U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs National Institute of Justice

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE SPECIAL REPORT WOMEN IN POLICING: BREAKING BARRIERS AND BLAZING A PATH July 2019 U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs 810 Seventh St. N.W. Washington, DC 20531

David B. Muhlhausen, Ph.D. Director, National Institute of Justice

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Opinions or conclusions expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. National Institute of Justice | NIJ.ojp.gov

Acknowledgments

This report and the National Institute of Justice’s Research Summit on Women in Policing are a product of the vision, strength, and leadership of Captain Ivonne Roman of the Newark (New Jersey) Police Department.

The following NIJ staff and contractors were instrumental in the development and facilitation of the summit:

■■ Maureen McGough, Senior Policy Advisor ■■ Rianna Starheim, Writer (contractor) ■■ Dr. Gary Cordner, Chief Research Advisor ■■ Dr. Geoff Alpert, Chief Research Advisor ■■ Kristin Silver, Research Assistant

Kristin Silver also generated a crucial literature review in advance of the summit.

NIJ also thanks Dr. AnnMarie Cordner of Kutztown University, Nicola Smith-Kea of the Arnold Foundation, and retired Chief Penny Harrington for their guidance and wisdom in shaping the summit. Chief Harrington also graciously filmed videos chronicling her experiences as the first woman chief of a major metropolitan police department, which were used to frame discussions throughout the summit.

The following NIJ Law Enforcement Advancing Data and Science (LEADS) Scholars provided guidance in creating a framework for the summit and pushing conversations toward progress: Lt. Tara Coffey, Lt. Joan Fiesta, Capt. Erin Freidline, Lt. Aimee Haley, Sgt. Renee Mitchell, Lt. Emma O’Flanagan, Sgt. Nicole Powell, Capt. Ivonne Roman, Maj. Wendy Stiver, Lt. Rachel Tolber, Assistant Chief Paige Valenta, and Assistant Chief Sheryl Victorian.

NIJ also thanks the National Center for Women & Policing for providing copies of their publication, Recruiting and Retaining Women: A Self-Assessment Guide for Law Enforcement, funded by the Bureau of Justice Assistance, grant number 99-LD-VX-0003 (https://www. ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/bja/185235.pdf).

This report was prepared by Rianna P. Starheim, a writer with a federal contractor, on assignment at the National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice.

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Executive Summary

Despite efforts to increase representation, the percentage of women in law enforcement1 has remained relatively stagnant for the past few decades. Women constitute less than 13% of total officers and a much smaller proportion of leadership positions.2 There is limited empirical research on how to increase the number of women in policing, improve the recruitment of outstanding women, and increase the retention and promotion of exceptional women officers. There is also insufficient research for understanding the unique challenges that women officers face and how best to mitigate or overcome these challenges.

On Dec. 3-4, 2018, the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) hosted the Research Summit on Women in Policing at our Washington, D.C., headquarters. Nearly 100 attendees participated, including sworn and civilian law enforcement officers from the United States and abroad, leading policing researchers, representatives from professional organizations and foundations, and federal partners. The goal of the summit was to understand the current state of research relevant to women in American policing, and to generate a research agenda of questions that women leaders in the field have identified as priorities in moving the profession forward toward parity.

Meeting attendees developed a shared definition of parity in policing for the purpose of this discussion: “When fair and equal access is equivalent to women’s propensity.”

As the research arm of the U.S. Department of Justice, NIJ uses research to understand and advance criminal and juvenile justice issues. NIJ believes that listening to and working with the dedicated individuals working on the front lines is the only way to effectively understand both the field’s needs and what research is most relevant to addressing them. Based on conversations at NIJ’s Research Summit on Women in Policing, this report documents the current state of research on women in policing across the areas of culture, performance, recruitment and retention, and promotion. It also sets out the agenda of research questions that attendees collectively prioritized.

This report is only a starting point. Implementing this research agenda and moving toward equality and equity for all women working in policing will take great effort, dedication, partnerships, and time.

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Attendees put forward the following key ■■ What role can/do men play in questions in a research agenda to better improving the representation and understand the state of women in American experiences of women in policing? policing and improve the representation and experiences of women in the field. THEME 2: CULTURE These themes are not in priority order; rather, they reflect the order of discussion ■■ What negative aspects of policing in the summit. cultures need to change for women officers to be better integrated into and THEME 1: CHARTING A COURSE integral to departments? ■■ What makes a law enforcement ■■ How have the representation and environment toxic for women experiences of women in policing practitioners? changed in the past 30 years? ■■ What are women police officers’ ■■ What barriers do women in policing perceptions and experiences of face? How do these barriers compare harassment in the workplace? What are to barriers women face in other effective interventions to reduce the professions? prevalence of harassment? ■■ What strategies create sustained ■■ How can law enforcement academies cultural changes that lead to better serve women? improvements in the representation and experiences of women in policing? ■■ What is the impact of language in shifting or maintaining the status ■■ How can law enforcement quo of how women are treated in law agencies — in partnership with enforcement? other organizations — improve data collection and measures to ■■ How can we foster the courage to better inform efforts to improve the be accountable for improving the representation and experiences of representation and experiences of women in policing? women in policing? ■■ What practices in other industries ■■ What are the experiences of women are promising for improving the working in police departments as representation and experiences of civilians and contractors? women in law enforcement? THEME 3: PERFORMANCE ■■ What is the relationship between race, ethnicity, and gender in these issues? ■■ What metrics measure the extent to Between sexual orientation, gender which women in policing thrive? identity, and gender? What are the specific experiences of officers who ■■ How are women impacting police are women of color, and how does the organizations? intersection of gender and race affect ■■ Do women and men police officers the challenges women of color face in perform differently? If so, how? this occupation? ■■ How do women and men police ■■ How can we increase diversity in officers compare in regard to officer policing? injuries and fatalities? How do ■■ What are men’s perspectives on women they compare in regard to citizen in policing? complaints and use of force? ■■ What is the most effective business case for advancing women in policing?

