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Footnotes This article was initially written for the “John Brown Remembered: 150 th Anniversary of the Raid at Harpers Ferry” conference, held at the Harpers Ferry National Historical Park in October 2009. Thanks to the conference participants, the anonymous readers for The Journal of the Historical Society , and Blain Roberts for their thoughtful comments. New-York Tribune , February 27, 1863; Stephen V. Ash, Firebrand of Liberty : The Story of Two Black Regiments That Changed the Course of the Civil War (New York: W.W. Norton, 2008), 87–88. Ash, Firebrand of Liberty , 85; Thomas Wentworth Higginson to James Russell Lowell, October 23, 1859, Thomas Wentworth Higginson Papers, Houghton Library (HL), Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Higginson to Louisa Higginson, April 23, 1861, HL; Higginson to Salmon Brown, November 1, 1861, Huntington Library (HUNT), San Marino, California; Higginson, Army Life in a Black Regiment and Other Writings , ed. R.D. Madison (New York: Penguin Books, 1997), 3. Bertram Wyatt-Brown, Yankee Saints and Southern Sinners (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1985), 116–127. C. Vann Woodward, The Burden of Southern History , 3 rd edition (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1993), 51; Tilden J. Edelstein, Strange Enthusiasm: A Life of Thomas Wentworth Higginson (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968), 208; Edelstein, “John Brown and His Friends,” in Hugh Hawkins, ed., The Abolitionists: Means, Ends, and Motivations , 2 nd edition (Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1972), 125–27; Jeffrey S. Rossbach, Ambivalent Conspirators: John Brown, the Secret Six, and a Theory of Slave Violence (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982), 10, 274; David S. Reynolds, John Brown, Abolitionist: The Man Who Killed Slavery, Sparked the Civil War, and Seeded Civil Rights (New York: Knopf, 2005), 7, 214–232, 342–47; Len Gougeon, “Historical Background,” in Len Gougeon and Joel Myerson, eds., Emerson's Antislavery Writing (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), xlvii; Gougeon, Virtue's Hero: Emerson, Antislavery, and Reform (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990), 237–38; Robert D. Richardson, Jr., Henry David Thoreau: A Life of the Mind (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986), 370. This essay builds on recent Transcendentalist scholarship, which depicts the American romantics as strong supporters of the abolitionist movement, especially in the decade before the Civil War. See, for example, Len Gougeon, Virtue's Hero ; Richard F. Teichgraeber III, Sublime Thoughts/Penny Wisdom: Situating Emerson and Thoreau in the American Market (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); Albert J. Von Frank, The Trials of Anthony Burns: Freedom and Slavery in Emerson's Boston (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998); T. Gregory Garvey, ed., The Emerson Dilemma : Essays on Emerson and Social Reform (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2001); Reynolds, John Brown, Abolitionist ; Sandra Harbert Petrulionis, To Set This World Right: The Antislavery Movement in Thoreau's Concord (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2006); and Ethan J. Kytle, “From Body Reform to Reforming the Body Politic: Transcendentalism and the Militant Antislavery Career of Thomas Wentworth Higginson,” American Nineteenth Century History 8 (September 2007): 325–350. For works that downplay the Transcendentalists’ antislavery engagement, see Aileen Kraditor, Means and Ends in American Abolitionism: Garrison and His Critics on Strategy and Tactics, 1834–1850 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1969) and Anne C. Rose, Transcendentalism as a Social Movement, 1830–1850 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981) Portions of this paragraph, and a few of the paragraphs that follow also appear, in significantly altered form, in Kytle, “From Body Reform to Reforming the Body Politic.” Liberator , November 2, 1855, May 9, 1856, August 8, 1856. Gregg D. Crane, Race, Citizenship, and Law in American Literature (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 13; Von Frank, Trials of Anthony Burns , esp. 96–106; Ferenc M. Szasz, “Antebellum Appeals to the ‘Higher Law,’ 1830–1860,”Essex Institute Historical Collections 110 (Jan. 1974): 33–48; Rufus King, quoted in David Brion Davis, Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 276; Henry Mayer, All on Fire: William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolition of Slavery (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998), 413–14; William H. Seward, “Freedom in the New Territories,” in George E. Baker, ed., The Works of William H. Seward (New York: Redfield, 1853) 1:74. Carl Schurz, quoted in Doris Kearns Goodwin, Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005), 14; Von Frank, Trials of Anthony Burns , 280; Reynolds, John Brown, Abolitionist , 482; Ralph Waldo Emerson, “Address to the Citizens of Concord,” in Emerson's Antislavery Writings , 65, 63; Theodore Parker, “The Function and Place of Conscience,” in Parker, Speeches, Addresses, and Occasional Sermons , 3 vols. (Boston: Horace B. Fuller, 1871), 3:139; Newburyport Daily Evening Union , November 5, 1850. For more on Theodore Parker, see Dean Grodzins, American Heretic: Theodore Parker and Transcendentalism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002). August Bondi, “With John Brown in Kansas,” Transactions of the Kansas State Historical Society 8 (1903–1904): 283; Perry Miller, “From Edwards to Emerson,” in his Errand into the Wilderness (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1956), 189–199; Reynolds, John Brown, Abolitionist , 188–89; Brown, quoted in Richard J. Hinton, John Brown and His Men: With Some Account of the Roads They Traveled to Reach Harper's Ferry (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1894), 363. Higginson, Massachusetts in Mourning : A Sermon, Preached in Worcester, on Sunday, June 4, 1854 (Boston: Prentiss and Sawyer, 1854), 4, 11–12. Higginson, Cheerful Yesterdays (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1898), 196–214; Edelstein, Strange Enthusiasm , 186–193; New-York Tribune , October 10, 1856. Higginson's dispatches from Kansas are reproduced as “A Ride Through Kanzas,” in Howard N. Meyer, ed., The Magnificent Activist: The Writings of Thomas Wentworth Higginson, 1823–1911 (New York: Da Capo Press, 2000), 74–100. Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nature: Addresses and Lectures , in Edward Waldo Emerson, ed., The Complete Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson , 12 vols. (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1903), 1:50, 57; Higginson, Field Book, July 23, 1861, May 20, September 18, and October 26, 1860, HL. Ralph Waldo Emerson, quoted in David Robinson, Apostle of Culture: Emerson as Preacher and Lecturer (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982), 55; Higginson, Massachusetts in Mourning , 14–15; Higginson, “Gymnastics,” Atlantic Monthly 7 (March 1861): 285. Higginson, “A Letter to a Dyspeptic,” Atlantic Monthly 3 (April 1859): 468–69. Higginson, “The Route to North Elba,” in James Redpath, ed., The Public Life of Captain John Brown, with an Auto-Biography of His Childhood and Youth (Boston: Thayer and Eldridge, 1860), 70; Ralph Waldo Emerson, Journals and Miscellaneous Notebooks of Ralph Waldo Emerson , ed. Susan Sutton Smith and Alfred Riggs Ferguson (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978): 14:126; Emerson, Journals and Miscellaneous Notebooks of Ralph Waldo Emerson , ed. Linda Allardt and David W. Hill (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982), 15:68; Reynolds, John Brown, Abolitionist , 229. Orville Vernon Burton, The Age of Lincoln (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007), 76; Robert E. McGlone, John Brown's War against Slavery (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 73–80; Reynolds, John Brown, Abolitionist , 155–178, 221–22; Edelstein, Strange Enthusiasm , 190. Decades