers have established contact with this pharmaceutical organization. The transportation cost is bared by the supplier or sometimes mutually shared in separate cases. Vendor managed inventory is followed for specific set of product inventory which exhibit high volatile demand fluctuations. Suppliers supply a variety of raw materials and primary packaging materials. The raw materials are stored in a separate location inside the warehouse which is very nearer to the production facility. Cold storage drugs are stored and secured at their respective cold storage environments. The raw materials reach the firm which are bar-coded and labelled by the supplier as per the requirement of the firm. The firm produces 6 to 7 types of product families among which ampules and injection vials take more time to synthesis but also provide more revenue or profit during sales at the same time. Product families like solid tabs, capsules, solutions are manufactured in very large quantity. According the ABC analysis of inventory the ampules and injection vials are estimated to be 20 percentage of the whole inventory but contribute more than 60 percentages to the sales.
The pallets containing raw materials are then transferred to the production facility by motorized forklifts. The time for synthesis and manufacturing of the medicines take various levels of duration according to the part families that are manufactured. After
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the manufacturing process is over the primary packaging material supplied by the suppliers are taken in the production site to finish primary packaging processes. All the packaging materials are biodegradable and environment friendly to make sure sustainable green production is implemented throughout the supply chain. After Primary packaging process the finished goods are shifted to level two and three of the warehouse for inspection and quality check. The warehouse is run by a SAP powered special warehouse management system. From the warehouse some of the goods are shipped to the customers and some are transported to a secondary storage location by third party logistics service providers. The firm’s supply chain structure is shown clearly in Fig. 1.
Figure 1: Pharmaceutical Supply Chain Network of the firm.
Warehouse Design
The firm’s warehouse has three levels to carry out the warehouse operations. The ground level is divided into three section. The first section is used to store finished goods which are ready for cross docking and shipment to the customers. The second section accommodates a huge variety of raw materials received from multiple suppliers. The third section is a supermarket of finished goods safety stock which will be later shipped based on the demand. Level two consists of two sections in which one section is especially dedicated to store medicines that demand cold storage between 2-8 degree Celsius. The rest of the level two is used for secondary packaging and labelling. The Third level consists of highly hazardous drugs which can be accessed only by authorized professionals. The goods are transferred in pallets using manually operated fork lifts and heavy duty lift conveyers are used to shift inventory between different levels. The Warehouse professionals, finance, inventory division and accounts division are all situated in one of the corners of the third level. The production facility is situated near to the warehouse. Supply chain information and security is managed properly without any hindrance by adopting state of the art technologies. Supply chain resilience is always monitored and avoided for both major and minor risks in the near present and the future. The firm adopts effective information sharing by the help of Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) technology.
Information Flow
The organization deals with thousands of customers constituting both private sectors and government sectors. Sometimes drugs directly reach to individual pharmacies that place bulk orders to the sales and marketing division. The government sector includes government hospitals and clinical pharmacies and private sector includes private hospitals and private clinics. Export of drugs to countries like Saudi Arabia, Iran, Oman, Indonesia, Hong Kong, Macau and Brunei bring huge revenue to the firm. Six Sigma and Halal standards are implemented in manufacturing the medicines inside the production facility. The sales, marketing and IT departments inside the firm are the major players in forecasting the demand by looking into historical data and also by using special forecasting techniques. This valuable information is later passed on to production planning and control department. Effective information sharing is followed by all the players inside the supply chain using Electronic Data Interchange (EDI). Usually the safety stocks are stored between the range of three to six months and sometimes it exceeds this range when there is
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a shortage in demand. The secondary storage of finished goods using 3PL logistic providers was the main concern for the supply chain department. Lack of enough space to store the finished goods in the warehouse was also another major problem. This was mainly due to the increase in the percentage of production due to very high demand. Efforts are undertaken to build a new warehouse in order to completely avoid secondary storage of finished goods. The most important decision making is done by the sales and marketing team on forecasting the correct demand for the future. Suppliers contact the firm’s warehouse and retailers to make the stock ready to ship to the firm. The vendor managed inventory is followed in this case. The Electronic data interchange and effective information sharing is effectively carried out between procurement, sales and marketing, production and warehouse departments to make correct decisions regarding capacity planning.
Figure 2: Information Flow Inside the Firm.
Customer Relationship Management
As mentioned earlier the marketing and sales department forecasts the demand and passes on the information to the procurement division. Healthy information sharing between the two departments were seen. The customer orders are received and the production unit is intimated about this aspect every single day. The production department processes the orders and shifts to the warehouse after primary packaging of the drugs using manually operated motorized fork lift vehicles. After the secondary packaging and quality check at the warehouse the orders are shipped to the respective customers based on the demand priority. Some of the medicines which are not being sold by the customers to their users due to sudden demand variations or other unavoidable reasons are sent back to the firm itself. The firm pays back the cash to the customers and then tries to sell it to other customers at a subsidized rate and makes sure all the necessary quality standards are still completely met. Based on the interview with the supply chain manager and sales manager it has been found out that this kind of customer relationship management strategy cannot be seen in all type of manufacturing sectors since most of the sectors do not replace sold goods or accept returns. This builds healthy relationship between the firm and the customer. More and more customers tend to buy products from them since they follow an efficient customer friendly management strategy. In this case, if a customer is not satisfied with the quality of the drugs a direct return of goods can be initiated towards the firm. The firm will also get back the medicines and drugs if the customer was not able to sell it to their users within a specific period of time. This return policy adopted by the firm is very customer friendly and tend to increase the loyalty among many customers. Since the drugs and medicines have expiry dates the sooner the decisions are made the greater is the benefits acquired. The major customers are the hospitals and clinics. Periodic information related to the total number of sales at the customers end are acquired by the firm to make precise decisions which can be seen clearly in Fig. 3.
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Figure 3: Customer Relationship Management.
Import and Export Strategies Towards Overseas Customers
Cost, Insurance and Freight (CIF) and Free on Board (FOB) are the two main import and export strategies used by the firm especially when it deals with international customers. This is applied to both goods acquired from the suppliers and goods shipped to customers. Cost, Insurance and Freight (CIF) is the strategy adopted by the firm to export the medicines and drugs to international countries from Malaysia. This denotes that the cost of insurance and final quality check and maintenance are incurred by the customer itself. The organization just needs to take care of the logistics services. One more strategy called as Free on Board (FOB) is the strategy used during the export process. The firm handles all the logistics and transport cost till it reaches the port of destination. It is the responsibility of the buyer to handle all the supply chain risks till it reaches there warehouse. There are also cases were already manufactured goods are purchased at a subsidized rate from another pharmaceutical organization and shipped to different locations after specialized secondary packaging.
Figure 4: Shipping Strategies.
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In the Free On Board strategy the seller takes up all the responsibility of exporting the medicines to the customer destination. This term is used during transportation through water medium. The charges incurred in the dispatch terminal and other miscellaneous costs associated to shift the drugs on board are fulfilled by the firm. In Cost Insurance and Freight Strategy the organization takes up the responsibility to pay all the freight costs associated till the item reaches the destination port. The in- house information sharing strategies, supplier selection strategies, production scheduling and demand forecasting, customer relationship principles and import and export strategies followed in the pharmaceutical firm are designed to a higher level of flexibility. Customer satisfaction and feedback is the main driving force in decision making regarding procurement and manufacturing of the drugs.
Halal Pharmaceutical Production
Malaysia is considered as one of the major Halal hub where all the Halal standards are incorporated inside the value chain of food, medicine and other products. The firm is already a leading exporter and consumer in the halal industry. The firm adheres to the requirements stipulated by the Halal standards of Islamic Sharia Law to satisfy both domestic as well as global Muslim Pharmaceutical market. The infrastructure and resources to develop Halal ingredients are effectively designed and built. A better care is taken to avoid sudden shortage of Halal ingredients. Efforts are taken to develop mutually recognized and harmonized global Halal standards and also to improve coordination between government agencies and firm’s management. The procurement division confirms that there are no contamination of Non-Halal items that are being shipped by the suppliers. The production facility makes sure that there are no counterfeiting and adulteration of medicines during any of the production process. Warehouse officials store the goods in Halal storage facilities. All the Halal standards and practices for pharmaceutical production are adopted to meet all the Halal requirements to manage customer expectations effectively.
5. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE MALAYSIAN BASED PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY
There are certain requirements to be met while manufacturing medicines and drugs especially in Malaysia. All the phases of production needs to be approached in a Halal way unlike other normal countries. Import and Export strategies should satisfy supplier and customer constraints. There is a need to develop unconventional demand forecasting techniques. Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) between departments should shift to cloud computing atmosphere. Logistics and shipping strategies should be designed to strengthen customer ties. A conceptual framework is proposed based on the results derived from the interviews in the firm for overall pharmaceutical production supply chain requirements according to Malaysian context which is depicted in Fig. 5. This framework was validated by the supply chain department.
Figure 5: Conceptual Framework On Pharmaceutical Requirements.
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6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Significantly a large amount of revenue in the healthcare is generated by Pharmaceutical production [24]. Healthcare system is affected drastically by shortage of drugs compromising the patient’s safety largely. PSC should be designed in such a way to improve the patient service level [25]. Supply chain intermediaries play a major role in delivering medicines to end customer [19], [26]. Efforts are taken to integrate production and distribution with other health services [27]. Disruption and Risk assessment need more limelight to asses any PSC. Improper control of these attributes may reduce the efficiency of healthcare system [28]. Modelling and simulation can ease the process of supply chain design by visualizing the supply chain disruption risk in Pharmaceutical Supply chain [29]. The production-centric nature should be reduced and more importance should be given to analyse the healthcare outcomes and customer satisfaction [30].
The framework was formulated based on the interview conducted at the supply chain and operations division of the firm. The first important criteria that helps to build a better PSC is the outsourcing strategies adopted by the firm. A huge amount of unnecessary time is being avoided by effectively outsourcing various products that need for the production process. This is further coupled with better supplier selection strategies to enable Vendor Managed Inventory (VMI). Here the Supplier himself will take up some of the responsibilities to help the firm achieve better customer satisfaction and also fulfil volatile demands. Better information flow using Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) promotes healthy logistics and reduces supply chain risks. Halal ingredients are outsourced and also produced at the firm to satisfy Halal market demands. There are still a lot of scope towards the implementation of lean tools and techniques inside the Pharmaceutical warehouse and other logistic divisions of the chain where there are great volumes of material movement and inventory pile-up.
The current Malaysian Drug regulation norms and government bodies sometimes pose a threat by increasing the time taken for procurement, manufacturing and on time delivery of goods due to various regulations and constraints. In that case, internal inventory movements can be quickened up by implementing lean and agile procedures. Demand fluctuation and production control and planning do not favour the firm supply chain all the time. This can be eradicated by studying the behavioural characteristics of each process inside the firm with respect to time with the help of best suitable mapping and simulation techniques. The greatest problem faced by any pharmaceutical firm is the problem of demand fluctuation. International supply chain network must be designed strategically every day to grow globally. Sales and marketing division should set the pricing more flexible and competitive and allow product variety, volume updated according to the demands. Historic data should be tapped precisely and better forecasting techniques must be developed every year. More efforts should also be done to regulate the work in process to help meet the demand fluctuation. This will help the top management to execute better management trade- offs. Correct work in process inventory level should be monitored effectively to meet any sort of demand variation. Enterprise resource planning should be properly carried out with the help of state of the art electronic data interchange system interface inside the firm. Pharmaceutical organizations should go a step ahead by sensing and analysing the weather forecasts and disease outbreaks to predict a better future demand forecast plan and maintain required medicinal safety stocks ready inside the warehouse supermarket. Furthermore efforts must be taken to develop techniques to solve medicinal tracking and traceability issues and swift product delivery. Better end-to-end supply chain visibility must be established between all partners of the supply chain and share information between them. Due to a complex material movement in the PSC especially in the warehouse there is a need to apply lean tools and graphically simulate the time lags in each and every warehouse activity to a maximum possible extent to increase the supply efficiency by reducing the cycle time of each and every process that limit to only production and manufacturing.
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[8] A. Sundaramoorthy and I. A. Karimi, “Planning in Pharmaceutical Supply Chains with Outsourcing and New Product Introductions,” Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., vol. 43, no. 26, pp. 8293–8306, 2004. [9] .:“MIDA | Malaysian Investment Development Authority :. Pharmaceuticals,” 2018. [Online]. Available: http://www.mida.gov.my/home/pharmaceuticals/posts/. [Accessed: 31-Mar-2018]. [10] “Third World Network Market Review on Priority Sector under Competition Act 2010 -Pharmaceutical Sector - DRAFT FINAL REPORT Prepared for the Malaysia Competition Commission PART TWO: Competition Concerns in the Pharmaceutical Sector,” 2017. [11] M. Nematollahi, S. M. Hosseini-Motlagh, and J. Heydari, “Economic and social collaborative decision-making on visit interval and service level in a two-echelon pharmaceutical supply chain,” J. Clean. Prod., vol. 142, pp. 3956–3969, 2017. [12] J. C. Kohler, T. K. Mackey, and N. Ovtcharenko, “Why the MDGs need good governance in pharmaceutical systems to promote global health,” BMC Public Health, vol. 14, no. 1, p. 63, Dec. 2014. [13] R. Koh, E. W. Schuster, I. Chackrabarti, and A. Bellman, “White paper: Securing the Pharmaceutical Supply Chain,” Massachusetts Inst. Technol., 2003. [14] L. Huang, Y. Lin, P. Ieromonachou, L. Zhou, and J. Luo, “Drivers and Patterns of Supply Chain Collaboration in the Pharmaceutical Industry: A Case Study on SMEs in China,” Open J. Soc. Sci., vol. 03, no. 07, pp. 23–29, 2015. [15] K. NamGung, Y. Choi, S. Park, and C. Jun, “The Development of e-Pedigree Model for Securing Transparent Pharmaceutical Distribution Channel in Korea,” Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2012, pp. 226–234. [16] N.-H. Z. Leung, A. Chen, P. Yadav, and J. Gallien, “The Impact of Inventory Management on Stock-Outs of Essential Drugs in Sub-Saharan Africa: Secondary Analysis of a Field Experiment in Zambia,” PLoS One, vol. 11, no. 5, p. e0156026, May 2016. [17] M. Papalexi, D. Bamford, and B. Dehe, “A case study of kanban implementation within the pharmaceutical supply chain,” Int. J. Logist. Res. Appl., vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 239–255, 2016. [18] ] C. Enyinda, C. Briggs, and K. Bachkar, “MANAGING RISK IN PHARMACEUTICAL GLOBAL SUPPLY CHAIN OUTSOURCING : APPLYING ANALYTIC HIERARCHY PROCESS MODEL,” Am. Soc. Bus. Behav. Sci. Las Vegas ND Febr., vol. 16, pp. 19–22, 2009. [19] C. L. Rossetti, R. Handfield, and K. J. Dooley, “Forces, trends, and decisions in pharmaceutical supply chain management,” Int. J. Phys. Distrib. Logist. Manag., vol. 41, no. 6, pp. 601–622, 2011. [20] S. Crowe, K. Cresswell, A. Robertson, G. Huby, A. Avery, and A. Sheikh, “The case study approach,” BMC Med. Res. Methodol., vol. 11, 2011. [21] G. Cousin, “Case Study Research,” J. Geogr. High. Educ., vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 421–427, 2005. [22] R. K. Yin, “Discovering the future of the case study method in evaluation research,” Eval. Pract., vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 283– 290, Oct. 1994. [23] A. Bryman, “Integrating quantitative and qualitative research: how is it done?,” Qual. Res., vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 97–113, Feb. 2006. [24] P. Kelle, J. Woosley, and H. Schneider, “Pharmaceutical supply chain specifics and inventory solutions for a hospital case,” Oper. Res. Heal. Care, vol. 1, no. 2–3, pp. 54–63, Jun. 2012. [25] M. Nematollahi, S. M. Hosseini-Motlagh, J. Ignatius, M. Goh, and M. Saghafi Nia, “Coordinating a socially responsible pharmaceutical supply chain under periodic review replenishment policies,” J. Clean. Prod., vol. 172, pp. 2876–2891, 2018. [26] G. Jetly, C. L. Rossetti, and R. Handfield, “A multi-agent simulation of the pharmaceutical supply chain,” J. Simul., 2012. [27] S. A. Narayana, R. Kumar Pati, and P. Vrat, “Managerial research on the pharmaceutical supply chain - A critical review and some insights for future directions,” J. Purch. Supply Manag., vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 18–40, 2014. [28] M. Jaberidoost et al., “Pharmaceutical supply chain risk assessment in Iran using analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and simple additive weighting (SAW) methods.” [29] F. Lücker and R. W. Seifert, “Building up Resilience in a Pharmaceutical Supply Chain through Inventory, Dual Sourcing and Agility Capacity,” Omega (United Kingdom), vol. 73, pp. 114–124, 2017. [30] E. Settanni, T. S. Harrington, and J. S. Srai, “Pharmaceutical supply chain models: A synthesis from a systems view of operations research,” Oper. Res. Perspect., vol. 4, pp. 74–95, 2017.
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Impact of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) on New Service Development
Mark Dirikorigha Salvation Faculty of Industrial Management, Universiti Malaysia Pahang Gambang, Pahang, Malaysia
Abstract - While developed countries have long begun using ICT for service innovation, many sub-Saharan African nations are still lagging behind in the use of ICTs for new service development (NSD) because of knowledge gap caused by lack of studies conducted in this area in the continent. Thus, this study attempts to close this knowledge gap by evaluating the impact of ICT on NSD in order to help service providers maximize the full potentials of ICT, including the service innovation potential. Using a survey method, a sample of 379 service-based small and medium enterprises are selected randomly from the Nigerian service industry. The data are analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences. This study is designed based on the underlying theory of Davis’ technology acceptance model (TAM) which is significant to this study. This study used the TAM theory as a basis to enhance its predictive power and the outcome of the study. The expected results show that ICT plays multiple roles in NSD. Thus, service firms are likely to use ICT for service innovation, especially if it is perceived to be useful, easy to use and with a supportive organizational culture. The study helps managers to effectively coordinate their ICT infusion into NSD to improve firm performance.
Keywords- Information, communication, technology, TAM, service, development
1. INTRODUCTION
The rapid development of ICT makes a great impact on the process of developing new services. The use of ICTs makes innovation development relatively easier and cost-effective and the effects derived from the use of ICTs can be a source of greater productivity for SMEs (Jin, Dan and Tong 2004; Sulistyo and Siyamtinah 2016; World Bank 2016). Thus, incorporation of new systems and information technologies in the NSD process facilitate new ideas development and execution of production programmes, through innovation diffusion processes, usage practices and commercial success (Cuevas-Vargasa, Estrada and Larios-Gómez 2016). This is because ICT allows service providers and external parties, such as customers, suppliers, product developers and industry associations, to collaborate and share new ideas and concepts needed for developing services.
Hence, the adequate use of ICT allows organizations, primarily in small businesses, to improve production activities in substantial ways (Tung and Rieck 2005). This is especially so for dynamic companies with a highly competitive environment that requires the use of advanced ICTs to improve their efficiency and cost effectiveness. From the feedbacks provided by the users, firms can offer high quality services to their clients (Mosleh and Shannak 2009). For these reasons, ICTs are valuable source of NSD because personalization requirements that were not operational and economically feasible prior to the use of ICTs are now made available. Scuotto, Giudice and Carayannis (2017) state that social media provide a wealth of information about individuals, which can be used for NSD because they enable enterprises to create online communities and share user- created content. Within this context, enterprises actively interact with external participants to acquire and absorb external knowledge and then generate new services. The increasing importance of new services to businesses has driven the growth of literature on service innovation (Chesbrough, Vanhaverbeke and West 2006; Mention and Torkkeli 2012; Papastathopoulou and Hultink 2012). Despite the growth of research about NSD, several authors have criticized the lack of attention paid to NSD compared with new product development (NPD) (Martovoy and Mention 2016; Scuotto, Giudice and Carayannis 2017; Helm and Graf 2018). Thus, this study tries to resolve this issue by analyzing the effect of ICT use on NSD in Nigerian SMEs using grounded theory approach.
While developed countries have long begun using ICT for service innovation, many sub-Saharan African nations are still lagging behind in the use of ICTs for NSD because of knowledge gap caused by lack of studies conducted in this area in the continent (Asongu and Roux 2017; Wakunuma and Masika 2017; Ghozali 2018). Danquah and Joseph (2017) reveal that 271
understanding the impact of ICT on NSD in sub-Saharan Africa remains limited because the existing body of research has concentrated mainly in developed economies where there is a more stable and well-developed institutional environment. According to Danquah and Joseph, it remains unclear whether the findings from the studies done in developed countries will hold in sub-Saharan Africa, where the “rules of the game” are often uncertain. Although few studies on ICT have been done in Africa, most of them focused on the impact of ICT on education, governance and transformational development (Okunola, Rowley and Johnson 2017; Shirazi, Ngwenyama & Morawczynski 2017; Wakunuma and Masika 2017), economic growth (Niebel 2018). However, an explicit focus on NSD is found to be lacking in most of these works. Thus, less attention has been paid to whether ICT has potential as a significant enabler for NSD within the African context and this causes a knowledge gap in the use of ICT for service creation. Thompson & Walsham (2017) reveal that the limited studies done in Africa affects SMEs’ ability to effectively use ICT for NSD due to knowledge gap in ICT use. Njoh (2018) states that the link between ICT and NSD remains to be adequately tested in Africa, where knowledge on how the consumption of ICT affects service development is characterized by large gaps.
A second issue that motivates this study is the shortcomings of the TAM. Although TAM has had an incredible effect on empirical research for long (Muk and Chung 2015; Lai 2017), it has reached a turning point because the model leaves out important variables and recent extensions of TAM are patchwork of many largely unintegrated and uncoordinated abridgements (Bagozzi 2017; Hamed 2018). Bagozzi claims that TAM’s main weaknesses are the neglect of group, social and cultural aspects of decision-making and the absence of identifying the determinants of perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEU). While decisions of technology use are often done collaboratively or based on others influence, TAM is conceived largely as a framework for explaining decision-making by individual persons. Thus, it is important to consider group, social or cultural aspects of technology acceptance because people act interpersonally or as agents of organizations (Hamed 2018). So, social influence and organizational culture are added to the TAM framework to improve its predictive power because it will deepen the theory and suggest fruitful avenues for better understanding how, when and why decisions are made in various technology applications. While prior studies introduced some predictors for PU or intentions (Fathema, Ross & Witte 2014; Fathema, Shannon & Ross 2015), Bagozzi claims almost no research has deepened TAM by explaining PU and PEU, reconceptualizing existing variables in the model or introducing new variables to explain how the existing variables produce the effects they do and this leaves a large gap in TAM. Bagozzi indicates that determinants of PU and PEU have been given scant attention. Thus, Bagozzi suggests that desired goals or motives can be treated as independent variables that predict PU and PEU because of their ability to identify the relative efficacy of individual goals or motives and the influence of linkages between them on PU and PEU. Thus, the study intends to evaluate the role of desired goals or motives on PU and perceived ease of using ICT, the effects of PU and PEU on NSD and the moderating roles of social influence, organizational culture and proportion of qualified staff on the relationship between PU, PEU and NSD.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 New Service Development
NSD refers to the process of devising a new or improved service, from idea or concept generation to market launch (Bettencourt 2010). The NSD literature has evolved over the last 30 years. Starting with pioneering studies in the 1980s, the first articles focusing on service innovation has received consistent attention since the mid-1980s, thereby resulting in approximately over 30 years of empirical NSD research. Early NSD studies used largely qualitative methods to explore the nature and stages of the service innovation process (Johne and Harborne 1985; Easingwood 1986; Bowers 1989 as cited by Biemans, Griffin and Moenaert 2016). However, Mendes, Oliveira, Gomide and Nantes (2017) state that the earliest studies of NSD focused on understanding success factors, following quantitative research methods borrowed from NPD research. Several studies acknowledge that much of the initial understanding of NSD was derived from NPD, which is considered a mature research field (Durisin, Calabretta and Parmeggiani, 2010). Thus, there were ongoing discussions about using the theoretical foundations of NPD to study NSD. Therefore, several prominent researchers in the field at that time (e.g., De Brentani, 1989, 2001; Storey and Easingwood 1993; Edgett 1994) published numerous articles applying the methods used in the early NPD success or failure studies to the new discipline of NSD even though NSD differs significantly from NPD because of the inherent characteristics of services. The earliest studies focused on understanding success factors, following quantitative research methods borrowed from NPD research. The earlier researchers of NSD perhaps applied the techniques of NPD studies due to lack of appropriate frameworks needed to study the new discipline of NSD. This indicates that earlier studies on innovation were strongly biased toward products with little attention being given to services innovation. Besides, earlier research investigated narrow areas of NSD. During this first time period of NSD research, more than four out of five research focused on NSD process and its execution while few research covered NSD strategy, although this topic is declining over time. As Papastathopoulou and Hultink (2012) find, the NSD topics investigated in this early era were rather narrowly focused. Nevertheless, earlier research in NSD laid the foundation for further research that would explore more areas in NSD.
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Subsequently, these earliest studies were quickly followed by new wave of researchers in the mid-1990s to early 2000s who began to study NSD in different context. However, researchers of this era applied the quantitative research methods of NPD success or failure studies to identify key NSD success factors (Storey and Easingwood 1993; Edgett 1994). Several studies acknowledge that much of the initial understanding of NSD was derived from NPD, which is considered a mature research field (Durisin, Calabretta and Parmeggiani 2010). Thus, there are ongoing discussions about using the theoretical foundations of NPD to study NSD. To this end, research has shown that, though similarities exist, service management differs from product management in several key aspects. While scholars acknowledge the key differences between products and services, they are not clear on how this impact the NSD process. However, integrated offers have contributed to minimizing this difference (Alam, 2002; Menor, Tatikonda and Sampson 2002; Stevens and Dimitriadis 2005; Papastathopoulou and Hultink 2012). Therefore, studies have explored NSD in terms of its own advancements and challenges and provided definitions, classifications, and frameworks designed specifically for services. Despite this evolution of NSD research, its maturity remains inconclusive.
Furthermore, some authors have conducted literature reviews to clarify the state-of-the-art and evolution of the NSD research field. The first literature review of the growing body of research about service innovation was carried out by Johne and Storey (1998). The review provides a comprehensive analysis of the NSD literature. It identifies six key research areas: corporate environment, process, people involved, analysis of opportunities, development of new services and implementation. After the review, Johne and Storey concluded that more research was needed in several NSD areas that were well covered in the NPD literature, such as objective procedures for evaluating success, teamwork, NSD across different industries and international aspects of NSD. Also, Menor, Tatikonda and Sampson (2002) identify NSD topics in need of further knowledge refinement (exploitation) and highlight topics that require full investigation (exploration). They recommend the following topics for exploitation: categorization of different types of new services and their impact on the development process, clarification of NSD process models and application of NPD tools for NSD. For further exploration, they suggest the following topics: design and development of internet services and application of modularity to NSD projects. In a related development, De Jong and Vermeulen (2003) analyze the literature and organize NSD into two evolutionary stages: managing key activities in the NSD process and creating a climate for continuous innovation. Besides, Droege, Hildebrand and Forcada (2010) provide a literature review with regard to three main areas of study: taxonomies of service firms, classification frameworks of service innovation and success factors for various service dimensions and innovation types.
Recent reviews have adopted a quantitative approach for analyzing the NSD literature. Papastathopoulou and Hultink (2012) perform bibliometric and content analyses to identify developments and patterns in the NSD research field. Considering criteria such as research topics and research design, they conclude that the field has matured over the years. Regarding future directions, they identify the need for an interdisciplinary focus. Similarly, Carlborg, Kindström and Kowalkowski (2014) depict the evolutionary pattern of NSD in terms of volume and topicality, confirming a level of maturity that Papastathopoulou and Hultink (2012) also suggest. However, Biemans, et al. (2016) disagree on the maturity assumption after reviewing 230 NSD research articles due to the lack of a strong network of authors, a coherent body of knowledge and high-impact articles. Also, a recent study using a bibliometric-based literature review of 277 NSD articles published over a period of 30 years by Mendes, Oliveira, Gomide and Nantes (2017) found that the NSD research field has not yet reached maturity although it is consistently moving toward it. Also, Helm and Graf (2018) assert that while the topic of developing new services has extensively been examined by researchers for the past 30 years, we are far from fully grasping the concept of NSD. Besides, Helm and Graf state that despite years of research regarding service innovation, there is no generally recognized model for the process of new service development. As a result, there is a clear sense of divergence about the maturity of the NSD research field.
Over the years, researchers have developed a finer grained interest in NSD. Thus, the focus has shifted toward internal competences (e.g., dynamic capabilities), customer understanding (e.g., experience-centric services) and the service innovation context (e.g., clusters and networks) and organizing NSD to the role of frontline employees, customer involvement and knowledge management. Thus, the literature has moved toward a broader research agenda and the number of researches addressing new NSD topics, such as customer involvement and organizational issues, has increased (Menor and Roth 2007; Cavalieri and Pezzotta 2012; Papastathopoulou and Hultink 2012; Carlborg, Kindström and Kowalkowski 2014). As Papastathopoulou and Hultink found, over the last 30 years, NSD research has gone from being narrowly focused to covering a much broader set of topics. This is because of the clear difference between the first 15 years of NSD research when only a few empirical studies were published each year and the last 10 years when the number of published empirical studies increased dramatically, with year 2012 alone recording 32 empirical NSD studies published. However, after a review of 230 empirical NSD studies published in 50 journals, Biemans, Griffin and Moenaert (2016) discovered that NSD strategy has become more popular in recent years among researchers from 2009 to 2012. According to Biemans, Griffin and Moenaert, 30% of the articles investigate strategic issues while almost 20% of the articles are about customer and market research, typically investigating information quality (for example, assessing the quality of user generated ideas for new services) and how service companies collect customer information to design new services. In view of important contemporary trends in this field (such as “big data” and social media), this domain is expected to gain momentum in the future. This is because of data mining potential of social media in accessing quality user generated ideas for the design of new services. Another topic garnering increasing attention in NSD literature is co-development and alliances, which includes several studies about how firms collaborate with customers in developing new services. For example, Alam and Perry (2002); Melton and 273
Hartline (2010) recognized the importance of collaborating with or integrating the customer in developing new services. Also, Vargo and Lusch (2008) assert that value creation is an interactive procedure with customers being co-creators. This indicates that NSD process is a multi-actor matching one between needs and technologies as stated by Makkonen and Komulainen (2014). Thus, the process of innovating services entails the customer’s idiosyncrasies which hold as important as those of the firm. However, Helm and Graf (2018) argue that these considerations are not sufficient regarding the NSD process of industrial manufacturers because the perspective of the client and thus the actual incorporation of its idiosyncrasies is lacking. Besides, Helm and Graf state that despite the importance of co-creation in service innovation, it still remains unclear which characteristics of the participating actors are necessary for executing NSD process. This assertion supports a recent call for improving the understanding of customer interaction during the NSD process made by Carlborg, Kindström and Kowalkowski (2014). This is because by focusing on NSD in the area of industrial manufacturers, one is entering a field of research which is in an early stage as stated by Kindström and Kowalkowski (2009).
Looking at geographic scope, most of the research on NSD were conducted in Europe followed by North America and Australia and Asia. However, there has been a sharp decline of the number of studies conducted in North America in recent years while there is an increasing number of studies in Australia and Asia. From a review of 230 empirical NSD studies published in 50 journals over a period of 30 years, Biemans, Griffin and Moenaert (2016) found that studies using data from North America (51.2%) have sharply decreased over time. This decline is not surprising because several earlier North American scholars who were highly active in the NSD research have moved out of the field. On the other hand, the authors indicated that the number of studies based on data from the Australia or Asia region (12.9%) has recently increased significantly. However, none of the studies reviewed were conducted in Africa or used data from the African continent. This means that the data or results obtained from these NSD research may not represent the views and experiences of the service industry in Africa due to geographically diverse cultures and their roles in the new service creation process. Although a number of NSD research has been carried out in Europe, Americas and Australia and Asia, there are missing actual research studies of NSD in the service industry in Africa. This means that research needs to document different voices in the NSD, especially those areas that have been marginalized. This provides academics an opportunity to demonstrate to Africans the worth of their studies of NSD. In this regard, findings from the current studies carried out in other regions can be replicated in Africa so as to improve on the current stock of knowledge about service innovation by adding the African perspective in the picture and provide service managers in Africa with a set of generally accepted tools and guidelines for successful creation and delivery of new services.
However, the opinions among the scholars differ when it comes to assessing what these three decades of NSD research have amounted. Some scholars conclude that the field has become mature (Bryson and Monnoyer, 2004). Cainelli, Evangelista and Savona (2004) conclude that there is nowadays a rather detailed picture on the relevance and nature of innovation activities in services. More grounded findings of a recent literature review was carried out by Papastathopoulou and Hultink (2012). Using bibliometric and content analyses to identify developments and patterns in the NSD research field, the scholars analyzed 145 conceptual and empirical articles from almost three decades of NSD research and split them into three-time periods containing roughly the same number of articles: 1982–1995 (“the early writings”), 1996–2001 (“advancing the literature”) and 2002–2008 (“the recent works”). From the articles reviewed, 90 were empirical NSD studies, which were classified according to research methodology. Considering criteria such as research topics and research design, Papastathopoulou and Hultink concluded that NSD research methods have matured over the years and that there is an emergence of a sophisticated NSD discipline. Regarding future directions, the scholars identify the need for an interdisciplinary focus. Similarly, Carlborg et al. (2014) depict the evolutionary pattern of NSD in terms of volume and topicality, confirming a level of maturity that Papastathopoulou and Hultink also suggest. However, their conclusion is based predominantly on an analysis of the evolution over time of the research methods employed. They do not evaluate the nature and impact of researcher networks or the overall body of knowledge that has been generated.
On the other hand, Biemans, Griffin and Moenaert (2016) disagree on the maturity assumption due to the lack of a strong network of authors, a coherent body of knowledge, and high-impact articles. As a result, there is a clear sense of divergence about the maturity of the NSD research field. This is because the field of NSD is shaped by a few researcher networks consisting of loosely connected researchers focusing on their own topics and failing to build a consistent body of NSD knowledge. Typically, researcher networks have focused on a narrow field of interest within the overall domain, resulting in more limited, isolated contributions. For instance, the Swedish/ Swiss research sub-network has produced numerous articles on user involvement in NSD. However, rather than exploring the complexities of when, where, and how to involve which users in developing new services, their articles repeatedly investigate the quality of user-generated ideas for new mobile phone services (Kristensson, Magnusson and Matthing 2002; Magnusson, Matthing, and Kristensson 2003; Matthing, Sandén, and Edvardsson 2004; Kristensson, Matthing and Johansson 2008 as cited by Biemans, Griffin and Moenaert 2016). While this strategy results in valuable insights, it does not build an overall body of knowledge.
Moreover, majority of scholars emphasize that the NSD domain remains underdeveloped and that much additional research is needed (De Jong and Vermeulen 2003; Droege, Hildebrand and Forcada 2009; Toivonen and Tuominen 2009; Salunke, Weerawardena and McColl-Kennedy 2011). For example, Storey and Hull (2010) state that NSD remains among the least
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studied and understood topics in both the service management and the innovation literatures. Similarly, Kuester, Schuhmacher Gast and Worgul (2013) conclude that although researchers have shown growing interest in NSD issues, this area is still underutilized. More recently, an analysis of 230 empirical articles on NSD published over a period of 30 years by Biemans, Griffin and Moenaert (2016) found that despite the growing popularity of NSD as an innovation discipline, the field has not moved forward substantively. According to the study, NSD is a subject specialty but lacks an “invisible college” of researchers addressing the topic. Biemans, Griffin and Moenaert claimed that NSD research remains a young discipline, scripting its own paradigm as it proceeds. In doing so, it continues to oscillate between exploratory and conclusive studies. This is because era four of the NSD research is not only characterized by a major acceleration in publications, but the research methods used differ strongly from those used in the previous decades. Besides, the study found a lack of consensus across NSD findings with a rather fragmented new service development literature and does not provide managers with a set of generally accepted tools and guidelines for success. Therefore, this has resulted in a body of research that fails to provide managers with consistent answers to basic questions about how to most effectively manage NSD processes when compared with the NPD literature. However, the analyses of the research methodologies employed in empirical NSD studies paint a limited picture that, by itself, is insufficient to draw a clear conclusion about the status of NSD research.
Furthermore, others have proclaimed that NSD is moving toward a mature field of research. A recent study using a bibliometric- based literature review of 277 NSD articles published over a period of 30 years (i.e. published from 1984 to 2014) by Mendes, Oliveira, Gomide and Nantes (2017) used quantitative and qualitative analyses. These articles were organized into four periods to improve the analyses from an evolutionary perspective: Early Writings (1984-1995), Advancing of Literature (1996-2001), Progressive Literature (2002-2008) and Recent Works (2009-2014). The study found that the scientific production in the NSD field has grown significantly over these four periods, and the entry of new authors has extended the social structure. However, collaboration networks seem disconnected from one another. Nonetheless, the intellectual structure has shown great progress, making NSD an independent area of research and discovery from the NPD domain, with its own foundations and expansions into new topics. They claimed that the NSD research field has not yet reached maturity even though it is consistently moving toward it
The disagreement about the current state of NSD research has caused an absence of a generally accepted body of knowledge. In sharp contrast to the field of NPD, the increased level of NSD publications has not resulted in an integrated, holistic body of knowledge. In this regard, NSD researchers have not yet succeeded in building a true school of thought. NSD, which originated as a spin-off from NPD and consists of scholars researching many different aspects of NSD, can clearly be characterized as a subject specialty. But, it is still a far cry from being an invisible college. As a result, the NSD literature lacks cohesiveness and fails to build cumulative knowledge. For example, although it emphasizes the familiar characteristics of services (intangible, heterogeneous, inseparable and perishable), it fails to describe their role in and impact on NSD. While the inseparability of services implies that service employees are key to successful service delivery (De Jong and Vermeulen, 2003), the role of service employees remains largely ignored. Driven by the failure to build a cumulative body of knowledge, key questions such as “What does the NSD process look like?” and “How can NSD be effectively managed?” remain largely unanswered. In this regard, managers who want to start or improve their service offerings will find only limited help from the available NSD literature.
One of the main causes for the lack of coherence in the knowledge on NSD may stem from the fact that, rather than initially approaching research in the domain without ingoing bias and using grounded theory approaches to create initial understanding, many of the early researchers applied the concepts, frameworks and methods used to understand NPD to the NSD domain. Another reason for the inability to build a cumulative body of knowledge was caused by early NSD researchers neglecting to build the field from the bottom up, by starting with unbiased qualitative research to explore the nature of NSD without preconceptions. Instead, early researchers applied well-tested research methods and frameworks from NPD success or failure studies to the NSD context. This is because majority of the studies published during the first era of NSD research tested specific hypotheses, often about the effect of various antecedents on NSD success. This resulted in the quickly accepted conclusion that NSD is not significantly different from NPD (Biemans, Griffin and Moenaert 2016)). This early perspective is probably best portrayed in the highly influential study by Cooper and De Brentani (1991). The authors summarized their findings as follows: In summary, factors that underlie new product success are remarkably consistent across different types of products— manufactured items versus financial services.
To correct this problem, Biemans, Griffin and Moenaert (2016) proposed that the field of NSD needs to move forward in a significantly different manner. Biemans, Griffin and Moenaert provided several recommendations, including encouraging more research that would focus on special issues on NSD and focus on broad themes, such as developing Internet-based new services, NSD taxonomies and the differences and similarities between NSD and NPD. Also, a coherent research agenda for the NSD domain was proposed. Moreover, several scholars have emphasized a need for basic research in this area (Droege, Hildebrand and Forcada 2009; Griffin, Josephson, Lilien, Wiersema, Bayus, Chandy, Dahan, Gaskin, Kohli, Miller, Oliva and Spanjol 2013). It was further proposed that key NSD concepts must be (re)defined, including a taxonomy of services. This is because most of the extant literature investigates financial services or lumps all services together in an effort to obtain large samples
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that allow statistical analysis. But variation in the service landscape is large, with significant differences between different types of services. The NSD theory will benefit from a better understanding of the service context and how this impacts the NSD process. Besides, it was proposed that an accepted model of the NSD process must be developed. This is because the extant literature is quick to point out the relevance of customer participation and the role of service employees (Cadwallader, Jarvis, Bitner, and Ostrom 2010; Alam 2011) but does not present the equivalent of the Stage-Gate model for the development of new services. Considering the many different types of services, such a general model of the NSD process may need to be made contingent on the service context.
When these new research directions are combined with an influx of academics into the NSD domain, this should both deepen and broaden our understanding of NSD, encourage cumulative knowledge building and create the accepted school of thought that is so sorely lacking in the current NSD literature. This will provide an in-depth understanding of how firms develop new services and the factors governing that behavior. According to Biemans, et al. (2016), these new research directions will elevate the visibility and status of NSD as a research domain and also presents a research agenda that may help reorient future research in this area so that a more complete and coherent body of knowledge is generated that both advances the field and helps practitioners manage NSD more effectively and efficiently.
Over the last decades, organizations all over the world have tried to take advantage of ICT to improve their operations and communication with consumers. Thus, organizations have invested heavily in IT to support their work processes. In today's organizations, intra- and inter-organizational work systems are increasingly IT-enabled. Although adoption of ICT has increased in most countries, the rate of successful adoption and operation varies from country to country. For example, developing countries such as Nigeria are lagging behind in ICT adoption compared with developed countries. Available evidence suggests the functional potential of IT applications is underutilized in developing countries. Most IT users in such developing countries apply a narrow band of features, operate at low levels of feature use and rarely initiate extensions of the available features, especially in product or service innovation (Mohammed and Yarinchi 2013). In this regard, Jasperson, Carter and Robert (2005) argue that organizations need aggressive tactics to encourage users to expand their use of IT-enabled work systems so as to realize their full potential and achieve success. Also, Liu and Yuan (2015) state that for developing countries to successfully adopt ICT and try to leapfrog some of the obstacles encountered by early ICT adopters in developed countries, systematic analyses need to be conducted to understand the interactions among stakeholders and ICTs and co-create the institutional environment to lead to a positive impact of ICT on innovation. Only when this relationship is clearly understood can innovative ICTs be seamlessly integrated into the innovation activities of firms.
Currently, most of the research on ICT have focused on information technology enabled work systems (Jasperson, Carter and Robert 2005; Pijpers and Montfort 2005; Thiraput 2013; Park, Rhoads, Hou and Lee 2014), online or offline connection through social media and instant messaging platforms (Leung and Wei 2000; Wei and Lo 2006; Boyd and Ellison 2007; Verkasalo, Lopez-Nicolas, Francisco and Bouwman 2010; Osman, Talib, Sanusi, Shiang-Yen and Alwi 2012; Pawłowska and Potembska 2012; Wang, Ngai and Wei 2011; Tossell, Kortum, Shephard, Rahmati and Zhong 2012; Sarwar and Soomro 2013), online marketing and advertisement (Norris 2007; Kaplan and Haenlein 2010; Jothi, Neelamalar and Prasad 2011; Neti 2011; Bashar, Ahmad and Wasiq 2012; Bruhn, Schoenmueller and Schafer 2012; Wang, Yu and Wei 2012; Kim, Seo, Ra, Lee and Hwang 2013; Leung, Bai and Stahura 2013), the emergence of electronic commerce, social commerce and social shopping (Choi Lee 2003; Rubel 2005; Beisel 2006; Kim, Ferrin and Roa 2007; Cha 2009; Chen, Hsu and Lin 2010; Stephen and Toubia 2010; Harris and Dennis 2011; Huang 2012; Wang and Zhang 2012; Li and Liu 2014), privacy issues and cybercrime (Marci, Roosta and Sastry 2016), adoption of ICT in public administration, communication with citizens and government operations otherwise known as e-governance (Liu and Yuan 2015; Yang and David 2017), civic behaviour and community involvement (Zuniga, Jung and Valenzuela 2012; Stout, Fisher and Levesque-Bristol 2012; Ye, Xu & Zhang 2016) and media education and ICT facilitated education (Griffith and Liyanage 2008; Teo, Luan & Sing 2008; Junco, Heiberger and Loken 2010; Edmunds, Thorpe & Conole 2012; Prescott, Johnson, Mark and Prescott 2012; Lin and Wang 2012; Tang, Tang and Chiang 2012; Ezemenaka 2013; Bakon and Hassan 2013; Mohammed and Yarinchi 2013; Simuforosa 2013; Wong, Osman, Choo & Rahmat 2013; Yeboah and Ewur 2014; Baker-Eveleth and Stone 2015; Hamid, Razak, Bakar and Abdullah 2016).
However, there is limited empirical research that specifically examines the effects of ICT use on NSD, especially among SMEs in the service-based industry from emerging markets. This is because less attention has been paid to the issue of whether the adoption of ICT tools by SMEs from developing countries such as Nigeria can enhance their NSD process. Aguilera, Cuevas- Vargas and González (2015); Cuevas-Vargasa, Estradab and Larios-Gómez (2016) confirm that the majority of the empirical studies about the use of ICTs for innovation purposes have been centered on large companies in developed countries. Furthermore, Sambamurthy, Bharadwaj and Grover (2013) conclude that there are relatively few theoretical studies and published surveys that correlate ICTs, innovation and business performance, but there are even fewer studies that correlate these three variables in the context of SMEs (Izushi 2013; Tanabe and Watanbe 2017). Therefore, Franquesa and Brandyberry (2017) state that there is need for more research about ICTs, innovation and small-scale business performance using data from developing nations.
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2.2 The Relationship Between ICT Use And NSD In Smes
A number of researchers have found ICT capabilities of SMES to be linked to their innovativeness. IT tools such as email, discussion forums, online surveys and other internet-based toolkits help to harness consumer creativity for new product and service development process (Von Hippel 2005; Desouza, Awazu, Jha, Dombrowski, Papagari, Baloh & Kim 2008). For example, software applications are associated with a significant increase in the extent and quality of product and service design and decrease time spent on it (Banker 2006). Similarly, Gretton, Gali and Parham (2004) suggest that the use of ICTs makes innovation development relatively easier and cost-effective and that the effects derived from ICT use can be a source of greater productivity. Driven by this, more innovative group of small firms often use computer-aided design and computer aided manufacturing processes twice or three times more respectively than their less innovative counterparts during product and service innovation (Laforet 2006). Furthermore, Froehle, Roth, Chase and Voss (2000) state that service innovation and development processes benefit from the use of information technology when high levels of synergy, usability and support are achieved. Also, Neu and Brown (2005) indicate that a company´s ability to use ICT in developing and delivering services can enhance its success. For example, by applying more advanced marketing information systems based on the data acquired from their customers, firms are able to create more quality services to explore potential markets (Lin, Chen and Chiu 2010). This is because information technology helps to gather useful information internally and externally and make it available to the right people in the company, who use such information for the purpose of developing new services.
However, in order to ensure an effective diffusion of the knowledge gathered through external knowledge sourcing (Leiponen 2005), a free flow of information (Van Riel, Lemmink and Ouwersloot 2004) and collective ownership of knowledge (Leiponen 2006) should be promoted. A study on a network perspective of the development of new services by Syson and Perks (2004) indicate that although direct participation by customers in most NSDs is still low relative to NPD, it is noteworthy that new technologies, through virtual reality, facilitate this process. Driven by this, service companies can further obtain immediate feedback from customers through new technologies during NSD process, which permits rapid correction of potential design or delivery problems.
Also, Carbonara (2005) state that ICT contributes to NSD because it facilitates the exchange of opinions, information sharing and work coordination. Furthermore, Roman (2012) finds the usage of IT in SME internal communication to have positive effect on innovation activity. For example, the Internet serves as an accessible knowledge source where organizations can mine valuable new ideas necessary for developing new products and services (Ignas 2012). This indicates that ICT enables small firms to tap into critical new external knowledge sources and apply it to commercial ends. Since some SMEs cooperate with external sources such as customers (Carbonell, Rodriguez‐Escudero and Pujari 2012), universities, research institutes and suppliers in their attempt to generate innovations, ICT tools allow them to easily tap into the external knowledge networks as an input to enhance their service innovation process. Zeng, Xie and Tam (2010) found a significant positive relationship between inter-firm cooperation, cooperation with intermediary institutions, cooperation with research organizations and innovation performance of SMEs. However, the study being reviewed used 137 Chinese manufacturing SMEs as sample, while my research is examining the situation in Nigeria using a larger sample of service-based SMEs. Besides, Zeng, Xie and Tam’s study did not specifically examine the role of ICT on service innovation while my research intends to establish the contribution of ICT in the NSD process of SMEs.
In the same sense, a research on service and manufacturing companies belonging to countries in the OECD by Spiezia (2011) found that ICTs are innovation facilitators, particularly in product and service innovations, both in service companies and manufacturing plants. So, the results suggest that ICT facilitates innovativeness of companies, although it does not increase their invention capabilities. In another study conducted with 271 American businesses by Arvanitis, Loukis and Diamantopoulos (2011) found that different types of ICTs, including the internal information systems, have strong positive impact on product and process innovation. Also, the study found electronic systems to have an impact on process innovation while electronic recruitment turned out not to be an engine of innovation. Yet, ICTs give a strong drive towards innovation, even in opposite national contexts, in which the determinant traditional factors of innovation do not boost innovation in process, product or service. Likewise, a study of 186 ceramic tile producers from Italy and Spain by Fernández-Mesa, Ferreras-Méndez, Alegre and Chiva (2014) found a direct positive and significant relationship between ICTs and the commercial success of innovation. Furthermore, an analysis of 743 hospitals in 18 European countries by Arvanitis and Loukis (2015) found that the electronic applications used by the hospital have a positive impact in the product and process innovation of the organization.