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■■ What are the advantages and ■■ To what extent do hiring criteria and disadvantages associated with physical fitness requirements and tests assigning women officers across parts accurately reflect the standards and of a department versus assigning skills needed to be a successful officer? them together? ■■ To what extent do agency-led ■■ To what extent are women deterred representations of policing (in outward- from taking certain assignments and facing communications such as positions? To what extent are the recruitment videos) accurately reflect potential contributions of women in actual duties? certain assignments and positions ■■ Is rotating shift work necessary? Are diminished? other, more family-friendly policies ■■ How does the media portray the feasible? performance of women in policing and ■■ Which U.S. agencies have progressive women in power? policies toward parental leave, and what ■■ Do women and men in policing receive is the impact of these policies? equal pay for equal work? ■■ What is the impact of postnatal nursing ■■ What experiences and skills are policies? necessary to have a successful policing ■■ How does the availability of quality career, and how can more opportunities child care affect women in policing? be created for women to acquire these critical attributes? ■■ What health issues are specific to women police officers, and how can they be addressed? THEME 4: RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION ■■ How do women and men police officers compare in regard to physical and ■■ Why do women decide not to become mental wellness, stress, and burnout? police officers? What deters them? How does this compare to other ■■ How can we make the police profession professions? more enticing to women? ■■ Why do women leave policing, both ■■ Do departments have different criteria during and after the academy? Are for women and men? Should they? retention rates and reasons for leaving similar for men and women? What is ■■ How can we make policing a viable the cost to departments when they lose and interesting career option for girls, officers, in whom they have invested starting at a young age? significant training funds, particularly ■■ What is the role of a police officer today, early in their career? and how can we recruit accordingly? ■■ What are the characteristics of effective ■■ What is the professional background of recruitment and retention programs people coming into policing, and how with regard to women officers? What does that impact the profession? can we learn from departments that ■■ What role can the federal government are recruiting and retaining women play in advancing the representation successfully? and experiences of women in policing? ■■ How can departments better help women balance their professional and personal lives?

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THEME 5: PROMOTION crisis (i.e., the glass cliff)? If so, what can be done to help these women be ■■ What is the representation of women in more successful leaders? law enforcement across ranks? ■■ What is the impact of women taking ■■ Why are women not being promoted women-specific leadership training nor seeking promotion at the rates one compared to general policing training? might expect? ■■ What is necessary for women to be at ■■ Do women face discrimination in the least proportionally represented in promotion process? leadership? ■■ How do people view power and ■■ What is the impact of an increased ambition in women officers number of women in leadership? compared to how they view their male ■■ Does mentoring work? What does counterparts? successful mentoring look like? What ■■ Are women more likely to be are the advantages and disadvantages of promoted into leadership positions in women and men mentors? organizations experiencing a legitimacy

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgments ...... i

Executive Summary ...... iii

Introduction ...... 1

Guiding Principles ...... 1

Research Agenda ...... 3

Field Priorities ...... 23

Promising Practices and Next Steps ...... 24

Notes ...... 27

Attendees ...... 29

DOJ Participants ...... 33

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National Institute of Justice Research Summit on Women in Policing

Introduction On Dec. 3-4, 2018, the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) hosted nearly 100 sworn and civilian law enforcement officers, leading policing researchers, representatives from professional organizations and foundations, and federal partners to discuss the state of research on women in American policing and identify priority questions to form a research agenda on the issue moving forward. This report summarizes the discussions during the summit. These viewpoints do not necessarily reflect the position of NIJ or U.S. Department of Justice.

Guiding Principles This report and all of the questions put forward in the research agenda were founded on the following guiding principles.

“Without looking to see how it’s going to change at a structural level, we’re just tinkering around the edges.”

Moving toward parity must be part of an industry shift. Although the research questions and work detailed in this report are an important part of the process, they can only be addressed within a greater industrywide shift. This includes not only improving the representation and experiences of women in law enforcement but also making a larger shift in culture and mindset across the field.

“There’s no typical ‘woman’ coming into a police agency. It’s a spectrum. It’s not necessarily ‘me and how I navigated.’ It’s the aggregate.”

Women are not a homogenous group. As a group, women face disproportionate challenges in policing. However, “women” is an extremely broad category. Data collection should be conducted in a way that allows the analysis of rank, background, economic status, race, sexual orientation, gender identity, and many other factors.