later, however, the Transcendentalist tentatively endorsed the brutal attack at Pottawatomie. Admitting that he would not have gone as far as Brown, Higginson nonetheless judged Oswald Garrison Villard's lengthy indictment of the event as “too severe.” Higginson also wrote that as he traveled across Kansas in the months after the May 1856 attack he “heard of no one who did not approve of the act,” adding that its “beneficial effects were universally asserted.” Higginson to Oswald Garrison Villard, September 8, 1910, John Brown Manuscripts, Rare Books and Manuscripts Library, Columbia University Library (CUL), New York, New York; Oswald Garrison Villard, John Brown, 1800–1859: A Biography Fifty Years After (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1910), 148–188; Higginson, Cheerful Yesterdays , 207. New-York Tribune , October 17, 1856; Liberator , January 16, 1857; Worcester Daily Spy , December 2, 1859. Frederick Douglass, The Life and Times of Frederick Douglass, Written by Himself (Hartford, Conn.: Park Publishing, 1882), 340; Liberator , May 28, 1858. Higginson, “Physical Courage,” Atlantic Monthly 2 (November 1858): 732; Higginson, War Journal, June 27, 1863 and n.d., in Christopher Looby, ed., The Complete Civil War Journal and Selected Letters of Thomas Wentworth Higginson (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 155, 106. For more on Higginson's racial thought and paternalistic attitude towards his black soldiers, see Looby, “‘As Thoroughly as the Most Faithful Philanthropist Could Desire’: Erotics of Race in Higginson's Army Life in a Black Regiment ,” in Harry Stecopoulos and Michael Uebel, eds., Race and the Subject of Masculinities (Durham: Duke University Press, 1997), 71–115; Edelstein, Strange Enthusiasm , 257–264, 322–23; and Kytle, “From Body Reform to Reforming the Body Politic,” 338– 340. Liberator , February 2, 1854. Proceedings of the State Disunion Convention, held at Worcester, Massachusetts, January 15, 1857 (Boston: Massachusetts Committee for Disunion, 1857), 3, 41, 29, 31, 29. Edelstein, Strange Enthusiasm , 203, 196; Liberator , January 16, 1857; Higginson, Cheerful Yesterdays , 216–17. Rossbach, Ambivalent Conspirators , 4; Brown to Higginson, February 12, 1858, in Louis Ruchames, ed., John Brown: The Making of a Revolutionary: The Story of John Brown in His Own Words and in the Words of Those Who Knew Him (New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1969), 118–19; Higginson, “The Route to North Elba,” 62; Douglass, Life and Times , 340–41. Edelstein, Strange Enthusiasm , 200–01, 204–210; Rossbach, Ambivalent Conspirators , 85–89; Franklin Sanborn to Higginson, September 28, 1857, quoted in Edelstein, Strange Enthusiasm , 207; John Brown to Higginson, March 4, 1858, Thomas Wentworth Higginson Papers, Boston Public Library (BPL), Boston, Massachusetts. Delegates at the Worcester Disunion Convention had avowed to hold a national disunion convention, but the economic recession of 1857 forced postponement and, eventually, cancellation of the event. Higginson to William Lloyd Garrison, August 27, 1857, BPL; Higginson to William Lloyd Garrison, October 17, 1857, BPL. Higginson, memorandum, June 1, 1858, BPL; Higginson to [John Brown], October 29, 1858, BPL; Reynolds, John Brown, Abolitionist, 247–48; Edelstein, Strange Enthusiasm , 208–216; Rossbach, Ambivalent Conspirators , 132–33; Gerrit Smith to Franklin Sanborn, May 7, 1858, in Franklin Benjamin Sanborn, The Life and Letters of John Brown (Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1891), 458. Higginson to [Jason Brown], May 7, 1858, BPL; Higginson to Theodore Parker, May 18, 1858, BPL. Higginson to [John Brown], May 1, 1859, BPL; Edelstein, Strange Enthusiasm , 218. Franklin Sanborn to Higginson, June 4, 1859, BPL; Higginson, Cheerful Yesterdays , 222–23; Edelstein, Strange Enthusiasm , 217–220; Higginson to [John Brown], May 1, 1859, BPL; Reynolds, John Brown, Abolitionist , 288–307. Higginson to Louisa Higginson, October 1859, HL; McGlone, John Brown's War against Slavery , 1–9. Higginson to Samuel Gridley