Pax Syriana Modern Intellectual and Political History of the Middle East Mehrzad Boroujerdi, Series Editor Other titles in Modern Intellectual and Political History of the Middle East Britain and the Iranian Constitutional Revolution of 1906–1911: Foreign Policy, Imperialism, and Dissent Mansour Bonakdarian Class and Labor in Iran: Did the Revolution Matter? Farhad Nomani and Sohrab Behdad Democracy and Civil Society in Arab Political Thought: Transcultural Possibilities Michaelle L. Browers The Essentials of Iba¯d¯ı Islam ˙ Valerie J. Hoffman Globalization and the Muslim World: Culture, Religion, and Modernity Birgit Schaebler and Leif Stenberg, eds. God and Juggernaut: Iran’s Intellectual Encounter with Modernity Farzin Vahdat A Guerrilla Odyssey: Modernization, Secularism, Democracy, and the Fadai Period of National Liberation in Iran, 1971–1979 Peyman Vahabzadeh The International Politics of the Persian Gulf Mehran Kamrava, ed. The Kurdish Quasi-State: Development and Dependency in Post–Gulf War Iraq Denise Natali The Urban Social History of the Middle East, 1750–1950 Peter Sluglett, ed. Pax Syriana Elite Politics in Postwar Lebanon Rola el-Husseini With a Foreword by Ryan Crocker Syracuse University Press Copyright © 2012 by Syracuse University Press Syracuse, New York 13244-5290 All Rights Reserved First Edition 2012 12 13 14 15 16 17 6 5 4 3 2 1 ∞ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1992. For a listing of books published and distributed by Syracuse University Press, visit our website at SyracuseUniversityPress.syr.edu. ISBN: 978-0-8156-3304-4 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data El-Husseini, Rola. Pax Syriana : elite politics in postwar Lebanon / Rola el-Husseini ; with a Foreword by Ryan Crocker. — First edition. pages cm. — (Modern intellectual and political history of the Middle East) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8156-3304-4 (cloth : alkaline paper) 1. Lebanon—Politics and government—1990– 2. Lebanon—Politics and government—1975–1990. 3. Lebanon—History—Civil War, 1975–1990—Peace. 4. Lebanon—Foreign relations—Treaties. 5. Ta’if Agreement (1989) 6. Elite (Social sciences)— Political activity—Lebanon—History—20th century. 7. Elite (Social sciences)— Political activity—Lebanon—History—21st century. 8. Lebanon—Foreign relations—Syria. 9. Syria—Foreign relations—Lebanon. 10. Hizballah (Lebanon) I. Title. D S 87. 5 4.E 4 4 2012 956.9204'4—dc23 2012034802 Manufactured in the United States of America To my parents Rola el-Husseini is a research assistant professor at the Middle Eastern and Mid- dle Eastern American Center, City Uni- versity of New York–Graduate Center. She has previously held positions at Texas A&M University and Yale University. Her publications have appeared in Compara- tive Studies of South Asia, Africa, and the Middle East; the Middle East Journal; Ori- ent; and the Third World Quarterly. Contents Foreword, Ryan Crocker ix Acknowledgments xi Note on Transliteration xiii Introduction xv 1. The Lebanese Political System The Elite Pacts of 1943 and 1989 1 2. Postwar Elite Interaction 23 3. Political Parties 38 4. State Elites and the Legacy of Corruption 86 5. Strategic Elites 122 6. Emerging Elites and the Absence of Women from Politics 160 7. Elite Attitudes on Syria and Sectarianism 187 Conclusion 214 Who’s Who of Lebanese Politics 223 Lebanese Political Timeline (1989–2005) 231 Notes 233 Glossary of Arabic Terms 267 Bibliography 269 Index 291 Foreword Since the start of the civil war in 1975, Lebanon has had an enormous impact on the region and the international community. A series of for- eign powers have intervened militarily—the United States, France, Brit- ain, Italy, Israel, and Syria. Sometimes they have come as peacekeepers, sometimes as invaders. Sometimes it is hard to tell the difference. All have departed, many with heavy losses and none with core objectives accomplished, with the partial exception of Syria. Lebanon also hosted a bewildering variety of militia groups, from every Lebanese sect and political faction, virtually the entire Palestinian guerrilla movement, and now one of the most formidable nonstate forces in the world, Hezbollah, which enjoys support from both Syria and Iran. So Lebanon matters, and it will continue to matter. We ignore it or misunderstand it (which we commonly do) at our grave peril. In this sense, Dr. el-Husseini has done us an enormous service with her groundbreaking book. It is the fi rst to cover the so-called postwar period with scholarly rigor. Her focus on elites is key to an understand- ing of the complex political landscape of Lebanon. Events and actions can unfold with bewildering rapidity; the dominance of elites is a con- stant. Her construct of looking at Lebanon as two republics, the fi rst created by the National Pact of 1943 and the second through the Ta’if