Furthermore, a study determined to examine the effects of ICTs as facilitators of innovation for Micro, Small and Medium Sized Enterprises (MSMEs) on a developing country by Cuevas-Vargasa, Estradab and Larios-Gómez (2016) found that there exists enough empirical evidence that ICTs are facilitator of innovation. Using a sample of 288 MSMEs established in Guanajuato (Mexico) and analyzing the data through the Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), the study further found that the use of ICTs and innovation substantially impact the performance of the businesses studied. However, the study being reviewed
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used Mexican small businesses as sample, while my current research is examining the situation in Nigeria, with significant socio-cultural and technological differences.
However, Apulu and Latham (2011); Piget and Kossaï (2011); Cuevas-Vargas, Aguilera, González and Servín (2015) state that little research exists about the use of ICTs in developing countries. Also, Aguilera, Cuevas-Vargas and González (2015); Cuevas-Vargasa, Estradab and Larios-Gómez (2016) confirm that the majority of the empirical studies about the use of ICTs for innovation purposes have been centered on large companies in developed countries. Furthermore, Sambamurthy, Bharadwaj and Grover (2013) conclude that there are relatively few theoretical studies and published surveys that correlate the ICTs, the innovation and business performance, but there are even fewer studies that correlate these three variables in the context of SMEs (Izushi 2013; Tanabe and Watanbe 2017). Hence, Franquesa and Brandyberry (2017) state that there is need for more research about ICTs, innovation and small-scale business performance using data from developing nations.
2.3 Theoretical Framework
In this study, the technology acceptance model (TAM) is applied. The TAM was developed by Venkatesh and Fred Davies in 1996. The theory models how users come to accept and use a technology. The model suggests that when users are presented with a new technology, a number of factors influence their decision about how and when they will use it and the most notable factors are PU and PEU. While PU is defined as the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would enhance his or her job performance, the PEU entails the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would be effortless. Figure 2.1 below shows Davies’ TAM framework. The model indicates that when a new technology is perceived to be easy and useful, it will create a favorable attitude towards using it and the users will be more likely to use it frequently in order to enhance their performance. But, users of the new technology may be less inclined to use it when there is difficulty in operating it (Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw 1989; Bagozzi 2017; Lai 2017; Hamed 2018).
Figure 2.1 The Technology Acceptance Model Source: Venkatesh and Davis (1996)
Nearly from its inception, researchers have attempted to add to TAM. Most of these efforts have constituted a broadening of TAM in the sense of introducing additional predictors for either PU and PEO or intentions (Fathema, Ross, Witte 2014; Fathema, Shannon, Ross 2015). However, it seems to have reached a turning point because it leaves out important variables and processes and recent extensions of TAM have been a patchwork of many largely unintegrated and uncoordinated abridgements. Bagozzi (2017) maintains that the primary shortcomings of TAM reside in two critical gaps in the framework, which are the absence of a method for identifying the determinants of PU and PEU and the neglect of group, social and cultural aspects of decision making. The TAM is conceived largely as a framework for explaining decision making by individual persons. However, it is important to consider group, cultural or social aspects of technology acceptance because people act interpersonally, or as agents of organizations. Since decisions regarding technology acceptance and actual usage are often done collaboratively, the networking and organizational culture attributes of SMEs characteristics are added to the TAM framework as shown in the new model (see Figure 2.2) so as to improve its predictive power. This will result in deepening the theory while suggesting fruitful avenues for better understanding how, when, and why decisions are made in various technology applications.
Likewise, the few attempts that have been made by introducing moderators into TAM to qualify the effects of PU and PEU on intentions, have focused on demographic variables (e.g., gender, age), experience or a crude classification into voluntary versus mandatory contexts of use (Venkatesh, Morris, Davis and Davis 2003; Ghalandari 2012). The problems with most tests of moderating effects to date are that little theoretical insight is provided into the mechanism, or “the why”, behind proposed interaction effects, and a potentially infinite list of such moderators exists, making such broadenings of TAM both unwieldy and conceptually impoverished. Also, the bases for PU and PEU, including basic and applied determinants, have been given scant attention in the field. Thus, Bagozzi (2017) suggests that individual desired goals or motives, plus their linkages, can be treated as independent variables predicting PU and PEU and this forms the basis of the new model shown in Figure 2.2 below. The advantage of such an approach is that it identifies the relative efficacy of individual goals or motives and the influence of linkages between them on PU and PEU.
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2.4 Conceptual Framework
Figure 2.2 below shows the conceptual framework of the study. It illustrates the interrelationship among the variables. The new framework is an extended version of the Davies’ TAM. The framework shows that the outcome of NSD will depend on whether the ICT is easy to use or useful for performing the desired tasks. But, the PU and PEU will be determined by how well the technology fits the desired goals or motives. Also, the framework shows that SME characteristics such as social influence, organizational culture and the proportion of qualitied personnel will moderate the relationship between ICT use and NSD.
2.4.1 Desired Goals
Desired goals can be construed as the desired results that a person or a group of people envisions, plans and commits to achieve (Creek and Lesley 2008). It is known as the aim or the anticipated result which guides reaction. According to the Goal-setting theory developed by Edwin Locke and Gary Latham after an empirical research in 2002, goals direct attention and effort toward goal-related activities (Edwin and Gary 2002). This means that one’s goal will determine the nature of activities he or she will engage in hopes of attaining the anticipated result. For example, if a person’s desired goal is to connect with people and socialize, he or she may find social media to be useful. Also, one may find YouTube very useful if the desired goal is to either upload or download videos for viewing purpose. However, the relationship between desired goals and perceived usefulness of ICT has not been tested by any prior research. In this regard, Bagozzi (2017) suggests that individual desired goals can be treated as independent variable predicting perceived usefulness of technology. According to Bagozzi, the advantage of such an approach is that it identifies the relative efficacy of individual goals or motives and its influence on perceived usefulness. Thus, this study intends to evaluate the relationship between desired goals and PEU and PU of ICT because the usefulness of ICT will be determined by how well the technology fits the desired goals or motives. Thus, it is proposed that individual desired goal or motive of the user will determine the PEU and PU of ICT. Therefore, it is hypothesized: 퐻1: There is a significant relationship between individual desired goals and PU of ICT 퐻2: There is a significant relationship between individual desired goals and PEU
2.4.2 Perceived Usefulness
PU refers to the extent to which a person believes that using a particular technology will enhance her or his job performance (Hamid, Razak, Bakar and Abdullah, 2016). In TAM framework, PU is hypothesized to be the direct predictor of one’s attitude and behavioral intention to use technology of interest (Park, Rhoads, Hou, Lee, 2014). Previous studies indicate that PU is positively associated with continuance intention in the context of e-text (Stone & Baker-Eveleth, 2013; Baker-Eveleth & Stone, 2015), instant messaging (Wang, Ngai, & Wei, 2011), mobile service provider (Abbas & Hamdy, 2015) online travel services (Li & Liu, 2014) e-learning (Lin & Wang, 2012) blog learning (Tang, Tang, & Chiang, 2012), knowledge creation (Chou, Min, 279
Chang & Lin, 2009). Thus, PU is posited to have a direct effect on attitudes towards the use of technologies. A study on the influence of PU and PEU on attitudes toward usability by Guritno and Siringoringo (2013) show that PU influences the respondents’ attitudes towards the use of the technology. This indicates that if people do not have positive attitudes towards the usefulness of incorporating technology into their activities, then even the best systems and methodologies will remain unused. Thus, it is proposed that PU will influence Nigerian service-based SMEs to use ICT for NSD. Therefore, it is hypothesized: 퐻3: PU of ICT has a positive impact on NSD
2.4.3 Perceived Ease of Use
Perceived ease of use is the degree to which a person believes that using a technology will be free from effort. In the context of this study, PEOU refers to the extent to which users believe that their continued use of ICT for NSD is free of effort. Perceived ease of use is posited to have a direct influence on people’s attitude towards ICT use. If a system is relatively easy to use, individuals will be more willing to learn about its features and finally intend to continue using it. Chiu & Wang, (2008) found that PEOU is positively associated with continuance intention in the context of Web-based learning. Also, the studies of Teo & Van Schaik, (2009); Edmunds, Thorpe, & Conole, (2012); Wong, Osman, Choo, & Rahmat, (2013) show that perceived ease of use has a direct influence on the way people perceive the usefulness of technologies. In this regard, it is posited that perceived ease of using ICT will stimulate a positive attitude towards using it for developing new services. Therefore, it is hypothesized: 퐻4: Perceived ease of using ICT has a positive impact on NSD
2.4.4 Social Influence
Social influence occurs when a person's emotions, opinions or behaviors are affected by others. Social influence is a powerful notion that has the potential to influence all people’s decisions. It is defined as a directive role that “actors” play in shaping the beliefs and actions of an individual. The impact of social influence on individuals has been studied in many disciplines such as marketing (Khare, Mukerjee and Goyal 2013), politics and management (Wang, Meister and Gray 2013) and criminology (Young and Weerman 2013). Such studies demonstrate that social influence can change the mindset of individuals even after they have made rational choices. A study on the moderating effect of social influence on travel experience by Sedera, Lokuge, Atapattu and Gretzel (2017) found that social influence is sought and acquired through social media before people travel. This indicates that decisions about certain things, including the acceptance of new technologies, is influenced by social factors such as peer groups, family members, colleagues, role models, famous celebrities and others because people are influenced by someone who is liked and respected. A study on the factors influencing students’ adoption of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC) in a developing country by Khan, Hameed, Yu, Islam, Sheikh and Khan (2018) found that social influence has a positive and significant effects on the behavioral intentions of the students to use the MOOC. However, still lacking are studies that evaluate the moderating role of social influence on the relationship between PU of ICT and NSD. Thus, this study intends to measure the moderating role of social influence. Therefore, it is hypothesized: 퐻5: Social influence moderates the relationship between PU and SMEs intention to use ICT for NSD 퐻6: Social influence moderates the relationship between PEU and SMEs intention to use ICT for NSD
2.4.5 Organizational Culture
Organizational culture is an important factor that influences the acceptance and use of new ICT in NSD. An empirical research design comprised two sets of data collected from service managers by Thomas (2016) found that innovative culture mediates service innovation and competitiveness of the studied companies. This is because innovative organizational culture promotes, encourages and provides incentives for all members of the organization to engage in innovative behaviors and practices as indicated by Caeneghem and Fujii (2016). Furthermore, a study of the moderating role of organizational culture on the relationship between innovation and organizational performance of the telecommunication sector in Islamabad and Rawalpindi by Suhag, Solangi, Larik, Lakh and Tagar (2017) showed that product innovation, process innovation and organizational innovation have a positive impact on organization performance as moderated by organizational culture. Also, an empirical investigation on the role of organizational culture on the innovation performance of the software industry in Pakistan through the survey of 215 software firms by Shahzad, Xiu and Shahbaz (2017) show that organizational innovation performance is backed and affected by organizational culture. According to the study, flexibility or support to change and organizational climate are the comparatively significant factors for creativity and innovation performance in the examined software firms. This indicates that organizational culture is believed to have some impact on the use of ICT for NSD. Therefore, it is hypothesized: 퐻7: Organizational culture as a SME characteristic moderates the relationship between PU and SMEs intention to use ICT for NSD 퐻8: Organizational culture moderates the relationship between PEU and SMEs intention to use ICT for NSD purposes
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2.4.6 Proportion Of Qualified Personnel A firms’ ability to accept and adopt a new ICT in its service innovation initiatives may depend on the number of qualified personnel, which is characterized by level of education and experience and technical skills of manpower. The role of qualified personnel on firms’ innovation capability has been tested intensively by prior studies and the findings provide a significant effect. For example, an empirical study of 50 SMEs in the United Kingdom by Romijn and Albaladejo (2000) reveals that the significant determinants of organizational innovation capability of the firms are internal factors, such as level of education and owners’ experiences of the business, technical skills of manpower and investment in training and human resource development and financial support for training and development. A study conducted by John (2013) reveal that basic computer knowledge and previous computer experience positively influence an individual’s intention to use social networking programs. Also, Al- Ammary, Al-Sherooqi and Al-Sherooq (2014) found that one’s ability serves as a moderating factor between PU and PEU and behavioral intention to accept and use social networking sites. Thus, one’s ability to successfully perform a technologically sophisticated new task can enhance ICT acceptance and adoption. Although less attention has been paid to the moderating role of qualified personnel on the relationship between PEU and intention to use ICT, the proportion of qualified personnel of SMEs are believed to have significant impact on the use of ICT for NSD because the ability to use any information technologies for service innovation depends on technical skills and experience. Therefore, it is hypothesized: 퐻9: The proportion of qualified personnel in SMEs moderate the relationship between PEU and intention to use ICT for NSD
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design
The study uses a correlational research design because it helps to identify the most important factors associated with the issue being studied. Correlational design helps to determine the strength and direction of the relationship so that later studies can narrow the findings down and, if possible, determine causation experimentally (Sekaran and Bougie 2010; Derek and Pedersen 2016). The study attempts to find an association between ICT usage and NSD in Nigeria SMEs service-based firms. The correlational research design was preferred because of its numerous benefits over some other designs. First, unlike experimental design that typically collect data in a lab, the test subjects in the correlational research design are more likely to behave naturally and the findings are more likely to be applicable to everyday life. Another benefit of the correlational research design is that large amounts of data can be collected through surveys, creating a large sample size. Besides, the relationship can be displayed in a graphical form that allows for relatively easy interpretation.
3.2 Location and Subjects of the Study
The location of the study is Yaba town in Lagos state of Nigeria. Yaba was chosen because it is the heart of Nigeria’s technology innovation ecosystem and it is a thriving centre of entrepreneurial spirit characterized with numerous startups and small businesses where young technologists, social entrepreneurs, tech companies, impact investors and other service providers co- create new services and solutions to the many social problems in Nigeria. The level of innovation in this market is amazing. The target subjects of the study are content creators, product and service developers, entrepreneurs, startup owners and other SME owners in the Yaba area of Lagos state. These subjects are chosen because they often use mobile technology, video and social media platforms to create new inspiring applications and services for their customers and communities (Vanguard 2017). The study is designed to understand how Nigerian small and medium business owners leverage digital platforms for service innovation and better serve the emerging service needs of the customers.
3.3 Target Population and Sample Size Analysis
The target population in this study is the SMEs in the service industry in Yaba town in Lagos state of Nigeria, consisting of 30,000 firms. SMEs were chosen because they are more innovative than large companies since small businesses are more flexible than big corporations. The study conducted by Baldwin (1995) in Canada concludes that more intense innovation activities occur in SMEs. This is because small-scale firms have a competitive advantage associated with slender organization structure, closeness to customers and proximity to suppliers, rapid in decision-making, flexibility in operation that enable the business to respond rapidly to changing market conditions and a simple administrative structure that promote free flow of information and knowledge sharing among the lower and senior management staff as stated by Sulistyo & Siyamtinah, (2016). Also, Mazzeo, Oyer and Schaefer (2014) stated that innovation can work better in smaller businesses because an entrepreneur or small business innovator captures more of the resulting value (and hence has stronger incentives) than big companies and small-firm innovators rarely have to overcome resistance from internal rivals who favor the status quo. Besides, small scale 281
businesses were chosen because Izushi (2003); Tanabe and Watanbe (2005); Cuevas-Vargas et al. (2016) stated that majority of the empirical studies about the use of ICTs on innovation have been centered on large companies and only fewer studies have attempted to focus on small and medium enterprises. Meanwhile the data for the study is designed to be collected from Yaba because it is considered as the industrial headquarter of Nigeria with several startups and new small businesses. Yaba can be considered as the Silicon Valley of Nigeria, which serves as the regional center for high technology, venture capital, innovation and new startups. Gaffey (2016) reports that Yaba is the center of West Africa’s burgeoning tech scene with startups emerging every day that focus on solving Nigerian social problems. Also, Bright (2016) reports that Yaba in Lagos state is increasingly becoming a centre for big tech investment and commercially oriented startups with several electronic commerce startup and digital payments ventures as well as entrepreneurial incubators that partner with Microsoft, Facebook and others to groom entrepreneurs and startups that focus on creating new services and products.
The sampling unit is the individual firms, from where the data are collected. From the sampling unit, a sample of 379 respondents would be selected from the sampling unit to represent the whole population. In the process of determining the sample size for this study, Krejcie & Morgan (1970) sampling table is used. According to Krejcie & Morgan (1970), when the population of the study is 30,000, the sample size will be 379. Since the data collected from the Nigeria's Minister of Industry, Trade and Investment (2018) showed that there are 30,000 listed SMEs in the study area, the researcher selected 379 firms to represent the population. Other factors considered in the sample size selection are based on the available budget and time required to complete the study. Bryman and Bell (2011) proposed that a manageable sample size should be chosen to represent the population so as to save time and money. Furthermore, the sample size would be used in this study because it is unique as compare with prior studies. Most previous studies reviewed used smaller sample size. For example, a study on the effects of ICTs as innovation facilitators for a greater business performance among Mexican micro, small and medium firms by Cuevas- Vargas, Estrada and Larios-Gómez (2016) used a sample of 288 manufacturing industrial firms. Also, a study on the effect of social networking sites and absorptive capacity on SMES’ innovation performance by Scuotto, Giudice and Carayannis (2017) used 215 different sets of SMEs across the globe. Meanwhile Fosgate (2009) argued that the probability of a study to yield a statistically sound results depend on large sample size. This is because larger sample provides proper representativeness of the population. Therefore, the current study meets the large sample size requirements that increases representation of the population.
3.4 Sampling Technique
In this study, a systematic sampling technique is used. The information of the number of registered SMEs in Yaba are obtained from the City Council’s trade division and the researcher will go through the number of listed service firms in order to select every 3rd SME until the desired number of sample is obtained. A systematic sampling technique is preferred because it ensures high representativeness of the population and it is easy and quick to choose the desired sample. Sekaran and Bougie (2010) state that systematic sampling technique is easy to use if the sampling frame is available. Also, Collis and Hussey (2009) state that random sampling reduces sampling error because it gives every unit in the population an equal and independent chance of being chosen as a subject. Thus, the random sampling was preferred because it has a statistical power that that minimizes potential sampling errors.
3.5 Data Collection
The data collection method employed in this study is questionnaire. The service innovation managers will ask answer questions. While some of the questionnaires are personally administered to the subjects, others are sent through email to the target subjects. The emailed questionnaires allow the respondents to answer the questions at their own convenient time, especially for the subjects with busy schedule while the personally administered approach allows for the clarification of doubts with almost 100% response rate ensured. The questionnaire method was chosen because it has the advantage of obtaining data more efficiently in terms of researcher’s energy and cost. Also, questionnaire was used in this study because it is less expensive in collecting a large amount of data as indicated by Sekaran and Bougie (2010). Since the study uses quantitative research method, questionnaire is used to collect the required data. Questionnaire was used in this study because it is less expensive in collecting a large amount of data within a short period of time. Also, questionnaire was used because the respondents can answer at their convenience and the response rate is high. In supporting these claims, the study of Bluman (2001); White, Vaughan, Renwich and Barker (2005) assert that questionnaire happens to be the only feasible tool for collecting quantitative data when conducting quantitative studies. Similarly, the study of Lefever, Michael and Matthiasdottir (2007) opines that questionnaire is easy to administer and when personally administered, it can establish rapport and motivate respondents to answer the questions at their own convenient time.
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3.6 Organization of Questionnaire Design
The questionnaire is structured into 11 sections. The first section focused on the demographic profile of the respondents. However, the other sections focused on types of ICT use by SMEs, desired goals, familiarity, user skills, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, SME characteristics, attitudes toward ICT use and NSD. A total of 64 close-ended questions were designed using ordinal, normal and Likert scales statements for easy understanding and time saving data collection so as to enhance data analysis as recommended by Bryman and Bell (2011). Table 3.1 below summarizes the structure of the questionnaire.
Table 3.1: Structure of the Questionnaire Design.
Sections Variables Number of items Source I Demographic profile 5 2 Types of ICTs 6 Njoh (2018)
3 The uses of ICT 10 Aguilera, Cuevas-Vargas and González (2015) 4 Desired goals or motives 5 Bagozzi (2007)
7 Perceived ease of using ICT 5 Guritno and Siringoringo (2013)
8 Perceived usefulness of ICT 5 Guritno and Siringoringo (2013) 9 Social influence 5 Guritno and Siringoringo (2013) 10 Organizational culture 7 Umidjon, Shuhua, Jayathilake and Renyan (2014) 11 New service development 6 Scuotto, Giudice and Carayannis (2017) 12 proportion of qualified personnel 5 Total 59
3.7 Measurement Of The Variables
Multi-dimensional indicators are used to measure the variables. The types of ICT are smartphone apps, tablet PC, personal computer, internet, social media platforms, cloud system, robots. These are an interval variable standardized in terms of percentages (Njoh 2018). NSD performance is measured with 6 items. NSD is measured with how well it meets its performance targets including quality, target service cost, serviceability and how well it meets the schedule. Other measures of NSD are faster time to market and faster to product adoption. The use of ICT was measured with 16 items scale which is measured with a Likert-type scale of a 1 to 5-point range 5 items adopted from Aguilera, Cuevas-Vargas and González (2015). Perceived usefulness is measured with 5 items such as being fast (or quick), time saving, effort saving, cost reducing and overall usefulness. Perceived ease of use is measured with 4 items such as frequency of use, effort saving, cumbersome to use and confidence in using the system. It indicates that using ICT provides effectiveness, better performance and productivity in service innovation when it is easy to use (Guritno and Siringoringo 2013). Social influence and proportion of qualified personnel are measured with 5 items each while organizational culture is measured with 5 indicators. A five-point Likert scales is used, from 1 ‘strongly disagree’ to 5 ‘strongly agree’.
3.8 Data Analysis
The data of the study are computed and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23. In the analysis of the results, both descriptive and inferential statistics were used. While the responses of the respondents are analyzed using frequency and percentages, the correlation between ICT and NSD is analyzed using Pearson correlation test and Multiple Regression analysis is used to determine the effects of ICT and SMEs characteristics on NSD outcomes. Also, the reliability of the data is measured with scale measurement instrument. Furthermore, the results of the study would be presented using tables, figures and charts. The data analysis procedure used in this study is unique compared to prior studies. For example, a study on the effect of social networking sites and absorptive capacity on SMES’ innovation performance by Scuotto, Giudice and
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Carayannis (2017) used the Partial Least Square-Path Modelling the relationships between social networking sites, absorptive capacity and innovation performance as analysis while Cuevas-Vargas, Estrada and Larios-Gómez (2016) used Confirmatory Factor Analysis under the Maximum Likelihood Method, counting with reliability and validity and the results were obtained through the Structural Equation Modeling. However, the correlation analysis has the benefit of allowing the study to draw conclusions about the causal relationships among variables unlike some others.
4.0 Expected Results
The expected results show that ICT plays multiple roles in NSD. The study will show that the use of ICT in NSD will improve the service quality, offer service customization to improve customer satisfaction, make NSD relatively easier and more cost- effective and faster. This is because ICT offers customers opportunities to participate in service production and delivery, facilitates communication and cooperation between service providers and external parties while enabling customers and employees to co-create customized services. Thus, service firms that intend to improve their NSD outcome would likely use ICT for service innovation, especially if it is perceived to be useful and easy to use. However, how likely service firms will use ICT for NSD will be determined by social influence, supportive organizational culture and the technical skills of the employees. The study will help managers to effectively coordinate their ICT infusion into NSD so as to maximize the full-service innovation potential of ICT. Also, the study will extend the current technology acceptance literature by utilizing an updated instrument to measure the role of ICT in NSD in service-based SMEs context. This is because prior work did not utilize these updated measures in a Nigerian setting and did not explore the use of ICTs for service creation purposes. By using TAM, the study will improve the explanatory power, specificity and the predictive power of the model.
5.0 Limitations and Future Research Areas
The current study is limited to four service sectors: transport, financial service, communication and design services. Therefore, the findings may not be generalizable to other service sectors. Future research can extend the investigation to other service sectors. Also, the sample of this study is restricted to Nigerian service firms. So, the results may not be completely generalizable to other countries. While Nigerian service firms are likely to have some similarities to their American, European and Asian counterparts, their practice of NSD and its socio-economic environment may have been somewhat different and may have played a distinct role in the findings of this study. Therefore, the results of this study should be interpreted carefully, while future research can investigate other regions.
6.0 Conclusion
This study is an early attempt to conceptualize and investigate the role of ICT in NSD among service-based SMEs from the sub-Saharan African context. The findings of this study will facilitate future research toward exploring the role of ICT in NSD. The study is conducted with the understanding that it could enrich theoretical arguments that explain the roles of ICT in NSD. The findings indicate that business managers should recognize the ICT infusion in NSD as strategic-level issues. Specifically, managers should determine which approach can best explain the role of ICT in their NSD efforts. Consequently, this study provides practical steps for managers interested in using ICT to achieve success in NSD and improvement in business performance.
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PENILAIAN KELAYAKAN ASNAF FAKIR DAN MISKIN BERDASARKAN HAD KIFAYAH
Abdul Rahman Talib & Hasan Ahmad Centre for Modern Languages and Human Sciences Universiti Malaysia Pahang Kuala Pahang 26600, Pekan Pahang Darul Makmur Malaysia [email protected]
Abstrak— Had kifayah adalah satu ukuran kecukupan seseorang untuk menanggung perbelanjaan bagi keperluan asas diri dan tanggungannya. Keperluan asas yang menjadi keperluan asasi setiap individu akan mengambil kira objektif atau maqasid al shariah bagi tujuan agama (hifz ad-din), menjaga akal (hifz al-aql), menjaga nyawa (hifzan-nafs), menjaga harta (hifz al- mal) dan menjaga keturunan (hifz an-nasab). Elemen yang termasuk penggiraan had kifayah adalah item makanan,kediamaan, pakaian, perubatan, pendidikan dan pengangkutan. Pengunaan kaedah had kifayah dalam penilaian asnaf adalah bertujuan supaya individu atau asnaf yang layak menerima zakat akan mendapat hak dalam agihan zakat pada kadar mencukupi untuk diri dan tanggungannnya. Ia juga bertujuan supaya agihan zakat tidak tersalah agih kepada yang tidak berkelayakan. Namun begitu kajian ini mendapati had kifayah antara negeri di Malaysia tidak seragam dan berbeza kerana penilaian yang berbeza dalam menentukan kos sara hidup semasa dan setempat yang terpaksa ditanggung oleh seseorang individu, begitu juga perbezaan penggiraan dan penentuan item had kifayah yang diguna pakai oleh setiap Majlis Agama Islam Negeri(MAIN). Kajian berhubung had kifayah sebagaimana yang diamalkan MAIN dan Agensi Mengurus Zakat (AMZ) amat penting bagi memastikan agihan zakat menepati maqasid al shariah.
Keywords- Had Kifayah; Fakir dan Miskin; Majlis Agama Islam Negeri; Agensi Mengurus Zakat
1. PENDAHULUAN
Penentuan golongan asnaf yang layak untuk menerima zakat adalah merupakan ketetapan Allah SWT sebagaimana dalam surah at Taubah ayat 60:
Maksudnya: Sesungguhnya zakat-zakat itu, hanyalah untuk orang-orang fakir, orang-orang miskin, pengurus-pengurus zakat, para mu'allaf yang dibujuk hatinya, untuk (memerdekakan) budak, orang-orang yang berhutang, untuk jalan Allah dan untuk mereka yuang sedang dalam perjalanan, sebagai suatu ketetapan yang diwajibkan Allah, dan Allah Maha mengetahui lagi Maha Bijaksana.
Lapan asnaf ini adalah merupakan golongan yang diagihkan bahagian zakat sejak zaman Rasulullah SAW sehingga sekarang serta menjadi amalan oleh Majlis Agama Islam Negeri atau Agensi Mengurus Zakat dalam mengurus dan mentadbir zakat di Malaysia. Menurut [23], perkataan “Innama” dalam ayat tersebut telah menunjukkan pengkhususan dalam menentukan golongan yang layak untuk diagihkan zakat dan terdapat pembatasan secara mutlak. Oleh itu, golongan yang layak dan berhak 298
terhadap zakat terbatas dalam lingkungan golongan yang lapan sahaja. Ini bertujuan bagi menghalang golongan yang tamak dan berkuasa untuk mengagihkan zakat secara sewenang-wenang atau menurut hawa nafsu. Ia juga bagi menjamin golongan yang memerlukan mendapat hak yang sewajarnya. Penegasan ini sebagai yang berlaku kepada Rasulullah SAW menurut riwayat Ahmad dari Abu Dawud dari Ziyad bin Harith al-Shada’i, beliau berkata: “Aku datang untuk berbai’ah dengan Rasululllah SAW, kemudian datang seorang lelaki kepada Rasulullah SAW seraya berkata: berikan kepada aku sebahagian daripada zakat. Maka Rasulullah berkata kepadanya: ‘Sesungguhnya Allah tidak meredhai keputusan seorang nabi dan manusia lain dalam pembahagian zakat sehinggalah Dia yang menetapkanNya, maka Dia telah membahagikan zakat kepada lapan bahagian (asnaf). Sekiranya kamu termasuk dalam bahagian tersebut, aku akan berikan hak kamu.”
Oleh itu, dalam membuat penentuan dan ketetapan dalam agihan zakat maka pihak yang melaksanakan tanggungjawab menguruskan zakat hendaklah tidak melanggar batasan yang ditentukan oleh Allah dan Rasul-Nya sebagaimana yang ditetapkan oleh syarak.
2. DEFINISI HAD KIFAYAH
Had kifayah adalah mekanisme dalam membuat ukuran paras kemiskinan bagi seseorang individu berdasarkan kepada ukuran antara pendapatan dan tanggungan. Had kifayah secara umumnya adalah kadar (keupayaan ekonomi) yang selayaknya bagi menjamin kelangsungan kehidupan seorang individu serta mereka yang di dalam tanggungannya. Ia bukan sekadar penentuan had minimum semata-mata tetapi ia menjangkaui persoalan tahap yang selayaknya bagi memastikan kelangsungan kehidupan seseorang serta tanggungannya [25]. Selain itu, had kifayah juga ditakrifkan sebagai kadar asas minimum yang ditetapkan berdasarkan kos sara hidup semasa (Jawhar,2010). Manakala [2], menyatakan had kifayah adalah perbelanjaan yang perlu untuk memastikan keperluan sara hidup dengan mengambil kira tahap purata kehidupan dalam masyarakat sama ada dari sudut kemakmuran dan kekayaan sesebuah masyarakat. Menurut [13], had kifayah adalah garis penentu seseorang itu mempunyai kecukupan dari sudut ekonomi dalam meneruskan kehidupan.
Fatwa di negeri Selangor mendefinisi had kifayah sebagai: ‘Agihan zakat kepada asnaf dan individu fakir miskin yang perlu menepati kepada keperluan asasi sebenar.’ Sejajar dengan itu, maka institusi zakat wajar mengaplikasikan kaedah ini agar penentuan fakir miskin menjadi lebih tepat dan bantuan zakat lebih terfokus diuruskan. Manakala Fatwa di Negeri Pahang pula mendefinisikan had kifayah adalah kadar kecukupan pendapatan dalam menentukan asnaf fakir dan miskin. Menurut [2] istilah had kifayah juga diistilahkan sebagai al-hajah al-asliyyah (keperluan asasi untuk hidup) dan juga had al-Ghina (tahap pengukuran kekayaan). [6], mendefinisikan had kifayah ialah had minimum kecukupan, batas minimum keperluan asasi. [17], berpendapat had kifayah ini bukan sahaja sekadar tahap yang memenuhi keperluan dalam bentuk mencukupkan kekurangan dalam pendapatan tetapi menjangkaui sehingga mencukupkan keperluan hidup yang diperlukan bagi mengembangkan lagi kualiti kehidupan.
Oleh itu, had kifayah boleh diistilahkan sebagai kaedah penentuan pendapatan dan keperluan perbelanjaan minimun bagi seseorang individu dalam Islam. Ini bertujuan supaya zakat dapat memenuhi keperluan sara hidup seseorang untuk hidup dalam keselesaan dan mengelakkan daripada tersalah agih atau memberikan zakat kepada golongan yang tidak layak. Imam Shafi’i r.a. amat menitik beratkan dalam urusan agihan ini agar tidak berlaku kesilapan sehingga mengagihkan kepada mereka yang bukan di kalangan asnaf sebagaimana ketetapan Allah dan rasul- Nya. Malah menurut ulama mazhab Maliki, Shafi’i dan Hanbali apababila seseorang memberikan zakat kepada seseorang berdasarkan sangkaannya ia adalah asnaf tetapi ternyata ia bukan asnaf kemudiannya maka zakat tersebut tidak sah dan wajib mengambilnya kembali kerana menyerahkan kepada yang layak [27].
Kepastian dalam menentukan hanya yang layak sahaja mendapat bahagian daripada zakat adalah kewajipan yang perlu dilaksanakan oleh pembayar zakat atau pemerintah yang diberikan tanggungjawab untuk menguruskan zakat. Oleh itu, kaedah penggunaan kadar pendapatan dan keperluan untuk penghidupan berdasarkan had kifayah sesuatu yang amat perlu agar zakat dapat diagihkan kepada golongan yang layak dan agihan menepati keperluan hidup seseorang individu. Disamping itu, had kifayah selain bertujuan menentukan kelayakan asnaf ia juga bertujuan untuk menentukan kelayakan sebagai pembayar zakat. Menurut Azman A.R. (2014), had kifayah adalah garis pemisah antara mereka yang perlu membayar zakat dan mereka yang berhak menerima zakat. Manakala menurut [17], had kifayah ini bukan sekadar tahap yang memenuhi keperluan dalam bentuk mencukupkan kekurangan dalam pendapatan tetapi menjangkaui sehingga mencukupkan keperluan hidup yang diperlukan bagi mengembangkan lagi kualiti kehidupan. Ia juga merupakan tahap yang boleh berubah mengikut keperluan individu di samping tertakluk juga kepada faktor-faktor lain seperti masa, tempat dan keadaan seseorang itu sendiri.
3. TAKRIF ASNAF FAKIR DAN MISKIN
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Konsep kemiskinan terbahagi kepada dua iaitu kemiskinan mutlak dan relatif (UNDP 2015). Kemiskinan mutlak diukur berdasarkan pendapatan dan keperluan asas seperti makanan, pakaian dan tempat tinggal. Konsep kemiskinan mutlak tidak mengambil kira persoalan kualiti hidup atau ketidakadilan agihan kekayaan dalam masyarakat. Konsep ini menumpukan kepada nasib individu atau isi rumah yang tidak mampu untuk memenuhi keperluan asas dan bantuan adalah sekadar memenuhi kehendak minimum. Sementara konsep kemiskinan relatif pula melihat hubungan status ekonomi individu dalam masyarakat dalam konteks agihan pendapatan berdasarkan kepada etnik dan kawasan. Keperluan hidup masyarakat bandar lebih tinggi berbanding dengan masyarakat luar bandar dan mempunyai jurang pendapatan yang jauh berbeza antara etnik yang tinggal di bandar. Ini menyebabkan kemiskinan dibandar lebih serius berbanding dengan luar bandar dan kadar PGK juga lebih tinggi.
Pengukuran kemiskinan yang diamalkan di bawah program Unit Perancang Ekonomi (EPU) dalam mengkategorikan miskin kepada dua iaitu miskin tegar dan miskin yang diukur berdasarkan kepada purata Pendapatan Garis Kemiskinan (PGK) tahun 2014.Dimana isi rumah yang berpendapatan RM 870.00 (Semenanjung), RM1,1800.00 (Sabah) dan RM 920.00 (Sarawak) dikategorikan sebagai miskin manakala isi rumah yang berpendapatan RM580.00 (Semenanjung), RM 760.00 (Sabah) dan RM 610.00 (Sarawak) dikategorikan sebagai miskin tegar. PGK golongan miskin bagi yang tinggal dibandar pula ialah RM RM 940.00 (Semenanjung), RM1,160.00(Sabah), RM1,040.00 Sarawak dan miskin tegar ialah sebanyak RM 580.00 (Semenanjung), RM 690.00 (Sabah) dan RM 700.00 (Sarawak).
Selain itu, kemiskinan juga didefinisikan sebagai miskin kronik dan miskin sementara. Menurut [22] kemiskinan kronik adalah kehidupan seseorang individu dalam kemiskianan jangka masa yang panjang. Manakala, kemiskinan sementara adalah kemiskinan yang disebabkan oleh ketidak stabilan pendapatan isi rumah yang berhubungkait dengan keadaan ekonomi semasa Selain itu terdapat juga kemiskinan “invisible poor” iaitu golongan yang berpendapatan tetap tetapi tidak mencukupi untuk menampung keperluan hidup seperti makan minum, pakaian, pendidikan, sewa rumah dan sebagainya. Begitu juga terhadap mereka yang diistiharkan muflis oleh mahkamah juga diistilahkan miskin kerana tidak mempunyai kuasa berbelanja dan menguruskan aset.
Tafsiran dan definisi miskin mempunyai pelbagai konsep dan istilah namun dalam Islam kemiskinan dikategorikan sebagai fakir dan miskin. Menurut mazhab Syafi’i fakir ialah seseorang yang tidak ada harta atau mata pencarian halal yang boleh membiayai keperluan hidupnya sendiri dan tanggungannya secara sederhana. Manakala miskin pula ialah seseorang yang mempunyai harta atau mata pencarian halal yang boleh membiayai kehidupannya dan tanggungannya secara sederhana tetapi tidak mencukupi. Menurut Imam Ramli, fakir ialah seseorang yang mempunyai pendapatan yang kurang dari separuh keperluan hidupnya dan tanggungannya manakala miskin ialah seseorang yang mempunyai pendapatan melebihi separuh dari keperluan hidupnya dan tanggunggannya.
Menurut Muhammad [20], fakir dan miskin adalah dua kaum dhuafa (daif) yang berbeza tetapi statusnya hampir sama. Kedua- dua golongan dhuafa ini tidak mampu menguruskan kehidupan harian mereka kerana ekonomi mereka lemah. Menurut Imam Abu Hanifah fakir ialah orang yang mempunyai paling sedikit harta dan miskin ialah orang yang lansung tidak mempunyai sesuatupun daripada harta. Al-Rafi’i (t.t), berpendapat golongan fakir adalah mereka yang tidak memiliki harta berbanding golongan miskin. Manakala golongan miskin adalah mereka yang mempunyai sedikit harta berbanding dengan golongan fakir. Ini adalah berdasarkan maksud firman Allah SWT:
“Adapun perahu itu adalah ia dipunyai oleh orang-orang miskin yang bekerja di laut; oleh itu, aku bocorkan dengan tujuan hendak mencacatkannya, kerana di belakang mereka nanti ada seorang raja yang merampas tiap-tiap sebuah perahu yang tidak cacat”. (Surah al-Kahfi, ayat 79).
Menurut Imam Ghazali r.a. pula, fakir adalah mereka yang tidak mempunyai apa-apa harta dan mengharapkan kepada sesuatu harta untuk hidup Ini adalah berdasarkan kepada firman Allah dalam surah Muhammad ayat 38 yang bermaksud;
“Dan (ingatlah) Allah Maha kaya (tidak berhajat kepada sesuatupun), sedang kamu semua orang-orang miskin (yang sentiasa berhajat kepada-Nya dalam segala hal)”.
Berdasarkan ayat tersebut, jelas bahawa maksud al-Fuqara’ atau fakir yang dinisbahkan kepada manusia ialah mahkluk yang tidak memiliki apa-apa harta kecuali semuanya ada milik Allah. Selain itu, miskin juga bermaksud seseorang yang menyembunyikan kesusahannya tanpa meminta-minta daripada sesiapa sebagaimana sabda Rasulullah SAW yang diriwayatkan oleh Imam Muslim yang bermaksud:
“Daripada Abu Hurairah RA bahwa Rasulullah SAW bersabda “Orang miskin itu bukanlah orang yang berkeliling meminta- minta kepada manusia, lalu ia diberikan sesuap, dua suap, sebuah dan dua buah kurma. Para sahabat bertanya: Kalau begitu, siapakah orang miskin itu, wahai Rasulullah? Rasulullah saw. bersabda: Orang yang tidak menemukan harta yang mencukupinya tapi orang-orang tidak tahu (karena kesabarannya, ia menyembunyikan keadaannya dan tidak meminta-minta kepada orang lain), lalu diberi sedekah tanpa meminta sesuatu pun kepada manusia”.
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Menurut Imam Syafii, seseorang yang mempunyai harta seperti kediaman yang sederhana tetap dianggap sebagai fakir atau miskin sekiranya keperluan asasi untuk hidupnya tidak mencukupi. Begitu juga sekiranya ia mempunyai harta yang banyak tetapi tidak dapat dimanfaatkan kerana jauh atau terdapat halangan daripada menguruskannya dan mendapat manfaat daripada harta tersebut [29]. Oleh itu, ia berhak mendapat daripada agihan zakat bagi keperluan hidupnya sehinggalah ia kembali menjadi seorang yang kaya dan dapat mengurus dan menghasilkan pendapatan daripada hartanya
4. AGENSI AGIHAN DAN SKIM BANTUAN ZAKAT KEPADA ASNAF FAKIR DAN MISKIN
Agensi Mengurus Zakat (AMZ) di Malaysia terbahagi kepada dua iaitu Majlis Agama Islam Negeri (MAIN) dan Lembaga Zakat Negeri (LZN). Beberapa negeri pentadbiran dan pengurusan zakatnya diuruskan sepenuhnya oleh Majlis Agama Islam Negeri bagi urusan kutipan dan agihan seperti Negeri Kelantan, Terengganu, Perlis, Sarawak dan Johor. Disamping itu terdapat juga MAIN yang memisahkan pengurusan kutipannya dengan melantik anak syarikat untuk menguruskannya dan mengekalkan agihan di bawah pengurusan MAIN seperti di Wilayah Persekutuan, Pahang, Perak, Negeri Sembilan dan Melaka. Beberapa buah negeri pula pengurusan kutipan dan agihan zakatnya ditadbir dan diuruskan oleh anak syarikat korporatnya seperti di Selangor, Pulau Pinang dan Sabah. Negeri Kedah adalah satu-satu negeri yang pentadbiran dan pengurusan zakatnya tidak diuruskan oleh Majlis Agama Islam Negeri tetapi diuruskan oleh agensi berasingan yang dikenali sebagai Jabatan Zakat Negeri Kedah kemudiannya ditukar kepada Lembaga Zakat Negeri Kedah pada tahun 2015.
Walau apapun nama agensi yang menguruskan zakat namun pengurusan zakat di Malaysia diuruskan oleh uli amri iaitu ketua agama negeri sama ada Sultan atau Yang DiPertuan Agong bagi negeri tidak beraja. Ia adalah merupakan hak negeri dalam Jadual ke Sembilan Perlembagaan Persekutuan. Oleh itu, urusan agihan zakat di Malaysia termasuk di negeri Pahang diuruskan mengikut budi bicara pengurusan pihak pentadbir MAIN atau LZN masing-masing. Ini menyebabkan skim agihan tidak seragam sebagaimana skim bantuan Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat walaupun terdapat Jabatan Wakaf, Zakat dan Haji Malaysia (JAWHAR). Ini kerana ia adalah bidang kuasa pentadbiran Negeri manakala JAWHAR sekadar penyelaras sahaja tanpa mempunyai kuasa dalam urusan zakat.
Skim agihan zakat yang diamalkan di Malaysia khususnya bagi membantu golongan asnaf fakir dan miskin tidak jauh berbeza antara negeri, cuma berbeza dari segi nama skim yang ada. Semua skim memberikan fokus kepada membantu meringankan kesusahan, menyediakan ruang untuk menjana ekonomi, perlindungan tempat tinggal dan pendidikan anak-anak. Misalnya di Wilayah Persekutuan skim bagi membantu golongan asnaf fakir dan miskin ialah skim Bantuan Bulanan, Bantuan Perniagaan, Bantuan Deposit Sewa Beli Teksi, Bantuan Pembinaan Rumah, Bantuan Kecemasan, Bantuan Am Pendidikan/ Dermasiswa, Bantuan Ramadhan (Aidilfitri), Bantuan Rawatan Perubatan, Bantuan Perkahwinan, Bantuan Musibah, Bantuan Kursus, Latihan dan Kemahiran. Skim bantuan yang terdapat di Perak ialah skim Bantuan Bulanan, Bantuan Rumah, Bantuan Sewa Rumah, Bantuan Perubatan, Bantuan Aidilfitri, Bantuan Kecemasan, Bantuan Pengurusan Jenazah, Bantuan Perjalanan Domestik, Bantuan Bencana, Bantuan Persekolahan, Bantuan Am Pelajaran (Asnaf Fakir Miskin) dan Program Kursus dan Latihan [7].
Apabila dibandingkan dengan skim-skim bantuan zakat yang disediakan oleh negeri-negeri untuk asnaf fakir dan miskin maka didapati ia tidak mempunyai perbezaan yang ketara malah terdapat persamaan skim walaupun pelaksanaan dan jumlah bantuan adalah berbeza.
5. KRITERIA KELAYAKAN ASNAF FAKIR DAN MISKIN
MAIN dan AMZ dalam membuat pertimbangan untuk menentukan sesuatu kadar had kifayah bagi penerima bantuan zakat di kalangan asnaf fakir dan miskin telah menetapkan beberapa elemen untuk dijadikan ukuran. Elemen dan item tersebut ialah:
i. Beragama Islam adalah merupakan syarat utama dalam agihan zakat yang diamalkan di Malaysia kecuali terhadap orang bukan Islam bagi bertujuan untuk menjinakkan hati mereka kepada Islam yang dinamakan sebagai asnaf Muallaf menurut pendapat ulama mazhab Maliki dan Hanbali. Manakala ulama mazhab Shafii dan Hanafi pula menyatakan bahawa tidak harus memberikan zakat kepada orang kafir sekalipun bertujuan untuk menjinakkan hati kepada Islam kerana hukum keharusan mengagihkan zakat kepada bukan Islam adalah semasa umat Islam sedikit dan tidak kuat seperti yang terdapat pada masa sekarang [28]. Oleh itu, sesetengah negeri dalam agihan kepada bukan Islam seperti di negeri Pahang, ia diharuskan oleh Jawatankuasa Perundingan Hukum Syarak dengan menggunakan bahagian harta daripada Baitulmal.
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ii. Bermastautin atau penduduk tetap dalam negeri pemohon, syarat ini adalah merupakan kriteria yang diamalkan oleh semua MAIN dan AMZ dalam menentukan kelayakan sebagai penerima bantuan zakat kecuali bagi bantuan kecemasan bagi kes terputus bekalan semasa dalam perjalanan. Disebabkan zakat adalah dibawah bidang kuasa negeri maka setiap negeri mempunyai kawasan pemastautinan dan tidak boleh melampaui sempadan negeri lain dalam kutipan dan agihan. Malah menjadi kesalahan di bawah peruntukan Undang-Undang Kesalahan Jenayah Syariah Negeri sekiranya mengutip di luar sempadan negeri.
iii. Benar-benar fakir dan miskin berdasarkan pemilikan harta, pendapatan dan mampu berusaha. Seseorang yang mempunyai harta dan pekerjaan serta kaya tidak diharuskan untuk diberikan agihan zakat malah haram kecuali bagi asnaf amil dan muallaf. Oleh itu, kaedah menggunakan had kifayah dalam membuat pengukuran kelayakan penerima bantuan zakat adalah bertujuan untuk memastikan penerima adalah mereka yang benar –benar layak dan dikategorikan sebagai fakir dan miskin. Menurut Imam Hanafi, mereka yang mempunyai harta bernilai 200 dirham tidak harus menerima zakat kerana ia termasuk dalam golongan kaya. Imam Shafii pula tidak meletakkan syarat jumlah nilai dalam menentukan kelayakan zakat tetapi berdasarkan kepada kecukupan untuk keperluan asas walaupun ia mempunyai 1000 dirham. Manakala Imam Malik meletakan syarat kelayakan sebagai fakir dan miskin ialah tidak mempunyai bekalan makanan asasi untuk tempoh satu tahun. Oleh itu, sekiranya ia hanya cukup bekalan makanan untuk tempoh kurang daripada setahun maka ia layak menerima zakat untuk tempoh yang kurang tersebut.
iv. Baligh dan berakal, menurut Imam Shafii zakat hanya boleh diberikan kepada seorang yang baligh, berakal dan mampu menguruskan harta. Ulama Hanafi juga mensyaratkan zakat tidak boleh diberikan kepada kanak-kanak yang berumur kurang daripada tujuh tahun dan orang yang gila atau tidak berakal kecuali kepada penjaganya.
Kriteria bukan keturunan Bani Hashim adalah merupakan salah satu syarat dalam penentuan kelayakan menerima zakat dalam ibadah zakat namun MAIN dan AMZ tidak meletakkannya dalam syarat permohonan bantuan zakat. Kriteria ini terpulang kepada kejujuran pemohon bantuan zakat untuk mengisytiharkan diri sebagai keturunan Bani Hashim atau sebaliknya. Ulama Hanafi, Syafii dan Hambali menyatakan bahawa keturunan Bani Hashim haram menerima zakat. Manakala sesetengah Ulama Maliki dan Shafii berpendapat keturunan Bani Hashim harus berikan zakat sekiranya mereka miskin dan tidak mendapat bahagian daripada bahagian harta zawil qurba dan Baitulmal.