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Issues of gender and race are inextricable. Partnerships are the most powerful vehicles The intersection of gender and race must for progress. Moving the needle on be considered whenever discussing or women’s advancement in policing cannot exploring issues relevant to women in be accomplished by NIJ, or any other policing. Although some questions in organization, in isolation. Partnerships this research agenda explicitly address between law enforcement, foundations, this intersectionality, any research done think tanks, academic institutions, trade to explore the experiences of women organizations, and other stakeholders will in policing must be done in a way that be vital in improving the representation allows for analysis across racial and ethnic and experiences of women in policing. All differences. These analyses must go deeper parties have the potential to benefit from than a simple comparison between races, to such collaborations. include an in-depth understanding of the different experiences across each racial and “We can talk about this as a policing ethnic group represented and explore the problem, but this is an endemic broader societal and cultural contexts that problem in our society.” may drive these differences. We can learn from other contexts. American INTERSECTIONALITY: Gender policing is not the only field in which and race are inextricable issues. women face disproportionate adversity. Researchers should design data There are numerous lessons to be learned collection in a way that allows for the from other contexts, including analogous delineation of any interdependent industries and policing in other countries. factors contributing to discrimination Several of the panels in NIJ’s summit or disadvantage, including race, class, focused on learning from medicine, and gender. technology, and the military as well as policing in Australia, Canada, and New The future must be built on a foundation Zealand. of data. Little is known about certain issues related to women in policing, and Men play a significant role. Through this rigorous research designs to address these summit, NIJ primarily convened women gaps are not always possible. However, NIJ attendees to define the issues facing women strongly encourages all practitioners and in policing today. NIJ is acutely aware that researchers to build the knowledge base on addressing these challenges is not the sole women in policing, using research designs responsibility of women. All members of the with high internal and external validity, policing community need to be partners in wherever possible. addressing these issues. Men are important change agents in policing, and they will be The field must be empowered to drive integral to bringing about an essential shift this progress. The research questions in policing culture. put forward in this report come directly from practitioners working within the “Success” is a policing field with both policing field, and from researchers and equality and equity. Although the first steps other individuals working closely with toward progress are action items — such the field. NIJ is strongly committed to as policy changes within departments and supporting field-driven inquiry and change an increased research focus on women in that is directly responsive to the needs of law enforcement — substantive change will practitioners. come only with a broad shift in culture and

2 Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path National Institute of Justice | NIJ.ojp.gov mindset to equality and equity for women first woman chief of a major American in policing. Attendees agreed that this will police department — the Portland be a long path but believe that the shift is (Oregon) Police Bureau — and co-founder eminently possible. of the National Center for Women & Policing. When Harrington started as an officer with the Portland Police Bureau Research Agenda in 1964, there were only 12 women in the department. She faced widespread The attendees at the Research Summit on challenges over the course of her career, Women in Policing identified key research ranging from blatant harassment and questions, divided into the following sexism to many iterations of body armor themes: Charting a Course, Culture, that did not fit or protect women’s bodies. Performance, Recruitment and Retention, Although many of the challenges that and Promotion. Answers to these research Harrington and other women faced still questions will help law enforcement exist, her remarks illuminated some of agencies and researchers build a knowledge the progress that women in policing have base to better understand the state of made over the past few decades. Although women in policing, the barriers that women attendees were heartened by the progress in policing face, and effective changes that that has been made, they noted that, in can be made to improve the representation many ways, “we’re still fighting the same and experiences of women in policing. The fight that she fought then.” following themes are not in priority order; rather, they reflect the order of discussion Although the percentage of women in at the summit. policing has remained relatively stagnant over the past 30 years, attendees agreed THEME 1: CHARTING A COURSE on — and the research literature shows — Women are dramatically underrepresented a trend toward progress on many fronts. in American law enforcement, yet there Understanding the progress we have made is limited research exploring why this will help identify bright spots, promising underrepresentation persists. Women make practices, areas for continued improvement, up more than half of the U.S. population and issues and areas that have not but fewer than 13% of law enforcement progressed over time. officers.3 Large law enforcement agencies, urban areas, and communities with high levels of racial and ethnic diversity tend to have a higher proportion of women officers.4 Attendees at the NIJ summit noted that when women’s representation in law enforcement does not mirror their proportion of the population, trust in law enforcement may be lacking because certain populations are not equitably represented.5

How have the representation and experiences of women in policing changed in the past 30 years?

Although she wasn’t able to join in person, Captain Ivonne Roman, Newark (NJ) Police Department, and Chief Danielle the summit included videos of comments Outlaw, Portland (OR) Police Bureau. from retired Chief Penny Harrington, the

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What barriers do women in policing face? What strategies create sustained cultural How do these barriers compare to barriers changes that lead to improvements in the women face in other professions? representation and experiences of women in policing? Although attendees were intentional about continuously orienting the Several agencies across the country have conversation toward progress, much of made progress in increasing gender the discussion during the summit was parity, and their experiences offer lessons about the barriers that women in policing learned that help other departments. face. Law enforcement attendees spoke In Portland, Oregon, Harrington filed at length about the barriers they had hundreds of lawsuits and complaints in an personally faced over the course of their effort to initiate change. Several attendees careers, such as the “boys club,” adverse or felt that race and gender discrimination hostile environments, explicit and subtle lawsuits had historically been the most harassment, sexism, skewed physical fitness effective way to change departments. assessments, double standards, and a lack Recommendations from the Christopher of support and opportunity. Researchers Commission, which was founded in Los in attendance also spoke about some of Angeles after the Rodney King beating in the research that has been done on these 1991, led to sweeping reforms in the Los barriers. Angeles Police Department. When the commission mandated that the department The existing research looks at some hire 50% women, the representation of promising practices for decreasing the women increased dramatically in recruit barriers and challenges women in policing classes (but only for several years) before face. Attendees noted that these practices again dropping. “I don’t believe that should be identified and replicated, along change is going to come from what we do with thorough evaluations of their impact. in any individual department,” said one Attendees pointed to promising practices attendee. “Change comes from lawsuits, including mentoring, sponsorship, support horrible events, mandates. We’re not networks, and strengthening and enforcing going to get this done in departments harassment policies. Attendees noted the that don’t want change, and most don’t.” Women’s Leadership Academy6 in Newark, Attendees suggested that change was most New Jersey, as an example of successful likely to occur and be sustained if it was support to help women applicants meet mandated by a mayor, governor, the federal physical fitness and academy requirements government, or other political drivers while building peer networks of women outside of police organizations. supporting each other’s success. Further research should examine what Attendees noted that many of the barriers factors have been the drivers of change to women in policing are not specific to within the agencies that have made policing; rather, they are reflective of progress on gender parity, considering larger societal issues and will take time both internal (e.g., visionary leadership and commitment to improve. One officer or internally driven policy changes) and said citizens would ask when the “real external factors (e.g., lawsuits or consent police” would arrive when she and her decrees). Participants noted that increases female partner responded to a call. “That’s in the representation of women in response a broader cultural mindset barrier, not to mandates (e.g., consent decrees) internal to the police department,” she said. appeared to be temporary and that the One researcher noted, “We can talk about percentage of women in a department this as a policing problem, but this is an would fall when the mandate was no longer endemic problem in our society.” in place. One participant noted the need