Agreement of 1989 is extremely useful to the scholar, the practitioner, and the lay reader. Her analysis of Hezbollah draws on sources within the movement and sheds important new light on an organization that is as complicated as it is lethal. And her examination of the Syrian role in Lebanon is more nuanced, detailed, and accurate than anything I have read elsewhere. ix x Foreword I served twice in Lebanon, as political counselor at the American Embassy from 1981 to 1984 and as ambassador from 1990 to 1993. As a practitioner I would have given a great deal for a comprehensive, well- researched, and balanced guide to Lebanon’s chaotic politics. Thanks to Rola el-Husseini, now we have it. Ryan Crocker Former US Ambassador to Lebanon (1990–1993) and Syria (1998–2001) Acknowledgments This book took a decade to come to fruition. Originally a dissertation written in French and defended in 2003, it was substantially revised and updated for publication. This work would not have been possible without the help and support of many people—mentors, colleagues, friends, and family. I am indebted to many people for their support, feedback, and guidance throughout the research and writing phase of the dissertation and then the book. I am especially grateful to all the Lebanese politicians, academics, and journalists who agreed to meet with me in Lebanon. I am honored to have had the opportunity to meet Basil Fuleihan, Gebran Tueni, and Samir Qassir before their untimely deaths. Joseph Alagha and Lara Deeb were two scholars I had the pleasure of meeting while doing fi eldwork, and I was delighted to get the chance to read their wonderful books on the Shi‘i community. Thank you to my friends in Paris, Aliki Angelidou, Adele Thorens, Michela Trisconi, and especially my childhood friend Khaled el-Khatib, for their moral support. I also extend special thanks to the members of the “Arab Elites” team at the Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik in Ber- lin, especially to Iris Glosemeyer and Saloua Zerhouni. Their comments and feedback were crucial in shaping my thinking on the book, and their friendship made my three years in Berlin much richer. Volker Perthes, who took me on board the Arab Elites team and effectively served as my dissertation adviser, will always have my gratitude and affection. I am also indebted to Ellen Lust, who encouraged me to apply to a postdoc- toral position at Yale University. Her friendship in New Haven and that of Hala K. Nassar were lifesavers. xi xii Acknowledgments Colleagues and friends in Texas also provided advice and a listening ear when needed. I would particularly like to thank Ryan C. Crocker and Michael C. Desch for their encouragement and mentorship. Harry Berger and Giovanna del Negro, Christopher Menzel and Tazim Jamal, Zulema Valdez and Andrew Yinger, Cara Wallis and John Zollinger, and Rhonda Struminger and Gil Rosenthal entertained me in their homes and provided much-needed solace at times. Ulrike Gretzel and Amanda Stronza were great girlfriends and essential social support. I am also especially thankful for the work Jesse L. Rester put into copyediting this manuscript. His comments and suggestions were always helpful. Mary Selden Evans, the former Middle East editor at Syracuse University Press, deserves my gratitude for her belief in the importance of this project. Others at Syracuse University Press have also been crucial for the completion of this book. After Mary’s retirement, Kelly Balenske was wonderfully supportive and helpful, and Marcia Hough was always responsive to my queries about the production schedule of the book. I am deeply appreciative for the encouragement of Mehrzad Borou- jerdi and Augustus R. Norton and their comments on sections of this book. Many others, too numerous to name, were instrumental in the writing of this book. I am deeply thankful. This book would not have been possible without the love and encour- agement of my family, especially my mother’s support. She taught me the value of an education for a woman and pushed me to excel and to be resilient in the face of adversity. I would not be where I am without her. I also thank my husband, Wesley R. Dean, for his unfl agging support of my academic work. He read many versions of this book and always gave valuable feedback. I would not have completed this book without his occasional prods to “go write your book.” Note on Transliteration A simplifi ed form of the International Journal of Middle East Studies style has been used for transliteration from Arabic throughout the text. No diacritical marks have been used with the exception of the hamza (’) and the ayn (‘). Lebanese names have been written in the most common form found in the Lebanese press in English (for example, Aoun instead of ‘Awn, Geagea instead of Ja‘ja‘, Gemayel instead of Jumayyil, Siniora instead of Sanyura).