Selain itu, kriteria sihat tubuh badan tetapi malas berusaha juga merupakan syarat untuk pertimbangan bantuan zakat dalam Islam sebagaimana sadba Rasulullah saw yang bermaksud:
“Sedekah(zakat) tidak halal untuk orang kaya atau yang mempunyai tubuh sasa (mampu bekerja) (Riwayat Imam at – Tirmizi)
Walaupun begitu, syarat ini tidak dijadikan sebagai syarat wajib dalam permohonan bantuan zakat yang diamalkan oleh MAIN dan AMZ. Kriteria ini perlu diberikan perhatian bagi tujuan mengelakkan umat Islam menjadi malas berusaha dan bergantung kepada bantuan kebajikan daripada MAIN dan lain agensi pemberi bantuan. Namun sekiranya seseorang yang sihat dan kuat tubuh badannya tidak mampu menghasilkan pendapatan yang mencukupi daripada pekerjaannya maka ia harus untuk menerima zakat. Menurut Imam Nawawi, seseorang yang kuat tubuh badannya tetapi tidak berjaya mencari pekerjaaan untuk menghasilkan pendapatan maka ia serupa dengan orang yang lemah dan harus menerima zakat.
6. ELEMEN DALAM HAD AL-KIFAYAH
MAIN dan AMZ dalam membuat pertimbangan untuk menentukan sesuatu kadar had kifayah bagi penerima bantuan zakat di kalangan asnaf fakir dan miskin telah menetapkan beberapa elemen untuk dijadikan ukuran. Elemen atau item utama ialah; i. Makanan adalah keperluan utama bagi setiap individu yang termasuk dalam perkara dhoruriyat yang mesti dimiliki oleh seseorang bagi menjamin maksud maqasid al shariah iaitu untuk menjaga nyawa. Ia juga termasuk dalam kategori kemudahan asas hidup seseorang individu. Ulama mazhab Maliki meletakkan ukuran keperluan bagi makanan ini ialah untuk tempoh satu tahun yang juga menjadi ukuran menentukan fakir danmiskin. ii. Tempat tinggal adalah keperluan asas hidup yang diperlukan oleh seseorang untuk menjamin kehidupan yang selamat dan sejahtera. Ia termasuk dalam perkara hifz al-mal (memelihara harta) dan hifz al-nasab (memelihara keturunan) yang sama pentingnya dengan makanan. Imam Shafii telah menjelaskan maksud keperluan hidup seseorang individu yang perlu ada dalam Had Kifayah termasuk perlindungan atau tempat tinggal untuk dirinya dan tanggungannya. Keperluan tempat tinggal ini dijelaskan oleh Allah dalam surah an Nahl ayat 80 yang bermaksud:
“Dan Allah menjadikan bagimu rumah-rumahmu sebagai tempat tinggal dan dia menjadikan bagi kamu rumah-rumah (kemah- kemah) dari kulit binatang ternak yang kamu merasa ringan (membawa)nya di waktu kamu berjalan dan waktu kamu bermukim 302
dan (dijadikan-Nya pula) dari bulu domba, bulu onta dan bulu kambing, alat-alat rumah tangga dan perhiasan (yang kamu pakai) sampai waktu (tertentu).
Keperluan tempat tinggal ini termasuk menyediakan rumah dan bayaran sewa rumah serta perkara yang berkaitan dengan penyediaan perlindungan yang diperlukan oleh seseorang dan tanggungannya. iii. Pakaian adalah perkara penting dan utama dalam kehidupan yang dikategorikan sebagai hifz ad-din (menjaga agama) dan hifz an-nasb (menjaga keturunan). Ini kerana pakaian adalah merupakan keperluan untuk menutup aurat dan mengelakkan daripada pandangan yang boleh membawa kepada keinginan hawa nafsu. Ini sebagaimana perintah Allah supaya menutup aurat dan melabuhkan tudung menutup dada bagi melindungi kaum wanita daripada keinginan nafsu lelaki. Firman Allah dalam surah an-Nur ayat 31 yang bermaksud:
“Dan katakanlah kepada wanita-wanita yang beriman: "Hendaklah mereka menahan pandangannya, dan memelihara kehormatan mereka (daripada perkara yang haram), dan janganlah mereka mmemperlihatkan perhiasan tubuh mereka, kecuali yang zahir daripadanya (wajah dan kedua-dua tapak tangan). dan hendaklah mereka menutupkan belahan leher bajunya dengan tudung kepala mereka.”
Keperluan pakaian juga bertujuan untuk kesempurnaan ibadah dimana menutup aurat adalah merupakan salah satu syarat sah ibadah seperti sembahyang dan haji serta umrah. Hukum menutup aurat adalah wajib sebagaimana ketetapan Allah dan rasul- Nya. Imam Hanafi menyatakan wajib menutup aurat ketika berada di khalayak ramai ataupun berseorangan. iv. Kesihatan adalah keperluan yang termasuk dalam kategori hifz al-nafs (menjaga nyawa) dan hifz al-din (menjaga agama). Anggota yang sihat akan menjamin kesempurnaan dalam melaksanakan ibadah seperti solat, puasa dan haji. Begitu juga keperluan untuk menjaga kesihatan adalah untuk menjamin tubuh yang sihat dan kuat serta mampu untuk mencari nafkah diri dan tangungannya serta berjihad fi Sabilillah. Sabda Rasulullah SAW yang bermaksud:
“Bahawa seseorang kamu di pagi hari pergi mencari dan memikul kayu api di atas belakangnya, lalu hasil yang diperoleh disedekahkan kepada orang lain serta memenuhi keperluannya tanpa meminta kepada orang lain, adalah lebih baik daripada meminta dan mengemis, baik diberi atau tidak diberi.” v. Pendidikan adalah suatu keperluan utama dalam memastikan seseorang memahami akan hukum hakam dalam Islam serta menjauhkan daripada syirik kepada Allah. Keperluan pendidikan ini termasuk yang bersifat fardhu ain dan fardhu kifayah. Pendidikan dapat menjauhkan manusia daripada kejahilan dan dengan ilmu pengetahuan maka manusia mampu untuk mentadbiran alam ini dengan makmur dan sejahtera berlandaskan syarak. Ia termasuk dalam kategori hifz ad-din (menjaga agama), hifz al-aql (menjaga akal) dan hifz an-nasab (menjaga keturunan). Menurut Ibn Khaldun, perbezaan manusia dengan makhluk lain adalah kerana manusia mempunyai keupayaan untuk berfikir. Dengan potensi pemikiran itu manusia dapat berinteraksi sesama manusia lain untuk tujuan-tujuan kesejahteraan hidup. Potensi pemikiran yang ada pada manusia juga membolehkannya dapat menerima ajaran-ajaran dari Allah SWT yang disampaikan oleh para nabi kepadanya. vi. Pengangkutan adalah termasuk dalam kategori hajiyyah iaitu keperluan bagi memudahkan menjalani kehidupan dan mengelakkan kesulitan serta kesukaran dalam kehidupan. Keperluan untuk pengangkutan pada masa sekarang bukan lagi menjadi tujuan untuk menunjukkan kemewahan tetapi ia telah menjadi keperluan yang perlu ada bagi individu dan tanggungannya. Ia perlu untuk memudahkan ke tempat kerja, mendapatkan bahan makanan, mendapatkan pendidikan di sekolah dan sebagainya. Keperluan pengangkutan ini sebagaimana firman Allah dalam surah al Isra’ ayat 66 yang bermaksud:
“Tuhan kamulah Yang menjalankan untuk kamu kapal-kapal di laut, supaya kamu dapat mencari rezeki dari limpah kurniaNya; Sesungguhnya ia adalah Maha Mengasihani kepada kamu.”
Enam elemen iaitu makanan, kediaman (tempat tinggal), pakaian, kesihatan, pendidikan, pengangkutan adalah merupakan elemen utama yang menjadi ukuran dan penilaian MAIN dan AMZ dalam menentukan kadar had kifayah. Pengukuran ini berbeza antara negeri kerana terdapatnya perbezaan harga barangan dan keperluan individu berdasarkan kepada lokaliti atau penempatan sesebuah negeri. Oleh itu, kadar had kifayah di Wilayah Persekutuan adalah berbeza dengan negeri Pahang, begitu juga dengan lain-lain negeri. Selain daripada enam elemen tersebut terdapat juga keperluan untuk memasukkan elemen tambahan sebagai pelengkap kehidupan yang selesa iaitu utiliti dan komunikasi [8]. Di negeri Pahang perbelanjaan bagi utiliti dimasukkan dalam elemen pengiraan had kifayah.
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7. PENGIRAAN HAD KIFAYAH
MAIN dan AMZ dalam membuat penilaian dan pengukuran had kifayah untuk menentukan keperluan seseorang individu dan menentukan asnaf sama ada fakir dan miskin maka enam elemen yang menjadi asas iaitu makanan, kediaman, pakaian, pendidikan, kesihatan dan pengangkutan akan diambil kira dalam pengiraan kadar had kifayah. Disebabkan ia adalah merupakan bidang kuasa pihak agama negeri maka didapati kadar had kifayah setiap negeri adalah berbeza sekiranya dibandingkan dengan pengiraan oleh EPU yang lebih seragam dalam membuat penentuan miskin dan miskin tegar berdasarkan kepada Pendapatan Garis Kemiskinan (PGK). Berdasarkan Isi Rumah 6 Orang (Suami dan Isteri, Anak berumur 18 tahun ke atas yang belajar di IPT, Peringkat Sekolah Menengah, Sekolah Rendah dan Tadika)
Jadual 1: Perbandingan Kadar Had Kifayah di Malaysia.
Bil. Negeri Bandar (RM) Luar Bandar (RM) 1,645.00 01 Johor 1,745.00
Pahang (Maksima) -rumah- RM 400.00 2,146.00 (B) 02 sama -Kesihatan- 1,746.00(TB) RM 300.00 Pengangkutan – RM 300.00 Sama 03 Melaka 1,440.00
1,655.00 (B) 1,157.00 (B) 04 Perak 1,403.00 (TB) 959.00 (TB) 1,110.00 (B) 05 Pulau Pinang Sama 950.00 (TB) 2,040.00 (B) 1,640.00(B) 06 Selangor 1,715.00(TB) 1,440.00(TB)
2,070.00 (B) 07 Wilayah Sama 2,020.00 (TB) Persekutuan 960.00 (B) 08 Kedah Sama 815.00 (TB) 1,455.00 09 Sabah 1,850.00
Rujukan: Konvensyen Zakat Kebangsaan 2016. (* B: Berumah & TB: Tidak Berumah)
Berdasarkan kepada jadual penggiraan dan penentuan kadar had kifayah antara MAIN dan AMZ sebagaimana yang diamalkan maka didapati perbezaan kadar yang ketara antara negeri. Sebagai contoh penentuan had kifayah yang dilaksanakan di Pahang adalah lebih tinggi berbanding dengan lain-lain negeri walaupun kebanyakan penduduknya tidak berada dibandar-bandar besar seperti Johor, dan Pulau Pinang malah ia lebih tinggi kadar had kifayah daripada Kuala Lumpur dan Selangor. Begitu juga wujud tidak keseragaman dalam menentukan kadar had kifayah antara individu yang mempunyai rumah dan tidak mempunyai rumah. Malah dapatan juga mendapati kadar had kifayah antara negeri juga berbeza berdasarkan kreteria lokaliti atau penempatan, dimana terdapat negeri yang membezakan had kifayah antara yang tinggal di bandar dan luar bandar dan terdapat juga negeri yang tidak membezakan antara bandar dan luar bandar seperti Melaka, Pahang dan Kedah. Perbezaan ketara dalam penentuan had kifayah antara negeri-negeri di Malaysia ini adalah disebabkan oleh perbezaan dalam menentukan kadar kecukupan bagi setiap item dalam pengiraan had kifayah. Contohnya dalam pengiraan keperluan Had Kifayah bagi item Kediaman;
Jadual 2: Pengiraan Keperluan Had Kifayah.
Bil Negeri Bandar (RM) Luar Bandar (RM) 01 Johor 400.00 (B) 300.00 (B) 400.00 (TB) 300.00(TB) 304
02 Pahang Sebenar sama (Maksima 400.00) (B) 0.00 (TB)
03 Melaka - - 04 Perak 312.00 234.00 60.00 36.00 05 Pulau Pinang 200.00 sama 40.00 06 Selangor 480.00 350.00 155.00 150.00 07 Wilayah 550.00 sama Persekutuan 100.00 08 Kedah 180.00 sama 30.00 09 Sabah 350.00 300.00 350.00 300.00 Rujukan: Konvensyen Zakat Kebangsaan 2016. (* B: Berumah & TB: Tidak Berumah)
Perbezaan dalam membuat penilaan kadar bagi setiap item ini telah menyebabkan ketidak seragaman dalam pengiraan dan kadar had kifayah di Malaysia walaupun mempunyai persamaan dalam senarai item atau elemen had kifayah. Ketidak seragaman ini tidak menunjukkan bahawa kaedah pengiraan had kifayah yang dilaksanakan oleh MAIN dan AMZ sebagai lemah dan tidak jitu malah kaedah pengiraan had kifayah adalah lebih tepat daripada penggunaan kaedah PGK yang tidak membezakan antara negeri di Semenanjung walaupun hakikatnya perbelanjaan dan kadar sara hidup adalah berbeza di antara negeri di Malaysia.
8. RUMUSAN DAN KESIMPULAN
Kaedah penilaian untuk mengukur keperluan asasi seseorang individu berdasarkan kepada had kifayah adalah merupakan kaedah yang diguna pakai oleh Majlis Agama Islam Negeri dan Agensi Mengurus Zakat Negeri untuk menentukan kelayakan seseorang asnaf fakir dan miskin. Pelaksanaan kaedah Had Kifayah ini lebih menepati kehendak syarak dengan mengambil kira keperluan individu berdasarkan maslahah dan maqasid al shariah. Pendekatan yang digunakan oleh MAIN dan AMZ dalam pengukuran keperluan hidup adalah berdasarkan keperluan minimum asasi bagi memenuhi maslahah daruriyyah dan hajjiyyah. Kesemua negeri di Malaysia menerima pakai elemen atau item yang menjadi pertimbangan dalam had kifayah ialah makanan, kediaman, pakaian, pendidikan, perubatan dan pengangkutan. Disebabkan pengurusan zakat ditadbir secara berasingan antara negeri maka ia telah menyebabkan ketidak seragaman dalam menentukan kadar had kifayah bagi individu dan tanggungannya antara negeri-negeri di Malaysia.
Oleh itu, bagi memastikan supaya hak asnaf fakir dan miskin sentiasa terbela dan mendapat kehidupan yang lebih selesa sebagaimana tujuan daripada pensyariatan zakat, maka MAIN dan AMZ hendaklah sentiasa membuat penilaian dan penyelidikan dari masa ke semasa agar keperluan hidup asasi dapat dipenuhi dan tidak menjadikan umat Islam sebagai umat yang lemah dan sentiasa meminta-minta. Ia juga bertujuan supaya golongan asnaf fakir dan miskin mampu untuk berdikari dan zakat mampu menjadi mekanisme yang berkesan dalam menanggani kemiskinan khususnya di kalangan umat Islam.
REFERENCES
[1] Al Quran Mushaf Malaysia dan Terjemahan, Selangor, Yayasan Restu. [2] A-. Fanjari, M. Shauqi, “al-Islam wa al-Tawazun al-Iqtisadi baina al-Afrad waal-Dual.” Jil. 1. Wizarat al-Auqaf, http://www.shamela.ws. 2010 [3] A-. Ghazali, “Ihya’ Ulum Ad-Din,” (Jilid. 7). Indonesia: Penerbit Asli. 1988 [4] A-. Nawawi, “al Majmu’ Sharh al Muhadhdab Lil –Shirazi, Kaherah, al Matba’ah al Munirah. [5] Al-Rafi’i, “Al-Mishbahul Munir.” Mesir, Darul Ma’arif. [6] A. A. Rahman, H. A. Hamid, A. H. A. Rahman, “Kamus Mini Zakat,” Nilai, Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM). 2018 [7] A. A. Rahman, H. A. Khafidz, “Ensiklopedia Asnaf dan Skim Agihan Zakat di Malaysia,” Nilai, USIM. 2015
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[8] A. A. Rahman, “Had Kifayah Zakat di Malaysia,” Makalah Konvensyen Zakat Kebangsaan 2016, 11 -12, Universti Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM). 2016 [9] B. Sayin, A. Bhari, M. A. M. Rani, “Analisa Had Kifayah di Malaysia,” makalah Muzakarah Zakat Kebangsaan, USIM. 2017 [10] “Buku Panduan Skim Agihan Bantuan Zakat,” Majlis Agama Islam dan Adat Melayu Terengganu 2007 [11] “Enakmen Kesalahan Jenayah Syariah Negeri Pahang 2013.” [12] “Fatwa Negeri Pahang 2012,” Jabatan Mufti Negeri Pahang. 2012 [13] H. Nizam, S. Norhidayah, “Pendekatan Zakat di Malaysia, Satu Penilaian Analisis Gelagat,” makalah, Persidangan Kebangsaan Ekonomi Malaysia kali ke 12 2017, (PERKEM 12), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. 2017 [14] Hasanah, “Pentafsiran Asnaf Zakat di Malaysia Mengikut Masa dan Tempat,” Nilai, USIM. 2017 [15] M. Zuhdi, “Falsafah Agihan: Keberkesanan dan Pengagihan Zakat,” 2001 [16] Majlis Ugama Islam dan Adat Resam Melayu Pahang, Majalah Ar Risalah. [17] M. B. Sulaiman, H. B. Ahmad, A. I. B. I. Hisham, Noradilah, M. Nordin, Saharudin, Ramli, “Hal al-Kifayah Sebagai Garis Pembeza antara Golongan Susah dan Senang Dalam Sesebuah Masyarakat Suatu Tinjauan Kritis,” International Journal of Humanities Technonology and Civilization (IJHTC) 2 (1) pp. 34-44 ISSN 2289-7216. 2017 [18] “Manual Pengurusan Agihan Zakat,” Jabatan Wakaf, Zakat dan Haji Jabatan Perdana Menteri. 2007 [19] M. Shafie, “Peranan Zakat Dalam Membenteras Kemiskinan, Makalah Seminar Perincian Asnaf Penerima Zakat” JAWHAR. 2005 [20] M. A. Shahbudin, “Peringatan Dan Perkhabaran Untuk Si Miskin Dan Si Kaya. Johor Bahru: Perniagaan Jahabersa.” 1997 [21] Perlembagaan Persekutuan [22] R. P. Ribas, A. F. Machado, “Distinguishing Chronic Poverty from Transient Poverty in Brazil: Developing a Model for Pseudo-Panel Data.” Working Paper #36 http:// www.ipc-undp.org/pub/IPCWorkingPaper36. pdf. 2007 [23] R. A. A-. L. Masyur, “Zakat Penjana Ekonomi Islam. Kuala Lumpur,” Al-Hidayah Publishers. 2002 [24] S. M. B. A. Abbas, A. B. H. S. A. Ramli, “Nihayah al-Muhtaj,” Beirut, Darul Kutub Al Ilmiyah. 2003 [25] Uwais, A. A-. Halim, “Mausu’ah al-Fiqh al-Islami al-Mu’asir,” c.1, Mansurah: Dar al-Wafa’, 2004 [26] Unit Perancang Ekonomi, “Laporan Tahunan Kesejahteraan Rakyat 2014,” Percetakan Nasional Malaysia Berhad. 2014 [27] W. A-. Zuhaily, “al-Fiqh al-Islami wa Adillatuh,” c.3, Syria: Dar al-Fikr. 1989 [28] W. A-. Zuhaili, “Fiqh & Perundangan Islam,” Terj Md. Akhir Haji Yaaacob et.al, Kuala Lumpur DBP.1995 [29] Y. A-. Qardawi, “Hukum Zakat, Jakarta,” litera AntaraNusa. 1986
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Board Effectiveness and Financial Sustainability of Non – Profit Organizations
Norazlin Binti Ahmad Faculty of Industrial Management Universiti Malaysia Pahang 26300 Gambang, Pahang, Malaysia [email protected]
Abstract— The purpose of this study is to examine the influence of board effectiveness on the level of financial sustainability for NPOs in Malaysia. Identifying the level of financial sustainability in NPOs is important in predicting their survival. In this study, 202 NPOs registered under Companies Commission of Malaysia (CCM) had been chosen for the financial period 2011. Financial sustainability indicators are equity ratio, revenue concentration, administrative cost ratio and operating margin ratio. While the board effectiveness represented by board planning effectiveness and board characteristics. The result of this study found that only Board Characteristics had significant and positive relationship with the financial sustainability of organizations. Overall, the findings in this study provide useful information to regulators in their continuous efforts to improve financial sustainability in the non-profit sector.
Keywords— Non-profit Organizations; Financial Sustainability; Board Effectiveness; Board Planning Effectiveness; Board Characteristics
1. INTRODUCTION
Non-profit organizations (NPOs) are generally defined as associations, charities, and voluntary organizations formed to further cultural, religious or public service objectives [1]. NPO objectives are not only on profit maximization [2], but also for creating social values and financial feasibility [3]. Their major sources of funds are from public and personal contributions and assistances. During the last three to five years many NPOs have been forced to close due to a lack of funds [4]. NPOs pursue a mission that is neither financially sustainable using a for-profit business model, nor for which is their public support sufficient to move government to action and the expenditure of taxpayer funds [5]. For the NPO, the information that has been reported and compared for analysis purposes sometimes was not always clearly linked to the mission and vision of the organizations. However, the primary concern of a funder, a donor, a board member, the community, or any other stakeholder should be whether the NPOs has achieved its mission or not and also can sustain for their financial or not [5].
Senior executives, financial professionals, and board members of NPOs face similar challenges that others in for-profit organizations have faced or are still facing: what are the relevant indicators of performance, and how should they be measured on their financial to sustain in their industry, how board of director of NPOs can help their organizations to succeed and sustain on their financial? Thus, [6] provide guidance on how to design comprehensive financial performance measurement systems to better manage and improve performance of NPOs. The Guideline’s specific objectives are: (i) To present existing best practices in measuring financial and non-financial performance of NPOs including the performance measures and various approaches used in different types and sizes of NPOs; (ii) To provide new guidance and tools, for examples to measure and report performance of NPOs; and finally, (iii) To provide recommendations for senior managers, financial professionals, and board members in improving the governance, management, and performance of NPOs.
Besides that, there is lack of studies in examining financial sustainability mechanism practices of NPOs in Malaysia. However, beyond the general assumption that organizations are more likely to disclose when they are concerned with donations and/or accountability, lack of studies posit testable hypotheses regarding specific factors that lead to increased financial sustainability [7]. Thus, this study will focus on board effectiveness and financial sustainability of NPOs in Malaysia which will give a significant contribution to knowledge and the public at large.
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2. LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESES GENERATION
2.1. Board planning effectiveness and financial sustainability
The resources dependency theory also stresses to the acquisition and maintenance of human, financial, and other resources is essential for organizational survival and is relevant to this aspect of planning performance [8]. The role played by board of director in strategic decision planning is the most important principles of resource dependence theory [9]. [10] suggested that board process characteristics like strategic planning efforts and how board meetings are conducted, also as are sources and give affected to the financial sustainability of the organization.
The board must ensure that the organization has a strategic planning; for instance, a clear objective, mission and vision. Based on the resources dependence theory (RDT), the vital aspect of performance is securing the necessary resources in performing the organization’s objectives or mission [8]. [6] and [11], found a clear objectives like mission and vision statement significantly determines the success of NPOs. [12], examined that the majority of companies in the Spain, Argentina and Brazil can success and sustain in their industry because they have many formal ethics documents such as corporate mission, corporate activities and corporate value statements.
NPOs in Malaysia must follow the rule and regulation under the Companies Act 1965. NPOs are encouraged to comply with rule and regulation of the financial reporting standards (FRS) and required to hold annual general meeting (AGM) at least once in a year [13]. According to [13], reassessing the laws and regulations that apply to the NPO such as conducting the annual general meeting at least annually will help to ensure the board’s responsibilities remain up-to-date. While [14] and [15] argued that when organization adopting FRS it will show an improvement in reporting quality and upgrading their financial sustainability.
The boards and their members must be aware and alert of the possibility that courts will apply new standards or interpret existing standards due to increase of board responsibility for risk management in their organization [13]. Thus, the board must understand and evaluate how risk is interrelated, how risk affect to the organization and how staff addresses these risk. As we know, if NPOs with less financing risk, it is likely to be more sustain and have capabilities in order to achieve their goals [16].
Disclosure relevant information to the current and future resource providers is an important matters in strategy planning process for the financial sustainability of the organization. This is because it can lead to negative perceptions about the board’s effectiveness in managing their resources [17]. For NPOs, transparency financial report is essential to the stakeholders, mainly the donors who have previously made some amount of donations. According to [18], some donors are more likely to react to a fundraising accounting information is provided because it shows the financial stability of the organization and the reputation of the organizations. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed.
H1: Board planning effectiveness is positively and significantly associated with financial sustainability of non-profit organizations.
2.2. Board characteristics and financial sustainability
[19], stated that the perspective of resource dependency theory (RDT) is envisages a role for directors in providing access to resources, including information. They also defined board characteristics as sets of relationship and resources. [20] argued that these board members are an intellectual capital as their important resources to the NPOs as board’s role in the strategic direction of an organization is a significant contribution to the long-term survival of the NPOs. Based on the RDT literature, board size in NPOs is likely to vary with the amount of complexity and uncertainty in the external environment [9]. However, both small and large size of board had negative and positive impact according to the size and goals of the organization. The ability to manage, supervise and control the activities of the NPOs will depend largely on their board of directors [21]. They found that larger NPOs boards are more effective to monitor which results in a better non-profit performance. However, [22] argued that smaller number of boards are more effective in monitoring the CEO’s action.
Director also needs to be both credible and forceful, as they need to be effective in board situations where not everyone has bought into the importance of accepting financial sustainability as a key corporate strategy driver [23]. By having board members with a various range of expertise, the firm strengthens its human capital competitiveness. The combination of composition and knowledge and skills of board of directors that will have vital impact on their effective performance of oversight roles [24].
As the board functions as a resource for the NPOs [9], the board provides a significant relationship between various stakeholders and the organization. [20] suggested that it is imperative that the organization develops and maintains healthy relationships with the various stakeholders. They argued that through these relationships or external social links, the organization will be able to
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expand the organization’s donor base and therefore can bring resources into the organization. This suggests that when board members have political connection, they can exert more influence in attracting and sustaining continuous flow of critical resources by external social networks and reputations. Leadership support and commitment by top management are the key elements in setting the directions, creating alignment and maintaining commitment of the organization [25]. Study done by [26] indicated that leadership and commitment support can influence the enhancement of financial result and company’s performance. In relation to NPOs financial sustainability, effective fund raising is one measure of the board’s capabilities, commitment and influence. Therefore, the following hypotheses are formulated:
H2: Board characteristics are positively and significantly associated with financial sustainability of non-profit organizations.
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1. Sample and data collection
The sample of this study was selected from the companies that registered under Companies Commission of Malaysia (CCM). Then, the data were gained from the annual reports and the Borang Maklumat Kewangan (BMK). Annual reports comprised the information of non-profit organization’s directors, financial as well as their program services. Furthermore, the BMK containing additional information of non-profit organization’s such as details of bank information and details of their annual expenditure. Non-profit organizations in Malaysia are classified by categories and consist of 13 categories all together as classified by CCM. This study randomly selects the organizations from 13 categories such as education, recreation, health, sports, and other categories for the year 2011. The final sample used in this study is 202 non-profit organizations. By using the simple random sampling, all elements in the population are already considered, where each element has equal chance and possibility of being chosen as the subject [27].
3.2. Level of financial sustainability
The dependent variable in this study is the financial sustainability model of the NPO. The financial sustainability model of the governance practices extends the work by [28]. However, based on previous literature of financial ratios [29] there were other ratio identified that are relevant in assessing financial sustainability. There are four operational criteria which should be considered in relation to the financial sustainability of nonprofit organizations which are high equity balances, multiple sources of revenue, high administrative costs and surplus of operating margin [29]. The results were ranked into quintile and five level of sustainable were assigned to the samples. An organization is considered as financially sustainable if any one of these ratios fall in the bottom quintile of the sample [28]. Financially sustainable organization is classified as very poor performance if all of the indicators are not present, poor performance if any one of the indicators is present, medium performance if two indicators are present, good performance if three indicators are present and very good performance where all of the indicators are present.
3.3. Measurement of variables
The score for each category was then added to obtain the final score of the organization. Organization size has been identified to be the control variable. Organization size used in this study is measured by the total assets owned by the organization. The identification and measurement of variables used in this study are listed in Table 1.
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Table 1: Definition and Measurement of Variables.
Variable Definition Measurement Acronym BOD_PLAN Board Planning Dichotomous score of 1 if it is disclosed Effectiveness mission, vision and principle activities, comply with rule and regulation , disclosed financial risk management and disclosed financial position and performance of financial policies ; 0 if otherwise BOD_CHARAC Board Characteristics Dichotomous score of 1 if total board 12 to 15 members, board member with professional qualifications, board member have political connection and fund raising activities ratio less than 35%; 0 if otherwise SIZE Size of the organization Log of Total assets (RM)
4. FINDINGS
4.1. Descriptive Statistics
From 202 samples selected, only 4 (2%) NPOs are classified as poor performance, 33 (16%) NPOs are classified as medium performance, 92 (46%) NPOs are classified as good performance and 73 (36%) NPOs are classified as very good performance. Thus, NPOs with poor performance should be closely monitored by their board members and also management groups.
4.2. Multivariate analysis
In this study, linear multiple regression is used as the basis of analysis for testing H1 and H2. The hypothesized relationships are modeled as follows.
FIN. SUSTAIN = β0+ β1BOD_PLAN + β2BOD_CHARAC+ β3SIZE + ∑t where variable definitions are given in Table 1.
In the above regression model, multicollinearity was tested using the variance inflation factor and tolerance levels, and found to be well within the satisfactory range. From the analysis, the results shown that the board planning effectiveness had a negative relationship with the level of financial sustainability. Besides that, the initial hypothesis could not be supported, showing that there was no statistically significant relationship between board planning effectiveness and level of financial sustainability in an organization. This result was in contrast with the study by [8] whereby boards of the NPOs are holding responsibility for the planning process and also for performance of the organizations in order to achieve their goals and objectives. This finding also inconsistent with the previous study of [11] that found information regarding strategic planning, comply rule and regulation, disclosure financial risk management and transparency financial reporting of the organizations are important to the institutional donors from the NPOs. This inverse and insignificant relationship between board planning effectiveness and the level of financial sustainability might have been resulted from the organizations that have uncleared strategic planning. Most of the companies do not disclose clearly on the mission and vision of the organization that are being used to measure the strategic planning. Strategic planning is used to measure the board planning. Furthermore, it can be supported by the argument whereby many researchers agreed that when the boards have no clear mission and vision statement, it will significantly determines the unsuccessfully of NPOs [12]. Other than that, a study by [13] argued that the rule and regulations and disclosure financial risk statement [17] that apply to the NPOs will help to ensure that the board’s responsibilities remain up-to-date, improvement in reporting quality [14] and also will enhance the financial sustainability of the organizations. According to [18], they suggested that boards must developed a transparency financial reporting in order to align with mission and vision because some donors were interested with financial or fundraising accounting information to made some amount of donations. Hence, this might be a possible reason that board planning effectiveness had inverse and insignificant relationship with the level of financial sustainability in this study. Therefore, since the first independent variable had shown an insignificant result that was based on the p-value being more than 0.05, the first hypothesis was rejected.
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The hypothesis two (H2) anticipated that there is a positive relationship between board characteristics and the financial sustainability of non-profit organization. The result showed that the t-value for board characteristics (BOD_CHARAC) was 3.246 and the p-value of 0.001 at significance level 5 per cent, which indicated that there is a significant relationship between board characteristics and the financial sustainability of NPOs. It further indicated that the effective board characteristics would increase the financial sustainability of the NPOs. This was consistent with the finding of [20], where they found board members as an intellectual capital to the NPOs since they can provide the strategic direction to their organization, thus the board characteristics had shown significant contribution to the long-term survival of the NPOs. Besides that, the ability to manage and control the activities of the NPOs will depend on their board of directors. Thus, larger boards are more effective than smaller due to better monitoring management action [21], able to make effective communication among donor [13] and also had diversity of expertise. Furthermore, when NPOs have more board members with a specific expertise on their educational background, they will bring the idea to improve the effectiveness of a board. This is because appointing directors with specific expertise will enhance the quality of information gathered, assist the NPOs in analyzing and understanding the complex environment [24]. Other than that, this result is consistent with the argument that the appointment of directors with political connections affects the board effectiveness and also can attract and sustain continuous flow of resources [30]. To add, [26] found that the board commitment also had been one of the effective in board characteristics to enhance the financial result and NPOs performance due to their ability to raise amount of fund or donations from the donors or public. Hence, this might be a possible reason that leads to the effective board characteristics and then will help to increase the level of financial sustainability of NPOs. In relation to control variable, the results explained that the t-value and p-value of the size 6.231 and 0.000 respectively and it indicates that the size of the organizations was significantly and positive associated to the financial sustainability of the.
5. CONCLUSION AND LIMITATIONS
Besides the main objective of the study is to examine the relationship between board effectiveness mechanism and the level of financial sustainability of NPO in Malaysia, several implications are also identified in this study. First, this study was designed to identify ways in which NPO can become effective and more sustain sound by generating income that is not solely dependent on donor giving. This study extends the study done by [28], which identified four financial indicators to develop a financial sustainability prediction model. Thus, the result of the study also can give benefits to the stakeholder which is the user of financial information especially the donors to get the knowledge regarding the performance and sustainability of the organization before contributes to that organization. Secondly, the efficiency and effectiveness of performance framework developed in this study is being the first of its kind, may help to determine financial health of NPO as it is crucial to the continuous existence and operation of these organizations. More importantly, given that a NPOs everlasting existence lies in its financial strength, determining its performance is crucial. The results of this study are predictable to assist the regulators body such as Companies Commission of Malaysia (CCM) to identify NPOs with good performance to sustain in long time and therefore closer monitoring can be carried out on good performance of NPOs. Thirdly, this study was intended to examine the effect of board planning and board characteristics on the level of financial sustainability of NPOs. Thus the findings will provide more literature regarding the control mechanisms as incentive to a better sustainable in Malaysia’s NPOs since there are a few studies had been done on NPOs before. Hence, it will provide a new dimension and direction to control mechanism research and expand the root of knowledge of this area of current research outputs and findings.
There were some limitations in this study, which could provide initiatives for future research. Firstly, the sample size is limited to one year observation only which is 2011 for 202 organizations. Due to only one year data has been used, the findings could not be generalized. The findings would be more beneficial if more than one year period data is used and the explanatory power of result can be improved. Secondly, this study employs only two variables that are related to the board planning and board characteristics. So, this study did not include other factors for example, board meetings, board interlocking or rotation of members that also might affect the level of sustainability of the organizations. Furthermore, the research instruments used in this study is only content analysis. Instead of utilizing content analysis as the approach to gather or collect information, the other methods such as in-depth interviews with board of directors and questionnaires could be considered as an effective method to get more information on the governance information and the activities related to the non – profit organizations.
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Technological Innovation Capabilities and Competitive Advantage: A Measurement Model using PLS-SEM in the Automotive Industry in Malaysia
Faridah binti Taju Rahim Faculty of Industrial Management Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia
Yuserrie bin Zainuddin Faculty of Industrial Management Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia
Abstract— Study on technological innovation capabilities (TICs) and competitive advantage have been emerged in recent years. However, the conceptualization and measurement of technological innovation capabilities and competitive advantage in the automotive industry has little come to attention. This study aims to specify and assess technological innovation capabilities dimensions and competitive advantage as a second-order formative construct and provide empirical support for their measurement model. Based on the literatures, this study proposes four dimensions to measure technological innovation capabilities (R&D capability, manufacturing capability, networking capability and human resource capability). For competitive advantage, four dimensions which are cost advantage, differentiation advantage, product innovation and process innovation have been proposed to measure competitive advantage. This study adopted the two-stage approaches in partial least square- structural equation modelling to examine the appropriateness of hierarchical modelling for technological innovation capabilities and competitive advantage. Partial least squares-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) to approach using WarpPLS 6.0 software was utilized to analyze the data. The findings confirmed the convergent and discriminant validity of eighteen reflective first-orders constructs establishing validity and reliability of five formative second-order constructs. The analysis of second- order formative technological innovation capabilities and competitive advantage constructs revealed that Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) was found lower than five and the outer weights were significant at the level of .05 through survey data from 136 companies in the automotive industry in Malaysia. Finally, this study also concludes with limitations and directions for future research.
Keywords— Technological Innovation Capabilities; Competitive Advantage; Automotive Industry
1. INTRODUCTION
Technological innovation capabilities (TICs) are viewable as one of the most important sources of sustainable competitive advantage when firms met a competitive environment [1], [1, 2, 3]. According to [4] in a competitive environment, the ability to introduce new products and adopt new processes in shorter lead time has become a vital competitive tools. Many studies also have proven that technological innovation could establish positive impacts and enhance their competitiveness [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. Although studies on TICs and competitive advantage are abundance, evaluating the TICs and competitive advantage can be viewed as a multi criteria problem in the literatures especially in the automotive industry [14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. Evaluating TICs can help firms know their capabilities and technology potentials, providing as an instrument to analyze performance and support decision making, as well as references to firms within an industry or region.
This paper develops a model for measuring TICs and competitive advantage in the automotive industry in Malaysia. Hence, this study develops and empirically validates a multi-dimensional measurement model for TICs dimensions and competitive 313
advantage especially for the automotive industry. In particular, new measurement items are developed for TIC dimensions. The current study attempts to assess this second-order formative construct using partial least squares-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) approach as an integrated TICs dimensions and competitive advantage. . The study develops knowledge by investigating these capabilities and competitive advantage as a second-order latent construct level of abstraction. Currently, these comprehensive aspects have not yet been empirically measured in the literature. Furthermore, development of the TICs dimensions in the automotive industry will act as a catalyst for furthering research and extending its application in other manufacturing organisations
The automotive industry was chosen to implement the model due to its economic importance in terms of high relevance to this industry to the country’s GDP and the large number of different products it produces, In fact, according to the Malaysian Automotive Association (MAA), production of motor vehicles for 2017 totalled 499,639 units comprising 459,558 units of passenger vehicles and 40,081 units of commercial vehicles. With a ratio of 439 cars for every one thousand people in 2015, Malaysia ranked second the highest position among ASEAN countries after Brunei with high motorization rates [19, 20].
This paper is structured as follows. Section 2 presents the conceptual aspects of TIC dimensions and competitive advantage The TIC dimensions’ measurement forms based on four dimensions of the TICs dimensions– R&D capability, manufacturing capability, networking capability and human resources capability. Section 3 describes the research methodology including the data collection and measurement analysis using the PLS SEM techniques. The paper concluded with limitation and plans for future research.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT
A. Technological Innovation Capabilities (TICs) Dimensions
TICs were viewed as comprehensive dimensions of firms’ capabilities that facilitate and support its technological innovation strategies [21] in the business environment and how they successfully manage to enhance efficiency and effectiveness of these capabilities to sustain competitive advantage of the firm and to gain entry into new markets [22]. TICs are a kind of combination of special assets or resources of the firm which comprises various assets such as technology, product, process, knowledge, experience [6, 8, 13, 23]. In theory of resource-based view, when firms have successfully established unique resources that they own, they could better satisfy their customers’ needs, they could produce more proficiently, and in the long run, they achieved competitive advantage and improve their performance [24, 25].
Previous studies have conceptualized TICs with different approaches that result in various sets of capabilities to assessing a firm’s TICs. [12] proposed an innovation audit model which is grouped under seven capability dimensions namely – R&D, manufacturing, marketing, organizing, resource allocation learning capability and strategic planning. Guan proposed an innovation framework of assessing a firm’s technological innovation performance and competitiveness. The framework comprises seven capability dimensions, namely, learning capability; R&D capability; marketing capability manufacturing capability; organizational capability; resource exploiting capability; and strategic capability. [26] introduce a three dimensional of TICs which are, investment capability, production capability, and network capability affecting product strategies (product innovation) for the electronic information industry. Using similar approach from [12] and [27] examines the effect of diverse sources of innovation on a firm’s TICs and the extent to which such capabilities mediate the improvement on product competitiveness. While in a study investigating how TICs impact on new product development performance and product competitiveness of Chinese manufacturing enterprises, [4] classifies TICs into seven dimensions that are organizational capabilities, strategies capabilities, human, finance, and material resources, knowledge resources, fundamental research, application R&D and manufacturing capabilities.
[28] has reviewed three approaches to assess TICs which is asset approach, process approach and functional approach. According to [12] functional approach is easier to understand and it facilitates the multi-informants approach for the survey. However, the asset and process approaches are rather more complex to understand [4, 28]. In our study, the functional approach is adopted to analyses the relationship between TICs dimensions and competitive advantage.
The literature review highlights inconsistent dimension and operationalization of the TIC constructs. From previous studies, the measurements of TICs normally are using first-order construct. Research on the relationship between TICs and competitive advantage using hierarchical latent models is rare. According to [29], hierarchical latent models or higher-order constructs, are representing of multidimensional constructs that exist on a higher level of construct and are related to other constructs and fully mediating the influence from or to their underlying dimensions. Hierarchical latent models, higher-order constructs or second order construct is useful for researchers to reframe the structure model to be more meaningful [30]. According to [4] other dimensions that are not mentioned in the previous studies may be important. Therefore, an exploratory study was conducted to evaluate the existing dimensions and explore other dimensions and items to measure TICs dimensions particularly in the
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automotive industry. In this study, for beginning we only focus on four dimensions of TIC namely R&D capability, manufacturing capability, networking capability and human resources capability. These dimensions were chosen because prior literature found that the important of these dimensions in the automotive industry [15, 26, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35].
B. Research model and hypotheses development
Based upon definition of TIC dimensions as mentioned above, it was explored for the literature for TICs. Therefore, this study introduces the basic functional activities drawn from the literatures on TICs. This study suggests 4 dimensions on TICs: R&D capability, manufacturing capability, networking capability and human resources capability, which they are proposed to the following literature studies:
1. R&D capability The primary component of TICs dimensions is R&D capability in affecting technological innovation and economic growth [12]. R&D capability is firm ability to develop new technologies. R&D capability is one of the strategic resources critical to firm success in terms of continuous innovation, due to increasing global competitive pressure, shortened product life cycles and ease of imitation[36]. Market and customers’ preferences are changing rapidly, thus forcing firms to learn new knowledge to produce new products and services in order to address new market and customer demands[37]. Therefore firms need to continuously adopt, develop and innovate to enhance product competitiveness such as product designs and quality, technological service and reliability as well as generate new processes that help lower operational and production costs and delivery times and increase flexibility, quality and safety [36, 38, 39].
Researchers have employed numerous variables to measure R&D capability. [12] describe R&D capability from four dimensions, innovation strategy, project implementation, portfolio management and investment in R&D. On the other hand, [40] put forward five different dimensions namely R&D input intensity, ratio of R&D personnel, the number of new product development project, the number of science and technology centre and R&D output. [41] measure R&D capability from three dimensions 1) learning function (function related to exploration, absorption and integration of external technology and knowledge), 2) R&D function (R&D workforce and the relative size of R&D investment), and 3) external networking function (function related to active external technology cooperation). However, in terms of automotive industry, [32] categorized R&D capability into design., engineering and modularization capabilities. According to [32] firm in automotive industry interested in upgrading to design capability and now focus on modularization capability including engineering capability.
First sub-dimension, investment in R&D which refers to firm ability to achieving a higher standard of technology in firms, which would allow them to introduce new and superior products and/or processes, resulting in higher levels of income and growth [42]. Second sub-dimension, engineering capability refers ability of the firm to introducing new technology and develop materials for new product development as well as capability to uses computer simulations, such as computer-aided engineering (CAE) and also capability to ensure interfacing with other products [32]. In other words, engineering capability is firm’s ability to develop the components, the modules or subsystems, and work to integrate all of these components to create the final product especially in complex product development projects such as in automotive industry [43]. Firms with R&D capabilities will have a full complement of process and product engineering, and substantial R&D capabilities and will typically have an R&D department [44].
Third sub-dimension, design capability refers to firm’s ability to develop new products, composed of interdependent components, coordinate their interdependent tasks, and exchange information that can strengthen the firm’s position on the market or enable its diversification by creating a leading position in a new market [43] Fourth sub dimension is modularization capability is ability of firm to decompose, decouple of interfaces and recombination of parts in order to achieve economies of scale [45]. In other words, modularity means that parts or components of a product are sub divisible into modules that can be easily interchanged and replaced and enable the configuration of a wide variety of end products [46, 47]. Modular design can address the need for a high number of product variants and further allow a higher degree of automation in the assembly line and has been employed in the automotive industry with a great success [45]. Modularity can bring flexibility to facilities and processes. These key dimensions of R&D capability are adapted from the literature and tested in the study through the following hypothesis:
H1: R&D capability is a second-order latent construct composed of investment in R&D, engineering capability, design capability, and modularization capability.
2. Manufacturing capability [12] stated that manufacturing capability as a firm’s capacity to alter R&D results into products, which meet market needs, accord with design request and can be manufactured. Manufacturing capability is a quality of new product development that ensures the product can be produced efficiently and reliably in the manufacturing process [48]. The manufacturing capability 315
may not only guarantee the success of the transformation of R&D outcome into product, but also ensure its quality suits customer’s needs [49]. Strong manufacturing capability leads to successful outcomes especially in the redesign and production stage of innovation process. From this standpoint, manufacturing capability is an important dimension of innovation capabilities [50].
Four sub dimensions that reflect the manufacturing capability constructs or dimensions are; cost, quality, delivery, and flexibility [51]. Similarly, for the automotive industry, [31] categorized process/manufacturing/production capability into dependability improvement, cost reduction, quality improvement, and flexibility capabilities. According to these researchers cost reductions relates to firm capability to reduce cost to achieve superior profitability. Through innovation in the process improvement, firm can reduce costs during the manufacturing process [52]. Cost reduction is viewed as a crucial capability for firms should have, which in turn enables their survival [46].
According to [33], manufacturing capabilities such as firm's ability to compete for the bases of time, flexibility, low costs, and product quality are acknowledged as a source of competitive success. Similarly, [53] also state that product quality, cost reduction, volume and product flexibility, and delivery dependability and speed have been long recognized as a source of competitive advantages and superior performance outcomes. This study hypothesis that:
H2: Manufacturing capability is a second-order latent construct composed of dependability improvement cost reduction, quality improvement, and flexibility capability.
3. Networking Capability Networking capability is indicating as an important source of technological innovation capabilities, competitive performance and firm performance [15, 54]. Networking capability is defined as a capability to transmit to or receive from other departments within the company, and from customers, suppliers, consultants, and research institutions, among others, information, competencies, and technology [15]. Researchers have emphasized the importance of building relationships whether within firm or inter-firms or research institutions for developing product innovation and process innovation and technological development [15, 26, 55] as well as firm technological innovation capabilities [56, 57, 58]. Accordingly, innovation attends to result from numerous interactions with other departments within the company, and from customers, suppliers, consultants, and research institutions [15]. Networking capability enhances collaboration between network relationships and potentially improves innovation especially when complex information is shared among people. The formation of networking implies the effective and active interchange of information and implementation of routines that would improve a firm ‘s competitive advantage of new products, service or processes of from the ongoing changes of existing products, services or processes matched to customer preferences that are persistently assessed. It follows that networking capability will influence the capability to innovate, since information about this relationship are mainly used for upgrades, changes and the introduction to new ideas, products or services. According to [59] relational capital or networking capabilities have become a crucial factor of firms to improve new product development
[26] introduces a three dimensional linkage capabilities scale for electronic information industry, consisting of internal linkages, external commercial linkages and linkage with public research institutes. It is postulated that this study offers a more detailed and contextually insightful conceptualization of linkages/networking capability. The results show that the firm internal links and external linkages do have a positive influence on firm performance. [34] proposed other linkages that need to consider for automotive industry which is automotive associations. In their study, linkages/networks were recorded strongly with both local and national associations. The relationship between government agencies also important because [60] found the importance of government supports for regional SME innovations. Therefore, networking capability in term relationship between association and government agencies were considered in this study which can contribute to the relationship between networking capability, competitive advantage and firm performance. Thus, this study formulates the following hypothesis:
H3: Networking capability is a second-order latent construct composed of internal linkages, external commercial linkages, and linkages with public research institutes, associations and government agencies.
4. Human Resource Capability Human resources are the major potential resources in the firms to enhance efficiency and productivity of any firms and an important resource to improve their firm performance [61] Human resource is critical to the firm’s competitiveness because firms can effectively utilize human resources to help create and sustain competitive advantage [62, 63]. [64] defines human resources capability as the routines embedded in the tacit and implicit knowledge of the members of an organization functioning to acquire, develop, nurture, and re-deploy human resources through human resources management (HRM) practices in a 316
dynamic competitive environment. According to [35] HR practices, are expected to support the achievement of the firm’s objectives by using the learning and innovative capabilities of individuals more effectively. For automotive industry, [35] proposed three sub-dimensions of HR practices namely employees’ ability, employees’ motivation, and employees’ opportunity to leverage knowledge within firms. These practices known as ability, motivation and opportunity (AMO) theory and appear to be the most popular theories applied in the studies that link HRM and performance [65]. These three HR practices dimensions can be described as: (1) skill development to affect employees’ ability to understand and combine new knowledge; (2) an incentive structures that embraces motivation and commitment; and (3) the design of work and relationships so that employees have the discretion and opportunity to use their skills in collaboration with other workers [35].