4 Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path National Institute of Justice | NIJ.ojp.gov for research on the women recruited and in other fields — such as technology, hired under these mandates in order medicine, and the military — can highlight to better understand their experiences, promising practices for law enforcement. particularly once the mandate expires. Similarly, American policing can learn lessons from how other countries have How can law enforcement agencies — in addressed a lack of gender parity in their partnership with other organizations — policing systems. improve data collection and measures to better inform efforts to improve the What is the relationship between race, representation and experiences of women ethnicity, and gender in these issues? in policing? Between sexual orientation, gender identity, and gender? What are the specific Policy changes and other interventions experiences of officers who are women must be evidence-based. If there is not of color, and how does the intersection yet data on an intervention, it should be of gender and race affect the challenges piloted, measured carefully, and replicated women of color face in this occupation? to determine its effectiveness. Although issues affecting women in policing are Some racial and ethnic groups are understudied, one researcher stressed disproportionately impacted by the the need to look at the research that has challenges that women in policing face. already been conducted on perceptions of It is critical to better understand this policing in general, and to expand these intersectionality in order to make progress. studies into actionable items for officers Attendees stressed that intersectionality and departments across the country. between race and gender must be an Researchers at the summit expressed their important part of any research on women belief that police-researcher partnerships and policing, and that all research must be could help build the knowledge base. “In conducted in a way that allows for analysis policing, we lean too much on ‘I think,’” across race and ethnicity. Attendees noted said one officer. “We need to build an the importance of ensuring that research evidence base.” both captures the specific challenges facing police officers who are women of color and Attendees noted that researchers and explores promising practices for addressing practitioners working to gather data on these challenges at the agency level. women in policing must remember that women are not a homogenous group. Data “I think folks are still putting collection must allow for exploration of minorities in positions to say they the intersections of race, gender, and checked the box. We need more of a other demographic factors, including commitment to diversity in how we rank, background, economic status, sexual look, how we think, what we value as orientation, and gender identity. an organization.”

What practices in other industries How can we increase diversity in policing? are promising for improving the representation and experiences of Research shows that diverse workforces women in law enforcement? are more effective, creative, and resilient than homogenous workforces, and that Law enforcement is not the only field teams with broad perspectives are better affected by a lack of gender parity, nor at making decisions and solving problems. is the United States the only country. Studies also point to the high value of a Attendees agreed that progress made police force reflective of the diversity in

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the community it serves. Given the value of particularly in discussions geared toward diversity in policing, it is important to study generating solutions. They felt strongly that how to better attract and support a diverse it would be critical to understand men’s workforce. perspectives on the issues that women in policing face, and how to improve the Attendees, particularly women of color and representation and experiences of women other minorities, shared their experiences in policing. and challenges related to diversity. Several attendees felt that they had been hired What is the most effective business case or promoted to “check the diversity box,” for advancing women in policing? rather than being based on their merits and qualifications. These attendees Studies and anecdotal evidence begin to stressed the need for departments to go make the case for increasing the number beyond merely increasing the number of of women in policing. Women have been minority officers — to also achieve greater found to have proportionally fewer use-of- diversity in background and thought. A force and citizen complaints, potentially researcher pointed to the Vancouver Police saving departments from costly lawsuits. Department in British Columbia as one of One attendee stated, “Male officers cost the first agencies to commit to diversifying more, with excessive use of force and the department to reflect the population. complaints. I think that’s where we get To do this, the department stopped leverage to change.” Participants discussed awarding applicants additional points the potential impact of tying efforts to solely for military experience and started advance women in policing to possible cost recruiting applicants with college degrees savings, particularly when working with and employment experience in diverse individuals in leadership positions who have fields. Another attendee raised the practice oversight of limited budgets. Studies have of removing identifying information also shown women to be more capable in from applications and solely reviewing their interactions with diverse communities, candidates with demonstrated experience although existing evidence in this area and skills. One attendee noted that “you is limited and largely outdated. Another can’t be what you can’t see” and stressed attendee raised the question, why would a the importance of agencies having women law enforcement agency want to essentially and minority leaders for others to look up exclude 50% of its potential workforce and, to. Attendees pointed to the importance of in so doing, eliminate a pool of qualified moving beyond desegregation to achieve and talented workers? Other attendees true integration and inclusion. noted that increased representation of women in policing to better reflect the “You can’t be what you don’t see.” population at large is a moral imperative, and no further justification should be What are men’s perspectives on women in necessary. policing? Several attendees noted that, in the Attendees at NIJ’s research summit interest of making sustainable changes, represented a broad range of perspectives, underrepresentation of women in policing but they were almost exclusively women. should not be addressed as a gender This was an intentional decision by the issue. Rather, the focus should be on organizers of the summit, who felt that transforming policing and policing culture women should be empowered to define the in a way that would naturally lead to an issues relevant to their own experiences. increase in women applicants and retention Attendees all agreed on the importance of of women officers. An international officer including men in subsequent conversations, agreed that her country’s efforts to increase

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parity in policing focused on a broad cultural change, which naturally led to an increase in the number of women in the organization, including the transformation of their department from a “police force” to a “police service.”