Howe, November 15, 1859, BPL; Higginson to Franklin Sanborn, November 17, 1859, BPL; Reynolds, John Brown, Abolitionist , 342–43. Higginson to Louisa Higginson, October 27, 1859, HL; John Brown to Jeremiah Brown, November 12, 1859, in Sanborn, Life and Letters of John Brown , 588; Higginson, et al., “Circular Letter,” November 2, 1859, BPL; Oswald Garrison Villard to Higginson, December 8, 1907, CUL; Higginson to Oswald Garrison Villard, January 10, 1908, CUL; New-York Tribune , November 8, 1859; Higginson, Cheerful Yesterdays , 226–235; Edelstein, Strange Enthusiasm , 227–236. Reynolds, John Brown, Abolitionist, 346; David S. Reynolds, “Transcendentalism, Transnationalism, and Antislavery Violence: Concord's Embrace of John Brown,” in Barry Tharaud, ed., Emerson for the Twenty-First Century (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2010), 472; New York Herald , October 28, 1859; Liberator , November 4, 1859; Rossbach, Ambivalent Conspirators , 217. New York Times , October 20, 1859; New-York Tribune , October 19, 1859; Liberator , October 21, 1859. Henry David Thoreau, “A Plea for Captain John Brown,” in James Redpath, ed., Echoes of Harper's Ferry (Boston: Thayer and Eldridge, 1860), 30; Reynolds, John Brown, Abolitionist , 344– 47, 365–67; Petrulionis, To Set This World Right , 136–39; Janet Kemper Beck, Creating the John Brown Legend: Emerson, Thoreau, Douglass, Child, and Higginson in Defense of the Raid on Harpers Ferry (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2009), 117–123; Liberator , November 18, 1859. Other sources report that Emerson said Brown “will make the gallows as glorious as the cross”[my emphasis]. Whatever the case, this line, which Emerson borrowed from antislavery author Mattie Griffith, was not included in the published version of “Courage.” New-York Tribune , December 14, 1859; Emerson, “Courage,” in Edward Waldo Emerson, ed., The Compete Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1912), 7:251–280, 427; Reynolds, John Brown, Abolitionist , 366–67. Sanborn to Theodore Parker, Franklin Benjamin Sanborn Papers, November 14, 1859, Concord Free Public Library, Concord, Massachusetts; Liberator , December 16, 1859. For more on the controversy born from Emerson's comparison of Brown to Jesus Christ, see Harold K. Bush, “Emerson, John Brown, and ‘Doing the Word’: The Enactment of Political Religion at Harpers Ferry, 1859,” in The Emerson Dilemma , 208–210. Baltimore Sun , November 28, 1859, quoted in Villard, John Brown, 1800–1859 , 568; Richmond Enquirer , October 25, 1859, quoted in Stephen B. Oates, To Purge This Land with Blood: A Biography of John Brown (New York: Harper & Row, 1970), 323; Fulton Anderson, quoted in Charles B. Dew, Apostles of Disunion: Southern Secession Commissioners and the Causes of the Civil War (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2001), 62. The United States had taken control of the Sea Islands and Key West, but no territory on the mainland of the Department of the South. Ash, Firebrand of Liberty , 69. Douglass, Life and Times , 340–41. Higginson to Rufus Saxton, February 1, 1863, in The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1885), Series 1, 14:198; Higginson, “The Ordeal by Battle,” Atlantic Monthly 8 (July 1861): 94; Higginson, Army Life in a Black Regiment , 75–77; Ash, Firebrand of Liberty , 70, 73, 84–86. Higginson, “John Brown at Ossawatomie,” Alexander's Magazine 2 (August 1906): 25; Ash, Firebrand of Liberty , 73, 95, 113. Higginson, War Journal, March 13, 1863, in Complete Civil War Journal , 109; Ash, Firebrand of Liberty , 100–163. Higginson, War Journal, March 28 and March 30, 1863, in Complete Civil War Journal , 117, 119– 123; Higginson, Army Life in a Black Regiment , 97–98; Ash, Firebrand of Liberty , 109, 166–181, 190–91, 196. Ash, Firebrand of Liberty , 200–02, 211–13. Higginson to “Dear Friends”[John Brown's children], November 10, 1859, HUNT. Steven Hahn, The Political Worlds of Slavery and Freedom (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009), 55–114. Thoreau, “A Plea for Captain John Brown,” 21.