First dimension, employees’ skills and abilities have long been conceptualized as human capital, which can result from training and career development chances across the organization [35]. The second dimensions, employees’ motivation refers to the rewards and appraisal that provide by firms to motivate their employees to engage in creative behaviours and participate in innovation processes [66]. The third dimensions, employees’ opportunity refers to organizations are more efficient than markets at this process because they offer access to stronger social networks and norms in a context that can value and support individual contributions. Thus:
H4: Human resources capability is a second-order latent construct composed of employees’ skills and abilities, employees’ motivation and employees’ opportunity.
C. Competitive Advantage
The term ‘competitive advantage’ was made popular by Michael Porter through his book “Competitive advantage: creating and sustaining superior performance” which published in 1985. According to [67], competitive advantage is the ability to earn profits consistently above the average for the industry. Other scholars like [24] stated that competitive advantage can be accomplished if the firm implements a value-creating strategy that is not instantaneously being carried out by any existing or potential competitors. For a firm to be competitive, the firm resources must be valuable, rare, inimitable and non-substitutable. Similarly, [68] defined competitive advantage as the implementation of a strategy not currently being implemented by other firms that facilitate the reduction of costs, the exploitation of market opportunities, and/or the neutralization of competitive threats. Based on [68] definition, [69] defined competitive advantage as the above industry average manifested exploitation of all market opportunities and full (exploitation of) the market opportunities, and neutralization of all competitive threats, full (neutralization of) the competitive threats. [69] found that numerous definitions of CA which are available in the strategic management literature ever since the term was introduced. Notably, [68] and [69] stated that some scholars seems to confuse competitive advantage with firm’s superior performance. Some scholars also conceptualize competitive advantage definition which focused more on sources of competitive advantage such as market position, market barriers, firm specific resources are associated. [69] believed the problem of these competitive advantage conceptualizations occurs because competitive advantage is poorly defined and inability to operationalize the construct of competitive advantage in an empirical research study.
In terms competitive advantage constructs or dimensions, [67] suggests that firms can achieve one of two basic types of competitive advantage namely, low cost (advantage) or differentiation advantage. Cost advantage, or cost leadership, occurs when the firm operates on a lower cost than its competitors, but gives a similar product. However, differentiation advantage is attained when customers always perceive a firm's products better than to those of its competitors [67, 70]. These dimensions are widely used by the researchers in strategic management to measure competitive advantage [71]. However, today environment, firm cannot only depend on cost advantage and differentiation advantage, innovation also has become a prime source for larger firms as well as small firms to gain a competitive advantage.[72]. [73] also mentioned that the competitive advantage can be gained by a firm via technological innovations which is operationalized as a multiple measure of its product innovation competitiveness and process innovation competitiveness. Based on the above, the dimensions of the competitive advantage constructs used in this study are cost advantage, differentiation advantage, product innovation and process innovation. Thus:
H5: Competitive Advantage is a second-order latent construct composed of cost advantage, differentiation advantage, product innovation, and process innovation.
Figure 1 illustrates the general framework of research model. In this study, the functional approach is adopted to analyze the relationship between TICs and competitive advantage. The theoretical and operational definitions of the main constructs in the model are presented in Table 1.
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INV HI
ENG R&D
DES capability MOD COA DA PT PS DI H2
CR Manufacturi F X ng Capability Competitive QI Advantage H3 IL Networking H5 EL Capability
P L
AB Human Resource MOT Capability
OPP Note: H4 Investment in R&D (INV), Engineering (ENG), Design (DES), Modularization (MOD), Dependability improvement (DI), Cost Reduction (CR), Flexibility (FE), Quality Improvement (QI), Internal linkages (IL), External Commercial Linkage (EL), Linkages with public research institutions, government agencies and association (PL), Ability (AB), Motivation (MOT), Opportunity (OPP), Cost Advantage (COA), Differentiation Advantage (DA), Product innovation (PT) and Process innovation (PS)
Figure 1: Proposed Conceptual Framework.
3. METHODOLOGY
This study employs a questionnaire survey approach to collect data for assessing the validity of the model. Accordingly, this paper presents the result of the measurement model to validate TIC dimensions and competitive advantages dimensions a second-order constructs in the automotive industry in Malaysia. The unit of analysis for this study is a firm, thus, respondents were managers and top management, who work in a firm in the automotive industry operating in the Peninsular Malaysia. Target samples were suppliers and manufacturers in the automotive industry in Malaysia. Questionnaires were distributed to respondents from the listing of automotive industry obtained from Malaysian Automotive Institute (MAI) and Proton Vendors Association (PVA). Content validity was ascertained by consulting experts both within academics and practitioners before conducting the survey. Specifically, three experts were selected from the Faculty of Industrial Management, University Malaysia Pahang (UMP). Meanwhile, another four automotive industry practitioners were also contacted with the same exercise. Their feedback and recommendations were then integrated into the final draft of the instrument. A questionnaire was distributed over the 309 firms, 136 of them returned the completed questionnaires. This yielded a response rate of 44.0% of the total population (309 companies). Of the 309 questionnaires distributed to the entire automotive companies’ population in as listed in the sampling frame, 136 completed questionnaires were collected. These firms are mainly involved in component manufacturers and suppliers (63.6%), followed by module assembly and original equipment manufacturers (20.0%) and material suppliers (16.4%). In terms of the number of employees, 54.4% of firms have more than 200 employees. 23.6% of firms employ between 75 and 200 employees and 22.0% of firms employ less than 75 employees. Responses were assessed on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree.
Partial least squares (PLS) analysis is chosen as the most suitable technique for analyzing our model. PLS was chosen because it well suited for complicated models which consist of Hierarchical Component Models [30] and it can operate in a limited 318
number of sample size [74]. In assessing a reflective –formative measurement model, three analyses are required, namely the assessment of construct reliability, convergent validity as well as discriminant validity. In an attempt to determine the measurement accuracy, WarpPLS 6.0 was used to assess the reliability, validity and multi collinearity issues of the items in this study [75].
4. MEASUREMENT MODEL RESULT
The research model was analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) by utilizing WarpPLS 6.0 software for measurement data analysis [75]. According to the explanation proposed by [76], a model consisting of both reflective and formative constructs and second-order constructs are considered as a complex measurement model. The TICs dimensions and competitive advantage construct is therefore a complex reflective-formative-second-order measurement model. The TICs dimensions construct to include fourteen reflective constructs at the first order constructs that form the four second- order formative constructs. These four second-order formative constructs include (1) R&D capability, (2) manufacturing capability, (3) networking capability, and (4) human resources capability. The competitive advantage constructs to include four first order constructs namely cost advantage, differentiation advantage, product innovation and process innovation. Therefore, PLS-SEM is an appropriated approach to assess TIC dimensions and competitive advantage in the current study. The analyses were performed using WarpPLS 6.0 [75] software since it offers various options for the outer model parameters and latent variable scores calculation. PLS regression outer model algorithm was used to estimate the measurement (outer) model parameters and latent variable scores [75, 77]. The analyses took place in two stages: (1) assessment of first-order measurement model assessing reliability, and convergent validity with an estimation of composite reliability (CR), Average Variance Extracted (AVE), and discriminant validity; and followed with (2) assessment of second-order measurement model. The items used in this study were adopted from previous empirical studies that were published in reputable academic journals. Table 2 shows the sources of measurement of this study.
Table 2: Sources of Measurement of Constructs.
Second Construct First Construct Sources Remarks RD Capability Investment in R&D [13, 31, 32] Adapted Engineering Design Modularization Production/ Dependability improvement [31, 32, 33] Adapted Manufacturing Cost Reduction Capability Flexibility Quality Improvement Networking capability Internal linkages [15, 26, 34] Adapted External Commercial Linkage Linkages with public research institutions, government agencies and association (PGL) Human Resource Ability [35] Adapted Capability Motivation Opportunity Competitive Advantage Cost Advantage [70, 78] Adapted Differentiation Advantage Product Innovation Process Innovation
A. Assessment of the First-Order Measurement Model
To assess the measurement model for the first-order constructs, the eighteen reflective first-order constructs were evaluated together [77]. For the reflective measurement model, reliability and validity using Composite Reliability (CR) and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) were assessed [80, 84]. According to [79] , loading with each indicator on its associated latent
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construct should be higher than 0.7. Table 3 presents the assessment of construct reliability as well as convergent validity of the key constructs of this study. TIC dimensions, in this study, are second orders construct which consist of four dimensions namely R&D capability, manufacturing capability, networking capability and human resource capability. The analysis revealed that indicator RDCE1, RDC4, MCDI2, MCCR1, MCCR2, MC1QI1, MC1Q4, MCF5, NCIL6, NCEL1, HRCA6, HRCM1, HRCM3, and CACOA4, had low loadings. Therefore, they were excluded and the analysis was rerunning. As presented in Table 3, loadings of all items were greater than 0.7. The AVEs of other first-order constructs were found higher than 0.5. The findings revealed that convergent validity was ensured for eighteen reflective first-order constructs. Moreover, all the constructs had high construct reliability through measures of composite reliability [80]. All CRs values exceeded the cut-off values of 0.7 ([79]. Overall, the results supported the acceptable reliability and convergent validity of reflective measurement model of all the eighteen first-order constructs.
Appendix 1 illustrates the assessment of discriminant validity using [81]. Discriminant validity is established using the Fornell and Larcker criterion such that the square root of AVE for each construct are larger than the correlation estimate of the constructs. This is one of the indications that all key constructs in this study are different from one another. Hence, the result confirms that the discriminant validity has been established.
Table 3: Measurement model assessment of first-order constructs.
Composite Average Variance Second-order Constructs First-order Constructs Indicators Reliability (CR) Extracted (AVE) Investment in R&D (INV) 4 0.851 0.588 RDCIN1 0.762 RDCIN2 0.758 RDCIN3 0.706 RDCIN4 0.837 Engineering (ENG) 3 0.877 0.704 RDCE3 0.804 RDCE4 0.809 RDCE5 0.901 R&D CAPABILITY Design (DES) 3 0.826 0.614 (RDC) RDCD1 0.774 RDCD2 0.856 RDCD3 0.715 Modularization (MOD) 5 0.904 0.656 RDCM1 0.831 RDCM2 0.810 RDCM3 0.702 RDCM4 0.856 RDCM5 0.840 Dependability improvement (DI) 4 0.929 0.767 MCDI1 0.907 MCDI3 0.890 MCDI4 0.916 MCDI5 0.783 Cost Reduction (CR) 3 0.910 0.773
MANUFACTURING MCCR3 0.917 CAPABILITY (MC) MCCR4 0.783 MCCR5 0.930 Quality Improvement (QI) 2 0.784 0.644 MC1QI1 0.803 MC1QI3 0.803 Flexibility (FX) 4 0.884 0.656 MCF1 0.827 320
Composite Average Variance Second-order Constructs First-order Constructs Indicators Reliability (CR) Extracted (AVE) MCF2 0.832 MCF3 0.844 MCF4 0.730 Internal linkages (IL) 5 0.943 0.767 NCIL1 0.888 NCIL2 0.902 NCIL3 0.884 NCIL4 0.846 NCIL5 0.860 External Commercial Linkage (EL) 5 0.923 0.707 NCEL2 0.803 NCEL3 0.861 NETWORKING NCEL4 0.854 CAPABILITY (LC) NCEL5 0.804 NCEL6 0.881
Linkages with public research institutions, 5 0.907 0.661 government agencies and association (PL)
NCPL1 0.800 NCPL2 0.821 NCPL3 0.802 NCPL4 0.802 NCPL5 0.838 Ability (AB) 6 0.911 0.672 HRCA1 0.828 HRCA2 0.769 HRCA3 0.837 HRCA4 0.875 HRCA5 0.787 Motivation (MOT) 6 0.920 0.741 HRCM2 0.876 HRCM4 0.891 HUMAN RESOURCE HRCM5 0.838 CAPABILITY (HRC) HRCM6 0.838 Opportunity (OPP) 7 0.926 0.643 HRCO1 0.839 HRCO2 0.752 HRCO3 0.852 HRCO4 0.767 HRCO5 0.790 HRCO6 0.744 HRCO7 0.859 Cost Advantage (COA) 4 0.851 0.655 CACOA1 0.847 CACOA2 0.784 COMPETITIVE CACOA3 0.797 ADVANTAGE (CA) Differentiation Advantage (DA) 4 0.880 0.649 CADA1 0.818 CADA2 0.751 321
Composite Average Variance Second-order Constructs First-order Constructs Indicators Reliability (CR) Extracted (AVE) CADA3 0.863 CADA4 0.785 Product innovation (PT) 4 0.930 0.768 CAPT1 0.846 CAPT2 0.921 CAPT3 0.902 CAPT4 0.833
Process innovation (PS) 4 0.947 0.816
CAPS1 0.902 CAPS2 0.903 CAPS3 0.928 CAPS4 0.881
B. Assessment of Second-Order Measurement Model
To generate the second-order formative constructs, a two-stage approach proposed by [83] was applied in the current study. Following a two-stage approach, the latent variable scores of the first-order constructs were used to establish formative second- order constructs. To establish measurement model for the second order formative constructs, the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) (i.e. collinearity between the associated items), and the significance of item outer weight should be assessed [79, 84].
The results presented in Table 4 indicate that the VIF values of the associated items of the respective constructs (R&D capability, manufacturing capability, networking capability and human resources capability) are lower than 5 and the item outer weights are significant at .05 confidence level. Thus, the measurement model for the second-order formative constructs was confirmed. The results further revealed that the second-order constructs were significantly explained by the first-order constructs. Specifically, all the first-order constructs were positively associated with their respective second-order constructs with the beta weight ranged from 0.239 to 0.470. Overall, the results revealed that there is no issue with the conceptual overlap between the constructs. Basically, the results presented in Tables 3, 4, appendices 1 demonstrate that items for all the eighteen constructs are accurately measuring their respective constructs. Thus far, the other aims at this study, which are to validate the study items and establish their respective reliability, have been achieved.
Table 4: Measurement model assessment after generating second-order constructs
Hypothesis Second-order construct First-order construct Weight p - Value VIF Full Collinearity
H1 R&D capability (RDC) Investment in R&D (INV) 0.239 0.002 1.382 2.154 Engineering (ENG) 0.347 <0.001 2.492 Design (DES) 0.322 <0.001 1.932 Modularization (MOD) 0.330 <0.001 2.324 H2 Manufacturing Capability Dependability improvement (DI) 0.372 <0.001 1.513 1.471 (MC) Cost Reduction (COST) 0.309 <0.001 1.257 Quality Improvement (QI) 0.341 <0.001 1.376 Flexibility (FLEX) 0.361 <0.001 1.42 H3 Networking Capability Internal linkages (INL) 0.345 <0.001 1.332 2.053 (LC) External Commercial Linkage (EXL) 0.470 <0.001 2.264 Linkages with public research institutions, government agencies and association (PGL) 0.416 <0.001 1.833 H4 Human Resource Ability (A) 0.352 <0.001 2.15 1.412 Capability (HRC) Motivation (M) 0.373 <0.001 3.438 Opportunity (O) 0.374 <0.001 3.465 H5 Competitive Advantage Cost Advantage (COA) 0.303 <0.001 1.37 1.358 (CA) Differentiation Advantage (DA) 0.312 <0.001 1.433 Product innovation (PRTI) 0.343 <0.001 1.729 322
Hypothesis Second-order construct First-order construct Weight p - Value VIF Full Collinearity
Process innovation (PRSI) 0.350 <0.001 1.81
5. CONCLUSION
Several features of the current findings deserve attention. First, the findings of the study supported that TIC dimensions such as R&D capability, manufacturing capability, networking capability and human resources capability as well as competitive advantage. These five dimensions are mutually exclusive as supported by low full collinearity values (VIFs) of these constructs. The significant outer weights, as shown in the findings, established the proposed second-order TIC dimensions and competitive advantage construct. The significant outer weight identifies the role of first-order constructs in establishing the respective second-order constructs. . Study findings provide both methodological and practical implications in generating new knowledge in terms of measurement model specification in the technology innovation management literature. The robust estimation of the constructs’ measurement model using a second generation of data analysis techniques known as Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) provides a methodological implication for future studies. The procedures applied for this study for establishing measurement model could be followed by other researchers especially in the context of automotive industry. Moreover, assessing the second-order formative construct of TIC dimensions and competitive advantage enables researchers to conduct empirical studies based on the formative measurement model. This could open up new directions for measuring and understanding TIC and competitive advantage construct in future studies. This study also offers practical implications by providing a clear understanding of the TIC concept. The four identified dimensions of TICs could provide better understanding of senior managers and practitioners in the automotive industry in order to manage the issues involved in technological innovation capabilities . This study has some limitations that suggest directions for future research. The present study conceptualised and assessed the second-order formative construct of TIC dimensions and competitive advantage based on automotive industry in Malaysia. Therefore, the findings of the study could be cross-validated in different contexts, such as firm size and types of firms. It is also recommended that future studies could conduct the analysis of measurement invariance to ensure all item measures for each respective construct are not biased towards a particular firm size and type of business. Another area of concern is the representativeness of the sample and generalizability of the findings. Hence, future studies could extend the sample size by selecting automotive firms from different countries in order to ensure the representativeness of the sample. In addition, the conceptualisation of TIC dimensions is limited to R&D capability, manufacturing capability, networking capability and human resources capability. Thus, future studies could include other dimensions of TIC dimensions in literature such as marketing capability, strategic planning capability and etc to further enrich the conceptualisation of TICs dimensions. In sum, this study offers fresh insights into conceptualising and measuring TIC dimensions and competitive advantage construct in the automotive industry in Malaysia.
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APPENDIX 1: Convergent Validity and Discriminant Validity of First-Order Constructs- Fornell & Larcker Criterion INV ENG DES MOD DI CR QI FX IL EL PL AB MOT OPP DA COA PT PS
INV 0.767 ENG 0.514 0.839 DES 0.316 0.603 0.784 MOD 0.278 0.681 0.661 0.810 DI 0.204 0.054 0.116 0.096 0.876 CR 0.230 0.399 0.173 0.416 0.251 0.879 QI 0.360 0.038 -0.025 -0.046 0.507 0.245 0.803 FX 0.450 0.523 0.374 0.530 0.422 0.435 0.293 0.810 IL 0.328 0.338 0.508 0.447 0.402 0.048 0.053 0.180 0.876 EL 0.400 0.541 0.471 0.654 0.047 0.322 -0.196 0.420 0.486 0.841 PL 0.311 0.419 0.289 0.363 -0.246 0.199 -0.122 0.178 0.237 0.667 0.813 AB 0.427 0.213 0.223 0.208 0.239 0.353 0.426 0.305 0.214 0.103 0.246 0.820 MOT 0.203 0.074 0.055 0.155 0.185 0.314 0.471 0.219 0.027 -0.120 0.075 0.697 0.861 OPP 0.197 0.194 0.138 0.323 0.218 0.320 0.381 0.279 0.098 -0.014 0.102 0.700 0.825 0.802 DA 0.227 0.042 0.270 0.262 0.304 0.082 -0.040 0.112 0.537 0.377 0.200 0.387 0.259 0.386 0.805 COA 0.217 0.174 0.210 0.311 0.257 0.047 -0.007 0.047 0.438 0.418 0.201 0.196 0.053 0.086 0.392 0.810 PT 0.268 0.028 0.003 0.122 0.280 0.116 0.131 0.086 0.214 0.048 0.009 0.366 0.318 0.424 0.458 0.353 0.876 PS 0.223 0.121 0.059 0.162 0.298 0.344 0.167 0.194 0.189 0.242 0.044 0.237 0.126 0.205 0.354 0.499 0.593 0.904
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ORGANIZATIONAL SOCIALIZATION, JOB AUTONOMY AND JOB PERFORMANCE IN PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF MALAYSIA: ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOR AS MEDIATOR
PO HUI YEE, LIU YAO Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Faculty of Industrial Management, 26300 Gambang, Pahang, Malaysia.
Abstract-Teachers are the backbone of education system in Malaysia. The success or failure of educational activities are highly dependent on their job performance. A few comprehensive studies have shown the factors influences employee performance in other sectors but do not adequately represent a significant gap in education. Using a theoretical model based on social exchange theory and job characteristics theory, this study aims to investigate the relationship between organizational socialization, job autonomy and teachers’ job performance considering organizational citizenship behavior in schools (OCBS) as a mediating variable in public secondary schools of Malaysia. Quantitative methodology was used in this study. The study used convenience sampling to select sample of 550 teachers in Malaysia. Questionnaires were used to collect the data. The study used SEM inferential statistical approach where SmartPLS software was selected to run the data analysis. Study findings indicated that OCBS mediated the relationship between organizational socialization and teachers’ job performance. OCBS also mediated the relationship between job autonomy and teachers’ job performance. This study also found that organizational socialization has a direct relationship with teachers’ job performance. The implication of the study is that it is prudent for Ministry of Education or the principals to allow teachers in school to enjoy more autonomy in completing task, create organizational citizenship behavior culture in schools, recognize and value teachers’ voluntary activities and offer mentor-mentee programme in helping new teachers get to know the school better in order to heighten teachers’ job performance in schools. This study elucidated the importance of organizational socialization in impacting job performance of teachers besides showing the importance influence of OCBS in relation to teachers’ job performance.
Keywords- Organizational Socialization; Job Autonomy; Organizational Citizenship Behavior in Schools; Teachers’ Job Performance; Public Secondary Schools; Malaysia
1. INTRODUCTION
Performance is a concept which means the sum of amount of qualitative and quantitative contribution of an individual, a group or an organization to a job which is used to monitor whether the targeted jobs have been fulfilled or completed in a certain period. It is the level of achievement of the working conditions of the subject determined [49].
It has been widely known that employees are the most important resources in each organization. This matter triggered investigators to study deeper. The way employees feel about the work and the results will directly affect the performance of organization and eventually its’ stability [23]. For an example, when the employees feel satisfied and happy with their career, it will certainly motivate them to do the best of their capability to attain the organization’s goal. Hence, in order to against international market and attain the goals of organization, the organization should reflect themselves to value their employees more rather than the job needed which could trigger a better job performance.
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Job performance together with withdrawal behavior and work attitudes are probably the most essential variables for both empirical research and management theory for the last sixty years [7, 21]. The initial thing to be remembered interconnected to job performance of employee is that the performance of employee does not happen itself or out of sudden. Hence, organizations and managers should form a review on this problem, examine in which environment and situations their workers work more efficiently and better, and offer that condition for them. In the meantime, it should try to uncover organizational and individual behaviors which trigger higher performance (Ripley, 2002). In order to level up employee’s performance and motivation, it is essential for managers to handle the interests of employee thoroughly and find a balance in between [58].
For this research, the researcher will be focusing on teacher’s job performance (TJP). The components of teachers’ job performance will be different from employees’ job performance. Teachers are the backbone of an educational system. The failure and success of education is greatly relying on teachers’ performance. As their performance is sprightly connected to product and process of education. Hence, teachers’ performance is essential for the education improvement.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Teachers’ Job Performance
Key elements of a teacher can be expressed by knowledge, confidence, communicative, counsellor, socialize and so on. [40] defines teachers’ job performance as “teacher performs duties at a certain time frame in the school in order to achieve the goals of organization. [41] also refers performance as “teachers’ capability to relate related inputs to improve learning and teaching procedures”. Peretemode (1996) said job performance is decided by the daily worker joining and running organization. Below are some factors that contribute to teacher’s performance.
Teaching Skills
Teaching is an act of interpersonal impact subjected at replace the methods in which other persons will or can act [14]. A teaching skill is defined as a set of behaviors associated with the teaching of the subject matter that are mainly working in leading wanted changes in the teacher or temporary teacher who make practice of the skill. Different skills are used for different purposes in teaching learning process. Any teaching behavior is the outcome of a resolution, either unconscious or conscious [51]. Past research on general teaching skills investigated different teaching acts, such as reinforcing, questioning, and explaining, without investigating the way teachers opt on one or another behavior [51].
Management Skills
Management skills are an essential component of manager competencies and educational leader. Constantly train is the best way to build a skill. According to [33], learners are required to do practical assignments to build a skill following the four skill formation steps: Understanding the tasks of created the skill; implementing tasks to create the skill; Applying the knowledge of the skill; obtaining the knowledge of the skill; and Assessing how good the skill has been created.
Discipline and regularity
The word ‘discipline’ derived from the term ‘discipulus’ in Latin which says learning and teaching. The word has the importance of control in it and means “to educate someone to follow the rules and restrict their behavior or to punish someone so that order and control can be kept” [35] and hence it is usually connoted with penalty if rules are not followed. Discipleship involves obedience and willing submission to a rule of life without which a learner will not attain his or her goal. As for regularity, it means the teacher’s condition of being present in school or not missing any classes when she or he should stay at school. The teacher is being aware of and manage to be punctual and perform classroom and school tasks well [20].
Interpersonal
Interpersonal skills evaluate individual’s performance on the goal-directed behaviors, such as displaying friendliness and warmth, and effectively debating. Interpersonal skills show a series of behaviors that are good along majority interpersonal interactions. Traditionally, a ‘person-focused’ construct, like interpersonal skills [24], is used to measure an individual’s effectiveness within an interpersonal interaction. Though a particular interpersonal skill is appropriate for majority interpersonal interactions, it is not always good in a certain interpersonal interaction. 329
Job Performance in Malaysian Context
A number of teachers’ job performance studies conducted in Malaysian context [1, 3, 22, 48, 50, 52, 63].
[1] found teachers’ responsibilities and commitment over their students have to be accompanied by cognitive competency of teachers, good personality alone is insufficient. In 2015, [47] revealed positive relationship was found between openness to experience and agreeableness and job performance. It suggested understand personality traits towards job performance is crucial as the Ministry of Education Malaysia also using personality test to select an educator.
The level of effectives of training correlated with job performance of teachers in government schools of Klang Valley [52]. The result showed that all level of effectives were significant towards job performance, which means teachers should value the training programs provided. The study of [50] also displayed organizational climate was identified to be an important factor of job performance of teachers. The findings would be beneficial to teachers’ classroom instruction and students’ academic result. [63] also found all the four dimensions of emotional intelligence were positively affect job performance.
[3, 22, 48] revealed workload pressure affected job performance of teachers very much. It showed all items in work stress such as recognition, work load, lack of facilities, time pressure and behavior of students can all affect job performance of teachers.
Organizational Socialization
[2] identifying four broad areas of activity in HR Practices such as training, selection, socialization and management of performance. Previous studies revealed that there is a scarcity in the studies of HRM practices in terms of socialization, thus for this research, the research will pay special attention towards organizational socialization aspect that influence teachers’ job performance.
Socialization usually starts right after newcomers enter the organization. It provides a chance for a company to affect its’ workers’ motives and values at a juncture where new workers are maybe the most pliable. Due to the priority goal of socialization is introduced the organizational culture [57], it is probably a primary vehicle for forming the adoption of public service values and a public service identity. Definitions of the organizational socialization constructs are very diverse. One concept with high consensus among authors is that organizational socialization is perceived as a sequence by which individuals learn the expectations, abilities, values and behaviors that are essential for taking on determined organizational roles and for joining as active employee in the company [57]. It must be pointed out that since the decade of the eighties, the majority of studies on the process of incorporating persons within organizations have taken on a conceptual formula in which the active role of both parties stands out. Faced with very passive worker concepts in which the labor of building an organization was very much like that of a sculptor creating a sculpture from a piece of inert marble [56].
Organizational socialization is a procedure by which an employee obtains the skills and required knowledge to social to predict an organizational role [56, 57; Taormina, 1997]. It is too a process where employees learn about to adjust to the new roles, culture of the workplace and jobs [25]. Organizational socialization happens at any period an employee faced a change of organizational boundary [57, 59].
Schools are instructional organizations that offer education. Hence, socialization processes of schools and organizations are usually in line. The socialization process includes professional and organizational socialization. Professional socialization, is also refer to professional initialization stage for educational administrators, usually contains in-service training programmers and administrator training programmers.
Training
Training has been commonly defined as “an effort plan by a company to speed up employees’ job-related learning competencies” [38]. It means job skills offer by one’s organization. It is also a type of adult education, but is mainly concentrates on expanding or acquiring job-related competencies and skills, like new job technologies, team communications, effective interpersonal and changes in the job itself [30].
Understanding
Understanding means, the effective knowledge of employee in the organization and know the way it runs. In order to know the source of organizational behaviors without knowing the people is just like attempting to find out the source of an accelerate car without get to know the driver and engine [62]. People forms strategies to assist
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organizations attain their specific goals. People always learn innovative and new ideas to assist transform their company from mediocrity to greatness [62].
Co-worker Support
The words Co-worker’s support is actually the level to which other workers accept the workers and offer him or her with instrumental and emotional help. Co-worker’s support in term of organizational environment, is defined as their readiness to assist each other in their task [54] such as co-operation, support, respect [12] and so on. In addition, managing offensive and intimidating conditions in order to have work-environment fit (Beehr & McGrath, 1992). Strong support from co-workers can improve work environment and relieve employees’ stress [45], which increase performance job and satisfaction [8], and subsequently reduces absenteeism [42] in organizations.
Future Prospects
Future prospects mean to the chances to be promoted and other advantages to workers that are provided by the company. Each employee can have distinctive profession objectives and interests, people in a similar association may hold altogether different impression of the chances that the organization offers to them. In any case, the view of future prospects can advance after some time in light of the adjustments in life conditions, working encompassing in regards to their career potential, employees’ exposure to profession choices inside the organization, employees’ profession history, and career self-management activities such as profession planning and objective setting [27].
Job Autonomy
Autonomy is the extent of individuals given freedom in managing their works (Hackman and Oldham, 1976). Employees with job autonomy can be more effective. Hence, it is a factor of company success [53]. [28] found out that supportive work environment can be created when there is job autonomy. The lack of job autonomy can be an obstacle to employees’ work [29].
A high level of autonomy is generally thought to be beneficial at work. However, a study showed that autonomy had only small relationships with performance [19, 31] also found the relationships between autonomy and performance are rather small, if not null or negative. The results were similar to the previous research [13 ,32] which demonstrated that autonomy has little direct relationships with performance. In any case, some studies were proved otherwise. Oldham and Cummings (1996) found that job-related autonomy of employee is related to their creative performance positively. They also focused on that controlling the workplace will impact employees’ creative task performance negatively. According to [64], new generation and great ideas in employees’ task performance can be achieved if an organization offers better autonomy in high task to the employees.
Work Scheduling
The work schedule autonomy is depending on the options of employee for selecting the most suitable work durations and timings. [5] research found that the relationship employees’ work scheduling autonomy and their creative performance are positively related, and schedule autonomy significantly plan employees’ creative performance. It indicates employees’ work planning autonomy is the result from creative performance, so proper time arrangement based on the ease of employees will improve employees’ task creative performance.
Decision-Making
It means it is important that an employee and working teams have freedom in choice taking and actions, which results in the fact that the decisions and actions will not be impeded with the organizational limitations or strategic parameters [9, 36]. This means, that independent actions of the members of the organization or by the whole team leading to the achievement of the defined ideas or visions, require the freedom to act.
Work Methods Work method autonomy means the freedom of employee is associated with the differentiation of procedure related to employee’s task. The job-related freedom will improve creative performance of employee and also their pace of doing work. Work method autonomy straight contributes to job satisfaction of employees [34]. [37] states that work method autonomy is one of the important determinants of an employee’s job satisfaction. Based on [5] research’s results, it indicated that positive relationship exists between work method autonomy, workplace creativity and the ability of employees to pick strategies and techniques impact their creative capability. Organizational Citizenship Behavior in Schools
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Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) means anything the employees want to do based on his or her willingness without bound by any specification; something which is not within his or her job tasks or requirement or behaviors that go beyond the call of duty. Research of OCB has been extensive since its introduction nearly twenty years back [6]. Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) has gained many scholars attention since its conception. It cannot be seen with naked eye; OCB does not mean will be rewarded officially and it is hard to be quantify by the word “kind” or “friendly”.
OCBS measured in [55] had 16-items. The 16-items include (a) I help students on my own time. (b) I waste a lot of class time. (c) I schedule personal appointments at times other than during the school day. (d) I rarely absent. (e) I voluntarily help new teachers. (f) I volunteer to serve on new committees. (g) I volunteer to sponsor extracurricular activities. (h) I arrive to work and meetings on time. (i) I take the initiative to introduce myself for substitution and assistance. (j) I begin class promptly and use class time effectively. (k) I leave immediately after school is over. (l) I give colleagues advanced notice of changes in schedule or routine. (m) I give an excessive amount of busy work. (n) The teacher committees in this school work productively. (o) I make innovative suggestions to improve the overall quality of the school. (p) I attend functions not required but that help company image. Although OCB is a popular research among researchers, little empirical search has been done with job performance in public schools of Malaysia. Figure 1 presents the model of theoretical framework and the hypothesis of the relationships.
Figure 1: Model of Theoretical Framework
H1: There is significant relationship between organizational socialization and teachers’ job performance. H2:There is significant relationship between job autonomy and teachers’ job performance. H3:Organizational citizenship behavior in schools mediates the relationship between organizational socialization and teachers’ job performance. H4:Organizational citizenship behavior in schools mediates the relationship between job autonomy and teachers’ job performance.
3. METHODOLOGY
Instruments
Questionnaire method is used as the research instrument as it is found to be less costly, convenient, and time saving method to use. Total population of public secondary schools’ teachers in Malaysia was 181,719 in year 2016 [43]. The public secondary schools in Perak, Selangor, Wilayah Persekutuan and Pahang are chosen as target respondents in this research. 550 were the total questionnaires given across the selected states.
Fixed-alternative questions are used for the design of questionnaires. Two section are set in the questionnaire which are section A and also section B. Section A design based on demographic profile, which asked for the respondent’s age, gender, teaching experiences, educational background, school configuration, salary, ethnicity and nationality and it contained of a total of 8 questions. There are 77 questions in section B formed with Dependent variables (Teachers’ Job Performance), Independent variables (Organizational Socialization and Job Autonomy) and Mediating variable (Organizational Citizenship Behavior). This section is design to help this research to investigate the level of agree and disagree of respondents on the statement in the questionnaire by the aid of Five- point Likert scale.
Data Analysis
In present research, Partial Least Square approach is employed to test the model. In academic field, [46] made a statement that structural equation modeling (SEM) has holding a rather important role. SEM is probably the selection of researchers when they are dealing with relations regarding role ambiguity satisfaction or attitude. After all, it is SEM’s design for working with multiple related equations respectively, it also provides quite beneficial advantages compared to other similar ways which also offer its’ user an overview linear modelling framework. Its user can experience the great flexibility on the way the equations are stated. 332
Measurement Model
Before testing the hypothesis, examining the construct validity of each constructs are necessary to confirm the measurement model. In order to assess the convergent validity, the factor loadings, average variances extracted (AVE) and composite reliability (CR) were examined to ensure the items were adequately measured the similar concept [17]. According to [16], values which fall between the range of 0.60 and 0.70 are considered to be “acceptable in exploratory research”, while values between 0.70 and 0.95 are considered “satisfactory to good”.
OSQ1, OSQ2, OSQ3, OSQ4, OSQ5, OSQ8, OSQ9, OSQ12, OSQ13, OSQ16, OSQ17, OSQ20, OCBQ31, OCBQ32, OCBQ33, OCBQ37, OCBQ39, OCBQ40, OCBQ41, OCBQ42, OCBQ43, TJP45, TJP46, TJP47, TJP53, TJP59, TJP60, TJP61, TJP66, TJP68 and TJP69 which outer loadings below the values of 0.6 were deleted through the scale refinement process. In terms of the construct composite reliability (CR), the results reveal that all fall under the range of satisfactory as pointed by [39]. As in Table 2, the highest composite reliability was obtained at 0.938 for Teachers’ Job Performance, followed by Job Autonomy at 0.925. The value of composite reliability for Organizational Socialization is at 0.893 while the lowest composite reliability value is Organizational Citizenship Behaviour in Schools at 0.868. The results reveal that the composite reliability of all the constructs are ranging from 0.893 to 0.938 which is concluded as satisfactory. For variance inflation factor (VIF), it shows there is no collinearity issue present in the model as all the VIF values are ranging from 1.326 to 3.609, which below the threshold of 5.0. The AVEs of all constructs are recorded in the range of 0.502 to 0.579 which are above the threshold of 0.5. The Cronbach’s alpha for all the constructs are in the range of 0.817 to 0.929 which indicates that the constructs are reliable.
As shown in Table 1, the columns labelled CI shows 2.5% and 97.5% the lower and upper boundary of the bias corrected confidence interval. As the results showed neither of the lower or upper boundary confidence intervals are included in the value of 1 (Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2017; 18] thus indicating that discriminant validity has been established. The results from cross loading heterotrait-monotrait ratio (HTMT) show that the measurement model display discriminant validity. The results shown that all the values passed the HTMT.95 (Hair et al., 2017; 18], HTMT.90 [15] and the HTMT.85 [26] as well as the HTMTInference whereby the confidence interval did not show a value of 1 in any of the constructs. Thus, it further confirmed that discriminant validity has been established.
Table 1: The results of discriminant validity analysis using Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT)
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The present research proceeds with structural model evaluation that begin with assessing structural model for collinearity issues, significance and relevance of structural model relationships, R2 level, effects size (f 2) and predictive relevance Q2.
The results of current research show that R2 value for Organizational Citizenship Behaviour in Schools is 0.462 suggesting that 46.2% of the variance in OCBS can be explained by Organizational Socialization and Job Autonomy. Meanwhile, the R2 of Teachers’ Job Performance is 0.562 indicates that 56.2% of the variance in TJP can be explained by Organizational Citizenship Behaviour in Schools, Job Autonomy and Organizational Socialization. The effect size results revealed that JA and OS have a medium effect on OCBS with f 2 recorded at 0.170 and 0.176 respectively. Meanwhile, OS also have a medium effect on TJP with f 2 recorded at 0.236. Among 333
the control variables, JA and OCBS has a f 2 of 0.013 and 0.125 on TJP consecutively, which is equivalent to no effect. The Q2 of JA, OCBS, OS and TJP signify that the research model has good predictive relevance with Q2 values larger than zero.
All the direct relationships are significant with t value above 1.645 and significant at p <0.05. Results revealed that all the two dimensions contribute to Organizational Citizenship Behavior in Schools (OCBS) positively with β=0.380 for Job Autonomy and β=0.387 for Organizational Socialization, while p<0.05. JA demonstrates a positive effect on TJP with β =0.104 at p>0.05. Meanwhile, OCBS and OS have positive effect on TJP with β=0.317 and β=0.436 consecutively at p<0.05.
Convergent Validity
According to Table 2, the outcome acquired showed significant and positive effect exist in Organizational Socialization towards Teachers’ Job Performance with β = 0.436 at t value 7.237 (p < 0.05). Hence, hypothesis 1 is supported. It shows the application of Organizational Socialization is related positively on Teachers’ Job Performance at public secondary schools of Malaysia. Scant research has been studied on this relationship but [60] stated organizational socialization influenced organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and employee job performance positively. The past study result is similar to the present research.
As for hypothesis 2, the results obtained however, with β = 0.104 at t value 1.922 (p = 0.055). The result indicates that the relationship is positive related but no significant effect between Job Autonomy and Teachers’ Job Performance. According to [4], the difference between a P-value of 0.055 and a P-value of 0.045 is not vary too much. A slight difference in sample size can cause P-value move from one side of the cut-off to another. As long as the sample size is big enough, any small difference will be statistically significant (P < 0.05). Based on previous studies, [31, 19] found the relationships among autonomy and performance are quite small, otherwise null. The present result was consistent with [31] and similar to the past research [13, 32] which display autonomy has little straightforward correlation with performance. Thus, it demonstrates although the current study unable to form significant relationship with teachers’ job performance, it is similar with previous research which found small or null relation for job performance. Hence, the null hypothesis is accepted.
For hypothesis 3, the indirect relationship is found to be positively significant, whereby Organizational Citizenship Behaviour in Schools demonstrates a positive and significant correlation on Organizational Socialization and Teachers’ Job Performance with β = 0.122 at t value 4.304 (p < 0.05). Besides, the coefficients of determination, R2 of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour in Schools obtained shows a value of 0.462 while Teachers’ Job Performance obtained a value of 0.562. This indicates that 46.2% and 56.2% of the variance in Organizational Citizenship Behaviour in Schools and Teachers’ Job Performance respectively are explained by Job Autonomy and Organizational Socialization. Therefore, Hypothesis 3 is accepted.
For hypothesis 4, The correlation has found to be positively significant, whereby Organizational Citizenship Behaviour in Schools demonstrates a positive and significant correlation on Job Autonomy and TJP with β = 0.120 at t value 4.223 (p < 0.05). Besides, the coefficients of determination, R2 of organizational citizenship behavior in schools obtained shows a value of 0.462 while teachers’ job performance obtained a value of 0.562. This indicates that 46.2% and 56.2% of the variance in organizational citizenship behaviour in schools and teachers’ job performance respectively are explained by Job Autonomy and Organizational Socialization. Therefore, Hypothesis 4 is accepted.
Table 2: Convergent validity results
Cronbach's Construct Items Loadings AVE CR Alpha Organizational OSQ6 0.707 0.512 0.893 0.864 Socialization OSQ7 0.731 OSQ10 0.685 OSQ11 0.762 OSQ14 0.684 OSQ15 0.713 OSQ18 0.671 OSQ19 0.765
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Job Autonomy JAQ21 0.787 0.579 0.925 0.909 JAQ22 0.763 JAQ23 0.811 JAQ24 0.776 JAQ25 0.748 JAQ26 0.718 JAQ27 0.747 JAQ28 0.716 JAQ29 0.776 Organizational Citizenship OCB30 0.674 0.522 0.868 0.817 Behaviour in Schools OCBQ34 0.759 OCBQ35 0.738 OCBQ36 0.743 OCBQ38 0.73 OCBQ44 0.688 Teachers' Job Performance TJP48 0.671 0.502 0.938 0.929 TJP49 0.672 TJP50 0.716 TJP51 0.748 TJP52 0.717 TJP54 0.714 TJP55 0.676 TJP56 0.771 TJP57 0.673 TJP58 0.690 TJP62 0.721 TJP63 0.608 TJP64 0.781 TJP65 0.772 TJP67 0.672
Mediating effects of organizational citizenship behavior in schools
According to Table 3, the results of the indirect effects of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour in Schools obtained after the bootstrapping procedure. The bootstrapping analysis shows that the indirect effect of OCBS, β=0.12 was significant at a t value of 4.223 with p<0.05. [44] indicated that the indirect effect of 0.120, 97.5% Boot CI: [LL= 0.069, UL= 0.181] which does not straddle a zero in between indicating that OCBS mediates the relationship between Job Autonomy and Teachers' Job Performance.
Meanwhile, the other bootstrapping analysis of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour in Schools shows that the indirect effect of OCBS, β=0.122 was significant at a t value of 4.304 with p<0.05. According to [44] that the indirect effect of 0.122, 97.5% Boot CI: [LL= 0.069, UL= 0.181] shall not straddle a zero in between
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indicating that Organizational Citizenship Behaviour in Schools mediates the relationship between Organizational Socialization and Teachers' Job Performance.
Table 3: Indirect effect of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour in Schools
Relationship Standard Standard t value p value CIBC CIBC Beta Error 2.5% 97.5% JA OCBS TJP 0.120 0.028 4.223 0.000 0.069 0.181 OS OCBS TJP 0.122 0.028 4.304 0.000 0.069 0.181
CIBC = Confidence intervals bias corrected
Figure 2: Results of structural model
5. CONCLUSION
The Theoretical Contribution
The context of theory conceptualism and extension had been contributing in this research. From theory extension’s view, this study is trying to enlarge the area of factors influencing teachers’ job performance, through organizational socialization, job autonomy and organizational citizenship behavior in schools. This study also made tremendous contribution to the literature of organizational citizenship behavior in schools. It also contributed to teachers’ job performance’s literature in the aspect of the application of two IVs and mediator of present research in public secondary schools of Malaysia.
This research presents a framework of conceptualizing organizational socialization, job autonomy, organizational citizenship behavior in schools and TJP in public secondary schools. Scarce research is found to relate organizational socialization to teachers’ job performance. The current research provides the content of knowledge that organizational socialization also contains an effect towards teachers’ job performance. Organizational socialization is also a crucial success factor that affect organizational citizenship behavior in schools.
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Although Job Autonomy found to be not significant towards Teachers’ Job Performance but they are positive related to each other. School management should actually allow more autonomy to teachers to perform. They can rely on a simple guideline to perform the job independently. This will ultimately lead to better self-satisfaction as they managed to complete a job without undergoing strict supervision.
Other significant contribution also found in current study which is the effect of mediation of organizational socialization and organizational citizenship behavior in schools. The mediation analysis contributed to the content of knowledge that teachers’ point of view on socialization and organizational citizenship behavior will intervene job performance of teachers in the schools. When teacher is more willing to help others in work, he or she will tend to perform better in school.
Besides that, another significant contribution of current research is the mediating impact of job autonomy and organizational citizenship behavior in schools. When a teacher has more freedom in doing his or her task in school, he or she will be more willing to help others at work and it will then increase the job performance of such individual.
In term of contribution conceptualization, the current study had tried to identify the impact of organizational socialization and job autonomy towards teachers’ job performance through the intervening effect organizational citizenship behavior in schools.
THE MANAGERIAL CONTRIBUTION
This study provides insights and contributes workable guidelines to Ministry of Education in Malaysia as a tool to increase performance of teachers besides offering attractive remuneration package. Organizational Socialization has become an important source in enhancing teachers’ job performance. The current study outcomes showed that positive effects exist in Organizational socialization when directly and indirectly through Organizational Citizenship Behavior in Schools influencing Job Performance of teachers. Job Autonomy on the other hand, the findings revealed only with Organizational Citizenship Behavior in Schools as mediator, Job Autonomy will influence Job Performance of Teachers. This study provides workable ideas for Minister of Education to improve their competition with private schools according to the sustainability of its great deal assets (teachers). Discipline and teaching students are not expected to the teachers only but also the behaviors demonstrate moral virtues, most importantly able to understand and listen to students’ needs. The present students required teachers to listen to them and be thoughtful besides teaching using the traditional way. The ongoing technological innovation is encompassing the traditional setting of learning; students are even learning via online videos. The former prime minister also stated that the government sector is a significant party in bringing the nation’s aspirations towards global competitiveness. Hence, the present research findings show Organizational Socialization, Job Autonomy and Organizational Citizenship Behavior in Schools can increase Job Performance of teachers can be a valuable information to education industry. the public sector is an important catalyst in pushing the country's aspirations towards international competitiveness. Hence, the present research findings show Organizational Socialization, Job Autonomy and Organizational Citizenship Behavior in Schools can increase Job Performance of teachers can be a valuable information to education industry.
RESEARCH LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Limitations is undeniable, it will surely occur in any research. Firstly, in the context of methodology, since it is a convenience sampling, it is relied on constructs by employees who would like to participate in answering the questionnaires. At such, the basis of the info is perceptual and there might be a percept-percept bias possibility. Besides that, a lot of efforts had been put in to remind certain schools to ensure better return rate was eventually failed. Unknown number of collection subpopulations in Malaysia also restrict the validity formed externally from samples of non-probability. A same limitation was also emphasizing by Calder, Phillips, and Tybout (1981, 1982, 1983) who are depending on sampling methods of non-probability with convenience and accessibility always experienced the legitimacy of generalizing the outcome of the study to the entire nation population is commonly unspecified. Therefore, the initial intention generalization to the population is not available. Thus, generalization is not offer in present research. In order to overcome the limitation, future research should consider to apply a permission letter from Ministry of Education before sending the questionnaires to the schools to enlarge sufficiency of the data and ensure better return rate. By applying an official letter from Ministry of Education in general will accelerate the return of completed questionnaires as the principals will consider they are obligated to complete the questionnaire as they have received an instruction from Ministry of Education to do the necessary. This will eventually offer generalization of research result. Secondly, the current study is absolutely only based on quantitative approach. Although it is a widely used research instrument by many researchers due to it being a cost-effective approach for collecting data, questions asked in a survey might be unclear to certain participants and this might lead to response biases. For future research, triangulation methods can be used to let much more information collected and percept-percept bias possibility could be decreased. It can garner a more in-depth understanding
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from the respondents themselves with regards to the impact of OCBS affects the relationship of Organizational Socialization, Job Autonomy and Teachers’ Job Performance in Malaysia. Thirdly, this study is solely focusing on the mediating factor of Organizational Citizenship behavior in Schools. The present study also just focusing on two Independent variables which is very limited to generate a bigger picture on factors affecting job performance of teachers. It is suggested that an in-depth analysis of the relationship on moderating factor can be studied by researchers in the future. They can also increase a few independent variables such as organizational culture and ethnicity to gain further clarification. Future empirical research can investigate if the moderating variable(s) and independent variables affect each specific relationship between Organizational Citizenship behavior in Schools, Organizational Socialization, Job Autonomy and Teachers’ Job Performance in Malaysia.
DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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Analysis of Demographics to Quality of CIO, Ethical Climate, Level of Ethics and Integrity and Organizational Commitment in the Malaysia Public Sector
Asmawati Sajari Faculty of Industrial Management Universiti Malaysia Pahang Gambang, Pahang, Malaysia [email protected]
Hasnah Haron Faculty of Industrial Management Universiti Malaysia Pahang Gambang, Pahang, Malaysia [email protected]
Ishak Ismail Faculty of Industrial Management Universiti Malaysia Pahang Gambang, Pahang, Malaysia [email protected]
Abstract— This paper provides a descriptive analysis of climate, quality of CIO and organizational commitment in the public sector. Age, gender, educational level, having a professional certificate and heading the integrity unit are the demographics variables examined in this study. These variables, using chi square analysis were examine to see if they have a significant relationship with ethical climate, organizational commitment and quality of CIO. It was found that age (younger), gender (female) as integrity officers were significantly related to organizational commitment. Head of integrity units were also found significant to be a quality CIO as compared to integrity officers who are not heading a unit. However, none of the demographics variables were found to have a significant relationship with ethical climate. It is recommended that the public sector need to retain older officers and recruit female integrity officers if they would like their integrity officers to stay longer in the organization. Another recommendation is to have a CIO who heads the integrity units rather than not heading one as they portray a higher competence, independence and perform work as required of them.
Keywords— Quality of CIO; Ethical Climate; Organizational Commitment
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1. INTRODUCTION
The effectiveness of the implementation of ethics and integrity is very important in reducing the ethical scandal such as corruption, bribery, fraud, governance inefficiency and poor internal control. If these issues are not monitored, the results could be worse on the government organization in Malaysia. [1]. Thus, ethics and integrity are two essential components of good corporate governance. Good governance refers not only to integrity, but also to efficient management of public resources and, for some commentators, to adequate public participation in decision-making. Ethics involved individual, organizations, and professional ethics. On the other hand, integrity involves individual, organizations and persons holding public office [2]. Meanwhile, integrity should be fully demonstrated to individuals and organizations that play an important role in helping to mobilize the Malaysian economy to a high-income economy [3]. Integrity is a major theme in the literature of social science, especially in organizational and ethical behavior and usually refer to characteristics that only human can have [4]. Therefore, government Malaysia need to build a service servant that has moral and integrity is vital to achieve high income economy status as well as maintaining and sustaining the country’s economy.
Public sector plays an important role in Malaysia. Previously, Malaysian public sector was known as the Malaysian Civil Services (MSC). It is structured into three tier level which are the Federal, State and Local Government [5]. Now, Public sector is defined as all organizations which are not privately owned and operated, but which are created, managed and financed by the government on behalf of the public. Another definition is a political organization set up with the power to direct, regulate and control the citizen’s activities to enable them to live together harmoniously and constructively, and to solve their common problems more energetically and effectively. Public sector’s contribution is very important in terms of a country’s development. Besides working under a strict governmental constitution, regulations, procedures and budget they need to play their traditional roles and at the same time achieve their ultimate goal; fulfill the legality and discharge their accountability [6]. It is crucial for the public sector i.e. the government to be held responsible for transparency and accountability. Also, it is important to note that the public sector is diverse in nature. Whereby, Article 132 (1) of the Constitution of Malaysia specifies the composition of the public sector as encompassing the education services, the police service, the Federation’s general public services, the public services of each state and the federal-state joint public services as mentioned by Article 133 or a total of 1.6 million public official [7].
Corruption, bribery and fraud is not a recent phenomenon in Malaysia. The issue of unethical and lack of integrity has become a hot topic and critical issue for the public sector especially in the Malaysia. Therefore, government has viewed this issue seriously. Recently, there are many issues pertaining ethical issues in project procurement which is one of important areas in project management. In Malaysia research has shown the effect of unethical behavior in construction industry. It was found that unethical conducts exist among the construction players, and the client which includes the public sector. Thus, it is important to understand and investigate the factors that contribute to unethical conduct. Only when the reasons are known, can these problems be overcome. Table 1 shows the factors that contribute to unethical behavior in project procurement in the public sector, ranked in terms of frequency [8].
Table 1: Ranking of unethical conducts by construction players in Malaysia
Rank Unethical Conduct 1 Under bidding, Bid Shopping, Bidd Cutting 2 Bribery, Corruption 3 Negligence 4 Front loading Claims game 5 Payment Game 6 Unfair & Dishonest Conduct, Fraud 7 Collusion 8 Conflict of Interest 9 Change order game 10 Cover pricing, withdrawal of tender 11 Compensation of tendering cost
The Malaysian government has emphasized that the public sector in Malaysia needs to be effective, efficient and ingrained with 342
the highest level of ethics and integrity. In an effort to eradicate corruption in organization, the Malaysian government has established the Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission (MACC), Malaysian Institute of Integrity (IIM), National Integrity Plan (NIP), National Key Result Areas (NKRA), Certified of Integrity Officer Programme under Malaysia Anti-Corruption Malaysia Academy (MACA) to foster integrity and prevent corruption in the public sector. With presence of integrity, it would provide a level playing field for businesses to prosper in Malaysia and more importantly, public trust can be gained. This paper will examine the relationship between gender, race, age, education level, having professional certification, whether one is head of integrity unit to quality of CIO, ethical climate, level of ethics and integrity, and organizational commitment in the public sector.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Quality of CIO
Chief Integrity Officer is known by various names such as Ethics and Compliance Officer (ECO), Compliance Officer (CO), Ethics Ambassador, Ethics Officer and Chief Ethics Officer According to Circular No.6 2013, the term CeIO (Certified of Integrity Officer) was introduced to indicate an initiative undertaken by the Malaysia Anti-Corruption Academy to require all integrity officers to take up an examination offered by it. This is to prepare them to be better equipped with the knowledge required to handle integrity related issues in the public sector. Their tasks were specified clearer [9]. In this study, quality of CIOs comprises of independence, work performance and competence”.
B. Ethical Climate
Ethical climate is defined as “the shared perception of what correct behavior, and how ethical situations should be handled in an organization”. Thus, implementing ethical climate can help to resolve the issue related to unethical behavioral practices in organization and of culture of an organization is the share understanding about what correct behavior is [10]. It is important to note that many types of climates exist within organizational framework; climates for safety compliance, community service, and innovation are just a few that have been researched. Researchers have proposed that ethical climate plays various roles in an organization [11] [12]. For instance, ethical climate can discourage employees from engaging in unethical behavior [12 [13]. Conversely, an ethical climate can encourage employees to act in accordance with ethical standards, because an ethical climate provides an important signal to employees as to which behaviors are acceptable or not in organization. Organizations with an ethical climate are likely to make best their effort to encourage their employees to behave ethically in order to maintain an ethical reputation [14].
C. Organizational Commitment.
In organizational sciences literature, organizational commitment is one of the most popular attitudes discussed. Organizational commitment antecedents and consequences have been studied for many years in management and organizational psychology research. Especially in today's competitive marketplace, organizational commitment is an intriguing topic. In recent years employees' physical, administrative and temporal attachments to organizations have weakened. Employees are more mobile and less dependent on their organizations [15]. Organizational commitment construct is multi-dimensional in nature and includes employee loyalty, willingness to put efforts, maintaining relationship and goal and value congruency [16]. Previous research has revealed that age is positively related to organizational commitment. Research on job satisfaction has also found the impact of personal and demographic attributes of the employees on their organizational attitudes like organizational commitment [17]. Organizational commitment has also been shown to be related to individual features such as gender, tenure, income, and marital status; or to some organizational variables like organizational culture and values, and organizational size. There are also many studies that have examined the effects of gender on the organizational commitment, job satisfaction, performance, absenteeism, and intention to leave [18]. Since demographics variables can be found to affect organizational commitment and ethical climate [19], this paper will examine selected demographics such as gender, age, having professional certification and whether one is head of integrity unit to the quality of CIO, ethical climate and level of integrity.
3. METHODOLOGY
This study is a quantitative study. 128 questionnaires were distributed l to CIOs (Chief Integrity Officer) to Ministry Department, State Department, Ministry Statutory Body, State Statutory Body, Local Authorities in the Public-Sector Malaysia (Federal 343
areas). 83 questionnaires were returned and usable. Cross tab and Chi-square analysis was used to examine the relationship of the variables of the study.
4. RESULTS
The following sub topic discussed the results of demographics relationship to Quality of CIO, organizational commitment and ethical climate analysis using the cross tab and chi square.
A. Age, Gender, Education Level, Having Professional Certificate and Head Integrity Unit to Quality of Chief Integrity Officer
Appendix 1 shows cross tab and chi square analysis of age and gender to organizational commitment. Results shows that only head of integrity unit has a significant relationship with quality of CIO (X² = 5.605; df = p < 0.05. Head of integrity unis(76.2%) are found to be a higher quality CIO than those who do not head the integrity units(23.8%). The rest of the demographics, age, gender, race, education level and having professional certificate were not found to have a significant relationship with quality of CIO. Interesting to note though even if the results do not show a significant relationship with variable, cross tabulation reveals that females, younger, lower education level and not professionally qualified are higher quality CIO than those who are not
B. Age, Gender, Education Level, Having Professional Certificate and Head Integrity Unit to Organizational Commitment
Appendix 1 shows cross tab and chi square analysis head integrity unit to quality of CIO. Results show that age has a significant relationship with organizational commitment (X² = 5.863; df = p < 0.05). Older employees ( 52.6%) were found to have a higher organizational commitment than younger employees(47.4%).
Gender was also found to have a significant relationship with organizational commitment (X² = 4.715; df = p < 0.05). Females (76.3%) were found to have a higher organizational commitment than males (23.7%). The rest of the demographics, education level, having professional certificate and head of integrity unit were not found to have a significant relationship with organizational commitment. However, it is interesting to note that integrity officers who have a lower education level, who do not have a professional certificate and heads of integrity units have a higher organizational commitment than those who do not.
C. Age, Gender, Education Level, Having Professional Certificate and Head Integrity Unit to Ethical Climate
Appendix 1 shows results that all the demographic factors do not have a significant relationship with ethical climate. Although not significant, it is interesting to note that integrity officers, who are younger, female, have a lower education level, are heads of integrity unit and not having a professional certificate have a higher ethical climate than those who do not.
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATION
This paper has attempted to describe and analyses demographics factors on ethical climate, quality of CIOs and organizational commitment. Based on the result only age and gender were found to have a significant relationship to organizational commitment. Meanwhile, head of integrity units was also found to have a significant relationship to the quality of CIO.
From the result, it is recommended that the public sector need to retain older integrity officers and recruit more female integrity officers if they would like their integrity officers to stay longer in the organization. This could be because older, female officers are more able to face up to the challenges in inculcating ethics in the organization. Older integrity officers should be given more incentives to stay on so that they can help train new integrity officers in performing their duty and embedding ethical culture in the organization.
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Having CIO who are head of integrity units rather than not heading an integrity unit would enhance the quality of CIO as they are more independent, competent and able to perform their work better. This is understandable as heading an integrity unit would enable them to manage resources under their responsibility and thus could plan better integrity related efforts for the organization.
The rest of the demographics variables, education level and professional certificate were not found to have a significant relationship with ethical climate, quality of CIOs nor organizational commitment. This could be because being a quality CIO, ensuring a good ethical climate or staying longer in an organization depended more on perseverance of a person rather than having a good educational background.
The study concluded that, there is a strong evidence of association between some demographic variables with organizational commitment and quality of CIO.
REFERENCES
[1] Dubinsky, J. E. & Richter, A. Global ethics and integrity benchmarks. United States, 2009. [2] Ismail, I., Haron, H., Ahmad, Z. & Isa, S. M. Corporate integrity assessment questionnaire MARA subsidiary. Penang, Malaysia: Universiti Sains Malaysia, 2014. [3] Aziz, T. A. (1999). Malaysia Incorporated: Ethics on Trial. Australian Journal of Public Administration, 58, 19–25 [4] Trevinyo-Rodríguez, R.N. (2007). Integrity: A Systems Theory Classification, Journal of Management History, 13(1), 74-93 [5] Ali, E. I. E. (2015). Public sector accounting and financial management in Malaysia. Malaysia: Unpublished First Draft. [6] Accounting Research Institute (ARI). Corporate Integrity, ethics and risk management. 2016. [7] Beatrice Nita Jay (2017, 15 February) Malaysia has 500,000 Civil Servants, Not 1.6 million, says Cuepacs, New Straits Times. Retrieved from http://www.nst.com.my/news/2017/02/212733/malaysia-has-5000000-civil-servants-not- 16million-says-cuepacs.html, 15Febuary 2017. [8] Rahman, H.A., Karim, S.B.A., Danuri, M.S.M., Berawi, M.A., Yap, X.W (2007). Does professional ethics effect construction quality? Quantity Surveying International Conference, Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia [9] Kwon, C.B., Moon.M.K., (2013). "An organization's ethical climate, innovation, and performance: Effects of support for innovation and performance evaluation", Management Decision, Vol. 51 Issue: 6, pp.1250-1275 [10] Victor, B., & Cullen, J.B. (1987). A theory and measure of ethical climate in organization. In W.C. Fredic and L.E. Preston, eds. Research in Social Performance and Policy, 9 , 51 – 71, Grewnwich, T: JAI Press. [11] Victor, B., & Cullen, J. B. (1988). The organizational bases of ethical work climates. Administrative Science Quarterly, 33, 101-125. [12] Wimbush, J. C., & Shepard, J. M. (1994). Toward an understanding of ethical climate: Its relationship to ethical behavior and supervisory influence. Journal of Business Ethics, 13, 637-. [13] Cullen, J. B., Parboteeah, K. P., & Victor, B. (2003). The effects of ethical climates on organizational commitment: A two-study analysis. Journal of Business Ethics, 46(2), 127- 141. doi:405822061 [14] Grant A.M., Dutton J.E.; Rosso B. D. (2008) "Giving Commitment: Employee Support Programs and the Prosocial Sensemaking Process" 51-808-91 [15] BATEMAN T and STRASSER S (1984) A longitudinal analysis of the antecedents of organizational commitment. Academy of Management Journal 27(1),95–112. [16] Isaiah O. Ugboro. Organizational Commitment, Job Redesign, Employee Empowerment and Intent to Quit Among Survivors of Restructuring and Downsizing. IBAM. pp. 232-257, (2006). [17] Balay, R & İpek, C. Teachers’ perception of organizational culture and organizational commitment in Turkish primary schools. JWT. 2(1): 363-384, (2010). [18] Bashir, M. Jianqiao, L. Zhang, Y, J. Ghazanfar, F. Abrar, M. The relationship between High Performance Work System, Organizational Commitment and demographic factors in public sector universities of Pakistan. IJRB. 1: 62-71, (2011) [19] Affum-Osei, E. , Acquaah, E. and Acheampong, P. 2015. Relationship between Organisational Commitment and Demographic Variables: Evidence from a Commercial Bank in Ghana
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Appendix 1: Result of Relationship of Demographic Factors to Quality of CIO, Organizational Commitment and Ethical Climate
Factor Age Total (%) Gender Total (%) Education Level Total (%) Prof. Certified Total (%) Head of integrity Total (%) Demographics unit Young (%) Older Female Male Lower Higher Yes (%) No (%) Yes (%) No (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Ethical climate Lower 18(62.1) 11(37.9) 29(100) 18(62.1) 11(37.9) 29(100) 15(51.7) 14(48.3) 29(100) 2(6.9) 27(93.1) 29(100) 16(55.2) 13(44.8) 29(100) % 35.3 34.4 34.0 36.7 30.0 42.4 15.4 38.6 30.2 43.3 Higher 33(61.1) 21(38.9) 54(100) 35(64.8) 19(35.2) 54(100) 35(64.8) 19(35.2) 54(100) 11(20.4) 43(79.6) 54(100) 37(68.5) 17(31.5) 54(100) % 64.7 65.6 66.0 63.3 70.0 57.6 84.6 61.4 69.8 56.7 Total 51(100) 32(100) 83(100) 53(100) 30(100) 83(100) 50(100) 33(100) 83(100) 13(100) 70(100) 83(100) 53(100) 30(100) 83(100) Pearson Chi- 0.007 0.062 1.350 2.693 1.456 2.693 Square Quality of CIO Lower 26(63.4) 15(36.6) 41(100) 24(58.5) 17(41.5) 41(100) 22(53.7) 19(46.3) 41(100) 6(14.6) 35(85.4) 41(100) 21(51.2) 20(48.8) 41(100) % 63.4 36.6 45.3 56.7 44.0 57.6 46.2 50.0 39.6 66.7 Higher 25(59.5) 17(40.5) 42(100) 29(69.0) 13(31.0) 42(100) 28(66.7) 14(33.3) 42(100) 7(16.7) 35(83.3) 42(100) 32(76.2) 10(23.8) 42(100) % 59.5 40.5 54.7 43.3 56.0 42.4 53.8 50.0 60.4 33.3 Total 51(100) 32(100) 83(100) 53(100) 30(100) 83(100) 50(100) 33(100) 83(100) 13(100) 70(100) 83(100) 53(100) 30(100) 83(100) Pearson Chi- 0.133 0.993 1.466 0.065 5.605* 0.065 Square Organizational Lower 33(73.3) 12(26.7) 45(100) 24(53.3) 21(46.7) 45(100) 27(60.0) 18(40.0) 45(100) 10(22.2) 35(77.8) 45(100) 28(62.2) 17(37.8) 45(100) commitment % 64.7 37.5 45.3 70.0 54.0 54.5 76.9 50.0 52.8 56.7 Higher 18(47.4) 20(52.6) 38(100) 29(76.3) 9(23.7) 38(100) 23(60.5) 15(39.5) 38(100) 3(7.9) 35(92.1) 38(100) 25(65.8) 13(34.2) 38(100) % 35.3 62.5 54.7 30.0 46.0 45.5 23.1 50.0 47.2 43.3 51(100) 32(100) 83(100) 53(100) 30(100) 83(100) Total 50(100) 33(100) 83(100) 13(100) 70(100) 83(100) 53(100) 30(100) 83(100) Pearson Chi- 5.863* 4.715* 0.002 3.202 0.114 3.202 Square
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Kesejahteraan Keluarga dan Pola Komunikasi dalam Keluarga
Mohamad Nawawy Jusoh Pusat Bahasa Moden & Sains Kemanusiaan Universiti Malaysia Pahang Pahang, Malaysia [email protected]
Fatmawati Latada Pusat Bahasa Moden & Sains Kemanusiaan Universiti Malaysia Pahang Pahang, Malaysia
Abstrak - Kesejahteraan keluarga merupakan tonggak yang penting untuk melahirkan komuniti dan negara yang harmonis dan maju. Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk melihat sejauh mana pola komunikasi mampu mensejahterakan sesebuah keluarga. Melalui hasil kajian ini juga telah menunjukkan bahawa pola komunikasi tertentu yang diamalkan dalam keluarga mampu memberikan impak yang sangat besar terhadap perkembangan dan pembangunan ke arah sebuah keluarga yang sejahtera. Komunikasi yang dimaksudkan bukan sekadar menyampaikan mesej tetapi juga menentukan kualiti hubungan peribadi. Faktor hubungan ini adalah sangat penting bagi menentukan kualiti kesejahteraan dalam keluarga. Hubungan suami isteri dan anak- anak dapat dilihat dari aspek keakraban, komitmen, penyingkapan diri dan dominasi. Untuk meningkatkan komunikasi dalam keluarga model-model seperti ABX, Stimulus-Response dan Interasional banyak diutarakan oleh sarjana. Model-model ini banyak membantu ke arah pembentukan kesejahteraan keluarga. Antara peranan komunikasi yang perlu adalah saling mempercayai yang seterusnya mewujudkan integriti dikalangan keluarga. Keadaan tersebut memberi kesan yang positif dalam pembinaan sesebuah keluarga. Kertas kerja ini membincangkan tentang pentingnya hubungan antara ahli keluarga. Justeru itu, kajian ini telah menggunakan kaedah kajian kualitatif melalui dapatan data sekunder yang melibatkan bentuk tulisan seperti jurnal, artikel, buku-buku dan prosiding. Rumusan kajian ini telah membuktikan bahawa kesejahteraan keluarga sangat bergantung kepada komuniti keluarga yang hidup dalam keadaan harmonis. Justeru itu komunikasi yang baik dalam sesebuah keluarga perlu dititik beratkan bagi membentuk sebuah keluarga yang efektif, kreatif dan inovatif disamping meningkatkan produktiviti sesebuah negara.
Kata Kunci- Kesejahteraaan; Pola Komunikasi; Keluarga
1. PENGENALAN
Keluarga adalah isi rumah yang diikat daripada asas ikatan perhubungan secara sah sebagai suami isteri. Ia berpunca daripada perkahwinan menurut Islam melalui hubungan yang sah antara suami isteri yang dimeteraikan melalui akad nikah seterusnya memiliki anak-anak dan generasi penyambung generasi warisan keluarga tersebut [9]. Institusi keluarga hari ini berdepan dengan pelbagai cabaran seperti keruntuhan keluarga, penceraian, gantung tidak bertali, keganasan rumah tangga dan sebagainya [7]. Menurut [7], di antara tahun 2012 hingga Ogos 2015 jumlah keganasan rumahtangga yang dilaporkan adalah sebanyak 3,340. Jumlah kes berkenaan melibatkan seramai 2,528 wanita. Setelah diperincikan negeri Selangor telah mencatatkan 519 kes manakala negeri Johor 429 kes, Kelantan 402 kes dan Sarawak 166 kes. Daripada kes-kes berkenaan
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seramai 1,123 wanita berumur dalam lingkungan 20 hingga 30 tahun. Daripada data tersebut dapat disimpulkan bahawa kes keganasan rumahtangga berlaku dengan ketara di negeri-negeri yang maju dan membangun seperti Selangor dan Johor, juga tidak terkecuali untuk negeri-negeri yang kurang maju seperti negeri Kelantan dan Sarawak. Corak umur wanita yang terlibat dalam isu perceraian dan keganasan rumahtangga tersebut adalah golongan wanita muda. Keadaan Ini tentu sahaja akan memberikan impak yang besar kepada institusi keluarga, masyarakat dan negara.
Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa pengabaian tanggungjawab antara pasangan merupakan faktor yang paling tinggi menyebabkan berlakunya kes penceraian. Antara faktor berlakunya pengabaian dan seterusnya perceraian di kalangan pasangan suami isteri tersebut adalah kerana terdapatnya masalah komunikasi, akhlak, sosial, campur tangan pihak ketiga, lemah didikan agama, ekonomi, seksual, kerjaya, kesihatan dan perbezaan budaya [6].
Pasangan suami isteri hari ini berdepan dengan banyak cabaran. Kerana itu, suami dan isteri perlu memainkan peranan lebih aktif dan efektif bagi memastikan keluarga mereka berada dalam situasi yang harmonis. Menurut [12], kunci ke arah itu adalah komunikasi yang baik. Tidak dapat dinafikan bahawa antara perkara yang perlu dititik beratkan adalah ilmu agama yang sempurna di samping memiliki ilmu kemahiran keibubapaan. Sokongan daripada ahli keluarga terdekat yang lain seperti datuk, nenek serta pihak berwajib (pengasuh dan taska) juga diperlukan bagi memastikan anak-anak dalam proses pembesaran dan perkembangan yang sempurna.
2. KONSEP KESEJAHTERAAN KELUARGA
Kesejahteraan menurut Kamus Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 1977 perkataan kesejahteran memberi makna aman, sentosa, makmur dan selamat. Kesejahteraan juga merupakan payung dalam konteks kesejahteraan iaitu bebas dari kemiskinan, kebodohan, ketakutan atau kesulitan sehingga hidup menjadi aman dan tenteram zahir dan batin. Dengan kata lain, kesejahteraan itu bukan sahaja menggambarkan kesenangan dan kemudahan fizikal sahaja tetapi melibatkan segala perkara yang boleh melahirkan ketenangan dan harmonian pada jiwa seseorang. Konsep kesejahteraan keluarga dikatakan terbentuk apabila sesuatu keadaan yang harmonis dan dipenuhi keperluan jasmani dan sosial bagi anggota keluarga tanpa mengalami rintangan-rintangan yang serius [11].
Antara faktor-faktor yang dikatakan mempengaruhi kesejahteraan keluarga dapat dibahagikan kepada dua faktor iaitu internal dan eksternal. Faktor internal lazimnya berkait dengan jumlah anggota keluarga, tempat tinggal dan keadaan sosial ekonomi keluarga. Manakala faktor eksternal bagi kesejateraan keluarga adalah lingkungan kemasyrakatan dan kemudahan yang dapat membantu proses mobiliti. Faktor eksternal perlu diperhalusi dan terus dijaga supaya dapat mengelakkan daripada berlaku kepincangan dan ketegangan jiwa dikalangan ahli keluarga.
Kesejahteraan keluarga itu mencakupi beberapa domain diantaranya adalah; a) keluarga mempunyai upaya untuk meningkatkan pengetahuan agama; b) keluarga mempunyai tabungan; c) keluarga biasanya makan bersama minimumnya sekali dalam sehari; d) keluarga mengadakan rekreasi bersama minimumnya sekali dalam enam bulan; e) keluarga memperolehi berita dari television, majalah dan surat khabar; f) anggota keluarga dapat menggunakan kemudahan kenderaan; g) memberi sumbangan secara teratur dan sukarela untuk sosial masyarakat; h) aktif terlibat dalam pengurusan institusi ataupun yayasan (Laporan LKPPNP, 2014). Dapat disimpulkan di sini, bagi mencapai sebuah keluarga sejahtera ia akan melibatkan aspek internal dan juga aspek eksternal keluarga tersebut.
3. KONSEP KOMUNIKASI DALAM KELUARGA
Menurut [4], perkataan pola secara umumnya bermaksud bentuk, corak, sampel, model ataupun struktur. Komunikasi pula bermaksud lingkungan pertama yang dihadapi oleh anak-anak dalam keluarga seperti ibu bapa dan adik beradik nenek dan datuk (Suhendi, 2001). Melalui keluarga, anak dibimbing untuk mengembangkan kemampuan dan kreativiti dan nilai-nilai masyarakat. Proses komunikasi yang berlaku dalam sebuah keluarga adalah dengan memperkenalkan anak-anak kepada
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lingkungan yang lebih luas sebagai persediaan mereka di masa depan. Selain itu anak-anak juga perlu dibiasakan untuk berhubung antara satu dengan yang lain agar dapat mewujudkan komunikasi dengan baik dikalangan mereka. Ini kerana melalui komunikasi karektor peribadi seseorang itu dapat dibentuk [1].
Komunikasi keluarga juga adalah satu pengorganisasian yang menggunakan kata-kata, gerak tubuh, intonasi suara, tindakan untuk menciptakan harapan imej, ungkapan perasaan serta saling membahagikan pengertian (Achdiat, 1977 dalam Beely Jovan Sumakal, 2015). Komunikasi dalam keluarga juga dapat didefinisikan sebagai kesediaan bertutur secara terbuka dalam setiap perkara samada menyenangkan mahupun yang tidak menyenangkan serta bersedia untuk menyelesaikan masalah-masalah yang timbul dengan sabar dan terbuka (Friendly, 2002).
Dalam berkomunikasi, anggota keluarga seperti ibu bapa dan anak-anak memerlukan kemahiran. Justeru itu, setiap ibu bapa perlu melengkapkan diri dengan pengetahuan dan kemahiran ini untuk membolehkan mereka mendidik anak dengan sebaiknya [3]. Contoh kemahiran komunikasi itu adalah komunikasi antara anak dengan orang dewasa, dewasa dengan dewasa dan anak dengan saudara dan rakan sebaya yang lain [13].
4. JENIS KOMUNIKASI DALAM KELUARGA
Dalam sebuah keluarga terdapat dua jenis perhubungan. Pertama, perhubungan dikalangan ahli keluarga (in-group) dan kedua perhubungan antara keluarga dan masyarakat. Kedua-dua ini dapat dikategorikan sebagai; a) perhubungan secara menegak (vertical); b) perhubungan secara mendatar (horizontal). Kedua-dua aspek perhubungan tersebut perlu di ambil kira melalui interaksi formal atau tidak formal [10].
Perhubungan secara menegak melibatkan yang lebih muda hendaklah menghormati mereka yang lebih tua. Contohnya, ibu bapa atau saudara mara yang lebih tua dalam keluarga. Manakala perhubungan secara mendatar menyentuh kepada hubungan anak dengan adik beradik serta hubungan dengan rakan sebaya diluar rumah. Oleh kerana itu Islam telah menggariskan tentang kepentingan menjaga hubungan kemesraan dikalangan suami isteri, ibu bapa dan anak-anak perlu di ambil berat [10]. Dalam hal yang berkaitan juga beberapa langkah perlu di ambil supaya wujud perasaan saling sayang menyayangi di antara saudara mara dan tidak bersikap angkuh apabila bersama rakan-rakan.
Dalam hal perhubungan secara mendatar yang melibatkan anak-anak dengan rakan sebaya mereka. Tahap ini perlu dijaga atau diawasi kerana ianya mampu membentuk sikap dan nilai-nilai murni. Diantara langkah-langkahnya adalah; a) golongan masyarakat yang pertama ditemui kanak-kanak ialah rakan sepermainan seperti anak jiran atau rakan sekolah. Peringkat ini adalah langkah ujian yang pertama bagi ibu bapa untuk meninjau keberkesanan pengajaran yang telah diberikan kepada anak– anak mereka; b) Keadaan tersebut perlu dianggap sebagai penting supaya tidak bercanggah dengan landasan agama [10].
5. PENILAIAN KUALITI POLA KOMUNIKASI DALAM KELUARGA
Kebanyakan hubungan yang berkualiti tinggi hanya melibatkan dua orang iaitu berlandaskan beberapa variable yang disandarkan kepada kualiti hubungan [5]. Aspek-aspek komunikasi adalah seperti berikut:
A. Penyingkapan Diri
Penyikapan diri adalah memberi informasi tentang diri sendiri yang harus diungkapkan seperti wajah, sikap tubuh, nada suara dan juga komunikasi berbentuk isyarat (non verbal). Penyingkapan diri berlaku dalam konteks hubungan sosial. Penyingkapan diri berkait dengan keakraban dalam keluarga. Dikatakan bahawa mereka yang mempunyai masalah dalam perkahwinan adalah disebabkan oleh penyingkapan diri yang tidak selaras [5].
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B. Keakraban
Kualiti diukur melalui keakraban komunikasi, keakraban adalah amat penting dalam menentukan kualiti hubungan dengan keluarga seperti yang dijelaskan oleh Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988. Dalam penemuan tersebut dikatakan bahawa lebih banyak penyingkapan diri, maka akan lebih tinggi rasa tertarik, rasa percaya seterusnya akan memberikan kesan hubungan yang akrab.
C. Afiliasi dan Komitmen
Afiliasi menggambarkan keinginan dan komitmen yang tinggi untuk berinteraksi dengan orang lain. Mereka yang akrab selalunya akan mencari persamaan dengan orang lain dan berminat kepada orang lain.
6. POLA KOMUNIKASI DALAM KELUARGA
Komunikasi tidak hanya terbatas pada penyampaian mesej dari satu pihak kepada satu pihak yang lain. Diantara perkara yang membolehkan komunikasi dapat berjalan dengan lancer adalah sikap saling mempercayai [8]. Komunikasi dalam keluarga akan efektif apabila ibu bapa memiliki kredibiliti pada pandangan anak-anak. Diantara ciri-ciri pola komunikasi dalam keluarga yang efektif adalah seperti berikut:
A. Penghargaan (respect)
Bagi membolehkan komunikasi berjalan dengan lancar dan berkesan pihak ibu bapa harus saling hormat menghormati dan saling menghargai. Penghargaan akan memberi kesan timbal balik diantara dua pihak.
B. Aspek Empati
Empati adalah kemampuan untuk menempatkan diri kita pada situasi dan kondisi yang dihadapi oleh orang lain. Sikap empati adalah bermaksud kemampuan seseorang untuk mendengar dan memahami keadaan dan perasaan orang lain. Situasi ini akan membuka ruang untuk dialog yang lebih lancar dengan apa jua situasi. Mendengar tidak hanya melibatkan pancaindera sahaja tetapi boleh melibatkan rasa hati dan mata hati.
C. Aspek Audible
Audible boleh memberi maksud dapat difahami dengan baik. Situasi ini menimbulkan sikap yang mudah diterima oleh pendengar dan memahami kandungan mesej. Penampilan raut muka yang cerah, bahasa tubuh yang baik, alunan kata-kata yang sopan semasa proses dapat komunikasi memberi kefahaman yang berkesan.
D. Aspek Ketepatan
Kata-kata yang dipilih dan sasaran maksud yang sesuai akan memberi kesan yang sangat besar terhadap komunikasi.
E. Aspek Kerendahan Hati
Sikap rendah hati dapat ditaksirkan melalui perlakuan yang ramah mesra, saling menghargai, tidak menonjolkan diri, lemah lembut dan sopan. Melalui sikap yang rendah hati ini memungkinkan komunikasi menjadi lebih terbuka dan ini dapat membantu dan mengungkap banyak permasalahan dan cadangan dalam berkomunikasi.
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7. POLA DAN MODEL KOMUNIKASI DALAM KELUARGA
Seperti yang dijelaskan oleh Saiful Bahri dalam [8], terdapat tiga pola komunikasi dalam keluarga telah diperkenalkan antaranya adalah Model Stimulus-Respon model ABX dan Model Interasional. Model Stimulus Respon adalah pola komunikasi yang terbentuk dalam keluarga adalah (S-R). Pola ini menunjukkan komunikasi proses aksi-reaksi yang sangat sederhana. Model ini memberi persepsi bahawa kata-kata verbal, isyarat-isyarat non verbal, gambar-gambar dan tindakan-tindakan akan merangsangkan orang lain untuk memberikan respon dengan cara dan kaedah tertentu. Cara ini dianggap sebagai pertukaran atau pemindahan informasi. Model ini sifatnya timbal balik dan banyak kesan yang dapat mengubah tindakan komunikasi berikutnya.
Model ABX ini telah diperkenalkan oleh Newcomb dari perspektif psikologi sosial. Mengikut tafsirannya bahawa seseorang: a) menyampaikan informasi kepada orang lain, (b mengenai sesuatu X. Apabila A & B mempunyai sikap yang positif terhadap satu sama lain, hubungan itu adalah simentri. Dalam konteks ini bila A & B membenci dan salah satu menyukai X sedangkan yang lain tidak, hubungan itu merupakan simetri. Akan tetapi apabila A & B saling menyukai mereka tidak bersependapat dengan X mereka saling membenci namun sependapat mengenai X maka hubungan mereka bukan simetri.
Dalam hubungan keluarga, suami isteri akan selalu mengadakan perbincangan tentang anak. Perbincangan itu mungkin berkaitan dengan kemajuan pelajaran atau masalah sosial anak. Kebiasaannya semasa proses perbincangan anak tidak akan terlibat secara langsung. Melalui model interaksional ia telah bertentangan dengan model S-R kerana model S-R mengandaikan manusia adalah pasif, manakala model interaksional telah mengandaikan manusia lebih aktif. Dalam sebuah keluarga komunikasi boleh berlaku dalam beberapa bentuk dan tidak semestinya dari ibu bapa kepada anak dan dari anak kepada ibu bapa sahaja. Semuanya akan bertindak secara aktif, reflektif dan kreatif dalam melaksanakan komunikasi dalam sebuah keluarga.
8. POLA KOMUNIKASI DAN INTERAKSI SOSIAL DALAM KELUARGA
Kehidupan dalam keluarga yang harmonis seharusnya berjalan dengan baik. Proses interaksi sosial dalam keluarga akan melibatkan komunikasi antara suami dan isteri, anak dengan ayah, ibu dan anak, dan interaksi antara anak bersama anak.
A. Interaksi Antara Suami Isteri
Di antara suami dan isteri juga perlu bertindak sebagai pendengar yang baik sesama pasangan. Sikap mementingkan diri sendiri harus dielakkan supaya terbentuk komunikasi yang baik. Ketrampilan komunikasi sahaja tidak memadai bagi membantu pertumbuhan anak-anak dalam keluarga sebaliknya kedua ibu bapa juga harus mempunyai sikap menjadi pendengar yang baik.
B. Interkasi Antara Ayah, Ibu dan Anak
Ibu bapa yang hebat akan menjadi sahabat kepada anak-anak mereka. Melalui kaedah tersebut, secara langsung mereka menjadi tauladan kepada anak-anak kerana sikap bersahabat dengan anak-anak mempunyai peranan yang besar dalam mempengaruhi jiwa anak-anak. Kedua ibu bapa harus melapangkan masa dengan anak-anak bersama dalam keadaan suka dan duka. Dalam sebuah keluarga, kedua ibu bapa harus bertanggungjawab dalam mendidik anak-anak sebagai persiapan menghadapi kehidupan dimasa akan datang. Memberi nasihat perlu pada masa yang sesuai dengan menggunakan pertuturan kata yang bijaksana dan berkhemah serta menjauhi dari menggunakan cara kekerasan dan kebencian.
C. Interaksi Antara Ayah dan Anak
Ibu bapa perlu memberikan rasa cinta, kasih dan sayang kepada anak-anak mereka tanpa memilih samada anak itu normal atau kurang upaya. Kedua ibu bapa akan berusaha memberikan pendidikan yang terbaik untuk anak. Setiap pengalaman yang baik dan buruk akan menjadi rujukan keperibadian bagi anak pada masa hadapan.
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D. Interaksi Antara Ibu dan Anak
Peranan seorang ibu dalam membantu proses sosialisasi anak di dalam dunia yang penuh cabaran dapat menjalinkan hubungan yang akrab denga ibunya. Hubungan secara psikologi dapat membantu anak yang dalam keadaan kesulitan.
E. Interaksi di Kalangan Anak-anak
Dengan kehadiran anak-anak dalam keluarga maka interaksi akan semakin bertambah dan meluas. Interaksi sesama mereka boleh berlangsung pada bila-bila masa dan dimana sahaja. Komunikasi di antara mereka adalah secara timbal balik. Mereka berinteraksi sesama mereka tanpa melibatkan ibu bapa. Bahasa yang digunakan dan alam pemikiran adalah sesuai bagi mereka. Mereka bertukar pengalaman dan bergurau senda, bermain ataupun melakukan aktiviti mengikut cara mereka sendiri.
9. KESIMPULAN
Terdapat banyak faktor yang boleh mempengaruhi hubungan interpersonal dalam kehidupan berkeluarga. Faktor komunikasi merupakan faktor yang paling besar terhadap baik buruknya hubungan dalam keluarga. Komunikasi yang tidak efektif akan menyebabkan proses hubungan akan rosak. Komunikasi yang tidak efektif juga menyebabkan timbulnya salah faham, salah persepsi dan salah dalam membuat keputusan. Proses komunikasi dalam hubungan kekeluargaan merupakan bentuk komunikasi yang paling utama. Menurut pendapat Harold D. Laswell dalam [8] menyatakan bahawa proses komunikasi boleh terjadi dalam konteks beberapa perkara seperti (tentang siapa), (menyampaikan apa), (melalui apa), (kepada siapa) dan (apa akibatnya). Sekiranya salah satu daripada sumber komunikasi tersebut tidak terjadi maka komunikasi akan berlaku kecacatan dan tidak berkesan.
Ciri-ciri keperibadian akan memberikan persepsi yang negatif dalam komunikasi dengan orang lain. Setiap orang mempunyai gambaran tertentu mengenai dirinya, statusnya, kelebihan dan kekurangan. Melalui kata-kata ataupun komunikasi tanpa lisan (pelakuan, pandangan mata dan sebagainya) dari orang lain ia mengetahui dirinya disukai, dibenci, dihormati atau diremehkan. Faktor psikologi memberi kesan terhadap komunikasi, sekiranya seseorang tadi berada dalam keadaan sedih, risau, marah, kecewa, irihati maka proses komunikasi tidak lancar. Untuk membina satu bentuk komunikasi yang efektif maka faktor psikologi diambil kira.
Faktor lingkungan memberi kesan terhadap pembentukan terhadap komunikasi yang berkesan. Lingkungan yang tidak mengizinkan komunikasi seperti suasana yang bising, panas, terlampau sejuk dan juga budaya yang berbeza norma agama akan menimbulkan kesan kepada komunikasi. Contohnya mereka yang tidak sealiran fahaman samada dari segi ideologi ataupun politik akan menjejaskan komunikasi.
Faktor Kepimpinan boleh memberi kesan positif dan negatif dalam keluarga. Karekteristik seorang ketua atau pemimpin akan menentukan juga pola komunikasi dalam sesebuah keluarga. Menurut pendapat Cragan dan Right dalam [8] kepimpinan boleh mempengaruhi dalam komunikasi kelompok. Pola kepimpinan ibu bapa juga boleh memberikan pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap pendidikan anak-anak. Sebagai contoh corak kepimpinan demokrasi, ‘outhoriti’ atau ‘laissez faire’.
Faktor perbezaan sosial memberikan kesan juga terhadap komunikasi. Berkomunikasi dengan anak-anak ada perbezaannya mengikut tahap umur masing-masing, begitu juga bersama dengan orang yang lebih tua. Akhirnya faktor komunikasi merupakan kunci bagi kejayaan hubungan dalam sebuah keluarga. Justeru itu komunikasi dalam keluarga harus dilakukan secara berterusan dan dipelihara dengan baik.
Akhirnya, pencapaian dan kecemerlangan sesebuah negara sangat bergantung kepada komuniti yang hidup dalam situasi yang harmonis. Ini kerana kesejahteran dan keamanan keluarga adalah suatu aspek yang tidak dapat dinafikan membantu negara bagi meningkat produktiviti sesebuah negara. Elemen kekeluargaan harus menjadi ukuran dan sandaran yang penting bagi kesejahteraan rohani dan duniawi. Unsur yang boleh membantu keluarga supaya dapat dibina secara efektif, kreatif dan inovatif adalah aspek komunikasi dalam keluarga perlu diutamakan. Justeru itu, ahli keluarga seperti ibu bapa dan ahlinya hendaklah berperanan secara kolektif.
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RUJUKAN
[1] A. Sari, A.V.S Hubeis. “Pengaruh Pola Komunikasi dalam Fungsi Sosialisasi Keluarga Terhadap Perkembangan Anak.” 2010. [2] Garis Panduan LPPKP. Malaysia, 2010. [3] H. M. Noh. @ berita harian. com. my 2012. [4] Kamus Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka 1977. [5] K. Zakiah. “Hubungan dalam Komunikasi Didik Suami Isteri: Perspektif Keluarga.” Jakarta. 2002. [6] M. A. Majid, M. S. Z. Sallehudin. “Penceraian Rumahtangga di Negeri Selangor Darul Ihsan dan Pendekatan Menanganinya.” Selangor: Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa. 2017. [7] N. Syukri. “Keganasan Rumah Tangga. Menteri di Jabatan Perdana Menteri.” Kosmo 30 November 2015. [8] N. Wahidah. “Pola Komunikasi dalam Keluarga.” Jurnal Musawa. Vol. 3 No. 2. Bandung: Indonesia. 2011. [9] N. B. M. Hashim. “Cabaran Wanita Bekerja dalam Pembentukan Keluarga Hadhari.” Shah Alam: Universiti Teknologi Mara. 2010. [10] S. Z. M. Nor, Z. Kamaruddin. “Undang-undang Perkahwinan dan Penceraian. Seminar Undang-undang Mahkamah Syariah Amalan & Permasalahan.” Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Malaya) 2010. [11] Soembodo, Benny. “Pandangan Masyarakat Miskin Perkotaan Mengenai Perkotaan Mengenai Kesejahteraan Sosial.” Surabaya: Universitas Air Langgar. 2006. [12] S. Salleh. “Kajian Keberkesanan Komunikasi Kepengarangan.” Selangor: Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa. 2014. [13] T. A. Hamid. “Sokongan Sosial, Kualiti Hubungan dan Kesejahteraan Psikologi antara Anak Dewasa dengan Ibu Bapa.” Serdang: UPM 2001.
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ANALYSIS OF TECHNICAL VOCABULARY SIZE AMONG ENGINEERING UNDERGRADUATES BASED ON YEAR OF STUDY AND ENGLISH PROFICIENCY LEVEL AT UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG
Amri Muaz Azmimurad Centre for Modern Languages and Human Sciences Universiti Malaysia Pahang Kuala Pahang 26600, Pekan Pahang Darul Makmur Malaysia [email protected]
Najah Osman Centre for Modern Languages and Human Sciences Universiti Malaysia Pahang Kuala Pahang 26600, Pekan Pahang Darul Makmur Malaysia [email protected]
Abstract- English for Specific Purposes (ESP) was designed to fulfil the needs of learners learning languages in specific disciplines. ESP concerns on words or terms that are created specifically or have their own definition in specific fields. As engineering students read abundance of technical texts such as manuals and reports that contain numerous technical terms that have specific meaning in the engineering field, the vocabulary knowledge of technical terms is essential for them in order to understand and comprehend the texts. However, engineering students were found to have difficulties whenever they encountered texts filled with abundance of technical terms. Hence, this study aims to investigate the vocabulary size of technical vocabulary among engineering students at Universiti Malaysia Pahang. This research employs two instruments which are technical vocabulary test and semi-structured interview. The test was used in collecting quantitative data while the semi- structured interview was used in collecting qualitative data. The test was administered to 150 students majoring in five different engineering courses who were currently on their third and fourth year of study whereas the interview involved 12 students from five respective engineering courses. The findings show that engineering undergraduates did not have adequate knowledge of technical terms and there was a significant difference in technical vocabulary size among engineering undergraduates based on English language proficiency level. However, there was no significant difference found in technical vocabulary size among engineering undergraduates when they are compared based on their year of study.
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1. INTRODUCTION
Malaysia is one of the countries in which English is treated as the second language [6], and is used in both primary and secondary schools as one of the fundamental subjects. Despite being in line with other compulsory subjects in schools, English is also one of the compulsory subjects to be taken by university students regardless of their majors. One of the reason English is essential for one to master is mainly because of the demands of job markets in which English is the global language for communication and one of the language that can break communication barrier between people of other languages. English plays an important role in securing oneself a job as it is one of the basic requirements that employers seek in their future employees. Lower English proficiency results in a lower chance of getting employed by companies and employers. English has become one of the fundamental needs that future employees need to be equipped with before in order to secure a job.
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has been a long tradition. It was designed and developed to fulfil the needs of using the language in specific field or discipline. Engineering English is one of the areas that fall under the scope of ESP. It is essential for one to learn or acquire the vocabulary of their chosen professions before they involve themselves with the professions. According to [23], ESP has generally rejected literature, due in part to the genre’s insufficient coverage of discipline-specific vocabulary. Most students experience the issue of using English in communication which is crucial in both government and private sector[19] especially engineering undergraduates [20] his issue happened mainly due to their lack of mastery in vocabulary knowledge.
Vocabulary knowledge is one of the building blocks of any language [30]. Vocabulary knowledge can be divided into two groups which are vocabulary breadth and vocabulary depth. The breadth of vocabulary knowledge refers to the number of words the meaning of which one has at least some superficial knowledge [21]. This is supported by [18] which defines vocabulary breadth as vocabulary size or the number of words for which a learner has at least some minimum knowledge of meaning. The depth of vocabulary knowledge, on the other hand, concerns with how well a person knows the word. This knowledge includes the knowledge of using the word in context, knowing its synonyms and its associates. Vocabulary size and vocabulary level are in the same category of vocabulary breadth. According to [25], it is essential for one to have a deep knowledge of a word in order to fully understand the word and be able to use the word properly. [5] state that it is the general vocabulary knowledge of the reader that best predicts how well that reader comprehend the text.
There are a few tests related to measuring vocabulary which is divided into size and depth respectively. Vocabulary Level Test (VLT) is designed to measure one’s vocabulary size while Word Associates Test (WAT) is suitable to test on one’s vocabulary depth. This is supported by [31] that stated Word Associates Format (WAF) tests are often used to measure second language learners’ vocabulary depth with a focus on their network knowledge. Vocabulary level test as developed by [24] has five level of words which 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 5,000 and 10,000.
Technical vocabulary is defined as vocabulary that has a specific usage according to specific area or discipline. [7] defined that technical vocabulary is subject related, occurs in a specialist domain, and is part of a system of subject knowledge. Even though the technical language is new to students, students learning in the second language have a harder time compared to students learning in the first language. According to [12], technical vocabulary knowledge is rising to one of the important knowledge to be mastered with the advances of numerous subject disciplines. Resulting from this situation, many research has been done to develop ways of assisting one in learning the technical vocabulary knowledge. One of the methods that have been proposed is constructing word lists. There are now numerous word lists that have been constructed according to different disciplines and fields. [10], for example, developed Engineering English Word List (EEWL) that aims to help engineering students in mastering technical vocabulary that later will help them in performing tasks that requires the use of technical terms.
The current research was conducted with the aim to measure technical vocabulary size among undergraduates majoring in engineering field. As stated by [10], it can be implied that engineering undergraduates must possess or equip themselves with 355
adequate technical vocabulary so that they can comprehend technical texts. The students’ vocabulary size was compared to their year of study and English proficiency level. According to [28], the students’ vocabulary size increases as their level of study increases. In this study, level of study was measured based on year of study. As for English proficiency level, [1] and [16] stated that there was a significant correlation when vocabulary size was compared to students’ English proficiency level. It was stated that the higher the proficiency of the students in English, the higher the vocabulary size they have.
Research Questions
1. Is there any significant difference in technical vocabulary size among engineering undergraduates based on year of study? 2. Is there any significant difference in technical vocabulary size among engineering undergraduates based on English proficiency level?