“We need research on how to empower men to support women in their department.”

What role can/do men play in improving the representation and experiences of women in policing?

Men will be important partners in the (From left to right) Dr. Carolyn Naoroz, Richmond (VA) Police Department; movement toward gender parity in policing. Dr. Cara Rabe-Hemp, Illinois State University; and Deputy Commissioner “We need research on how to empower men Tracie Keesee, New York City Police Department. to support women in their department,” said one attendee. Attendees unanimously agreed on the importance of including men in solutions but stressed the importance of THEME 2: CULTURE engaging men without putting them on the With 18,000 unique police agencies across defensive. They suggested that this can be the country and no nationally centralized done by placing an emphasis on fixing a policing system, it is difficult to draw flawed system rather than fixing the people universal conclusions about American within that system. Attendees posited that policing from studies done through one their male counterparts may be unaware or several agencies. Even so, researchers of the extent of the problems women in have attempted to examine the challenges policing face, making them less inclined to and barriers that women officers face in become partners in addressing the issue. environments where they are not valued, Rigorous research can help empirically welcomed, or viewed as equals. Limited demonstrate the problem. qualitative research has highlighted that women officers routinely face Attendees debated various types of sexual harassment and discrimination.7 mentorship. There was agreement about Research has also found that certain the value of male mentors in navigating policies disproportionately dissuade a male-dominated system, as well as male women from becoming law enforcement supervisors who had advocated for the officers.8 Although research has begun to professional development and promotion of examine the law enforcement culture, we some of the attendees. Attendees noted that need additional research and nationally men often hold positions of greater power representative surveys to empirically and influence in policing than women do understand policing culture and its effect and are often the necessary messengers to on the well-being of women officers. raise awareness and spark action. “It can’t be just us,” said one woman attendee. “We Attendees at the Research Summit on have to have allies that speak on our behalf. Women in Policing identified the following We say it, and no one hears. Our male key research questions relevant to women’s counterparts say it once and everyone says, experiences with policing culture. ‘Oh, what a great idea.’”

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What negative aspects of policing cultures What are women police officers’ need to change for women officers to perceptions and experiences of be better integrated into and integral to harassment in the workplace? What are departments? effective interventions to reduce the prevalence of harassment? Changing the culture within a department or an entire field can be a long-term Some attendees agreed that harassment and difficult undertaking. Studying the and sexism are normalized to the extent effectiveness of interventions in making that, often, only the most egregious cases women more integral and integrated in are reported. “I don’t think of myself as policing culture will help law enforcement harassed, ever,” said one officer, “but a executives and agencies develop lot of the things I experience would be effective policies to support this shift. considered harassment in another field.” Representatives from law enforcement Some of the limited research reflects agencies abroad stressed the importance this — many women police officers of not only increasing the representation reported that they had not experienced of women but also mindfully integrating sexual harassment but reported that they women into the fabric of a department’s had experienced specific behavior that leadership as essential steps in supporting would constitute harassment. Although such a culture change. Attendees noted some studies have found declining levels of a lack of and a need for evidence-based harassment in law enforcement, attendees practices to guide departments in these questioned whether harassment had truly interventions. declined — or only the reporting of it. “It’s become so normalized that they don’t think What makes a law enforcement environment it’s at the level of harassment,” one attendee toxic for women practitioners? said. Officers criticized weak sexual harassment policies and cumbersome, Attendees almost unanimously agreed long, and non-anonymized harassment that parts of the current American complaint processes as well as concerns policing culture are toxic for women. about retaliation. “It’s difficult to file a Several officers said they nearly left law complaint when we have to provide our enforcement because of this. “No one name. We have to wait hours to talk to an valued me on the job,” said one officer. [internal affairs or commanding] officer. Research that identifies the components The process is horrible,” said one officer. contributing to an environment that is toxic “These are roadblocks thrown up so that for women will enable these components to people won’t rock the boat.” be more effectively addressed. Researchers noted that harassment has “We teach police officers that changed over time, particularly with the everything is a threat. For women, not strengthening of sexual harassment laws only can they not trust the people in the 2000s, and that there are likely they’re policing, they also can’t trust generational differences between women’s the people who are supposed to experiences with harassment. There was have their backs. This is incredibly consensus that much of the harassment damaging to women.” that women in policing currently face is subtle sexism rather than overt harassment.

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One officer noted that “when women are “Women face a lot of trauma when at work, we have to deal with men treating they start at the police academy. us in a certain way and we have to be wary Police academy is where you learn the of it. I am constantly wary: Are you talking rules, where you start to negotiate to me because of my mind or because of your identity. This has to be severely my body?” One participant noted that redone.” the conversation seemed to be framed around women police officers having to How can law enforcement academies get used to being disrespected by their better serve women? male counterparts, as opposed to women police officers demanding the respect they Attendees unanimously agreed that the deserve. Attendees also noted that — given curricula and requirements of American the nature of the profession — women police academies are not reflective of the officers also experienced harassment from abilities and skills officers will draw on after the public during their performance of leaving the academy. Attendees noted an regular duties. extreme emphasis on seemingly irrelevant physical requirements that are never again Attendees noted the extreme harm that tested in an officer’s career. They also sexism and harassment cause women agreed that academy experiences are not officers. One attendee said, “We teach optimally designed for women — one of the police officers that everything is a threat. major contributing factors to a culture that For women, not only can they not trust does not always respect and support women the people they’re policing, they also can’t officers. Attendees spoke to their difficult trust the people who are supposed to have personal experiences in the academy and their backs. This is incredibly damaging to agreed that department leadership should women.” prioritize changes to academy structure and curricula. “Women face a lot of trauma Women are not the only group impacted when they start at the police academy,” said by harassment. “It’s traumatic for everyone,” one law enforcement executive. “Police an attendee said. “These tentacles reach out academy is where you learn the rules, where far beyond just female police officers. When you start to negotiate your identity. This you mistreat one segment of the police has to be severely redone.” Research to department, it’s actually impacting the understand the academy experience, and entire department and hurting the entire the demands on an officer after leaving force.” Another participant raised the point the academy, can help inform future that if an officer is harassing others in the curricula to better prepare officers for the workplace, that type of conduct can spill demanding day-to-day work of policing. over into how that officer interacts with and treats the public. What is the impact of language in shifting or maintaining the status quo of how Although there is extensive anecdotal women are treated in law enforcement? evidence pointing to widespread harassment of women in policing, rigorous Several attendees emphasized the studies of women officers’ experiences importance of language in perpetuating with harassment would help us better challenges for women in policing. Research understand its extent and scope, and how on the language used to discuss issues best to confront and reduce these instances. of women in policing — and policing