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
[15] carried out a research with the aim to determine the effect of vocabulary knowledge and gaining familiarity with the specific vocabulary content of a reading or listening comprehension test on a group of Iranian English for Foreign Language learners’ reading and listening comprehension ability. The research involves 58 students that were group into two groups, a control group and an experimental group. The students ranging in age from 20 to 25 and were currently taking English as a foreign language subject as Shiraz University. The research employed six tests which include multiple-choice vocabulary test, reading test and listening test. The results showed that knowledge of general vocabulary influenced the students’ performance on reading comprehension test when one-way test of analysis variance was run. However, the test showed that there was no effect of general vocabulary knowledge of listening comprehension performance. [15] added that this situation happened might due to the fact that students can return to a word or phrase or sentence while reading text to understand the content better. The research also revealed that providing students with the meaning of specific or key vocabulary items that appear in a reading comprehension test helps the students to perform better on the test. [15] also claimed that the knowledge of specific vocabulary has had a significant impact on the students’ performance on the test. The research suggested that more attention should be paid to teaching and learning specific vocabulary as it can help students to comprehend specific texts that they are reading better.
The research on vocabulary knowledge was continued by [3] which investigates on the relationship between vocabulary size and depth for ESP or English for Academic Purposes (EAP). Both vocabulary size and depth are important in helping the students to comprehend text better which resulting in higher performance in test as proposed by [15]. The research involved 112 ESP graduate students at a university in Iran. All students were majoring in different courses namely physics, mathematics, and electronic commerce. The research employed two vocabulary tests in which one test functions to measure the vocabulary size while the other measures vocabulary depth. Vocabulary Level Test was used to measure vocabulary size while Word Associates Test (WAT) measures synonymy, polysemy, and collocation which are the roots of vocabulary depth. The results showed that participants as one group might probably be indicative of the disappointingly low English competence of the Iranian graduate students in general and the participants under study in particular. This research later divided all participants into two groups, low proficient group and high proficient group based on the performance of the vocabulary test. This research also found that there is a very strong positive correlation between vocabulary size and depth for all the participants as one group and participants in the high group. It indicates that the process of vocabulary development with regard to the size and depth of vocabulary knowledge might be accounted for by the same factors for ESP/EAP learners to a large extent [3]. Similarly, the results showed that the low proficient group also has a strong positive correlation between the two tests. The research concludes that there is a significant positive relationship between vocabulary size and vocabulary depth for Iranian ESP/EAP learners. [3] suggested that teaching the vocabulary size and depth separately might not be needed as both dimensions should be taught in combination in foreign language contexts.
The relationship between vocabulary size and learning performance is further investigated by a research by [4] which focused on predicting performance on TOEFL reading item types. Reading item types in the research refers to the reading 356
comprehension items tested in TOEFL which are guessing vocabulary, main idea, inference, reference and stated detail. 213 students from different universities in Iran majoring in English language participated in this research. However, the level of study of the students was not similar as there are some who were doing degree and the rest were already in their master level of study. [4] claimed that sometimes in Iran, some undergraduates surpassed postgraduates in terms of level of vocabulary proficiency. The instruments employed in the research were vocabulary level test and reading section from TOEFL. VLT which is similar to the instrument employed by [3] was chosen because it is practical, economical, and easy to administer and interpret whereas TOEFL was chosen because, as a widely used high-stakes test, it assesses different item types in reading comprehension and it was easy to administer and score [4].
[30] conducted a research on vocabulary size which gives focus on receptive vocabulary among undergraduates in English Language Teaching (ELT) Department of a major state in Turkey. The research employs Vocabulary Levels Test by [26] and it was distributed to 104 undergraduates which comprise 76 females and 28 males. The vocabulary level test was given along with a survey pertaining to GPA scores and genders. The results of the vocabulary level tests were compared to the GPA of the students involved. [30] reports that the 2,000-word level test has the highest mean scores among the participating students. Comparing to other word level test, the 10,000-word level test shows the lowest mean scores and it indicates that students have lower vocabulary size on that level of vocabulary. The students show that they have sufficient knowledge of the academic vocabulary that involves sub-technical vocabulary that occurs in many ranges of fields. [30] also reports that there is no significant correlation between the vocabulary size and their GPA in the research. This result is contrary to a research by [15] as their result shows that vocabulary size had an impact on test performance. Similarly, there is also no significant correlation found when the vocabulary size was compared to the gender of the students.
[27] made a research investigating the effect of vocabulary depth and size on reading in EFL context. The instruments used in the research are vocabulary size test developed by [17], Word Associate Test by [22], and a reading achievement test that was developed by the researchers. All three tests were distributed to 361 students who were currently in a preparatory programme of Duzce University, School of Foreign Languages. The results showed that there was a positive correlation between the size of vocabulary and the depth of vocabulary. This finding is similar to the finding by [3] which found out that there was a correlation between vocabulary size and depth. [27] added that the larger the size of words the students know, the more deeply they can use those words in reading activity. As for the relationship between vocabulary size and reading performance, the results found that there was a significant effect of vocabulary size on the reading achievement. It implies that the bigger the size of the vocabulary of the students, the better they perform at the reading activity. This result shows a similar correlation between vocabulary depth and reading achievement. The study concludes that both vocabulary depth and size does have a significant effect on students’ reading performance. This result is similar to [15] as they found out that vocabulary size does have an impact on test performance.
A study by [28] investigated the relationship between self-regulation strategies on vocabulary size among EFL Turkish University students. The research employs two instruments which are a 150-item Schmitt vocabulary test and a self-regulation questionnaire. Both the test and questionnaire were administered to 179 students from two different universities. The study measures the students’ receptive vocabulary size in which the results show the difference between advanced level students and intermediate and pre-intermediate students’ vocabulary size. [28] suggests that vocabulary size of the students increase as to continue their learning to the higher level. This research also suggested that there were no significant differences in vocabulary size between male and female students. The result also showed that there is a significant correlation between vocabulary size and self-regulated learning components in which the higher the vocabulary size of the students, the more self-regulated learning components the students possess.
[29] conducted a research investigating on technical vocabulary proficiency among engineering students who were currently undertaking English for Engineers course at a university in Thailand. The technical vocabulary proficiency obtained from technical vocabulary test was compared to students’ educational background. The result of this research shows that students with educational backgrounds of the vocational stream had higher proficiency in technical vocabulary compared to students
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with general education stream background. [29] implied that the differences in technical vocabulary proficiency between students with general stream education and vocational education are due to the differences in curriculum and courses provided by both institutions. The research suggests that students from vocational education background had adequate experiences in terms of constructing words’ meaning during the process of acquiring technical words.
[1], in their research, proposed another use of Productive Vocabulary Level Test (PLVT) which has been used to measure vocabulary size among second language learner, which is to be used as self-efficacy enhancer to motivate low English proficiency (LEP) learners. Vocabulary Level Test (VLT) has been used to measure second language learners’ vocabulary size and it has been considered as the closest thing to standardly test on vocabulary knowledge [14]. [13] developed a different version of the VLT which is called PVLT. PVLT functions to test on controlled productive vocabulary which differs from VLT which measures the receptive vocabulary knowledge. Controlled productive or active vocabulary refers to words that a learner could use only when prompted as in sentence construction or fill-in tasks which is different from free productive vocabulary, that refers to words that learners can use freely as in composition writing tasks without prompting [1].
480 English as Second Language (ESL) learners from secondary schools in a district in Malaysia participated in the research. The participants just obtained their Malaysian University English Test (MUET) results about one month prior to the research. Majority of the students belong in the Band 2 and Band 3 group while none of the students scored Band 6 which is the highest score in the MUET. The results of the research showed that there was a significant difference in mean score of the test between students in Band 2 and Band 3, and Band 3 and Band 4. However, there was no significant difference found in the lower bands, Band 1 and Band 2, and the higher bands, Band 4 and Band 5. [1] claimed that learners with high language proficiency would achieve higher scores in the test compared to learners with low language proficiency.
[16] conducted a research with the aim to analyse the relationship between receptive vocabulary size in advanced learners and EFL proficiency and the skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking. The research involved 42 Catalan or Spanish first- year undergraduates majoring in English Studies as sampling. The instruments employed in this research were Vocabulary Size Test: X_Lex and Y_Lex. Both test are computer tests that measure one’s receptive vocabulary size which is the amount of words a person knows in English. The test takers were given set of words and have to decide whether they know the meaning of the word given or not. Participants were also given a proficiency test which covers five different sections which are listening, reading, writing, grammar, and vocabulary. Oral proficiency test for the students was done using semi-guided interview in which the students had to answer several open questions on topics that had been seen in the course before. The students were grouped into a group of three and a second evaluator was present to assess the test. The results showed that there was a strong correlation between vocabulary size and general EFL proficiency. [16] proposed a hypothesis that the larger the receptive vocabulary, the higher the proficiency.
The research also found that writing and reading correlate moderately with vocabulary size followed by speaking and listening. In the skills of speaking, oral fluency was found to be the aspect that most closely related to receptive vocabulary size leaving grammar and vocabulary, and pronunciation behind. Regression result of the study showed that receptive vocabulary size explains proficiency to a large extent and can predict writing and reading abilities up to around 30% and to a lesser extent, speaking and listening abilities. The high correlation found between proficiency and vocabulary size (and the explanatory power of the variable size in the regression analysis) supports the use of vocabulary size as an indicative measure for overall L2 proficiency. [16] suggested that receptive vocabulary size has a considerable influence on proficiency which is similar to the finding by [1] which suggested that the higher the proficiency of the students, the higher they score in vocabulary test and have a determinant role in EFL proficiency and the four skills of writing, reading, speaking, and listening.
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3. METHODOLOGY
This study employs two instruments in data collection which are a vocabulary size test and a semi-structured interview. The former collects quantitative data while the latter covers qualitative data collection.
Vocabulary Size Test
The vocabulary size test was used in this research to measure the size of technical vocabulary among engineering undergraduates in Universiti Malaysia Pahang. The test format was adapted from [24] vocabulary level test. According to [11], the test is a tool to measure the written receptive vocabulary knowledge which is the word knowledge that is required for reading. The words that were used in testing the vocabulary size was taken from a word list developed by [10] named Engineering English Word List (EEWL). The word list consists of words or terms that were coined from engineering textbooks and they were divided into academic and technical vocabulary groups. However, this research only used the words in the technical vocabulary group. The test was examined and validated by two senior English lecturers before the test is distributed to the students.
Semi-structured Interview
The interview was conducted after the process of collecting quantitative data using vocabulary size test was finished. The interview was a one-to-one interview in which was chosen to avoid students copying other students’ responses. The interview question was adapted from [8] and [9]. All interview questions were validated using Interview Protocol Refinement (IPR) developed by [6] to strengthen the reliability of the interview protocol.
Sampling
150 students majoring in engineering from five different faculties at University Malaysia Pahang participated in this study and 12 students were chosen to be participating in the interview sessions. The students were selected using purposive sampling based on three criteria; they are majoring in engineering, they have passed English for Technical Communication course and they are currently in their third or fourth year of study. The students were also asked to state their MUET band and it was found that all students have MUET band ranging from Band 2 to Band 5. There was no student with either Band 1 or Band 6.
Data Collection and Data Analysis
The participating students in this research were informed beforehand about the purpose of the study and the confidentiality of the data before the test was distributed to them. The test took 20 minutes to be completed. The data of this test were analysed using SPSS. Independent T-test and One-way Anova were used to determine the differences of technical vocabulary among engineering undergraduates based on year of study and English proficiency level.
4. RESULTS
The results were analysed using descriptive statistics, Independent T-test and One-way Anova. The results are presented according to the research questions.
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Table 1: Technical Vocabulary Size Among Engineering Undergraduates
N Mean Std. Deviation
150 31.167 5.379
Table 1 shows the mean score of technical vocabulary size among engineering undergraduates as a whole. According to [2], in order for one to be considered having sufficient vocabulary size, one has to score at least 80% of the test which is 34 in this test. The result shows that engineering undergraduates do not have sufficient vocabulary size in technical vocabulary as the mean scores shows 31.17 which does not reach the minimum score of 34. It means that engineering students only score 74% of the technical vocabulary size test.
Research question 1: Is there any significant difference in technical vocabulary size among engineering undergraduates based on year of study?
Table 2: Technical Vocabulary Size Based on Year of Study
Year of Study N Mean Std. Deviation 3 105 31.200 5.775 4 45 31.089 4.374
Table 2 present the result of technical vocabulary size among engineering undergraduates with different year of study. It is found that there is not much of a difference in both of the mean scores with 31.20 for third year students and 31.09 for fourth year students. This might be due to the difference in year of study which is one year which indicates that the students from both third and fourth year might have similar size of technical vocabulary.
Table 3: Result of Independent T-Test
F Sig. t df Sig. Mean Std. Error Difference Difference (2-tailed)
Equal 3.430 .066 .116 148 .908* .11111 .96156 variances assumed
Equal .129 108.661 .898 .11111 .86182 variances not assumed
Table 3 presents the result of Independent T-test which was done to determine the significant difference in technical vocabulary size among engineering undergraduates according to year of study. It was found that p>0.05, which means that there was no significant difference in technical vocabulary size among engineering undergraduates when they were compared according to year of study. There was no significant difference in technical vocabulary size for students in third year of study (M = 31.2, SD = 5.78) and fourth year of study (M = 31.1, SD = 4.38) conditions; t (184) = 0.12, p = 0.91.
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Research question 2: Is there any significant difference in technical vocabulary size among engineering undergraduates based on English proficiency level?
Table 4: Technical Vocabulary Size Based on English Proficiency Level
MUET Score N Mean Std. Deviation
2 37 27.730 5.226
3 69 30.594 4.716
4 38 34.579 4.131
5 6 37.333 3.266
Table 4 shows that there is difference in mean scores between English proficiency levels. Students with MUET Band 2 have the mean score of 27.73 while students with Band 3 have the mean score of 30.59. Both groups of students do not pass the minimum score of 34 which implies that students from these groups do not have the adequate mastery of technical vocabulary. Students with Band 4 shows higher mean score from students with Band 2 and Band 3 with mean score of 34.58. Similarly, students with Band 5 also show the same result with mean score of 37.33. Both group of students with Band 4 and Band 5 pass the minimum score of 34 which implies that they have the adequate size of technical vocabulary. It can be seen that the technical vocabulary size increases as the English proficiency level increases.
Table 5: Result of One-Way Anova
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 1130.302 3 376.767 17.295 .000*
Within Groups 3180.531 146 21.784
Total 4310.833 149
Table 5 presents the results of One-way Anova in which was done to determine the significant difference in technical vocabulary size among engineering undergraduates according to English proficiency level. It was found that p<0.05 which implies that there was a significant difference in technical vocabulary size among engineering undergraduates with different level of English proficiency, F (3, 146) = 17.30, p = 0.000.
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5. DISCUSSION
Engineering undergraduates in University Malaysia Pahang were found to be lacking in technical vocabulary size. The findings showed that engineering undergraduates did not passed the minimum level of vocabulary knowledge in which it implies that the students might not be able to understand certain technical words or terms that they may encounter when reading technical texts such as manuals, textbooks and procedures. Vocabulary knowledge are closely related to four different skills which are reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Based on a study by [16], vocabulary knowledge has a significant correlation towards these four skills especially reading and writing. Thus, the lack of vocabulary knowledge in technical vocabulary among engineering undergraduates might cause them to not be able to comprehend the technical materials that they read or producing technical materials. This is also similar to a study conducted by [27] in which they claimed that there was a significant effect of vocabulary size on the reading achievement. It implies that the bigger the size of the vocabulary of the students, the better they perform at the reading activity. [15] also claimed that the knowledge of specific vocabulary has had a significant impact on the students’ performance on the reading test. Thus, it can be implied that having adequate vocabulary knowledge is important especially in reading activities.
It is also found that the students differ in technical vocabulary size according to level of proficiency which is measured by using MUET scores. It can be implied that the students level of technical vocabulary size increases as their level of proficiency increases. Previous studies also found similar result in which level of vocabulary size increases as their level of English proficiency increases. This may suggest that they have higher general vocabulary size, thus make them easier in acquire more vocabulary. This is similar to a research by [16] which results showed that there was a strong correlation between vocabulary size and general EFL proficiency. They also proposed a hypothesis which is different from current study in which the larger the receptive vocabulary, the higher the proficiency. [1], in their study, claimed that learners with high language proficiency would achieve higher scores in the vocabulary test compared to learners with low language proficiency suggesting that the higher the language proficiency, the higher the performance of students in the test
However, there was no significant difference found when the technical vocabulary size of the students was compared to their year of study. This may be due to the fact that the students are from third and fourth year of study. The result might be different if they are compared between the first year and fourth year of study. [28] in his study, claimed that the vocabulary size increase as the student continue the learning to higher level. This claim was not in line with the result of current study as the mean score of students in third year is higher than students in their fourth year. A research by [29] suggests that students from vocational education background had adequate experiences in terms of constructing words’ meaning during the process of acquiring technical words. This situation might be useful to be included in comparing year of study as it also involves experience. [29] suggest that experience can be one of the factor that might influence technical vocabulary knowledge. Thus, students with more experience or more years of study would have higher technical vocabulary knowledge. However, the situation is different based on a claim made by [4] as he stated that sometimes in Iran, some undergraduates surpassed postgraduates in terms of level of vocabulary proficiency. This implies that year of study or level of study can differ according to context and situation.
6. CONCLUSION
Technical vocabulary knowledge is important for people in specific disciplines as they need to use technical terms in four language skills namely reading, writing, speaking and listening. Engineers, especially, will encounter numerous technical terms or jargons that are related to engineering field in performing daily tasks such as reading manuals, writing reports and speaking technical matters to other engineers. Thus, equipping oneself with adequate knowledge of technical vocabulary is essential as it is heavily used in the engineering field. As for students, especially those majoring in engineering field, need to read and comprehend engineering materials such as reports and textbooks in their study, they as well need to have adequate technical vocabulary knowledge in order to understand the materials better. Measuring and identifying vocabulary knowledge among students is the first step in helping them in equipping themselves with adequate vocabulary knowledge. This study revealed that engineering students do not have adequate technical vocabulary knowledge in which puts them in trouble especially in reading
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activities. Thus, this study suggests further study to be carried out in determining ways to increase the students’ technical vocabulary size as well as providing them with knowledge on technical vocabulary depth so that they can use the terms in writing activities.
RFERENCES
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Depth." Thai TESOL Bulletin, 6(2), 9–16. 1994 [25] N. Schmitt, "Instructed second language vocabulary learning." Language Teaching Research (Vol. 12). 2008 [26] N. Schmitt, D. Schmitt, C. Clapham, "Developing and exploring the behaviour of two new versions of the Vocabulary Levels Test." Language Testing, 18(1), 55–88. 2001 [27] Y. Şen, M. Kuleli, "The Effect of Vocabulary Size and Vocabulary Depth on Reading in EFL Context." Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 199, 555–562. 2015 [28] B. Sentürk, "Self-regulation Strategies and Vocabulary Size of EFL Turkish University Students." Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 232, 90–97. 2016 [29] S. Wanpen, K. Sonkoontod, K. Nonkukhetkhong, "Technical Vocabulary Proficiencies and Vocabulary Learning Strategies of Engineering Students." Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 88, 312–320. 2013 [30] ÿzönder, ÿzgül. "Student EFL Teachers Receptive Vocabulary Size." Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 232, 444–450. 2016 [31] D. Zhang, K. Koda, "Assessing L2 vocabulary depth with word associates format tests: issues, findings, and suggestions." Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education, 2(1), 1. 2017
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KUALITI PERKHIDMATAN KESIHATAN DI HOSPITAL : ANALISIS DARI PERSPEKTIF SYARIAH
Khosenulhan Ab. Rahman Pusat Bahasa Moden & Sains Kemanusian Universiti Malaysia Pahang [email protected]
Hasan Ahmad Pusat Bahasa Moden & Sains Kemanusian Universiti Malaysia Pahang
Abstrak-Perkhidmatan kesihatan merupakan antara perkhidmatan asas yang sangat penting dalam kehidupan manusia. Di Malaysia, penjagaan kesihatan dilaksanakan bersama-sama sektor awam dan swasta. Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk menentukan sama ada tahap kualiti terhadap perkhidmatan kesihatan di hospital kerajaan mahupun di hospital swasta bertepatan dengan prespektif syariah. Hasil analisis ini menunjukkan bahawa perkhidmatan kesihatan berasaskan syariah adalah berkualiti dan membawa kesan positif serta mendorong kepada kepuasan pesakit disamping meningkatkan kompetensi dalaman mereka. Ia boleh menjadi asas kepada dasar amalan oleh pihak pengurusan hospital dalam penyediaan perkhidmatan perubatan yang lebih konprehensif kepada pesakit. Fokus kajian akan membincangkan skop asas kualiti dan halangan perkhidmatan serta kepentingan syariah. Kajian ini menggunakan kaedah kualitatif iaitu dengan merujuk kepada artikel, journal, bukubuku kesihatan, laporan conference dan Al-Quraan serta Hadis. Rumusan kajian menunjukan bahawa perkhidmatan kesihatan berasaskan syariah lebih berkualiti dan memberi kelebihan kepada pesakit untuk menyelesaikan masalah kesihatan dan mampu memberangsangkan perkhidmatan dengan berkesan. Ini kerana konsep syariah mempunyai item-item khusus yang mampu menjana kualiti perkhidmatan dan kepuasan pesakit ketika mendapatkan rawatan perubatan di hospital.
Kata kunci - Kualiti Perkhidmatan; Elemen Syariah; Kepuasan Pesakit; Pengurusan Kesihatan; Hospital
1. PENGENALAN
Perkhidmatan kesihatan awam merupakan perkhidmatan yang disampaikan oleh kerajaan kepada masyarakat umum. Komitmen kerajaan dalam menyediakan perkhidmatan kesihatan yang berkualiti adalah melalui penyediaan peruntukan perbelanjaan yang besar kepada sektor berkenaan bagi setiap tahun.[22] Perkhidmatan kesihatan adalah perkhidmatan yang dilakukan oleh profesional untuk menyelesaikan masalah kesihatan yang dialami oleh seseorang pesakit. Umum sedia maklum bahawa perkhidmatan kesihatan bukan sahaja memerlukan kepada kepakaran perubatan tetapi terikat kepada peraturan dan prosedur yang ketat berasaskan prinsip perubatan dan perlu mengujudkan pelan strategik serta mengawal selia aktiviti perkhidmatan terhadap sumber tenaga dengan berkesan, [13], Ia mempunyai peranan penting dalam membantu memberi sumbangan dan mempengaruhi kepuasan pesakit di hospital berkenaan [5]. Kajian Amin & Nasharuddin (2013) mendapati bahawa lima unit perkhidmatan hospital yang kerap terdedah kepada kelemahan perkhidmatan iaitu unit pendaftaran, unit farmasi. unit radiografi (x-ray), unit kecemasan dan wad pesakit. Kelima-lima unit tersebut merupakan perkhidmatan yang sentiasa menerima dan
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terdedah kepada rungutan pesakit [9] dan ia adalah komponen penting dalam sistem perubatan dalam memberi kepuasan kepada pesakit dan memperlihatkan kualiti perkhidmatan, kakitangan dan pegawai perubatan di hospital.
Walau pun ia sangat sukar dalam perlaksanaanya dan dalam masa yang sama tidak boleh diabaikan kewujudannya Keperluan untuk menepatkan konsep kualiti perkhidmatan dan konsep syariah dalam perkhidmatan kesihatan yang berkesan merupakan asas utama. Hospital yang ideal ialah hospital yang dapat memberikan perkhidmatan terbaik sehingga mendatangkan kepuasan kepada pesakit disamping meningkatkan pendapatan hospital [Hafizurrachman, 2009].
2. METHODOLOGI
Kajian ini menggunakan data sekunder atau rujukan perpustakaan seperti journal, artikal conference, buku-buku, dan laporan persidangan yang berkaitan dengan perkhidmatan kesihatan. Turut dibincangkan dalam kajian ini ialah keperluan mutu perkhidmatan kesihatan dan halangan perlaksanaan seterusnya diperjelaskan menurut perspektif syariah.
3. KAJIAN LITERATUR
Hasil kajian telah mendedahkan bahawa faktor fizikal, kualiti kemudahan, seperti sistem dan prosedur perkhidmatan yang tidak berkesan, tidak telus, kurang maklumat, kurang konsisten dan kos perubatan telah meningkatkan kebimbangan awam dan menjadi perbincangan banyak pihak sehingga menyebabkan berlaku ketidakpuasan dalam kalangan pesakit [11]. Keadaan tersebut telah memberi kesan yang signifikan kepada akses perkhidmatan penjagaan kesihatan yang berkualiti di sesebuah negara [17].
Sikap kakitangan pengurusan yang berbeza pandangan terhadap pelaksanaan aktiviti pengurusan dalam perancangan strategi, penetapan matlamat budaya kerja, dan promosi organisasi turut memberi kesan kepada keseluruhan pembangunan kualiti sesebuah hospital [15]. Begitu juga dengan pandangan pesakit yang berbeza-beza terhadap sikap dan tingkah laku pegawai perubatan semasa mendapatkan rawatan di hospital turut memberi kesan, [Fitzpatrick 1997] kepada perkhidmatan kakitangan dalam memenuhi keperluan pesakit.
Sejak kebelakang ini, terdapat minat yang semakin meningkat untuk memperbaiki kelemahan dan kekurangan organisasi dalam kalangan pengurusan hospital. Ini kerana ia akan menjadi pesaing diantara hospital dalam meningkatkan kepuasan pesakit melalui penyediaan perkhidmatan yang berkualiti [Pantouvakis & Mpogiatzidis, 2013; Choi & Kim, 2013; Amin & Nasharuddin, 2013].
Konsep Kualiti Dalam Perkhidmatan Kesihatan
Kualiti perkhidmatan adalah isu penting dan masalah kesihatan awam yang utama bagi menentukan kesempurnaan sesuatu tugas yang dilaksanakan oleh sesebuah hospital. Penilaian terhadap kualiti perkhidmatan dapat dikesan melalui proses perkhidmatan dan kepuasan dalam kalangan pesakit [Donabedian, 1982 dan Ware & Sherbourne, 1992].
Parasuranam et al. (1988) menjelaskan bahawa kualiti perkhidmatan itu boleh diukur menerusi lima dimensi yang dikenali sebagai SERVQUAL iaitu berasakan nyata: [merujuk kepada kemudahan fizikal, peralatan, dan komunikasa], Reliabiliti: [keupayaan perkhidmatan dan kepercayaan yang tinggi], Responsif: [keupayaan penggunaan dan perkhidmatan dengan cepat dan tepat], Jaminan: [jaminan kesopanan, keselamatan,dan kebolehan yang boleh dipercayaan], Empati: [sikap mengambil berat dan memberi perhatian sepenuhnaya kepada penggunaan]
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Dimensi di atas merupakan tanggungjawab pengurusan hospital untuk mencapai tahap kualiti perkhidmatan yang menjadi keperluan pelanggan. Kualiti perkhidmatan adalah keperluan masyarakat untuk menyelesaikan masalah yang dialamai oleh mereka. Kualiti adalah indikator prestasi yang sangat jelas bagi setiap pengeluaran atau perkhidmatan yang dihasilkan oleh sesebuah organisasi kepada pelanggan [16]
Bagi memastikan konsep perkhidmatan berkualiti dan berkesan, pengurusan hospital perlu membangunkan rangka kerja dan memahami faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi kualiti perkhidmatan dikalangan kakitangan dan pegawai perubatan hospital. Pihak pengurusan hospital perlu merancang dan melaksanakan pelan strategi perkhidmatan tanpa mengambil kira status perkahwinan, bangsa, pendapatan, penempatan dalam melaksanakan perancangan perkhidmatan kepada pesakit. [12]. Perkhidmatan yang berkualiti dapat dilakukan melalui penyediaan perkhidmatan yang betul dan berkesan [Donabedian, 1982 & Ware, & Sherbourne, 1992],
Pentadbiran hospital perlu membina dan mengwujudkan kepimpinan transaksional dan mod laissez-faire kerana ia adalah antara cara yang signifikan dan positif dalam pentadbiran hospital. Kakitangan perlu dilibatkan dengan pendedahan kepimpinan transformasi melalui kursus dan seminar supaya kakitangan sentiasa mendapat maklumat terkini untuk mempertingkatkan kualiti pekerjaan mereka. [4].
Kajian terdahulu telah melaporkan bahawa kakitangan hospital perlu dimantapkan melalui ganjaran, pampasan dan manfaat yang menarik [6]. Elemen-elemen seperti diatas boleh menyumbang kepada kepuasan kakitangan dalam meningkatkan kualiti perkhidmatan organisasi. [8] dan semangat daya usaha untuk meningkatkan kerjaya kakitangan [19], supaya mereka menjalankan tugasan dengan sempurna dan berkesan. Situasi kerja yang berkesan dan konfrenhensif dikalangan kakitangan akan memberi gambaran positif dari persepsi pesakit terhadap sesebuah hospital. Pengurusan yang betul akan mempengaruhi produktiviti pekerja dan membantu pencapaian kearah perkhidmatan cemerlang,
Memberi perhatian serius terhadap aduan yang diterima daripada pelanggan, dan sentiasa mencari jalan untuk memperbaiki dan meningkatkan mutu perkhidmatan adalah tindakan yang terpuji. Fokus kepada kepuasaan pelanggan dalam perkhidmatan sangat penting sebagai satu stategi perkhidmatan [Tjiptono & Chandra, 2007], supaya melahirkan rasa kepuasan dan impak kepada pesakit [7]
Pada asasnya, pesakit memerlukan kepada perhatian dan layanan dari kakitangan hospital terutama melibatkan tiga perkhidmatan utama iaitu panggilan telefon, maklumat penyakit dan maklumat perkhidmatan serta ketepatan maklumat yang diperlukan, disamping kos rawatan yang rendah [14], kemudahan asas yang selesa, dan melaksanakan temujanji yang tepat, adalah di antara perkara yang boleh memberi kepuasan kepada pesakit [19] selain itu sikap, tingkah laku kakitangan hospital dan perkhidmatan yang berkualiti turut memainkan peranan [17]
Tanggapan pelanggan terhadap kualiti dan perkhidmatan yang diberikan oleh organisasi adalah perkara yang berbeza [Wang & Shieh (2006) ], tetapi perkara tersebut merupakan keperluan kepada pelanggan disamping proses penambahbaikan secara berterusan ketika melaksanakan perkhidmatan boleh menggembirakan hati [Tjiptono (2000)].
Hospital harus memberikan perhatian kepada persoalan perubahan dan perlaksanaan prinsip perkhidmatan yang betul dan mengikut lunas-lunas perkhidmatan yang telah ditetapkan oleh pihak pengurusan. Ini menjadi tanggungjawab semua pihak sama ada doktor, kakitangan berkaitan dan lain-lain dalam perlaksanaannya [Zineldin, 2006].
Prinsip Syariah Terhadap Kualiti Perkhidmatan Kesihatan
Kerajaan Malaysia, telah memulakan dan melaksanakan proses Islamisasi dengan menanamkan nilai-nilai Islam di seluruh masyarakat di semua peringkat, dari individu ke institusi kerajaan dan swasta. [2] Kementerian Kesihatan tidak terkecuali dalam hal ini bagi menyokong melaksanakan hasrat perkhidmatan kesihatan yang berkualiti kepada semua pesakit tanpa
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mengira bangsa, agama dan warga negara. Masyarakat akan melihat bagaimana agensi kerajaan dan pegawai perkhidmatan kesihatan mengambil tanggungjawab islamisasi dalam tugas yang diamanahkan kepada mereka. Ini penting bagi memperlihatkan islam itu adalah keperluan dalam semua aspek kehidupan manusia, sebagaimana dalam firmann :
“Wahai orang yang beriman! Masuklah kamu ke dalam agama Islam secara menyeluruh..” [Al -Baqarah ayat 208]
Ayat tersebut menjelaskan bahawa syariat itu adalah menjadi asas perkhidmatan dalam kehidupan manusia, yang membabitkan perkara di dunia untuk mencapai kesejateraan di alam akhirat. Proses melaksanakan perkhidmatan sememangnya akan berlaku pertembungan dengan halangan berupa karenah biokrasi dan tribolasi yang mencabar perlaksanaan sempurna dan berkualiti. Kerana itu perkhidmatan kesihatan boleh berlaku kesilapan terutama melibatkan kegagalan dalam organisasi, kesilapan perawatan, tingkahlaku kakitangan, kegagalan teknikal klinikal, dan prosuder tindakan. [3].
Ini tentunya ada kaitan dengan perbezaan yang signifikan tahap kepuasan dalam kalangan kakitangan melibatkan faktor gaji, hubungan antara pekerja, peluang kenaikan pangkat, peluang meningkatkan kemahiran dan penyeliaan serta kesetiaan terhadap organisasi, merupakan asas utama keberkesanan perkhidmatan kakitangan hospital untuk memberi perkhidmatan berkualiti [23]. Data dalam rajah.1 menjelaskan beberapa elemen yang mempengaruhi sikap kakitangan atau pekerja sesebuah perkhidmatan seperti hospital.
Rajah 1: Faktor Kepuasan pekerja (Sumber : JQMA 13(2) 2017, 59-68)
Dua perkara yang perlu dilihat dalam analisis data rajah di atas, ialah bahawa kategori tidak berbeza yang melibatkan beban kerja, persekitaran ganjaran dan produktiviti yang dihasilkan pekerja, dan berbeza melibatkan gaji, hubungan antara pekerja, peluang kenaikan pangkat, peluang meningkatkan kemahiran, merupakan subjek yang harus diberi keutamaan oleh organisasi seperti hospital, untuk mengekalkan kualiti perkhidmatan.
Begitu juga dengan faktor kos perubatan yang tinggi terutama di hospital swasta, menjadi faktor utama diluar kemampuan pesakit untuk mendapatkan perkhidmatan perubatan yang berkualiti. Kos yang ditetapkan hospital kadang-kadang tidak berpadanan dan menjejaskan kehidupan yang secara langsung. Data rajah 2 menjelaskan dengan terang mengenai kos tersebut.
Kos perubatan yang dinyatakan dalam rajah, 2 menunjukan bahawa Malaysia adalah diantara negara yang menentapkan kos perubatan termurah, RM 9,000.00 bagi perubatan by past berbanding negara-negara lain. Kadar tersebut masih lagi dianggapkan tinggi oleh masyarakat di negara ini.
Kos yang paling tinggi adalah negara USA yang mencecah $130,000.00 bagi satu rawatan heart by pass berbanding Malaysia.
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Rajah 2: Perbandingan kos rawatan pesakit di beberapa negara terpilih. Sumber: Compiled from American Medical Association (2008) American Medical Association and Medi-bank Private (figures from 2006 / 2007 financial year prices) and Josef Woodman (2012).
Kos yang mahal bagi perkhidmatan perubatan sewajarnya dinilai semula secara rasional oleh pengurusan hospital, ini kerana ia tidak bertepatan dengan prinsip syariah yang memberi penekanan kepada perkhidmatan ehsan dan wakaf, menjurus kepada mendatangkan kesejahteran dalam kehidupan manusia. Syariah itu sendiri adalah merupakan satu sistem cara hidup yang telah ditetapkan Allah swt kepada hambanya [10]. Islam mengukur dan mengatur dengan prinsip syariat untuk memperbaiki kelemahan dan memperkasakan tugas berasakan formula perkhidmatan islam. Perkara ini hanya dapat di sempurnakan oleh mereka yang mempunyai pengetahuan dan ilmu yang matang, sebagaimana firman Allah.
Dan perumpamaan-perumpamaan ini Kami buat untuk manusia; dan tiada yang memahaminya kecuali orang-orang yang berilmu [Al-Ankabut : 43]
Pelaksanaan syariat dalam perkhidmatan kesihatan telah muncul sebagai platform yang signifikan untuk mengangkat dan menyelesaikan masalah mafsadah dikalangan ummah. Sehubungan dengan itu, perkhidmatan berasaskan kepatuhan syariah merupakan kaedah penyelesaian bagi mengelakkan manusia tidak terjerumus kepada masalah kesihatan dalam kehidupan mereka
Keperluan Kualiti Perkhidmatan Kesihatan Menurut Syariat
Allah berfirman melalui surah, Ali Imran,3:195; al-Maidah,4:94; al-An’am,6:135; al-Taubah,9:105; Hud,11:15, 37, 93, 111; al-Kahf,18:30; al-Anbiya’,21:80; Yasin,36:35) menegaskan kepada manusia bahawa bekerja dan mencari rezeki yang halal dengan tekun dan bersifat profesional adalah satu kewajiban. Pekerjaan dan tugas-tugas tersebut perlulah dilaksanakan dengan jujur dan ikhlas semata-mata kerana Allah dan Rasulullahnya, Tidak kira di mana dan bila masa asalkan memenuhi syarat yang ditetapkan syara’ [Shafie Mohd Salleh & Mohd Affandi Hassan,1991].
Selain itu Islam memberi penekanan kepada dimensi keinsanan sebagai membina keyakinan, membuka ruang kreativiti dan inovasi, sumber memperoleh maklum balas, pengurusan reputasi dan imej, memasarkan potensi diri dan mendekatkan jarak sosial dengan stakeholders [1]. Gambaran ini menjelaskan betapa pekerjaan dan perkhidmatan hendaklah dilaksanakan dengan cara yang paling baik dan berkualiti, sesuai dengan dengan prinnsip syariah.
Setakat ini, perbincangan peranan syariah dalam perkhidmatan kesihatan telah menjadi masalah klasik yang kurang diberi perhatian, begitu juga dengan sokongan tehadap perlaksanaannya, Sedangkan kepatuhan syariah merupakan satu daripada eleman yang boleh mendorong kepada gerak kerja yang lebih tersususn dan bersistem serta menghasilkan impak yang setimpal.
Kakitangan perkhidmatan di hospital lebih terdedah secara langsung dan sentiasa dengan pesakit yang mempunyai pelabagai ragam. Sifat ehsan perlu kuat didalam jiwa seseorang petugas ketika memberi rawatan kepada pesakit, tanpa rasa ehsan dan 369
belas kasihatan, pesakit akan terus terseksa dan menderita menghadapi penyakitnya kerana tidak mendapat perhatian wajar dari kakitangan hospital. Pentadbiran hospital hendaklah memberi keutamaan memperbaiki kekurangan dan kelemahan dalam perkara-perkara yang melibatkan kos perubatan, kepuasan bekerja dalam kebajikan kalangan kakitangan dan pegawai. Ini sangat penting dalam meningkatkan perkhidmatan yang berkualiti selaras dengan syariat islam itu sendiri.
Perlaksanaan Syariah Dalam Perkhidmatan
Prinsip Patuh syariah wajar diberi ruang untuk mengimbangi dan memberi menjamin perkhidmatan kesihatan kepada masyarakat supaya dapat dilaksanakan dengan lebih sempurna. Perbuatan seperti menutup aurah, bersikap mesra ketika memberi rawatan adalah diantara elemen patuh Syariah yang dapat menzahirkan keperluan pembangunan syariah dalam perkhidmatan kesihatan di hospital. [24]
Kehidupan seseorang dan organisasi dalam melaksanakan tanggungjawab kepada masyarakat hendaklah berpandukan kepada Alquran dan hadis Rusul supaya perkhidmatan yang diberikan menepati syariah. Firman Allah, dalam surah al-ana’m ayat 88, memberi penjelasan bahawa diturunkan Alquran adalah sebagai pertunjuk dalam semua bidang kehidupan dan kerja yang akan dijalankan oleh hambanya
Itulah petunjuk Allah, yang dengannya Dia memberi petunjuk kepada siapa yang dikehendaki-Nya di antara hamba-hamba- Nya. Seandainya mereka mempersekutukan Allah, niscaya lenyaplah dari mereka amalan yang telah mereka kerjakan.
Faedah perlaksanaan syariah.
Daripada perbincangan di atas, dapat disimpulkan bahawa perkhidmatan kesihatan di hospital merupakan salah satu perkara penting dalam perbincangan melibatkan falsafah undang-undang dan agama untuk memberikan lebih impak kepada kesempurnaan perkhidmatan kesihatan terhadap masyarakat. Perkhidmatan berasaskan syariah akan membantu perlaksanaan perkhidmatan dengan lebih tertetib, beradab dan berkesan pada zahir dan batin sehingga dapat memberi kepuasan dalam kalangan pesakit, dan ini memberi manfaat kepada kesihatan yang berpanjangan dalam kehidupan mereka.
Perkhidmatan yang sempurna tentunya melalui sistem dan pengamalan yang baik dan memenuhi prinsip-prinsip perkhidmatan yang telah ditetapkan menerusi syariah. Sehubungan dengan itu analisis kajian terhadap kualiti perkhidmatan kesihatan berasaskan konsep syariah di hospital secara umumnya ini adalah untuk mengetahui tahap perlaksanaan elemen-elemen syariah bagi meningkatkan kualiti pekhidmatan dan memberi kepuasan pesakit di hospital.
PENUTUP
Merujuk kepada dapatan di atas, bolehlah disimpulkan bahawa kualiti memainkan peranan penting dalam keseluruhan perkhidmatan hospital sama ada dalam sektor awam atau swasta. Kemudahan penjagaan kesihatan yang kondusif serta menyeluruh perlu menjadi asas perkhidmatan kepada pesakit. Penilaian kualiti perlu dilakukan secara berterusan untuk memberi kepuasan kepada pesakit. Pada masa sama, pentadbiran hospital juga perlu menyediakan dan memantapkan pengetahuan,
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Kemahiran terhadap pegawai perubatan dan kakitangan mereka melalui kursus dan latihan kesihatan bagi memastikan mereka memperolehi kemahiran yang mantap untuk memenuhi kepentingan pesakit. Prestasi perkhidmatan pula perlu dikekalkan bagi memenuhi kehendak pelanggan. Lebih menyakin apabila perkhidmatan yang dijalankan oleh mereka yang terlibat secara langsung melaksanakan tanggungjawab dengan mengambil kira sebahagian daripada tuntuan agama yang mesti dilaksanakan dengan baik. Tugas yang diamanahkan kepada mereka akan dapat dilaksanakan dengan berkesan sekali pun ia tidak diselia oleh pengurusan dan dijanjikan imbuhan terhadap perkhidmatanya.
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Pembinaan Akhlak Transgender Mak Nyah Muslim
Norhidayah Mohamad Nawawy Pusat Bahasa Moden & Sains Kemanusiaan Universiti Malaysia Pahang [email protected]
Hasan Ahmad Pusat Bahasa Moden & Sains Kemanusiaan Universiti Malaysia Pahang
Abstrak - Agama merupakan asas dalam pembinaan akhlak manusia. Tanpa ikatan agama yang kukuh, pembinaan akhlak tidak akan mantap malah hanya bersifat sementara sahaja dan boleh membawa kepada akhlak yang rosak. Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk melihat sejauh mana perlakuan ibadah solat mempunyai kaitan dalam proses pembinaan akhlak seseorang Transgender Mak Nyah Muslim. Hasil kajian ini telah menunjukkan bahawa dengan perlakuan ibadah solat, seseorang transgender itu mampu mempunyai ketahanan diri dari segi mental dan fizikal serta mampu memjaga nilai dan harga diri dalam menghadapi cabaran hidup. Seperti mana yang kita ketahui kedudukan golongan transgender ini dari perspektif Islam amat jelas adalah haram. Jelasnya dengan kemunculan golongan transgender ini tidak dinafikan telah memberi impak yang negatif terhadap pembinaan sahsiah dan akhlak dalam masyarakat Islam. Fokus kajian ini juga telah membincangkan tentang hikmah perlakuan ibadah solat dapat membina akhlak dalam kalangan transgender mak nyah muslim. Justeru itu, kajian ini telah menggunakan kaedah kajian kualitatif melalui dapatan data sekunder yang melibatkan bentuk tulisan seperti al-Quran dan as- Sunnah, kitab-kitab akhlak yang muktabar, jurnal, artikel, laporan prosiding dan sebagainya. Rumusan kajian ini juga menunjukkan bahawa amalan solat berupaya membimbing akhlak dan gerak geri manusia kepada jalan yang lebih sejahtera dan terpelihara dari segala anasir yang menyebabkan kerosakan serta perbuatan diluar batasan agama. Dengan amalan ini secara tidak langsung menjadikan kehidupan seseorang muslim itu akan dibina melalui akhlak yang mulia. Memetik kata-kata Ibnu Khaldun menjelaskan turun naiknya sesebuah negara atau tamadun bergantung kepada sejauh mana umatnya memegang dan mengamalkan nilai-nilai akhlak yang tinggi.
Kata Kunci- Pembinaan Akhlak; Transgender; Solat
1. PENGENALAN
Akhlak merupakan ukuran keperibadian seseorang muslim. Akhlak juga merupakan salah satu ajaran Islam yang harus dimiliki oleh setiap individu muslim dalam menunaikan kehidupan seharian. Menurut [7] penerapan nilai akhlak hendaklah bermula daripada intipati keimanan kepada Allah SWT demi melahirkan insan yang soleh dan berakhlak. Dalam hal ini, Imam al-Ghazali telah menjelaskan maksud iman adalah “pengakuan dengan lidah dan membenarkan dengan hati serta mengamalkannya dengan rukun-rukun (anggota)”. Iman merupakan pengakuan atau ikrar seseorang Muslim secara lisan dan akan dimenifestasikan menerusi amalan dan ibadah kepada Allah SWT. Perkara asas yang wajib diimani oleh umat Islam ialah rukun Iman dan rukun Islam itu sendiri. Iman yang bersih akan dapat melahirkan akhlak yang bersih dan mulia. Para sarjana Islam dan barat telah banyak berbincang tentang kepentingan pembinaan akhlak. Jika diperhatikan dengan lebih terperinci pembinaan akhlak adalah pembinaan kelakuan diri yang baik serta bertepatan dengan akal dan syarak [23]. Dalam konteks membangunkan modal insan kearah menjadikan masyarakat lestari, aspek pembinaan akhlak adalah wajib ditekankan kerana ia merupakan salah satu elemen utama dalam ajaran agama Islam. Terdapat hadis baginda yang telah diriwayatkan oleh Imam Ahmad yang bermaksud:
“Orang Mukmin yang paling sempurna imannya ialah yang paling baik akhlaknya.” (Imam Ahmad, Juz 3, No. 7406)
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Hal ini kerana antara tujuan utama Allah SWT menciptakan manusia adalah untuk melaksanakan tanggungjawab sebagai seorang muslim dengan beriman dan menyembahNya serta menitik beratkan tentang pembinaan akhlak mulia dalam menjalani kehidupan seharian. Sebagaimana firmannya dalam surah az-Zariyat ayat 56:
َو َما َخ َل ۡق ُت ٱۡل ِج َّن َوٱ ۡ ِۡلن َس ِإ ََّّل ِليَ ۡعبُ ُدو ِن ٥٦
Dan (ingatlah) Aku tidak menciptakan jin dan manusia melainkan untuk mereka menyembah dan beribadat kepadaKu.
Antara aspek yang diberi penekanan dalam menzahirkan rasa keimanan kepada Allah SWT ialah melalui ibadah solat. Solat merupakan asas atau tiang agama dan mengamalkannya merupakan suatu tuntutan syarak dan kepatuhan seseorang Muslim kepada Allah SWT. Solat merupakan satu bentuk keperibadian yang sangat berpotensi untuk membentuk peribadi akhlak seseorang [6].
Namun begitu, muktahir ini terdapat satu kecenderungan seksual yang dilihat semakin agresif dan jelas menyongsang dari peraturan fitrah yang telah ditentukan oleh Islam dan mereka ini dikenali sebagai golongan ‘Transgender’. Apabila membincangkan hal yang berkaitan dengan transgender ini terdapat beberapa pandangan yang jelas dari sudut agama Islam (homoseksual) )اَ ْل ِل َوا ْط ( ’berkaitannya. Di dalam terminologi Islam istilah transgender ini lebih dikenali dengan istilah ‘liwat iaitu (perbuatan keji dan lucah), ‘shudhudh’ (tidak bermoral) atau (ال َف ْح َشا ء) ’Selain itu juga ia dikenali sebagai ‘al-fahsya .[1] Islam secara jelas menolak perlakuan transgender ini dan umat Islam memandangnya sebagai .( َع َمل َق ْوم ل و َط ) ’amal qaum Lut‘ salah satu dosa besar kerana terdapat banyak dalil dari ayat al-Quran dan hadis yang mengeji perbuatan ini [20]. Firman Allah SWT dalam surah al-A’raf ayat 80-81:
ۡ ۡ َولُو ًطا إِ ۡذ َقا َل ِل َق ۡو ِم ِهۦٓ أَتَأتُو َن ٱۡل ََٰف ِح َشةَ َما َسبَ َق ُكم بِ َها ِم ۡن أَ َح ٖد ِ م َن ٱۡل َٰعَ َل ِمي َن ٨٠ ِإ َّن ُك ۡم َلتَأتُو َن ٱل ِ ر َج ا َل َش ۡه َو ٗة ِ من ُدو ِن ٱل ِن َسآ ِِۚء بَ ۡل أَنتُۡم َق ۡو ٞم ُّم ۡس ِرفُو َن ٨١
“Sesungguhnya kamu mendatangi lelaki untuk memuaskan nafsu syahwat kamu dengan meninggalkan perempuan, bahkan kamu ini adalah kaum yang melampaui batas” (80). Dan tidak ada jawab dari kaumnya selain daripada berkata: “Usirlah mereka (Nabi Lut AS dan pengikut-pengikutnya yang taat) dari bandar kamu ini, sesungguhnya mereka adalah orang-orang yang (mendakwa) mensucikan diri” (81) (Surah al-A’raf: 80-81).
Antara hadis yang menunjukkan pengharaman tentang perlakuan transgender ialah hadis yang diriwayatkan oleh Imam Bukhari :
َلعَ َن َر س ْو ل هللاِ َص َّلى هللا َع َل ْي ِه َو َس َّل َم، ا ْل متَ َشبِ ِه ْي َن ِم َن ال ِ ر َجا ِل بِال نِساَ ِء َوا ْل متَ َشب ِهاَ ِت ِم َن ال نِساَ ِء بِال ِ رجاَ ِل
“Rasulullah SAW melaknat lelaki yang menyerupai perempuan dan perempuan yang menyerupai lelaki”
(Hadis al-Bukhari, no. hadis 5453, Abi Dawud no. hadis 3574, Ibd Majah no. hadis 1894 dan Ahmad no. hadis 2910 dan 2150).
Hadis ini adalah dalam kategori hadis yang sahih. Menurut hadis ini golongan transgender yang dilaknat oleh Nabi Muhammad SAW sama ada lelaki yang menyerupai wanita atau sebaliknya. Dalam hal ini merujuk kepada golongan lelaki yang menyerupai wanita dari pelbagai sudut sehingga menonjolkan seseorang lelaki itu sebagai wanita bukan lagi sebagai seorang lelaki. Selain itu juga golongan ini juga dikenali sebagai ‘mak nyah’ ataupun ‘pondan’. Manakala golongan wanita yang menyerupai lelaki juga sedemikian dan dikenali sebagai ‘tomboy’ atau ‘pengkid’ di negara kita. Al-Tabari berkata lagi maksud ayat diatas bahawa tidak harus bagi lelaki untuk menyerupai wanita dari aspek pakaian dan perhiasan yang dikhususkan untuk wanita dan sebaliknya.
Ini menunjukkan bahawa jantina lelaki dan wanita itu adalah ciptaan Allah SWT secara semula jadi untuk saling mengasihi dan dijadikan pasangan antara satu dengan yang lain. Malangnya perlakuan golongan transgender ini telah dilihat menentang apa yang telah Allah SWT tetapkan kepada manusia. Perbuatan menukar jantina atau menyerupai jantina lain ini dilihat akan mendorong kepada perbuatan maksiat yang lebih dahsyat iaitu dengan mencintai jantina sejenis dan seterusnya melakukan hubungan seks jantina sejenis (homoseksual) seperti kaum Nabi Lut AS yang telah dilaknat oleh Allah SWT. Jelasnya di sini, melalui dua dalil di atas perbuatan ini adalah amat bertentangan dengan hukum agama dan fitrah kejadian manusia normal serta menyalahi hikmah yang terkandung di dalam ciptaan manusia.
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2. KEPENTINGAN AKHLAK MULIA DALAM KEHIDUPAN
Di dalam kitab Ihya’ Ulum ad-Din, Imam al-Ghazali telah menyatakan istilah akhlak berasal daripada bahasa Arab yang diambil daripada perkataan ‘Khuluq’ yang boleh didefinisikan sebagai perangai atau tingkah laku, tabiat, kepercayaan, pegangan atau agama. Menurut Imam al-Ghazali lagi akhlak adalah sifat yang tertanam dalam jiwa dan tanpa memerlukan sebarang pertimbangan. Sifat tersebut akan mendorong kearah pelbagai perbuatan samada baik ataupun buruk. Menurut beliau lagi akhlak itu dapat dikatakan ibarat keadaan jiwa dan bentuknya bersifat batin. Hal ini seperti bentuk kebaikan ‘dhahiriah’ secara mutlak. Akhlak juga bukanlah satu perbuatan, melainkan gambaran atas jiwa yang tersembunyi. Ini kerana akhlak itu adalah ‘nafsiah’ (bersifat kejiwaan) dan yang nampak itu dinamakan perilaku atau tindakan. Seiring dengan hal tersebut menurut Imam al-Ghazali akhlak itu merupakan syariah atau penuntun yang mencakupi seluruh aspek kehidupan. Meski ia hidup di atas bumi namun ia berhubung kuat dengan roh, akal, kalbu dan badan.
Al-Jahiz pula telah menjelaskan bahawa akhlak dari segi istilah adalah keadaan jiwa seseorang yang selalu mewarnai setiap tindakan dan perbuatannya tanpa pertimbangan lama ataupun keinginan. Akan tetapi dari satu sudut, akhlak boleh menjadi sebahagian daripada watak dan karekter seseorang sehingga ia menjadi satu tabiat dan kekal bersamanya namun dalam sudut yang lain pula akhlak boleh terhasil daripada proses latihan dan kemahuan bersungguh-sungguh seseorang sehingga tertanam akhlak yang baik dalam dirinya [10].
3. KEDUDUKAN TRANSGENDER DARI PERSPEKTIF ISLAM DAN BARAT
Dalam Islam Gender manusia lazimnya terbahagi kepada empat kumpulan iaitu ‘lelaki’ (male), ‘perempuan’ (female), ‘khuntha’ (hermaphrodite), ‘mukhannath’ atau ‘mukhannis’ (transgender atau transeksual) [12]. Menurut Sheikh Atiah Saqr pula menyatakan terdapat dua jenis kelompok transgender yang terdapat dalam Islam iaitu ‘al-mukhannath’ dan ‘al-khuntha’. ‘Al-mukhannath’ iaitu kelompok lelaki yang jelas kelelakiannya tetapi meniru gaya wanita samaada meniru gaya percakapan atau pergerakannya. Golongan ini boleh dikategorikan sebagai kelompok yang mengalami masalah psikologi kerana naluri mereka jauh bertentangan dengan sifat jasmani mereka. Dalam hal ini mereka terlalu berkeinginan menjadi wanita dan menaruh kebencian terhadap identiti kelelakian yang mereka miliki [11].
Seterusnya kelompok ‘al-khuntha’ pula iaitu kelompok lelaki yang mempunyai dua alat kelamin (zakar dan faraj). Istilah ‘al- khuntha’ menurut [16] ialah seseorang yang dilahirkan dengan dua alat kelamin iaitu alat kelamin lelaki dan wanita [16]. Menurut beberapa ulama seperti Imam al-Qasthulani yang berpandangan harus merawat dan membuang salah satu alat kelamin yang tidak berfungsi dan dalam menjalani pembedahan tersebut tiada unsur mengubah ciptaan Allah SWT kerana adanya keperluan. Bahkan hukumnya boleh menjadi wajib sekiranya disarankan oleh doktor yang pakar dan thiqah (dipercayai) [2]. Dalam permasalahan ini sekiranya seseorang menukar jantina dengan sengaja kerana mengikut tuntutan hawa nafsu semata- mata, maka para ulama bersepakat mengatakan hukumnya haram. Berbeza keadaannya jika seseorang menukar jantina atas faktor kesihatan dan keperluan disebabkan mempunyai dua alat kelamin. Maka sesi rawatan dan pembedahan harus dijalankan untuk membuang salah satu daripada alat kelaminnya (Imam Hanafi, Maliki, Hambali & Syafie dalam Abdul Rahman, 1392 H).
Rajah 1: Kategori Golongan Transgender dalam Islam[12]
KATEGORI GOLONGAN GENDER DALAM ISLAM `
PEREMPUAN LELAKI KHUNTHA
MUKHANNATH & MUKHANNITH
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Menurut Nik Muhd Marzuki, 2011 perkataan transgender telah ditakrifkan sebagai:
“a person born anatomically with a certain sex, but who is more comfortable with a different gender / sex identity”
(seseorang yang lahir anatomi (alat kelamin) dengan seks tertentu, tetapi yang lebih selesa dengan jantina atau identiti jantina yang berbeza). Banyak terdapat kajian ilmiah yang menyatakan secara komprehensif berkenaan dengan ciri-ciri seorang transgender. Berdasarkan pemerhatian, pembacaan, dan pergaulan pengkaji boleh merumuskan ciri-ciri fizikal yang terdapat pada golongan transgender secara umumnya termasuklah menyimpan rambut yang panjang seperti perempuan, mempunyai rupa paras feminim, berjalan, bercakap dan bergaya seperti seorang perempuan. Mereka juga sanggup berbuat apa sahaja untuk mengubah penampilan diri mereka untuk menjadi seorang perempuan bemula dengan terapi hormon (hormone therapy), operasi wajah (facial operation) melakukan pembedahan menanam silikon, pembedahan tulang muka memancungkan hidung dan pembesaran buah dada dan ada juga sesetengahnya yang menjalankan pembedahan alat kelamin.
Transgender telah dikategorikan golongan transgender yang menjalani kehidupannya kearah identiti transeksual terbahagi kepada tiga kategori mengikut tahap masing-masing. Tahap pertama adalah ‘Tahap Rendah’ iaitu golongan transeksual yang tidak sedar bahawa mereka akan memuaskan keinginan mereka melalui silang pakaian (cross-dressing) dan mereka ini dikenali sebagai ‘transvetisme’. Tahap kedua adalah ‘Tahap Sederhana’ yang mana mereka mempunyai keinginan lebih tinggi untuk memuaskan kehendak dan menyeimbangkan emosi mereka. Pada tahap ini silang pakaian tidak lagi mampu untuk memuaskan diri mereka akan tetapi mereka telah memulakan langkah dengan membuat beberapa perubahan fizikal khususnya menambahkan implant pada bahagian buah dada. Pada tahap ini juga mereka mula goyah di antara kepuasan transvetisme dengan kehendak transeksual untuk melakukan perubahan.
Tahap ketiga pula adalah ‘Tahap Tinggi’ yang mana mereka ingin menjadi seorang perempuan yang cukup sempurna (full- fledged) sebagai transeksual dan dikenali sebagai transeksual sebenar dan mereka sanggup untuk membuat pembedahan penukaran jantina (true transsexual). Secara ringkasnya ketiga-tiga aspek yang dinyatakan oleh ini dapat dirumuskan seperti dalam rajah 1.3 seperti berikut:
Rajah 2: Kategori Golongan Transgender
KATEGORI GOLONGAN TRANSGENDER
TAHAP TAHAP TAHAP RENDAH SEDERHANA TINGGI
Memuaskan Memuaskan Memuaskan keinginan keinginan keinginan untuk dengan dengan menjadi melakukan membuat perempuan yang silang pakaian perubahan sempurna (full- (cross dressing) fizikal dengan fledged) dan dan dikenali menambah sanggup sebagai implant pada membuat ‘transvestite’ bahagian buah pembedahan dada pertukaran
jantina
Budaya songsang ini jelas sekali bertentangan dengan fitrah asal manusia dan boleh dirumuskan sebagai satu krisis gender ataupun kecelaruan jantina. Isu yang berkaitan seorang lelaki itu berpewatakan lembut itu tidak menjadi masalah besar tetapi yang menjadi kebimbangan kita adalah daripada perlakuan lembut tersebut boleh membawa kepada gelaja seksual songsang dikalangan masyarakat, itu yang perlu kita risaukan. Apa yang pasti semua ini adalah berpunca daripada kedangkalan manusia tentang ilmu agama.
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4. KEPENTINGAN SOLAT DALAM PEMBINAAN AKHLAK TRANSGENDER MAK NYAH
Solat adalah salah satu daripada rukun Islam yang kelima dan diwajibkan keatas setiap muslim dan muslimat yang mukallaf (baligh dan berakal). Firman Allah SWT dalam surah an-Nisa’ ayat 103:
ۡ ۡ ۡ َفإِ َذا َق َضۡيتُ ُم ٱل َّص َل َٰوةَ َفٱ ۡذ ُك ُرواْ ٱ ََّّللَ ِقَٰيَ ٗما َوق ُعُو ٗدا َو ََع َل َٰٰى ُجنُوبِ ُك ِۡۚم َفإِ َذا ٱط َمأنَنتُۡم َفأَقِي ُمواْ ٱل َّص َل َٰو ِۚةَ إِ َّن ٱل َّص َل َٰوةَ َكا َن ۡت ََع َلٰى ٱل ُم ۡۡؤ ِمنِي َن ِك َٰتَٗبا َّم ۡوقُو ٗتا ١٠٣
Kemudian apabila kamu telah selesai mengerjakan sembahyang, maka hendaklah kamu menyebut dan mengingati Allah semasa kamu berdiri atau duduk dan semasa kamu berbaring. Kemudian apabila kamu telah merasa tenteram (berada dalam keadaan aman) maka dirikanlah sembahyang itu (dengan sempurna sebagaimana biasa). Sesungguhnya sembahyang itu adalah satu ketetapan yang diwajibkan atas orang-orang yang beriman, yang tertentu waktunya.
Ayat di atas jelas menunjukkan kepada kita bahawa ibadah solat merupakan ibadah badaniah yang telah diwajibkan ke atas setiap muslim dan menunaikannya sebanyak lima kali sehari semalam dalam waktu-waktu yang telah ditetapkan dalam syariat Islam. Selain itu juga dalam ayat tersebut telah menyebut walaupun kita dalam keadaan yang tidak sihat tetap wajib menunaikannya dalam apa jua keadaan sekalipun samaada berdiri, duduk atau berbaring dan sekiranya telah sihat dan berkemampuan hendaklah mengerjakan ibadat solat seperti sedia kala. Ini kerana hanya solat sahaja yang mampu mendidik jiwa seseorang memahami erti ketakwaan, ketenangan, kesabaran, tawakal dan berpegang teguh hanya kepada Allah SWT sahaja tempat untuk seseorang itu bergantung harap dalam semua urusan kehidupan di dunia.
Solat juga merupakan tiang agama dan sebesar-besar ibadah yang mampu mendekatkan hamba kepada TuhanNya. Terdapat hadis yang telah diriwayatkan baginda Rasulullah SAW [3]:
ال َّصالَة ِعماَد ا ِ لد ْي ِن َف َم ْن تَ َر َك َها َف َق ْد َهدَ َم ا ِ ل ْد َي
Solat itu tiang agama, sesiapa yang mendirikan solat sesungguhnya dia sudah menegakkan agama dan barangsiapa yang meninggalkan solat, sesungguhnya dia meruntuhkan agama. (Riwayat al-Baihaqi)
Solat dari segi bahasa bermaksud doa atau doa dengan sesuatu kebaikan. Manakala dari segi syarak solat bermaksud perkataan dan perbuatan yang dimulai dengan takbirratul ihram beserta niat dan berakhir dengan salam dan syarat-syarat tertentu [22].
Menurut kajian yang telah dijalankan oleh [17] menyatakan seseorang yang mempunyai asas agama yang baik akan menjadikan benteng diri apabila golongan transgender ini berhadapan dengan pelbagai cabaran kehidupan seharian terutama yang melibatkan konflik di antara kepercayaan Islam dan identiti seksual yang mereka alami. Selain itu juga kajian yang telah dijalankan oleh [21] menyatakan kebanyakkan punca berlakunya gejala-gejala sosial termasuklah isu transgender adalah kerana pelakunya telah mengabaikan ibadah solat. Selain itu juga, jika dilihat kepada dapatan kajian yang dijalankan oleh [15] bahawa hampir 96.8% remaja mengakui dengan perbuatan menginggalkan solat fardhu telah mendatangkan banyak kesan negatif kepada diri mereka. Manakala hasil analisis kajian yang dijalankan oleh [19] mendapati bahawa wujud perkaitan dan hubungan antara tahap pelaksanaan solat dan perbuatan negatif individu Muslim dalam kehidupan harian mereka dan secara tidak langsung melibatkan juga permasalahan atau konflik dalam masalah seksualiti.
Pada dasarnya, apabila manusia meninggalkan kewajipan utama sebagai hamba Allah SWT, pastinya mereka akan menempuhi banyak rintangan. Melalui ibadah solat fardhu yang konsisten ianya boleh membawa kepada kekuatan iman dan akan menjadi benteng pertahanan kepada individu tersebut untuk menangkis dugaan yang mendatang [21]. Iman yang lemah boleh mengakibatkan individu tersebut gagal dalam melaksanakan tanggungjawab sebagai hamba Allah SWT. Dalam al-Quran juga ada menjelaskan tentang pelaksanaan ibadah solat yang dilakukan ikhlas semata-mata kerana Allah SWT akan dapat membersihkan diri seseorang dan mengawal diri daripada terjerumus ke lembah kehinaan serta naluri-naluri yang tidak sihat sebagaimana firman Allah SWT dalam surah al-‘Ankabut ayat 45 :
ُ ۡ َٰ َۖ ۡ ۡ ٱ ۡت ُل َمآ أو ِح َي إِ َلۡي َك ِم َن ٱل ِكتَ ِب َوأَ ِق ِم ٱل َّص َل َٰوةَ إِ َّن ٱل َّص َل َٰوةَ تَۡن َه َٰٰى ََع ِن ٱل َف ۡح َشآ ِء َوٱل ُمن َك ِ ر َو َل ِذ ۡك ُر ٱ َّ َِّلل أَ ۡكبَ ُر َوٱ ََّّللُ يَ ۡع َل ُم َما تَ ۡصنَعُو َن ٤٥
Bacalah serta ikutlah (wahai Muhammad) akan apa yang diwahyukan kepadamu dari Al-Quran dan dirikanlah sembahyang (dengan tekun); sesungguhnya sembahyang itu mencegah dari perbuatan yang keji dan mungkar dan sesungguhnya mengingati Allah adalah lebih besar (faedahnya dan kesannya) dan (ingatlah) Allah mengetahui akan apa yang kamu kerjakan.
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Ini membuktikan bahawa solat amat penting untuk dilaksanakan oleh seseorang yang bergelar Muslim secara konsisten dan sempurna kerana solat adalah titik permulaan ke arah pembentukan individu yang benar-benar mengikut ajaran Islam.
5. HIKMAH IBADAH SOLAT DALAM PEMBINAAN AKHLAK TRANSGENDER MAK NYAH MUSLIM
Solat merupakan suatu keadaan yang tertanam di dalam jiwa yang menampilkan perbuatan-perbuatan dengan senang tanpa memerlukan pemikiran dan penelitian. Apabila perbuatan yang terkeluar itu baik dan terpuji menurut syarak dan akal, maka perbuatan itu dinamakan akhlak yang mulia. Sebaliknya apabila ianya terkeluar dari perbuatan yang buruk maka ia dinamakan akhlak yang buruk.
A. Solat Mendidik Aqidah Muslim
Dalam solat amat menekankan aspek akidah dan solat perlu dilakukan semata-mata kerana Allah SWT barulah solat tersebut diterima olehNya. Ianya merupakan lambang pengabdian diri kita kepada Allah SWT. Sebagaimana firman Allah SWT dalam surah an-Am ayat 162-163:
ۡ َٰ ۡ قُ ۡل إِ َّن َص ََلتِي َو ُن ُس ِكي َو َم ۡحيَا َي َو َم َماتِي ِ َّ َِّلل َر ِب ٱل َٰعَ َل ِمي َن ١٦٢ ََّل َش ِري َك َلهُۥَۖ َوبِ َذ ِل َك أُ ِم ۡر ُت َوأَنَ ۠ا أَ َّو ُل ٱل ُم ۡس ِل ِمي َن ١٦٣
Sesungguhnya sembahyangku dan ibadatku, hidupku dan matiku, hanyalah untuk Allah Tuhan yang memelihara dan mentadbirkan sekalian alam (162) Tiada sekutu bagiNya dan dengan yang demikian sahaja aku diperintahkan dan aku (di antara seluruh umatku) adalah orang Islam yang awal pertama (yang berserah diri kepada Allah dan mematuhi perintahNya) (163).
Pendidikan akidah merupakan asas terpenting dalam membina akhlak manusia. Seseorang yang bersolat dengan penuh keyakinan bahawa dia sedang berhadapan dengan Allah SWT akan membawa sifat tersebut dalam kehidupan seharian dengan menyedari bahawa setiap saat Allah akan memerhatikannya. Oleh itu mereka mempunyai kekuatan yang tersendiri untuk menjaga akhlak mereka daripada melakukan perkara yang dimurkai Allah SWT. Manusia yang sentiasa mengingati Allah inilah yang dikatakan sebagai orang yang berakhlak paling mulia [13]. Dalam sebuah hadis juga ada meriwayatkan:
“Seorang penzina tidak akan berzina ketika dirinya beriman, seorang peminum arak tidak akan meminumnya padahal dia beriman, seorang perompak yang hanya akan membuatkan mangsanya melihat sahaja perbuatannya tidak akan melakukannya ketika dirinya ada iman”
B. Solat Mampu Menghindari Sifat Mazmumah
Setiap gerakan solat mempunyai falsafahnya yang tersendiri kerana pergerakan dan kaifiyah itu adalah susunanNya untuk kekasihNya Nabi Muhammad SAW dan seluruh umat manusia. Ketika rukuk dan sujud perlulah digambarkan dalam hati bahawa zat Allah adalah zat yang paling sempurna. Ketika sujud seseorang itu perlu menyedari betapa agungnya Allah SWT dan kerdil dirinya, kayanya Allah dan fakirnya hamba, alimnya Allah dan jahilnya hamba, gagah perkasanya Allah dan lemahnya kita. Apabila kesemua perkara tersebut dapat dizahirkan dalam hati seseorang maka segala kesempurnaan Allah dengan sendirinya akan diterjemahkan melalui pergerakan tubuh seseorang itu dengan membongkok untuk sujud kepada penciptaNya [8]. Seperti firman Allah SWT dalam surah al-Hujarat ayat 13:
ٓ ۡ ِۚ َٰيَأَيُّ َها ٱل َّنا ُس إِ َّنا َخ َل ۡقَٰنَ ُكم ِ من َذ َك ٖر َوأُنثَ َٰٰى َو َجعَلَٰنَ ُك ۡم ُشعُوٗبا َو َقبَآئِ َل ِلتَعَا َرفُ ٓواْ إِ َّن أَ ۡك َر َم ُك ۡم َِعن َد ٱ َّ َِّلل أَۡت َق َٰى ُك ِۡۚم إِ َّن ٱ ََّّللَ ََع ِلي ٌم َخبِي ٞر ١٣
Wahai umat manusia! Sesungguhnya Kami telah menciptakan kamu dari lelaki dan perempuan dan Kami telah menjadikan kamu berbagai bangsa dan bersuku puak, supaya kamu berkenal-kenalan (dan beramah mesra antara satu dengan yang lain). Sesungguhnya semulia-mulia kamu di sisi Allah ialah orang yang lebih takwanya di antara kamu, (bukan yang lebih keturunan atau bangsanya). Sesungguhnya Allah Maha Mengetahui, lagi Maha Mendalam PengetahuanNya (akan keadaan dan amalan kamu).
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Melalui sifat kehambaan yang ada maka akan melahirkan individu yang bersih hati dan ikhlas amalnya. Individu yang solat dengan penuh penghayatan akan menyedari walau siapapun mereka, mereka adalah hamba Allah SWT. Tiada siapa yang mengetahui siapa yang lebih mulia dalam kalangan muslim kerana tiada nilaian harta, pangkat, keturunan dan keilmuan selain daripada takwa kepada Allah SWT. Selain itu juga melalui solat mampu untuk menghindarkan diri dari sifat-sifat mazmumah seperti sifat tidak bersyukur, tidak redha dan sentiasa mengikut hawa nafsu.
C. Solat Mendidik Muslim Menjaga Kehormatan Diri
Antara syarat sah solat ialah pelakunya diwajibkan menutup aurat. Aurat bagi lelaki dalam solat munurut jumhur ulama ialah antara pusat hingga lutut. Ia merupakan satu cara Allah mendidik kita supaya menjaga kehormatan diri sama ada dari sudut berpakaian dan perlakuan. Ini melambangkan orang Muslim adalah manusia yang bermaruah. Selain didikan menutup aurat Allah juga mengajar kita melalui solat tentang penjagaan maruah dan kemaluan. Salah satu ciri manusia yang berjaya dan dituntut dalam Islam ialah memelihara maruah dan kemaluan seperti dalam firman Allah SWT dalam surah al-Mukminun 1-2 dan 5-6:
َق ۡد أَۡف َل َح ٱۡل ُم ۡۡؤ ِمنُو َن ١ ٱ َّل ِذي َن ُه ۡم فِي َص ََل ِت ِه ۡم ََٰخ ِشعُو َن ٢
Sesungguhnya berjayalah orang-orang yang beriman (1) iaitu mereka yang khusyuk dalam sembahyangnya;
َوٱ َّل ِذي َن ُه ۡم ِلفُ ُرو ِج ِه ۡم ََٰح ِف ُظو َن ٥ إِ ََّّل ََع َل َٰٰٓى أَ ۡز ََٰو ِج ِه ۡم أَۡو َما َم َل َك ۡت أَۡي ََٰمنُ ُه ۡم َفإِ َّن ُه ۡم َغۡي ُر َملُو ِمي َن ٦
Dan mereka yang menjaga kehormatannya (5) Kecuali kepada isterinya atau hamba sahayanya maka sesungguhnya mereka tidak tercela;
D. Solat Mencegah Manusia Daripada Bersikap Keji dan Mungkar
Seperti mana yang kita ketahui bahawa ibadah solat mampu menjadi benteng pada diri seseorang individu muslim dari melakukan perkara-peraka yang mungkar dan merosakkan iman seseorang muslim. Sebagaimana firman Allah SWT dalam surat al-Ankabut ayat 45:
ُ ۡ َٰ َۖ ۡ ۡ ٱ ۡت ُل َمآ أو ِح َي إِ َلۡي َك ِم َن ٱل ِكتَ ِب َوأَ ِق ِم ٱل َّص َل َٰوةَ إِ َّن ٱل َّص َل َٰوةَ تَۡن َه َٰٰى ََع ِن ٱل َف ۡح َشآ ِء َوٱل ُمن َك ِ ر َو َل ِذ ۡك ُر ٱ َّ َِّلل أَ ۡكبَ ُر َوٱ ََّّللُ يَ ۡع َل ُم َما تَ ۡصنَعُو َن ٤٥
Bacalah serta ikutlah (wahai Muhammad) akan apa yang diwahyukan kepadamu dari Al-Quran dan dirikanlah sembahyang (dengan tekun); sesungguhnya sembahyang itu mencegah dari perbuatan yang keji dan mungkar dan sesungguhnya mengingati Allah adalah lebih besar (faedahnya dan kesannya) dan (ingatlah) Allah mengetahui akan apa yang kamu kerjakan.
Sesungguhnya melalui solat akan mampu membina akhlak yang baik dan menjadikan manusia itu berfikiran waras dan bertindak dengan cara yang betul dan adil. Dengan ini secara tidak langsung mampu membendung seseorang individu dari melakukan perkara-perkara yang fahsyak dan mungkar.
E. Solat Mendidik Muslim Menjaga Tingkah laku
Dalam disiplin ilmu solat, seseorang Muslim perlu menjaga segala pergerakan dan tingkah lakunya agar tidak membatalkan solat. Mereka tidak boleh terlalu banyak melakukan pergerakan yang tidak perlu kerana dikhuatiri boleh membatalkan solat. Orang muslim yang melakukan solat akan cukup berhati-hati dalam setiap pergerakan solatnya. Kebanyakan orang muslim akan melakukan sesuatu gerakan seperti bangun, rukuk, iktidal, sujud, duduk antara dua sujud dan tahiyat dengan sesempurna mungkin. Firman Allah SWT dalam surat al-Baqarah ayat 238:
َٰ ََٰح ِف ُظواْ ََع َلٰى ٱل َّص َل ََٰو ِت َوٱل َّص َل َٰوةِ ٱۡل ُو ۡس َط َٰٰى َوقُو ُمواْ ِ َّ َِّلل َقنِ ِتي َن ٢٣٨
Peliharalah segala solat (mu), dan (peliharalah) solat wusthaa. Berdirilah kerana Allah (dalam solatmu) dengan khusyuk.
Seseorang muslim itu perlu menjaga akhlak solatnya dengan mengaplikasinya juga diluar solatnya. Kerana apabila seseorang muslim yang mengerjakan solat mereka akan melaksanakan urusan kehidupannya dengan sempurna. Mereka perlu melaksanakan amanah dan tanggungjawab yang dipikul atas bahu mereka. Sesuatu pekerjaan perlu dilakukan dengan penuh berkualiti dan bersungguh-sungguh. Mereka juga perlu menjaga tingkah laku terutama dari segi cara pemakaian, percakapan, pergaulan dan semuanya mempunyai batasan-batasan yang telah ditetapkan oleh syarak. Sebagaimana indahnya mereka
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menjaga pergerakan dalam solat begitulah juga mereka perlu menjaga setiap tingkah laku mereka diluar solat daripada melakukan perkara-perkara yang terlarang oleh Allah SWT. Seorang muslim yang menghayati falsafah solat akan sentiasa berhati-hati dalam tindakannya agar sentiasa mendapat keredhaan Allah SWT dan tidak menimbulkan fitnah sesama manusia. Seorang muslim juga perlu meninggalkan perkara yang dilarang oleh Allah seperti mengkhianati amanah Allah dan mendekati zina. Tidak seorang pun yang boleh melanggar perintah Allah kerana setiap kesalahan itu akan dicatatkan sebagai dosa atas pelakunya dan akan dipersoalkan di hari akhirat kelak. Firman Allah SWT dalam surah yasin ayat 65:
ۡ ٱليَ ۡو َم نَ ۡختِ ُم ََع َل َٰٰٓى أَۡف ََٰو ِه ِه ۡم َوتُ َك ِ ل ُم َنآ أَۡي ِدي ِه ۡم َوتَ ۡش َه ُد أَ ۡر ُجلُ ُهم بِ َما َكانُواْ يَ ۡك ِسبُو َن ٦٥
Pada waktu itu Kami meteraikan mulut mereka (sejurus) dan (memberi peluang kepada) tangan-tangan mereka memberitahu Kami (kesalahan masing-masing) dan kaki mereka pula menjadi saksi tentang apa yang mereka telah usahakan
6. KESIMPULAN
Sebagai agama yang praktikal, Islam juga merupakan panduan cara hidup dari segi aspek kehidupan termasuk seksualiti manusia. Cara hidup yang sejahtera adalah hidup yang berlandaskan kepada iman dan amal ibadah yang soleh mengikut syariat Islam. Ibadah soleh melalui solat memainkan peranan yang penting dalam pembinaan akhlak dan keperibadian setiap individu muslim. Banyak kajian yang telah dijalankan membuktikan bahawa dengan pelaksanaan solat, perlakuan dan akhlak individu muslim akan lebih terjaga dan banyak memberi kesan yang positif dalam menjalani kehidupan seharian. Ini menunjukkan bahawa pelaksanaan ibadah solat berupaya membimbing akhlak dan gerak geri hidup manusia kepada jalan yang sejahtera dan terpelihara dari segala anasir yang menyebabkan kerosakan serta terhindar dari sebarang perbuatan dan tidakan diluar batasan agama. Dengan ini secara tidak langsung kehidupan seorang muslim itu akan dibina melalui akhlak yang mulia. Jelasnya disini dalam konteks hukum syariah isu transgender ini merupakan suatu gejala yang dilihat bertentangan dengan fitrah kejadian yang telah ditetapkan oleh Allah SWT. Ini kerana fitrah manusia lelaki adalah memiliki sifat-sifat dan kecenderungan sebagai lelaki begitu juga sebaliknya. Ini menunjukkan kepada kita bahawa syariat Islam yang telah diturunkan oleh Allah SWT telah menggariskan pelbagai elemen yang mengandungi matlamat-matlamat dan tujuan yang tertentu bagi membawa kepada kebaikan dan kemaslahatan umat serta untuk menghilangkan kerosakan dan kemudharatan terhadap kepada Allah SWT dan sesama makhluk.
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Menguasai Bahasa Istana melalui Teknik Lakonan
Norazlina binti Ramlan Pusat Inovasi Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Fakulti Pendidikan, UKM, Bangi Selangor, Malaysia [email protected]
Wan Muna Ruzanna binti Wan Mohammad Pusat Inovasi Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Fakulti Pendidikan, UKM, Bangi Selangor, Malaysia [email protected]
Abstrak—Fokus utama kajian ini adalah melihat keberkesanan penggunaan Teknik Lakonan dalam menguasai topik Bahasa Istana. Hal ini kerana, murid lemah menguasai kosa kata Bahasa Istana serta guru mempunyai cabaran dan kekangan untuk menyediakan pengajaran kosa kata Bahasa Istana yang menarik. Oleh itu, Teknik Lakonan ini merupakan salah satu kaedah pengajaran dan pemudahcaraan berpusatkan murid di samping murid dapat mengembangkan potensi dan bakat dalam lakonan dalam menguasai bahasa istana. Teori Konstruktivisme yang dipelopori oleh Vygotsky telah menjadi landasan dalam kajian ini. Reka bentuk kualitatif digunakan bagi menganalisis dapatan kajian. Dapatan diperoleh daripada data Ujian Pra dan data Ujian Pasca. Seramai 30 orang responden telah dipilih daripada dua buah sekolah rendah Daearah Jasin, Melaka. Instrumen yang digunakan dalam kajian ini meliputi kertas ujian pra, kertas ujian pasca, dan senarai semak melalui pemerhatian. Kepelbagaian instrumen yang digunakan adalah untuk tragulasi data yang diperoleh daripada pelbagai sumber sebagai penguat kepada data yang diperoleh. Hasil dapatan menunjukkan majoriti sampel kajian memahami penggunaan Bahasa istana mengikut situasi yang sebenar. Tenik pembelajaran melalui teknik lakonan ini dapat menarik minat murid untuk kuasai Bahasa Istana. Gabungan teknik berpusatkan guru, berpusatkan murid, malah berpusatkan bahan bantu mengajar ini dibina mengikut tahap pemahaman dan mampu mengubah cara pembelajaran berbanding dengan kaedah tradisional.
Kata Kunci—teknik lakonan; bahasa istana; bahasa Melayu; kajian tindakan; pengajaran dan pemudahcaraan (pdpc); teknik drama
1. PENGENALAN
Teknik pengajaran adalah satu kemahiran atau cara melaksanakan penyampaian bahan pengajaran kepada pelajar dari segi langkah-langkah dalam aktiviti pembelajaran. Secara khususnya, teknik merupakan satu cara penyampaian pelajar dan perlu diteliti supaya dapat mempercepatkan penanggapan pelajar. Maksud teknik dalam kajian ini seiring dengan [8], menyatakan teknik ialah kaedah mencipta sesuatu hasil seni seperti muzik, karang-mengarang, dan sebagainya. Perubahan yang berlaku dalam sistem pendidikan melalui Pelan Transformasi Pendidikan, iaitu Pelan Pembangunan Pendidikan Malaysia 2013-2015 menjadi
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lebih menarik apabila terdapat dua kaedah sama ada pengajaran berpusatkan guru atau pengajaran berpusatkan murid yang boleh dilaksanakan di dalam kelas. Antaranya teknik bercerita, perbincangan, demonstrasi, penyelesaian masalah, bermain, dan lawatan serta setiap aktiviti mempunyai faktor pemilihan bagi tujuan pengajaran. Ini bertepatan dengan pandangan [10, 11], kepelbagaian pendekatan, kaedah dan teknik pengajaran diperkenalkan dan digunakan di dalam kelas bertujuan untuk menghasilkan pembelajaran yang bermakna dan berkesan, malah dapat meningkatkan keberkesanan proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran bahasa. [7] juga berpandangan bahawa teknik lakonan juga sesuai digunakan untuk mengajar dalam pelbagai mata pelajaran termasuklah dalam pengajaran bahasa.
Kertas Soalan Bahasa Melayu Pemahaman Bahagian A (Objektif) Ujian Penilaian Sekolah Rendah (UPSR) yang mengandungi lapan soalan berkenaan Bahasa Istana. Walaupun soalan bahasa istana ini tidak banyak, namun ia dapat mempengaruhi pemarkahan. Tinjauan awal yang dijalankan, mendapati permasalahan dalam menguasai bahasa istana ini wujud apabila murid tidak memahami maksud setiap penggunaan kosa kata bahasa istana. Murid hanya mengetahui bahasa istana yang diajar dan yang hanya terdapat dalam buku teks sahaja. Malah, murid juga tidak dapat memberi jawapan yang tepat dalam penggunaan kata ganti nama diri dan kata kerja mengikut penggunaan yang tepat. Oleh itu, dalam meningkatkan penguasaan bahasa istana dalam kalangan murid, pengkaji telah mengambil inisiatif dengan memperkenalkan Teknik Lakonan dalam pengajaran dan pemudahcaraan (PdPc) di dalam kelas.
Kepelbagaian pendekatan, kaedah, dan teknik pengajaran diperkenalkan dan digunakan di dalam kelas adalah bertujuan menjadikan pengajaran dan pembelajaran (PdP) lebih bermakna dan berkesan. Menurut [10, 11], terdapat pelbagai teknik yang boleh diaplikasikan dan sekali gus dapat meningkatkan keberkesanan dalam PdP. PdPc menjadi lebih menarik apabila guru sendiri bermotivasi, kreatif, dan inovatif dapat mencapai objektif pengajaran di samping memperlihatkan peningkatan kefahaman murid dalam sesuatu topik PdP. Antara teknik dan pendekatan yang boleh diaplikasikan dalam PdPc, ialah teknik, sumbang saran, soal jawab, permainan bahasa, simulasi, lakonan, serta main peranan. Penggunaan teknik dan pendekatan PdPc bergantung kepada jenis objektif yang hendak dicapai.
Oleh itu, pengkaji telah mengaplikasikan Teknik Lakonan sebagai PdPc dalam mengajar topik Bahasa Istana. Lakonan adalah satu teknik pengajaran yang digunakan dalam sesi PdPc. Aktiviti lakonan menjadi lebih menarik apabila murid dapat berinteraksi dengan rakan sebaya yang lain dengan menggunakan bahasa yang lain selain daripada Bahasa Melayu Standard. Ini sekali gus dapat menguji tahap kemahiran berbahasa, tahap kefahaman penggunaan sesuatu bahasa, melatih murid berkeyakinan apabila berdiri di khalayak ramai, dan murid berpeluang memegang watak dalam lakonan. Dengan adanya aktiviti seperti ini, murid akan dapat pelbagai faedah dan kebaikan dalam memajukan diri dalam pelajaran dan juga kehidupan seharian. Apa yang penting, murid berpeluang meningkatkan penguasaan bahasa istana dan dapat menggunakan kosa kata tersebut dengan lebih tepat. Ia juga meningkatkan pengetahuan dan amalan dalam meningkatkan kualiti PdPc di dalam kelas.
Lakonan bukan sahaja dapat melatih murid bertutur dengan baik, malah dapat mendorong mereka beraksi dengan gerak geri yang bersahaja. Jenis lakonan yang digunakan dalam kajian ini ialah lakonan berseni kata dan menggunakan pergerakan, iaitu lakonan yang bersahaja. Lakonan ini biasanya disediakan khas dengan dialog berdasarkan sesebuah cerita. Teknik Lakonan yang dilaksanakan di dalam kelas adalah seperti yang berikut: i. Terangkan dahulu apa yang perlu dibuat oleh murid sama ada dengan menceritakan peristiwa yang hendak dilakonkan atau memberi seni kata. ii. Selepas itu, guru bolehlah memilih pelakon. Semasa pemilihan pelakon dibuat, pastikan semua murid diberi peluang untuk memegang watak. Guru tidak seharusnya memberi tumpuan kepada murid yang berkebolehan sahaja. iii. Kemudian, guru memberi arahan atau petunjuk bagaimana seharusnya diaksikan oleh setiap pelakon. iv. Murid melakonkannya secara bebas sebagaimana yang digarap dalam jalan ceritanya. Elakkan daripada mengganggu murid semasa sesi lakonan berjalan walaupun ia tidak memuaskan hati guru. v. Setelah tamat, guru boleh membetulkan atau menegur setiap kesilapan yang dibawa dalam watak tersebut dan jika perlu, minta murid melakonkannya sekali lagi sebelum memberi peluang kepada murid lain berlakon. vi. Guru hendaklah memberi rangsangan, jangan mengkritik atau menyalahkan murid sehingga boleh membunuh semangat dan minat murid untuk berlakon. vii. Guru perlu menyediakan peralatan seperti pakaian yang bersesuaian dengan setiap watak supaya menampakkan realistik dan berkesan.
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Dapat disimpulkan bahawa untuk pembelajaran yang berkesan, murid harusnya diberikan peluang melakukan aktiviti yang membolehkan mereka berimaginasi lebih mendalam terhadap sesuatu yang telah ditugaskan, [3, 6] . Lakonan adalah alat yang mana murid dapat meneroka konsep dan meraih pengetahuan dan pemahaman. Ia unik kerana guru dan murid dapat mereka konteks yang pelbagai tanpa batasan. Malah, bagi [14], murid merupakan pemikir aktif dan belajar secara kinestetik dan ‘lakonan adalah bentuk yang menggabung jalin aktiviti lisan, visual dan kinestetik untuk pelajar’. Dalam kata lain, penggunaan drama dalam proses pembelajaran memberikan ruang kepada murid bagi meningkatkan pemahaman dengan keupayaan membuat perkaitan secara lisan dengan aksi atau aktiviti lakonan yang dilakukan oleh murid. Teknik Lakonan memberi peluang kepada murid untuk melahirkan idea berdasarkan pengalaman sedia ada dengan cara yang kreatif. Pada masa yang sama, guru perlu sentiasa membimbing dan menghargai usaha dan sokongan diberikan oleh murid dalam setiap aktiviti yang diterokai oleh murid. Oleh itu, guru perlu berani mencuba pelbagai teknik PdPc yang berkesan kerana kepelbagaian kognitif yang ada pada murid dapat melahirkan PdPc guru yang kreatif dan inovatif.
Kajian ini penting kepada pihak sekolah kerana Teknik Lakonan ini memberi laluan dalam melahirkan murid yang boleh berfikir secara Kemahiran Berfikir Aras Tinggi (KBAT) memandangkan soalan Bahasa Melayu Pemahaman (Bahagian A) bagi Ujian Penilaian Sekolah Rendah (UPSR) semakin mencabar. Pihak sekolah dapat menganjurkan Latihan Dalam Perkhidmatan (LADAP) bagi berkongsi strategi PdPc yang terbaik dalam kalangan guru bagi meningkatkan dan memartabatkan profesion keguruan dan seterusnya kepada pihak Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia menjadikan sumber rujukan atau garis panduan bagi meningkatkan keberkesanannya dalam sesi PdPc dalam melahirkan guru yang berkualiti dalam mencetus revolusi pendidikan pada abad ke-21.
2. METODOLOGI
Kajian ini merupakan sebuah kajian kes yang menggunakan kaedah kuantitatif deskriptif bagi menganalisis ujian pra dan ujian pasca, manakala kaedah kualitatif digunakan bagi menganalisis senarai semak (pemerhatian, mendengar, merekod). Kajian ini dijalankan di Sekolah Kebangsaan Bukit Senggeh, Sekolah Kluster Kecemerlangan di Daerah Jasin, Melaka. Seramai 30 orang murid Tahap Dua (18 orang murid Tahun Enam dan 12 orang murid Tahun Lima) dijadikan sebagai sampel kajian. Penganalisisan data menggunakan peratusan setiap ujian yang diperoleh oleh sampel kajian serta menilai senarai semak hasil daripada pemerhatian, mendengar, serta merekod bagi meneroka keberkesanan penggunaan Teknik Lakonan dalam meningkatkan penguasaan bahasa istana murid Tahap Dua.
3. DAPATAN KAJIAN
Bahasa Istana merupakan bentuk bahasa yang digunakan dalam kalangan kerabat diraja apabila berkomunikasi dengan kerabat diraja yang lain. Walau bagaimanapun, apabila menyebut penggunaan bahasa Istana, terdapat kosa kata yang masih kekal hingga kini dan ada juga yang hanya tinggal sejarah. Pemilihan bahasa istana oleh pengkaji adalah kerana mempunyai kosa kata yang berbeza, perbezaan sistem tatabahasa, makna bahasa itu sendiri, kata ganti nama diri sama ada dalam perhubungan antara kerabat diraja mahupun perhubungan masyarakat jelata. Ini melibatkan sistem sosial dan sistem nilai dalam masyarakat Malaysia terutamanya bagi masyarakat Melayu. Oleh itu penting bagi murid kini mempelajari dan memahami makna kosa kata bahasa istana. Ini akan memberi kesedaran kepada murid bahawa bahasa istana merupakan warisan bangsa yang tidak boleh dipandang enteng oleh generasi kini.
[1], menyatakan bahasa diraja juga dikenali sebagai bahasa istana. Bahasa istana mempunyai ciri khusus dan nahu yang tersendiri. Nahu bahasa diraja adalah sama dengan sistem dan struktur bahasa am. Namun, dalam bahasa diraja, terdapat kecenderungan penggunaan penambahan dan konteks tertentu, seperti penambahan awalan per- dan akhiran -nda. Kedua-dua penambahan ini digunakan secara meluas dalam bahasa diraja, seperti permuliakan, persembahkan, persila, ibunda, kakanda, dan nenda. Manakala, sebutan diri ialah perkataan yang digunakan untuk merujuk diri, sebagai diri pertama, iaitu diri sendiri; atau sebagai diri kedua, iaitu orang yang diajak bercakap; atau sebagai diri ketiga, iaitu orang yang diperkatakan. Dalam bahasa diraja, penggunaan sebutan diri mempunyai kendala atau sekatan konteks. Pemilihan sebutan yang jitu adalah satu kemestian baginya. Jika tidak, akan menimbulkan salah faham atau anggapan yang kurang beradab.
Teknik Lakonan
[9], menyatakan kerjasama antara guru dan murid dapat mempengaruhi jalan cerita dan kesimpulan, menyelesaikan masalah yang mungkin timbul dan membuat keputusan yang menentukan jalan cerita tersebut. Dalam erti yang lain, semasa melakukan
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aktiviti lakonan yang dirancang guru bagi tujuan PdPc, secara tidak langsung murid akan menjiwai setiap watak yang dipegang. Pengalaman ini penting kerana aktiviti sebegini melibatkan murid secara langsung dan penglibatan dalam aktiviti lakonan memberikan setiap murid peluang untuk mengalami dan menghayati sendiri apa yang telah berlaku. Hal ini dapat meningkatkan penglibatan murid dalam pembelajaran dan bertanggungjawab terhadap pembelajaran mereka sendiri. Menurut [5], lakonan merupakan alat untuk melibatkan murid dan membuat pembelajaran lebih bermakna. Melalui aktiviti main peranan murid dapat memahami dan mengalami kehidupan watak lain dalam suasana yang selesa dan selamat. Aktiviti main peranan juga memupuk kemahiran berfikir kerana murid terpaksa berkomunikasi untuk menyelesaikan masalah. Komunikasi antara rakan sebaya dalam perbincangan dan latihan meningkatkan keyakinan diri murid.
Maka, Teknik Lakonan yang diaplikasikan dalam kajian ini adalah untuk melihat peningkatan murid terhadap penguasaan Bahasa Istana. Oleh itu, satu kajian awal dijalankan bagi mengenal pasti permasalahan yang terdapat dalam penguasaan bahasa istana. Ujian Pra telah dijalankan kepada murid Tahun Empat (12 orang) dan Tahun Lima (18 orang) pada tahun 2017. Analisis Ujian Pra mendapati murid tidak memahami soalan Bahasa Istana mengikut penggunaan yang tepat terutamanya bagi soalan kata ganti nama diri dan kata kerja walaupun kedua-dua soalan tersebut kerap kali dinilai dalam Ujian Penilaian Sekolah Rendah (UPSR). Permasalahan ini dapat digambarkan apabila murid Tahun Empat (2017), iaitu 5/12 memperoleh markah di bawah 10 peratus, dan 7/12 murid memperoleh markah 20 peratus. Manakala bagi murid Tahun Lima (2017), iaitu 6/18 murid memperoleh markah di bawah 10 peratus, manakala 9/18 murid memperoleh markah di bawah 20 peratus, dan 3/18 murid memperoleh markah di bawah 30 peratus. Setelah dinilai, mendapati kebanyakan murid tidak dapat menjawab soalan dengan baik berkaitan bahasa istana kerana tidak mengetahui maksud dan penggunaannya dengan tepat. Keputusan ini dapat dilihat dalam Rajah 1 di bawah.
Rajah 1: Bilangan Murid Mengikut Markah Ujian Pra
A. Selepas Penggunaan Teknik Lakonan
Pada Januari 2018, pengkaji telah menjalankan Ujian Pasca bagi menguji keberkesanan penggunaan Teknik Lakonan dalam meningkatkan bahasa istana murid Tahun Lima dan Tahun Enam (2018), di mana murid ini merupakan murid Tahun Empat dan Tahun Lima pada tahun 2017. Selepas intervensi Teknik Lakonan dijalankan di dalam kelas, terdapat peningkatan terhadap penguasaan bahasa istana murid. Pengkaji juga telah membuat analisis bahawa potensi murid dapat ditingkatkan dengan adanya pendedahan pembelajaran cara berkala dan sekali gus dapat meningkatkan prestasi murid. Pelaksanaan aktiviti Teknik Lakonan secara berkumpulan dapat membantu murid meningkatkan penguasaan Bahasa Istana. Rajah 2 di bawah menunjukkan taburan kekerapan dan peratus peserta kajian mengikut keputusan Ujian Pra dan Ujian Pasca. Berdasarkan Rajah 2, keputusan Ujian Pra dan Ujian Pasca yang tertinggi bagi kelas darjah 5 dan 6 masing-masing adalah 30 dan 46.