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generally — can help identify ways that are women, but 68% of the civilian force is an individual’s choice of words or a women. One attendee noted that women policy’s wording inadvertently perpetuates civilians in police departments may offer discrimination, and how changes in interesting insights into why some women language can help shift the status quo. choose not to pursue a career as an officer. Attendees noted that this starts at a young Attendees suggested that policing might age, with simple phrases such as “like a look to the military for trends, parallels, girl” being used as an insult rather than and lessons learned regarding sworn a compliment describing confidence and officers, civilians, and contractors. strength. One attendee noted that women use weaker language on resumes and in THEME 3: PERFORMANCE interviews to describe their work, using Research findings have been mixed phrases such as “I participated in” or “I regarding gender differences in helped” instead of “I created” or “I led.” performance. Individual studies have shown no gender differences in certain areas.9 How can we foster the courage to Other findings have contradicted gender be accountable for improving the stereotypes, such as a study that found men representation and experiences of officers used more “supportive” behaviors women in policing? than women officers.10 Despite these mixed Attendees noted that it requires courage results, meta-analyses have confirmed that and strength to be an advocate for gender women officers are less likely than men 11 parity in policing. Attendees felt that to use force and that men officers are there was currently a lack of incentives significantly more likely than women to 12 for department leadership and other engage in police misconduct. No research personnel to commit to increasing parity indicates that women lack the skills and and improving the experiences of women abilities to perform the duties of a police within their agencies. Studies that examine officer. how to better foster this courage can help Attendees at the Research Summit on encourage additional advocates for change. Women in Policing identified the following One participant suggested that these key research questions relevant to women’s activities should be required in position performance in policing. descriptions for department leaders and that execution of these activities (or lack What metrics measure the extent to which thereof) should be considered in their women in policing thrive? performance reviews. With neither a shared definition of success What are the experiences of women nor metrics to measure it, it is impossible working in police departments as civilians to determine the extent to which women in and contractors? policing thrive. One researcher stated, “If women in policing want to move forward, I Just as “women” is not a homogenous would argue that we need to come up with group, “policing” also includes many metrics for women in policing [who] are groups. Conversations about women in thriving. We need to come up with a way policing have historically focused on sworn to measure it.” Although most attendees officers, but they should be expanded to agreed with the need for metrics to include civilians and contractors as well. measure success, they argued that these Attendees noted that, in many departments, metrics should be identical to those used civilians were disproportionately women. to measure whether male officers are For example, in the New York Police thriving. One chief suggested that looking Department (NYPD), 18% of sworn officers

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at how many women apply for various jobs that compared rates and types of injury and and promotions might be a good indicator fatalities between women and men officers. of whether officers are comfortable and Although it is difficult to generalize the supported within an organization. results of individual research projects, studies have found that women are less How are women impacting police likely than men to use excessive force or to organizations? under-police.

To better understand the value of “We want to show the public that increasing the number of women in women are everywhere. We want to policing, we need to understand how show the public that we have people women impact police organizations. of every shape and size and color — Research might consider how departments somebody you can identify with. And with an increasing number of women that’s good! That creates change officers in leadership and in the ranks have outside. But inside the department, changed over time. “We have to look at when we gerrymander women like what women in positions of power are doing that, they’re by themselves. I think for police agencies and look at agencies that we have to be really strategic about do have women in these positions to see where women are placed within the and measure impact,” said one researcher. police department.”

“We don’t want to just make women What are the advantages and good men.” disadvantages associated with assigning women officers across parts of a Do women and men police officers department versus assigning them perform differently? If so, how? together?

Few studies have evaluated the differences Departments have explored various between women and men officers or methods of placing their women officers compared their performance. Attendees within an agency. Some women officers cautioned against projecting masculine reported feeling isolated if they are the metrics of good policing onto women. only women within a unit. Other officers “We don’t want to just make women good reported that their department placed men,” said one attendee. Additional women in units together, minimizing the research can help us better understand representation of women across a variety of whether there are differences in the way the department’s units. One attendee stated, women and men officers function and “We want to show the public that women perform. One participant noted the value are everywhere. We want to show the public of exploring existing databases that capture that we have people of every shape and size officer demographic data (e.g., the FBI’s and color — somebody you can identify forthcoming use-of-force database) as a with. And that’s good! That creates change viable next step. outside. But inside the department, when we gerrymander women like that, they’re How do women and men police officers by themselves. I think we have to be really compare in regard to officer injuries and strategic about where women are placed fatalities? How do they compare in regard within the police department.” Research to citizen complaints and use of force? examining officer perceptions and the impact of each approach will help guide Attendees noted a dearth of research on department policy and law enforcement officer injuries and fatalities, and called for executive thinking on this issue. more of this research, particularly studies

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“[The department] appointed the first How does the media portray the female to the SWAT team, and then performance of women in policing and the rest of the SWAT team quit.” women in power?