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Rajah 2: Markah Ujian Pra dan Ujian Pasca 2017 dan 2018
B. Teknik Lakonan Berdasarkan Tayangan Filem
Murid juga didedahkan dengan tayangan filem lama yang ada menggunakan bahasa istana. Murid diminta untuk menyenaraikan bahasa istana yang terkandung dalam filem tersebut. Hasilnya, murid dapat mengenal pasti serta menyenaraikan perkataan yang terkandung dalam filem itu contoh beta, hamba, tuanku, patik dan baginda. Selepas tayangan filem itu, sesi soal jawab diadakan untuk mengesan fahaman murid berdasarkan perkataan bahasa istana yang telah dicatat oleh murid. Sesi perbincangan antara murid dan guru berkaitan dialog dalam filem serta penggunaan yang tepat. Murid terlalu aktif untuk menjawab segala soalan yang dikemukakan. Murid juga dapat memberi definisi yang betul berdasarkan contoh yang diberikan. Melalui soal jawab murid dapat berfikir secara kreatif, inovatif, logik, kritis dan mendorong murid menghuraikan bahan yang diajar.
C. Teknik Lakonan Berdasarkan Dialog
Berdasarkan catatan murid tentang Bahasa Istana yang didapati daripada tayangan filem, murid diberikan tugasan secara berpasangan. Secara berpasangan murid dikehendaki membina dialog mudah menggunakan bahasa istana berdasarkan peranan yang telah ditetapkan oleh guru. Murid digalakkan memberi pendapat, cadangan dan penyelesaian masalah berdasarkan peranan yang dipertanggungjawabkan. Murid diberi peluang untuk mengalami situasi sebenar agar mereka faham penggunaan Bahasa Istana dengan betul. Sebelum murid berlakon, mereka perlu menghantar dialog yang dihasilkan untuk disemak oleh guru. Ini bertujuan memastikan penggunaan Bahasa Istana yang digunakan adalah betul dan tepat. menjalankan aktiviti lakonan secara berpasangan. Lakonan mereka dinilai melalui aktiviti pertandingan. Pertandingan lakonan ini dihakimi oleh Guru Penolong Kanan yang mengajar Bahasa Melayu. Aspek yang diberi penekanan adalah penggunaan Bahasa Istana yang betul dan tepat. Kumpulan yang terbaik diberikan hadiah istimewa sebagai pengukuhan kepada mereka agar lebih bersemangat dan bermotivasi.
D. Analisis Pemerhatian
Dalam kajian ini, pemerhatian secara berstruktur telah digunakan untuk memerhati, mendengar dan merekod maklumat murid berdasarkan aktiviti pengajaran dan pemudahcaraan yang dikenal pasti dengan menggunakan senarai semak. Setiap soalan permasalahan berkaitan dengan Bahasa Istana akan dicatat dan disemak. Dalam hal ini, pengkaji membuat pemerhatian ru melaksanakan tingkah laku murid sama ada memberi tumpuan atau tidak semasa pengajaran. Implikasi daripada situasi ini, pengkaji dapat mengenal pasti aspek yang perlu diberikan perhatian sebagai aspek tumpuan murid semasa pengajaran guru. Murid yang mengikuti Kajian Pengajaran menjalani pembelajaran dalam bilik darjah. Murid melibatkan diri secara aktif dalam aktiviti-aktiviti yang disediakan, seperti perbincangan secara berkumpulan dan menyampaikan idea mereka melalui lakonan. Sepanjang kajian pengajaran, pengkaji menjalankan pemerhatian dengan membuat rakaman dalam bentuk video dan foto. Aktiviti yang dijalankan diperhatikan dan menjadi tumpuan pengkaji. Pemerhatian juga merupakan satu teknik pengutipan data dengan memerhati tingkah laku subjek kajian secara langsung. Pengkaji membuat andaian bahawa program yang berkesan dengan rancangan yang teliti terutama pengajaran menggunakan teknik lakonan dapat menarik minat murid terhadap proses pengajaran dan pemudahcaraan Bahasa Melayu di sekolah.
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Jadual 1 : Nota Data daripada Pemerhatian Item Nota Pemerhatian Memerhati murid tahun 5 ketika guru Murid berasa seronok dan ceria mengikuti pengajaran menggunakan teknik sedang mengajar. lakonan. Murid yang sebelum ini pemalu dan kurang aktif nampak aktif apabila guru menggunakan pengajaran teknik lakonan. Murid banyak bergerak dan aktif semasa aktiviti pengajaran guru berlangsung.
Memerhati murid tahun 6 ketika guru Murid sangat suka terhadap pengajaran yang ada aktiviti seperti “Tayangan sedang mengajar. Filem”. Murid memberi respon dan kerjasama dalam aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran menggunakan teknik lakonan. Murid begitu aktif dan riang apabila pengajaran guru menggunakan teknik lakonan.
Memerhati murid tahun 5 ketika guru Murid sangat berminat terhadap pengajaran guru menggunakan teknik lakonan sedang mengajar. terutamanya “Tayangan Filem”. Terserlah kecenderungan positif murid terhadap pengajaran guru menggunakan teknik lakonan melalui gelagat murid mengangkat tangan untuk menjawab soalan yang dikemukakan oleh guru.
Memerhati murid tahun 6 ketika guru Murid nampak ceria dan berminat mengikuti pengajaran guru menggunakan sedang mengajar. teknik lakonan. Murid sudah mula berani tampil ke hadapan kelas apabila guru mengarah mereka ke depan untuk mengambil bahagian dalam lakonan.
4. RINGKASAN KAJIAN
Kajian yang dijalankan ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui keberkesanan penggunaan teknik lakonan dapat meningkatkan tahap penguasaan Bahasa Istana murid tahap dua, sekolah rendah. Aspek yang dibincangkan dalam kajian ini ialah keberkesanan penggunaan teknik lakonan dapat meningkatkan tahap penguasaan Bahasa Istana tahap dua sekolah rendah. Kajian ini merupakan kajian kes yang dijalankan kepada murid tahun 5 dan 6 di Sekolah Kebangsaan Bukit Senggeh, Selandar, Melaka. Sampel kajian adalah seramai 30 orang murid di sekolah tersebut. Ujian Pra dan Ujian Pasca, dan pemerhatian merupakan instrumen kajian yang digunakan oleh pengkaji. Item yang disoal dalam sesi temu bual ialah beberapa soalan yang berkaitan dengan penggunaan teknik lakonan. Microsoft Office Excel 2007 digunakan bagi mendapatkan keputusan markah ujian pra dan ujian pasca untuk mendapatkan peratusan markah responden berdasarkan item-item kajian yang bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti keberkesanan penggunaan teknik lakonan dapat mempertingkatkan tahap penguasaan Bahasa Istana murid. Analisis data dijalankan pada peringkat sebelum dan selepas proses pengumpulan data seperti yang dicadangkan oleh [3]. Pemerhatian secara berstruktur telah digunakan untuk memerhati, mendengar dan merekod maklumat murid berdasarkan aktiviti pengajaran dan pemudahcaraan yang dikenal pasti dengan menggunakan senarai semak. Setiap soalan permasalahan berkaitan dengan Bahasa Istana akan dicatat dan disemak.
5. PERBINCANGAN
Berdasarkan kajian, bahagian ini menghuraikan tiga dapatan kajian utama. Dapatan pertama keberkesanan penggunaan teknik lakonan dapat mempertingkatkan tahap penguasaan Bahasa Istana murid. Manakala dapatan kedua fahaman murid menggunakan dialog Bahasa Istana berdasarkan teknik lakonan. Dapatan ketiga murid mengkategorikan penggunaan Bahasa Istana berdasarkan Peta Pemikiran hasil teknik lakonan. Perbincangan dapatan kajian adalah berdasarkan kepada tiga persoalan kajian. Secara keseluruhannya, kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa murid-murid begitu seronok dan berminat untuk mengikuti kelas mata pelajaran Bahasa Melayu. Pemerhatian yang dijalankan oleh pengkaji mendapati bahawa murid-murid telah mengikuti sesi pembelajaran yang berlangsung selama satu jam, dengan tekun dan penuh minat. Segala arahan dan permintaan guru, dipatuhi dan dilakukan dengan baik. Riak muka mereka begitu ceria dan situasi di bilik darjah begitu hidup dengan aktiviti yang dijalankan.
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Faktor kedua adalah minat murid-murid terhadap mata pelajaran Bahasa Melayu yang mengaplikasikan teknik lakonan juga disebabkan oleh mereka diberi ruang dan peluang untuk turut serta dalam setiap aktiviti yang dirancang oleh guru. Lumrah kehidupan sebenar sesuai dengan umur murid yang memang sukakan kegembiraan dalam pembelajaran adalah sinonim dengan teknik lakonan. Sebagai contoh, melalui teknik lakonan, murid diminta tampil ke hadapan, bergerak dan bertindak sebagaimana yang diarahkan, sudah tentu akan menghilangkan rasa bosan dan mengantuk. Dapatan kajian ini juga menunjukkan bahawa setelah diserapkan teknik lakonan dalam pengajaran dan pemudahcaraan, bilangan murid yang bersedia untuk memberikan kerjasama kepada guru dalam setiap aktiviti makin bertambah. Melalui pemerhatian, pengkaji dapati murid begitu ghairah mengangkat tangan dan menawarkan diri untuk turut serta dalam setiap aktiviti. Pengkaji juga mendapati, situasi ini memberi cabaran kepada guru dalam pengurusan bilik darjah. Namun, guru tetap ceria.
Perasaan malu dan rendah diri ternyata berjaya dihindari seketika semasa mengikuti pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang mengaplikasikan teknik lakonan. Walaupun masa yang diambil untuk pemerhatian adalah singkat, namun dapat diperhatikan dengan jelas perubahan sikap ini. Murid-murid yang menjadi sampel kajian sudah memenuhi matlamat tersebut. Ini disebabkan melalui aktiviti lakonan yang dijalankan, murid-murid harus melibatkan diri untuk memahami tugas sebenar mengikut peranan yang diberikan. Sebagai contoh, mereka diberikan kad peranan untuk melakonkan situasi di istana, maka murid perlu terlebih dahulu memahami tugasan sebagai raja dengan mengaitkan pengetahuan yang didapati semasa sesi pengajaran dan pemudahcaraan, Kemudian diterjemahkan semula dalam bentuk lakonan dalam bilik darjah.
Selain itu, kajian ini mendapati murid-murid berminat untuk mengikuti aktiviti pengajaran dan pemudahcaraan jika guru menyediakan set pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang berteraskan teknik lakonan. Dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan hampir semua responden bersetuju dengan kenyataan ini. Dengan bahasa yang lebih mudah dapat dikatakan iaitu, teknik lakonan diaplikasikan dalam pengajaran mata pelajaran Bahasa Melayu mampu bagi menarik minat murid mengikuti proses PdPc. Kajian ini juga dapat diaplikasikan oleh guru Bahasa Melayu dalam usaha meningkatkan pencapaian murid dalam mata pelajaran Bahasa Melayu bahawa minat yang mendalam dan sikap yang positif terhadap Bahasa Melayu boleh meningkatkan kebolehan murid menguasai kemahiran berbahasa seterusnya meningkatkan pencapaian murid secara keseluruhannya. Walaubagaimanapun guru perlu diberi pendedahan, pengalaman, kefahaman dan pengetahuan yang meluas tentang amalan pembelajaran yang menyeronokkan. Sebagainya contoh, memberi kursus-kursus mahupun bengkel jangka pendek secara berkala untuk memastikan guru Bahasa Melayu sentiasa dibekalkan dengan pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang berkaitan dengan kemajuan dalam teknologi penyelidikan terkini. Begitu juga teknik pengajaran didatangkan dalam bentuk modul yang lengkap dan aktiviti yang disusun rapi sebagai panduan kepada guru tentang teknik ini.
Di samping itu, guru juga mengarah dan mengawal murid dalam aktiviti pembelajaran yang dirancang dalam pengajarannya. Hal ini dikukuhkan lagi dengan pendapat Esah Sulaiman (2003) dalam [13, 14] yang menyatakan teknik pengajaran penting kerana pelbagai pendekatan seperti pendekatan berpusatkan murid dan pendekatan berpusatkan bahan boleh digunakan untuk mencapai objektif pengajaran dan pemudahcaraan (PdPc).
6. IMPLIKASI KAJIAN
Kelemahan murid menguasai topik Bahasa Istana menjejaskan potensi serta motivasi dalam menguasai pelbagai kemahiran lain dalam mata pelajaran Bahasa Melayu. Dalam usaha memantapkan pengajaran dan pemudahcaraan Bahasa Melayu dewasa ini memang perlu diberi perhatian yang lebih serius. Seluruh warga pendidik Bahasa Melayu mesti mempunyai komitmen serta kekuatan untuk menghadapi cabaran dan seterusnya memanfaatkan pengetahuan dan kemahiran pengajaran Bahasa Melayu sebaik mungkin. Peningkatan profesionalisme guru Bahasa Melayu merupakan pemangkin akauntabiliti bahasa dan bangsa Melayu. Ini amat bertepatan dengan saranan Menteri Pendidikan yang mahu sistem pendidikan negara kita terus maju seiring dengan kemajuan negara berimpak tinggi.
Persepsi guru tentang imej murid yang lemah seharusnya positif dan mempunyai kesedaran bahawa mereka seharusnya dilayan secara saksama dan berpotensi untuk berjaya sama seperti rakan mereka yang cemerlang. Tambahan lagi, kesabaran serta ketekunan guru amatlah penting bagi membentuk amalan membantu murid yang mengalami masalah ini untuk berjaya. Hasil dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa kesemua responden bersetuju bahawa faktor kebolehan dan kreativiti guru dapat mengubah persepsi serta kesedaran bahawa mereka juga mempunyai potensi untuk berjaya dalam pembelajaran. Dalam kerjasama yang melibatkan pihak pengurusan sekolah diharapkan dapat membina iklim persekolahan yang kondusif, dan persekitaran sekolah yang selamat dapat merangsang murid bermotivasi untuk terus belajar. Selain itu, faktor guru yang berketrampilan serta berkeupayaan menyerap kaedah, teknik dan aktiviti serta menstrukturkan tahap pembelajaran supaya
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menjadi satu set binaan pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang kreatif dan inovatif dapat memberikan kesan positif dan bermakna. Faktor ini sememangnya dapat membina pembelajaran yang menggalakkan hala tuju pengajaran yang hendak dicapai oleh guru.
7. CADANGAN KAJIAN LANJUTAN
Berdasarkan kajian yang dijalankan dan dapatan yang diperoleh, beberapa cadangan yang berkaitan dengan kajian diusulkan sebagai rujukan untuk penyelidikan pada masa akan datang. a. Kajian kualitatif ini melibatkan murid di sebuah sekolah rendah sahaja. Oleh itu, diharapkan kajian lanjutan pada masa akan datang dapat diperluaskan dengan melibatkan murid di sekolah lain bagi membuat perbandingan. Malahan penglibatan lebih ramai murid dalam kajian akan datang dapat memberikan gambaran yang lebih holistik tentang penggunaan teknik lakonan dalam pengajaran dan pemudahcaraan Bahasa Melayu. b. Kajian ini telah dijalankan terhadap sekolah harian biasa iaitu sekolah rendah secara umum tanpa mengambil kira aspek kategori sekolah rendah itu sendiri. Bagi kajian selanjutnya dicadangkan supaya kajian ini dilakukan kepada guru Bahasa Melayu berdasarkan kategori sekolah seperti sekolah rendah jenis kebangsaan, sekolah rendah berasrama penuh, sekolah jenis kebangsaan Tamil dan sekolah rendah jenis kebangsaan cina. Kajian ini dapat memberi panduan kepada guru biasa dan Guru Cemerlang kerana pelbagai sekolah mempunyai banyak sosioekonomi yang berbeza dan mempengaruhi pembelajaran murid di sekolah. c. Kajian lanjutan juga boleh diperincikan melihat aspek lain seperti aspek tatabahasa dalam pembelajaran Bahasa Melayu sekolah rendah. Aspek tatabahasa juga penting dalam pembelajaran Bahasa Melayu khususnya kepada murid sekolah rendah. Banyak sub-topik dalam tatabahasa perlu diketengahkan oleh guru dalam pengajaran mereka. Malahan aspek tatabahasa amat penting. d. Kajian tinjauan juga boleh dijalankan dengan mengkaji faktor demografi iaitu perbandingan antara jantina dalam kalangan murid. Faktor jantina dapat dikenal pasti sama ada mempengaruhi teknik pembelajaran atau sebaliknya. Hal ini juga penting untuk dikaji kerana gaya pengajaran berlainan jantina amat berbeza.-beza.
8. KESIMPULAN
Dalam pembelajaran perlu ada gabungan strategi, pendekatan dan teknik yang perlu digunakan oleh guru untuk membantu murid dalam meningkatkan sesuatu pembelajaran. Apabila semua gabungan ini dapat digunakan dengan baik maka secara tidak langsung akan merangsang minat murid belajar dan seterusnya meningkatkan prestasi akademik murid. Teknik yang digunakan perlu seiring dengan tahap potensi mental dan fizikal murid. Kebolehan yang pelbagai dari aspek penguasaan Bahasa Melayu perlu diambil kira di samping melihat faktor luaran seperti persekitaran dan latar diri murid. Maka teknik pembelajaran murid dilihat mengambil kira tahap kebolehan murid dan mengikut peringkat yang diajar. Gabungan teknik berpusatkan guru dan berpusatkan murid serta berpusatkan bahan mampu mengubah cara pembelajaran berbanding dengan kaedah tradisional.
Kelainan teknik pembelajaran yang digunakan kepada murid seperti teknik main peranan mampu menggerakkan murid secara aktif ketika aktiviti dijalankan. Idea dapat digarapkan dengan jelas melalui perbincangan antara kumpulan kecil. Persaingan secara sihat dapat meningkatkan motivasi murid mempelajari Bahasa Istana. Begitu juga dengan penggunaan peta pemikiran I- Think dalam membina jawapan. Gabungan teknologi maklumat ini menjadikan pembelajaran lebih menarik dan berkesan. Maka, pengkaji mengharapkan kajian ini adalah sesuatu hasil yang baharu dan boleh dijadikan sumber rujukan dan panduan kepada semua guru Bahasa Melayu dalam strategi pengajaran penulisan karangan di sekolah rendah.
REFERENCES
[1] A. H. Omar. “Bahasa Istana.” Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. 2016. [2] A. H. Yahaya, I. S. Bahuri. Tinjauan Amalan Pembelajaran Koperatif di Kalangan Pelajar Tingkatan Dua Maktab Rendah Sains Mara, Gerik, Perak. Fakulti Pendidikan. Skudai: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 2007. [3] R. C. Bogdan, S. K. Biklen, “Qualitative Research for education: Introduction to Theory and Methods.” 3rd ed., Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1998.
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[4] J. Creswell, “Educational Research Planning, Conducty Evaluating Qualitative & Qualitative Research.” New Jersey: Pearson, 2005. [5] D. Morrone, “The Benefits of Drama in Education,” quoted in http://www.angelfire.com/art3/dramainedu/, 2012 [6] Johnson, Colleen, “Drama and Metacognition”, Early Child Development and Care, 172: 6, pp. 595-60 2002 [7] K. H. Husin. “Panduan dan Latihan Bahasa Malaysia UKELP untuk calon Ujian Kelayakan Pendidikan Guru.” Kumpulan Budiman. Kuala Lumpur. 1993. [8] Kamus Dewan Edisi 5. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Kuala Lumpur. 2015. [9] Kathleen, “Empowering Children Through Drama”, Early Child Development and Care, 90:1, 1993, pp.83-974. [10] L-. Freeman, Diane. “Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching.” Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986. [11] S. B. A., Merrian, “Qualitative Research in Pratice: Examples for Discussion and Analysis.” San Fancisco: Jassey-Bass A Wiley, 2009. [12] L. Nikitina. , “Creating an Authentic Learning Environment in the Foreign Language Classroom.” International Journal of Instruction, 2011 vol. 4, pp.33-46. [13] N. A. Ahmad. “Pengaplikasian Teori Konstruktivisme Dalam Proses Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran mata pelajaran Reka Cipta.” Tesis Sarjana Muda, Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, 2006. [14] P. Baldwin dalam Kertas Kerja Ucaptama, bertajuk, “Thinking Children” semasa The National Drama Conference di Edinburgh, 2002.
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UNETHICAL BEHAVIOUR IN HIGHER LEARNING INSTITUTIONS
Nurul Khair binti Ishak Faculty of Industrial Management, Universiti Malaysia Pahang Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia. [email protected]
Hasnah binti Haron Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Kuantan, Malaysia. [email protected]
Ishak bin Ismail Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Kuantan, Malaysia. [email protected]
Abstract- Unethical behavior is an action that falls outside of what is considered morally right or proper for a person. Higher learning institutions are also facing the problem of unethical behavior or misconduct, and it can involve the students, lecturers or university administrators. This paper provides some insights into the issues of unethical behavior in higher learning institutions in Malaysia. It also identified types of unethical behavior among lecturers. It then discusses importance of ethical leadership in shaping the ethical conduct in higher learning institutions.
Keywords-Unethical Behavior; Higher Learning Institution; Ethical Leadership
1. INTRODUCTION
Every now and then, we come across the increasing number of unethical scandals and cases that happened in our society. Unethical scandals can be in the form of corruption, bribery and fraud. These three common malpractices can happen in every industry, although the degree may vary from one sector to another. It has been discovered through previous studies that education systems can be as corrupt as other parts of government and the economy. The universal characteristics that can be found in the university systems are now being distorted by the interest of specific individuals in the institutions [5].
Previous studies have examined many forms of academic dishonesty and cheating behaviour in the education. Academic dishonesty or unethical behaviour in academic has also been part of the problems faced by higher education in various parts of the world. It can include problem of academic integrity such as cheating and plagiarism, and has become a topic that is being discussed by various parties in the industry. As of now, the level of integrity practiced in the academic area is still
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declining and not improving [7]. Academic institutions need to proactively investigate academic dishonesty and to identify what are the factor that influencing such behaviour.
2. PROBLEM STATEMENT
For decades, researchers and the public have become concerned about organizational misconduct in the higher learning institutions. They have also looked at how the organization and their members (academicians, administrator and students) get themselves into the issue and trying to find the best way to stay out of the trouble.
The statistics given by Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission in March 2018 showing the involvement of students, lecturers and administrative staff of higher learning institutions in Malaysia for the period of 2013-2017. From the given information, we can see that number of lecturers who involve in bribery increases i.e. from 14 cases in 2016 to 16 cases in 2017; and there were 5 people arrested in 2017. Meanwhile, for the administrator, the number is quite high in 2016, whereby 23 people arrested in 2016 and 3 was arrested in 2017.
There are also cases reported in institution of higher learning. Recently, three individuals were arrested for allegedly involved in a syndicate producing fake degree certificates inclusive of masters, degree and diploma bearing few IPTS names. They only take one week to produce all the certificates with cost ranging from RM2,000 to RM16,000 depending on types of certificate and IPTS. [10]. MACC is now trying to identify whether there are IPTS employees who abetting in the syndicate.
An ex-lecturer of USM was caught for presenting false PhD certificates and documents in order to be accepted as a lecturer, and the university has to pay sum of RM195,081.38 for his salary during his two-year service for the university before he resigned in 2010. [9]
A managing director of a private college alleged to have taken bribes from 20 college students. It was reported that the man had allegedly received RM2,500 in bribes from each student so that he would issue certificates that allowed them to pursue medical studies abroad. (NST, October 4, 2017). Two lecturers from University Technical Malaysia (UTeM) who are also husband and wife was remanded on 6 September 2017 on the allegation of abuse of power, suggesting to the faculty’s management to choose their company to buy lab equipment together with service for research amounting to RM52,000 in Mac 2015 and Jun 2016.
3. LITERATURE REVIEW
The occurrences of faculty misconduct consist of plagiarism and fraud are unfortunately exist [4]. Such misconduct examples are false research and failure to attribute credit to original source. Lecturers did not take action when the student cheat, giving false information in student’s recommendation letter, giving higher marks to students without considering the quality of the assignment. Lecturer come to class late, using harsh words when dealing with students, abusing research grant, plagiarism, having sex with student, refuse to teach and do research and not being able to carry out the administrative work given. Meanwhile, lecturer’s academic misconduct involves plagiarism, having relationship with students and not following the universities’ rules and regulation.
Transparency International, have conducted several studies into corrupt practices in academic institutions of different countries. Their monitoring exercises on corruption in the Middle East shown that 70% of respondents described that educational systems in their countries are being either corrupt or extremely corrupt, and corruption perception in the region was very high. Meanwhile, Georgia also facing the same problem with their higher education institutions as students buying their admissions, including grades and diplomas. Transparency International in Bosnia Herzegovina found few most common forms of corruption i.e. bribes for passing examination, compulsory purchase of textbooks written by lecturers and buying and selling of diplomas.
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In the US, the reported misconduct resulted in three resignations (including one faculty administrator), a dismissal and a retirement. The case is about several research papers found with identical content and a six-year period of considerable duplication, fabrication, falsification and plagiarism. Some lecturers in higher institutions in Nigeria engage in unethical practices [1]. Among perceived factors to the situation are desperation for promotion, greed for money, and lack of commitment to the profession. This is in line with the study in Nigeria, the reason why lecturers commit the unethical practices, due to desperation for promotion, stagnation in career and many other causes.
As for the case of Vietnam [6] explain that corruption in higher education in their country is uncontrolled following survey information from students, faculty and administrator. The information from students, faculty, and administrators provides clear indications that corruption in higher education in Vietnam is both rampant and institutional. The objectives of this paper are to (i) identify types of unethical behavior in higher learning institution and (ii) identify factors influencing the unethical behavior in higher learning institutions
4. UNETHICAL BEHAVIOUR IN HIGHER LEARNING INSTITUTIONS
Unethical behaviour is an action that falls outside of what is considered morally right or proper for a person. This kind of behaviour may occur among students, lecturer and administrative staff of institution of higher learning. Examples of such behaviour among students are cheating in examination, plagiarism, fraud, unacceptable assistance. Examples of misconduct among academicians can be in terms of claim, bias in grading, research plagiarism and abuse of authority. As for the administrative staffs, such behaviour could include the abuse of authority for both personal and material gain, the illegal procurement of goods and services, the use of university property and bribery. [5].
5. FACTORS INFLUENCING UNETHICAL BEHAVIOR
Generally, the job of an academician ranges through teaching, research, supervision, consultancy and contribution to the faculty, university and the society. Performance expectation of the faculty member is quite clear, even though it might differ by academic rank or by institution (comprehensive universities, research universities, private universities, colleges etc.). Teaching workloads can be around four courses a year, publish 1-2 articles in top-tier journal (senior faculty are expected to publish more) supervision, consultancy and community outreach [8].
Higher education institutions have to follow the changing nature of academic workplace. The expectation of the government on the higher education system change with the need to increase the ranking of the universities. Massive investment has been made to produce educated workforce that will attract international investment, the most direct way of raising rankings is through increasing the publication rate among faculty members.
Ranking of universities have been widely used as measure of higher education excellence. The whole system of the universities and colleges were being evaluated, which at the same time consider the publication rates as one of the most important element in most ranking system. Thus to get higher ranking means the universities and colleges must ensure that their faculty are actively involved in research and publication.
Currently, there are intensified pressures for the faculty member to carry out research and publish. The push for more research somehow affects the work of the academician, created tensions together with the need to fulfil other expectation. It will further give impact to the academic integrity, by putting names to the work of other lecturers (I will put your name in my publication and you put my name on yours), or by claiming the work of students as the lecturer own work.
There are many factors that might influence the unethical behavior in higher learning institution and one of the factors is leadership in higher learning institutions. Leaders are considered as “tone at the top” that shapes the direction and ethical culture of an organization.
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Leaders are responsible for the conduct of the organization. [2] explained the relationship between ethical leadership and employee unethical behavior. The ethical leadership is known as moral manager whom considers ethics as important. They will ensure the importance of ethics is communicated well to their subordinates. This ethical leader shows good example and modelling ethical behavior; and at the same time using the reward system to hold followers accountable for ethical conduct [2]. Ethical leaders always are the source of guidance, whereby people will pay attention and follow their good attitudes, values and behavior. How ethical leaders influence their followers is guided through the social learning theory. The theory is based on the idea that individuals learn by paying attention to and emulating the attitudes, values and behaviors of attractive and credible models.
In institutions of higher learning, the academic leaders need to strategies to promote ethical conduct. The Deans and the Head of Departments are faculty administrators who are responsible to lead the operation of their respective units of education. As such, they can influence the manner in which faculty are expected to interact. In particular, they are well positioned to provide leadership in creating an inclusive and supportive culture for faculty, staff, and students [3].
6. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The theoretical framework that can be derived from this study is the relationship of ethical leadership to unethical behavior. Leaders are expected to communicate with subordinates regarding ethics. Table 1 below shows previous studies looking at the relationship of leadership to unethical behavior.
Table 1: Previous studies on relationship of leadership to unethical behaviour.
Author Independent Methodology Findings (s) Variables
[2] Leadership – Conceptual paper Ethical leaders communicate the importance of transformational, spiritual, ethical standards and use the performance authentic management system to hold employees accountable for their conduct
[5] Ethical leadership Survey packets – five Ethical leadership positively related to ethical employee surveys and one climate supervisor survey Mediator: Ethical climate Ethical climate was negatively related to employee misconduct
Ethical climate mediated the relationship between ethical leadership and employee misconduct
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[4] Leadership (tone at the Conceptual paper Universities must set formal ethical standard, top) must ensure their leaders are acting ethically Organizational climate which lead to an ethical culture and reduce Culture unethical act.
[5] Ethical leadership Three studies with varying Managers can create and maintain ethical methodologies environments by supporting ethical leadership and encouraging ethical behaviour among co- workers.
[3] Transformational 38 item leadership inventory Leaders who are aware of the organization leadership (multifactor leadership culture and have the tools to implement change questionnaires) & were more likely to report culture interview transformation in their departments and colleges, & training can shift administrator coded using NVIVO attitudes. software
[6] Appreciation E-mail questionnaire Appreciation, vertical trust, predictability and vertical trust 864 staff of universities quality of leadership are working environment predictability factors that contribute to the experiences of quality of leadership bullying.
Higher learning institutions should be able to ensure that the leaders that they appoint can carry out their obligations and responsibilities well, than it definitely can help to oversee the behavior of their respective lecturers. The outcome of their decisions will impact the day to day operations and the overall performance of the organization. There is also an expectation that these ethical leaders will use their influence to promote ethical culture throughout the organization, implement a strong governance framework, and be committed to ensuring decisions are made honestly and with integrity.
7. SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
The finding of this study will be able to give practical implication to various groups. The Malaysian government can ensure the society at large by providing insight on the universities graduates whom are well equipped with knowledge as well as good moral values. It will follow by better services and delivery and at the same time can improve productivity.
The study will also support the Global Infrastructure Anti-Corruption Centre (GIACC), the newly established National Centre for Governance, Integrity and Anti-Corruption. GIACC is established to help create a corruption free and high integrity environment that the people wanted. GIACC is responsible for planning, formulating strategies and evaluating policies in ensuring all government affairs are done based on good governance, integrity and zero tolerance towards corruption.
The Ministry of Higher Education can be rest assured that higher learning institutions are established and well managed, and at the same time have a high quality education system and standards.
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The performance of the institution of higher learning can be improved, which than lead to higher number of student intake, generate higher earnings and be able to give back to the community in terms of corporate social responsibility. At the same time, the institution of higher learning can identify the benefits from ethics awareness and education.
The academicians will be able to share good moral values and portray the best examples to the students, be sincere in their teaching profession. The finding can also serve as an alert to the future employers and professional bodies in their responsibility of ethical modelling in order improve future workforce ethics.
8. CONCLUSION
It can be seen that there are different types of unethical behavior found in higher learning institutions. The factor that influence such behavior is also well identified, which is the importance of having an ethical leader that could lead to better ethical conduct in the institution.
REFERENCES
[1] C. C. Abanobi, “Undergraduates’ Perception of Unethical Practices Among Lecturers in Higher Institutions in Delta State.” Journal of Educational Research, Volume 2 Issue 11, 2017 [2] M. E. Brown, L. K. Treviño, "Ethical leadership: A review and future directions." Leadership Quarterly, 17(6), 595–616. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.10.004, 2006 [3] J. Bystydzienski, N. Thomas, S. Howe, A. Desai, "The leadership role of college deans and department chairs in academic culture change." Studies in Higher Education, 42(12), 2301–2315. http://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2016.1152464, 2017 [4] T. L. Elliott, L. M. Marquis, C. S. Neal, "Business Ethics Perspectives: Faculty Plagiarism and Fraud." Journal of Business Ethics, 112(1). http://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-012-1234-5, 2013 [5] S. Heyneman, "The Corruption of Ethics in Higher Education." International Higher Education, (62), 8–9. http://doi.org/10.6017/ihe.2011.62.8530, 2015 [6] D. C. McCornac, "Corruption in Vietnamese Higher Education." International Higher Education, 50, 25–26. 2008 [7] N. Sabli, N. M. Rahim, M. R. M. Dangi, N. A. Hamid, M. F. Adnan, R. A. Wahab, N. H. Haron, (2016). "Erosion of academic integrity in higher education system : Symbolization of dishonesty." Jurnal Pendidikan Malaysia, 41(1), 53– 64. 2016 [8] C. Wan, D. Da, Chapman, S. Hutcheson, M. Lee, A. Austin, A. N. Ahmad, "Changing higher education practice in Malaysia: the conundrum of incentives." Studies in Higher Education, 42(11), 2134–2152. http://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2015.1134475, 2017 [9] www.thesundaily.my/news/2018/03/08/usm-lecturer-accused-getting-job-fake-cert [10] https://www.thestar.com.my/news/.../syndicate-producing-fake-qualifications-busted/
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PROGRAM COMMITTEE
PATRON
YH. PROF. DATO’ SRI TS. DR. DAING MOHD NASIR BIN DAING IBRAHIM
ADVISORY CONFERENCE
YH. PROF DATO’ DR. ROSLI BIN MOHD YUNUS. YH. PROF. DATO’ DR. MASHITAH BINTI MOHD. YUSOFF YH. PROF. DATO’ DR. HASNAH BINTI HARON YH. PROF. DR. KAMAL ZUHAIRI BIN ZAMLI
CONFERENCE CHAIR
DR. MOHD NIZAM BIN MOHMAD KAHAR
CONFERENCE CO-CHAIR
PROF. DR. MIMI SAKINAH BINTI ABDUL MUNAIM
SECRETARY
ENCIK AHMAD ZARIF BIN AHMAD FAUZI (LEADER) ENCIK ZAHARUL ZAMAN BIN ROSELAN
TREASURER
PUAN JURIAH BINTI MOHAMAD
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TECHNICAL COMMITTEE PROCEEDING PUBLICATION
Leader Leader Dr. Md. Manjur Ahmed Dr Ferda Ernawan
Co-Leader Members Dr. Taha Hussein Alaaldeen Rassem Dr. Zuriani Binti Mustaffa Dr. Danakorn Nincarean A/L Eh Phon Members Dr. Nor Saradatul Akmar Binti Zulkifli Dr. Mohd Faaizie Bin Darmawan Dr. Anis Farihan Binti Mat Raffei Dr. Noorlin Binti Mohd Ali Dr. Mohd Arfian Bin Ismail Dr. Nor Syahidatul Nadiah Binti Ismail Dr. Salwana Binti Mohamad @ Asmara Dr. Nur Shamsiah Binti Abdul Rahman Dr. Nomani Kabir
PROGRAM, PROTOCOL & FLOOR FOOD & BEVERAGES MANAGER Leader Leader Encik Mohd Azwan Mohamad @ Hamza Puan Noraini Binti Mohd Tajudin Encik Shahrizai Bin Haji Sarif Member Members Cik Farah Najwa Binti Subli Puan Fauziah Binti Sabli Puan Siti Sharifah Salwa Binti Mohamad Duri
SPONSORSHIP & SOUVENIOR HOSPITALITY, LOGISTICS & TRANSPORTATION
Dr Rosdiana Bt Shahril Leader Puan Kalpana A/P Ramachandran Dr Ahmad Firdaus Bin Zainal Abidin Puan W Fazilah Binti W Mohd Members Encik Mohd Rahmad Bin Ya Cik Noor Ayu Binti Mohd Daud Arifah Nadiah Binti Che Zainol Ariff
PROMOTION & PUBLICITY MULTIMEDIA & AV
Dr. Wan Isni Sofiah Binti Wan Din Dr Mohd Zamri Bin Osman Aisyatul Hanisah Binti Mazri Puan Nuraniza Abd Samad Encik Izzi Habibi Bin Aris Encik Mohd Navi Bin Yusof
WEBSITE & PORTAL
Puan Nurlinda Binti Kadri
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LIST OF REVIEWERS
NAME INSTITUTIONS NAME INSTITUTIONS Dr Mohamad Firdaus Ab Aziz Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Dr. Nur Hanis Hayati Hairon Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia Malaysia Dr. Ngahzaifa Ab Ghani Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Nor Hanimah Hamidi Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Sunarti Binti Abd Rahman Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Md. Mokammel Haque University of Chittagong Dr Siti Airin Abdul Ghani Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Khairunnisa Binti Hasikin Universiti Malaya Pn. Hasmanie Binti Abdul Halim Universiti Malaysia Pahang Hasikin Dr. Tuty Asmawaty Abdul Kadir Universiti Malaysia Pahang Prof. Dr. Mohammed Moshiul University of Chittagong Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mazlina Abdul Universiti Malaysia Pahang Hoque Majid Mr. Md. Sabir Hossain Jahangirnagar University Dr Mohammad Ashraf Abdul Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. M. K. Mohammad Ziaul University of Chittagong Rahman Hyder Aziman Abdullah Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr Azian Ibrahim Ibrahim Universiti Malaysia Pahang Ir. Dr. Arman Abdullah Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Asmida Ideris Universiti Malaysia Pahang Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ruzaini Abdullah Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Doh Shu Ing Ing Universiti Malaysia Pahang Arshah Prof. Dr M Monirul Islam University of Rajshahi Dr. Ajiboye Abdulraheem Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr Nor Syahidatul Nadiah Ismail Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Rohani Abu Bakar Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Syifak Izhar Universiti Malaysia Pahang Prof. Aiman Abu Samra Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Muhammad Nomani Kabir Universiti Malaysia Pahang Assoc. Prof. Dr. Fatmawati Adam Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Diyana Kamarudin Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Adekunle Qudus Adeleke Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Md. Ashiqur Rahman Khan Bangladesh University of Dr Mohd Hanafiah Bin Ahmad Universiti Malaysia Pahang Engineering and Technology Dr. Noormazlinah Ahmad Universiti Malaysia Pahang Assoc. Prof. Dr. Chong Kwok Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Noor Sabrina Ahmad Mutamim Universiti Malaysia Pahang Feng Dr. Azilah Ajit @ Abd Aziz Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Zafril Rizal M. Azmi Universiti Malaysia Pahang Prof. Dr. Md. Aminul Haque Khulna University of Dr. Fatimah Binti Mahmud Universiti Malaysia Pahang Akhand Engineering & Technology Dr Wan Khairul Anuar Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Mohammad Nishat Akhtar Universiti Sains Malaysia W.A.Manan Manan Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr Qais Ali Al-Nuzaili Al-Nuzaili Qatar University Prof. Dr. Mohammad Mashud Khulna University of Dr. Yasser Alginahi Taibah University Mashud Engineering & Technology Dr Asma Ahmed Alhashmi Mysore University Dr. Ts.Muhamad Mat Noor Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Abdulghani Ali Ahmed Universiti Malaysia Pahang Ajiboye Abdulraheem Universiti Malaysia Pahang Mr Tarik A. Almohamad Unversiti Sains Malaysia Dr Anis Farihan Mat Raffei Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr Adila Firdaus Arbain Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Lizawati Mi Yusuf Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Malaysia Dr. Md. Waliur Rahman Miah Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr Wesam Ashour Ashour Islamic University of Gaza Dr. Mohamad Afiq Mohamed Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Dr. Suryanti Awang Awang Universiti Malaysia Pahang Huri Dr. Gran Badshah Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Nurul Aini Mohamed Razali Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Dr. Luhur Bayuaji Bayuaji Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Noorlin Mohd Ali Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Sayeda Halima Begum University of Chittagong Dr. Abdul Aziz Mohd Azoddein Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Nasrul Fikry Che Pa Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Dr Feresa Mohd Foozy Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia Malaysia Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cheng Chin Kui Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Noorhuzaimi Karimah Mohd Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Md. Rezaul Karim Cuet University of Chittagong Noor Dr. Mohd Faaizie Darmawan Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Alara Oluwaseun Ruth Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr Asiah Kassim Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Dr. Norasiha Binti Hamid Kolej Yayasan Pahang Malaysia Dr. Al-Fahim Mubarak Ali Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr Dwi Pebrianti Universiti Malaysia Pahang Muhammad Shabir Bin Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr Hafizoah Kassim Universiti Malaysia Pahang Shaharudin Dr Norashikin Binti Mat Zain Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Zalili Musa Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr Rashidi Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr.Ghaida Muttasher Muttasher Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr Tan Suat Hian Universiti Malaysia Pahang Chew Few Ne Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Juliawati Binti Alias Universiti Malaysia Pahang Mr. Mahbub Noor Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Jun Haslinda Shariffuddin Universiti Malaysia Pahang Nur Sukinah Aziz TATI University College Dr. Mahfuzah Mustafa Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr Rokiah Othman Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Mohd Mawardi Saari Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Taha Rassem Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Raja Mohd Taufika Raja Ismail Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Faizah Razali Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Dr. Wan Suraya Binti Wan Nik Universiti Malaysia Pahang Malaysia Dr. Ferda Ernawan Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Norida Ridzuan Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr Abdul Sahli Fakharudin Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr Rozlina Mohamed Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr Nibras Abdullah Ahmed Faqera Universiti Sains Malaysia Siti Kholijah Binti Abdul Mudalip Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Muhammad Nomani Kabir Universiti Malaysia Pahang Azizul Helmi Sofian Universiti Malaysia Pahang Assoc. Prof. Dr. Noraziah Ahmad Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Sitansu Panda Universiti Malaysia Pahang Mr. Abu Hasnat Mohammad University of Chittagong Dr Zuraina Ali Universiti Malaysia Pahang Ashfak Habib Dr. Hamzah Ahmad Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Herwan Sulaiman Universiti Malaysia Pahang
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NAME INSTITUTIONS NAME INSTITUTIONS
Prof. Dr. Sabira Khatun Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr Norazidah Binti Shamsudin Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr Syed Radzi Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Fazlul Hasan Siddiqui Dhaka University of Md Arafatur Rahman Universiti Malaysia Pahang Engineering & Technology Mohammad Obaidur Rahman Jahangirnagar university Dr. Siti Munirah Sidik Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Dr Fatin Izzati Ramli Ramli Universiti Malaysia Pahang Idris Dr Noor Suraya Binti Romali Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Shahryar Sorooshian Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr Mohamad Saufi Rosmi Universiti Pendidikan Dr. Junaida Sulaiman Universiti Malaysia Pahang Sultan Idris Dr Ida Rizyani Universiti Malaysia Pahang Mr Sami Abdulla Mohsen Saleh Universiti Sains Malaysia Che Yahaya Yaakub Universiti Malaysia Pahang Saleh Dr. Liu Yao Yao Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Jamaludin Sallim Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr. Bariah Yusob Universiti Malaysia Pahang Noraniza Samat Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr Hamzah Zainuddin Zainuddin Universiti Malaysia Pahang Azma Abdullah Universiti Malaysia Pahang Dr Nor Saradatul Akmar Zulkifli Universiti Malaysia Pahang Assoc. Prof. Dr. Abul Fazal University of Chittagong Dr. Noor Ida Amalina Ahamad Universiti Malaysia Pahang Muhammad Sanaullah Nordin Dr. Tao Hai Universiti Malaysia Pahang Mr. Hesham Haider Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
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ABOUT UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG
Universiti Malaysia Pahang (UMP) was established by the Government of Malaysia on February 16, 2002. UMP was set up as a competency based technical university which specialises in the fields of engineering and technology.
UMP is located on the east coast state of Pahang, the biggest state in Peninsular Malaysia with vast areas of rainforest endowed with a wide range of biodiversities and natural resources. The campus is also strategically located in the East Coast Industrial Belt of Peninsular Malaysia which hosts a large number of multinational corporations (MNCS) in the chemical, petrochemical, manufacturing, automotive and biotechnology industries.
UMP offers a wide range of skills-based tertiary education programmes and practical-based tertiary education in engineering and technology to produce competent engineers. Its application oriented curriculum integrates theory and practise in the concept of a teaching factory, emphasizing experiental and action learning, task oriented and problem solving.
As for research, UMP focuses on applied research and industrial projects to enrich the teaching and learning processes as well as to promote the commercialization of research products, thus exposing students to the latest research and development activities in the industries. The university’s campuses are fully equipped with the latest information and communication technology (ICT) systems, including wireless broadband internet connections to facilitate the university’s electronic based e-Learning and e-Management activities.
UMP is committed to the development of human capital and technology to fulfill the needs of industries as well as to contribute to the country’s overall development. At present UMP has nine faculties:
• Faculty of Computer Systems & Software Engineering • Faculty of Chemical & Natural Resources Engineering • Faculty of Civil Engineering & Earth Resources • Faculty of Electrical & Electronics Engineering • Faculty of Industrial Sciences & Technology • Faculty of Manufacturing Engineering • Faculty of Mechanical Engineering • Faculty of Technology Engineering • Faculty of Industrial Management
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CORPORATE MISSION
VISION
A Distinguished Technological University
MISSION
We provide high quality education, research and services in engineering and technology in a culture of creativity and innovation.
OBJECTIVES
• To produce outstanding graduates by providing competitive engineering and technological programmes. • To spearhead cutting edge industry-relevant research initiatives. • To be a leading service provider to industries and community based on our niche and areas of expertise. •To be recognized as an institution for excellent management and work culture.
PHILOSOPHY
Knowledge, a trust bestowed by Allah to man vicegerent on earth, is to be fully utilized. Emphasis is an applied knowledge guided by Islamic values to develop human capital towards universal harmony and prosperity.
CORE VALUES
Strong bond with the creator.. Steadfast in upholding shared principles. Creative in making wise decisions. Resolute in facing challenges. Proactive in taking actions.
For further information, please contact: Universiti Malaysia Pahang Lebuhraya Tun Razak 26300 Kuantan, Pahang Tel.: +6 09 424 5000 Email: [email protected]
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ABOUT INSTITUTE OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES (IPS)
The Institute of Postgraduate Studies (IPS) supervises the graduate programs in UMP. This includes administering the admission, appointment of supervisors, candidature reviews, provision of financial assistance and assessment. The centre is headed by a Dean who is assisted by administrative officers and administrative assistants.
The function of IPS includes the following: Promoting UMP’s graduate programs Facilitate the appointment of supervisor for graduate student Oversees the provision of financial assistance Coordinate the end of semester appraisal of candidature Organise the mid-term candidature review Coordinate the assessment for graduation purposes Formulate administrative policies pertaining to graduate studies Organise activities to enhance graduate students research capabilities Organise activities to enhance the supervisory abilities of UMP’s academic staff
For further information, please contact: Institute of Postgraduate Studies, Universiti Malaysia Pahang Lebuhraya Tun Razak, Gambang 26300 Kuantan, Pahang Malaysia Phone: +609 549 3197 / 3198 / 3199 / 3201 Fax: +609 549 3190 http://ips.ump.edu.my
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ABOUT FACULTY OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS & SOFTWARE ENGINEERING
Faculty of Computer Systems & Software Engineering was established on 16 February 2002 to produce knowledgeable, high skilled and competitive graduates within the sphere of software engineering, system and computer network.
The establishment of the faculty is in line with the vision and mission of the University to produce knowledgeable, highly skilled and competitive students in the field of software engineering and computer networks. Five (5) research groups were introduced in the effort of enhancing the contents of the programs offered. These research groups are: Information Systems (IS), Software Engineering Research Group (SERG), Soft-Computing & Intelligent System (SPINT), Multimedia Computing & Visualization (McVIS), Systems Network & Security (SysNetS).
The faculty emphasizes on the development and growth of its students’ enrolment and graduates. Through high quality teaching (by completing specific quality outcome and generic skills), great laboratories facilities, proper and careful advising and numerous professional activities, our students have opportunity to excel in the classroom and laboratory session. In a personable atmosphere, the students become well prepared in the term of software engineering knowledge and technical skills. Thus, they are ready and confident to begin their professional career or further their studies. At present the faculty has four undergraduate programmes and postgraduate by research and coursework.
UNDERGRADUATE POSTGRADUATE Diploma of Computer Science Coursework Bachelor of Computer Science (Software Master of Science (Information & Communication Engineering) with Honours Technology) Bachelor of Computer Science (Graphics & Master of Science (Software Engineering) Multimedia Technology) with Honours Master of Science (Computer Networking) Bachelor of Computer Science (Computer Systems Research & Networking) with Honours Master of Science (Computer Science) Master of Science (Software Engineering) Doctor of Philosophy (PhD in Computer Science) Doctor of Philosophy (PhD in Software Engineering For further information, please contact: Faculty of Computer Systems & Software Engineering Universiti Malaysia Pahang Lebuhraya Tun Razak 26300 Kuantan, Pahang Tel.: +609 5492133 Fax: +609-5492144 Email: [email protected]
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EVENTS LOCATION
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG, GAMBANG CAMPUS
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SPONSORSHIPS
Sponsors
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