To what extent are women deterred Women law enforcement executives felt from taking certain assignments and strongly that there were differences in the positions? To what extent are the potential media attention they got when compared to contributions of women in certain their male colleagues. One chief said that assignments and positions diminished? the media frequently portrayed her as a “bad, angry, black woman.” Other attendees Anecdotal evidence shows that women spoke to “death by a million cuts” in the are comparatively underrepresented in media, and that media coverage tended to positions and assignments such as the portray power as a positive trait for men SWAT team and overrepresented in clerical but a negative trait for women. “When folks and other assignments. Research can help want to take a picture with me, I go out of quantify this representation, to help us my way to make sure I’m smiling,” said one better understand the breakdown of women chief. “They write about my stature. They within positions and assignment types. talk about what I wear. I have to push back. When I call them on it, they step back and One attendee noted that women were say, ‘Oh, we didn’t realize that’s what we “organizationally segregated” within her were doing.’” Research on media coverage department, comprising nearly 20% of can help quantify this issue and raise total officers but 3% of lieutenants and 1% awareness of disparities in media coverage of executives. She added that women were between women and men in power. disproportionately placed in administrative Participants also noted the importance of roles and excluded from the SWAT team understanding the impact of the portrayal and other “elite” units. An attendee noted of women police in television and movies. that when one department appointed the first woman to its SWAT team, the Do women and men in policing receive rest of the SWAT team quit. Attendees equal pay for equal work? believed that some of the reason for a lack of women in particular positions was that Although anecdotal evidence suggests women chose certain assignments to avoid that women officers are paid less for equal particularly severe harassment and sexism work than their male colleagues, there are among “elite” units. “I think a lot of women currently no large-scale rigorous studies go to safe locations in the agency where examining the pay gap to confirm whether they don’t have to deal with that every day,” there are differences between the pay of one attendee said. men and women officers for equal work. One attendee wondered whether there is “When folks want to take a picture with an overall pay gap because women may me, I go out of my way to make sure not pursue positions with pay incentives I’m smiling. They talk about my stature. like night differentials as often as men They talk about what I wear. I have to do. Quantifying pay differences — if push back. When I call them on it, they any — between women and men officers, step back and say, ‘Oh, we didn’t realize controlling for years on the job and other that’s what we were doing.’” factors, will be an important first step toward equal pay.

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What experiences and skills are necessary to have a successful policing career, and how can more opportunities be created for women to acquire these critical attributes?

The field needs a better understanding of the skills and experience necessary to progress up the leadership ladder. Once these have been identified, organizations need to provide women with opportunities to gain the skills and experience needed to progress. More research is needed on key transition points and how experience accumulates to position women for success (From left to right) Nicola Smith-Kea, Laura and John Arnold Foundation; in the field of policing. Captain Paige Valenta, Madison (WI) Police Department; Dr. Anne Kringen, University of New Haven (CT); and Dr. Amie Schuck, University of Illinois, THEME 4: RECRUITMENT AND Chicago. RETENTION Recent surveys of undergraduate students Why do women decide not to become demonstrate that women view policing police officers? What deters them? careers as inhospitable and assume it is more difficult to gain respect as women Understanding the reasons that women officers when compared to their male decide not to become police officers can colleagues. This may impact the likelihood help law enforcement agencies change of these students pursuing a policing recruiting tactics to better attract and career.13 Research has also found that a retain top talent. Law enforcement budget increase is the only significant attendees spoke at length about the reasons predictor of a law enforcement department that many of them had nearly chosen a hiring women at an increased rate.14 career other than law enforcement or had Overall, no standardized, empirically nearly left the profession. A researcher supported programs exist to increase the had strongly considered a career in law representation of women in policing. enforcement but eventually chose to study it instead. She said, “At interviews, people Attendees at the Research Summit on started to advise [me] on what I should Women in Policing identified the following expect. They said, ‘You know, you’re key research questions relevant to the probably never going to be able to get recruitment and retention of women officers. married or have a relationship because men don’t like to wait at home.’ I asked myself “At interviews, people started to advise why I was applying for a job where this was [me] on what I should expect. They okay to tell me. So, instead of accepting, I said, ‘You know, you’re probably never went to grad school and studied women going to be able to get married or have in policing. I did my master’s thesis on a relationship because men don’t like to the question, ‘Why don’t women decide to wait at home.’ I asked myself why I was become police officers?’” applying for a job where this was okay to tell me. So, instead of accepting, I went to grad school and studied women in policing. I did my master’s thesis on the question, ‘Why don’t women decide to become police officers?’”

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How can we make the police profession “My 10-year-old granddaughter told more enticing to women? me, ‘I’ve told my friends you kick butt for a living.’ They’re already forming Women apply to law enforcement their opinion of law enforcement at agencies at a much lower rate than men. that age.” Understanding the factors dissuading women from applying can help agencies How can we make policing a viable and attract more women applicants. Attendees interesting career option for girls, starting spoke at length about their various at a young age? impressions of policing before they joined the force. One chief, a woman of Attendees agreed that the recruitment of color, said that she didn’t want to become women officers should begin at a young a police officer because she and her age. Officers expressed pride that their contemporaries had a “natural fear” and children had positive impressions of law dislike of the police. Other attendees stated enforcement careers. One chief said, “My that they had not seriously considered a 10-year-old granddaughter told me, ‘I’ve career in law enforcement or didn’t know told my friends you kick butt for a living.’ that women could pursue careers as law They’re already forming their opinion of enforcement officers until they experienced law enforcement at that age.” Studies to a ride-along or other positive interaction measure the impact of outreach to young with a law enforcement officer, often a populations can help inform targeted woman. An attendee also referenced job agency recruitment efforts. Studies in the announcements directed toward women by military have shown that girls with mothers the Department of Homeland Security and in the military are more likely than their Immigration and Customs Enforcement, peers to join the armed services. Attendees which led to thousands of women noted the value of replicating this research applicants. within policing.

Do departments have different criteria for “One of the big problems with women and men? Should they? recruitment, especially [of] women, is that the image from the media is Although we anecdotally know that some that real policing is cops and robbers, departments have different eligibility going out and catching the bad guy. criteria for women and men, there is a This isn’t necessarily the day-to-day.” lack of rigorous study to quantify how many departments have different criteria What is the role of a police officer today, and to learn the scope and impact of and how can we recruit accordingly? these differences. Michigan was cited as one state with different criteria for men Current agency recruitment materials are and women. Qualitative research has often based on stereotypes about what found that women do not want different police officers do, rather than reflecting standards than men for being hired or the day-to-day roles of an officer. Attendees promoted; rather, they want decisions to agreed that these materials were a barrier be merit-based, using unbiased standards. to attracting women. One attendee stated, Studies for understanding the scope and “One of the big problems with recruitment, scale of differences in criteria — and especially [of] women, is that the image whether these differences are necessary, from the media is that real policing is relevant, and effective — can help inform cops and robbers, going out and catching department policy. the bad guy. This isn’t necessarily the

14 Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path National Institute of Justice | NIJ.ojp.gov day-to-day.” Another attendee stressed the importance of recruiting materials that focus on community-oriented policing and portray policing as a service and an institution designed to serve communities. One chief said that her department aimed to do this by making their officers visible and accessible through monthly “Meet the Police” days and other events. Studying the appeal of current recruitment materials to prospective recruits, and comparing how the materials portray police officers’ roles with the actual roles law enforcement officers play, will help agency recruitment practices become more evidence-based.

(From left to right) Inspector Julie Duncan, Queensland (Australia) Police In New Zealand, women make up more Service; Inspector Tammy Fryer, Windsor (Ontario) Police Service; and Deputy than 30% of total staff and nearly 20% of Chief Kaye Ryan, New Zealand Police. sworn officers. The New Zealand Police have committed to equal representation by on the value of recruiting from diverse 2021 and have intentionally focused their backgrounds and fields. One attendee said, recruitment efforts on attracting a diverse “We shouldn’t just recruit from criminal pool of applicants that is representative justice programs. We should also recruit of the New Zealand population. A police from nursing, psychology, and other recruitment video from New Zealand was ‘serving’ programs. We can teach skills.” shown at the summit as an example of Another attendee noted the importance of these efforts. The video features women recruiting individuals who show potential, officers, portrays police interacting with focusing on promising individuals who are the community, emphasizes the value of under-employed. communication and relationship building, and uses humor to promote a different What role can the federal government image of police and police work.15 play in advancing the representation and experiences of women in policing? “We shouldn’t just recruit from criminal justice programs. We should Attendees suggested that the federal also recruit from nursing, psychology, government would be a helpful partner in and other ‘serving’ programs. We can creating a single clearinghouse of accessible teach skills.” research relevant to issues of women in policing, and they encourage federal What is the professional background of agencies to engage with issues of gender people coming into policing, and how does parity in law enforcement. One researcher that impact the profession? suggested the value of tying access to federal funds to an agency’s efforts We do not currently have an empirical to recruit and retain women. Another understanding of the professional attendee suggested the federal government backgrounds of law enforcement officers could support promising practices such in the United States. Understanding as mentorship programs and leadership the impact of these backgrounds on law development courses designed specifically enforcement can help agencies better target for women. their recruitment efforts. Attendees agreed

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“I’ve made more than 1,000 arrests access resources. These are the and not once did I have to do 24 talents and skills we need to reflect in push-ups before putting handcuffs on our marketing materials.” someone. I’ve never run a mile and a half after a suspect.” To what extent do agency-led representations of policing (in outward- To what extent do hiring criteria and facing communications such as physical fitness requirements and tests recruitment videos) accurately reflect accurately reflect the standards and skills actual duties? needed to be a successful officer? Attendees expressed frustration at the Research shows that women are disconnect between representations of disproportionately disadvantaged by certain policing and the reality of the job. One hiring and physical fitness requirements, attendee stated, “Marketing materials and there is a lack of evidence that these should show what policing is really about, tests accurately reflect the actual duties not all shooting and rappelling from of a law enforcement officer. Attendees helicopters. We always show all the sexy identified these requirements as a major stuff, but not conflict resolution, problem challenge for women, with one participant solving, helping people access resources. wondering if these were deliberate attempts These are the talents and skills we need to “wash women out.” One attendee noted to reflect in our marketing materials.” A that tests for employment were based on review could help agencies understand upper body strength, thus favoring men, whether their recruitment materials reflect despite a lack of evidence that upper body the actual duties of law enforcement strength correlated with an applicant’s officers. success as a police officer. Other attendees agreed with this observation. One attendee Is rotating shift work necessary? Are other, noted, “I’ve made more than 1,000 arrests more family-friendly policies feasible? and not once did I have to do 24 push-ups before putting handcuffs on someone. I’ve Summit attendees reported that rotating never run a mile and a half after a suspect.” shift work is difficult for families and Attendees discussed changes made in the disproportionately impacts women, and American military that revised physical they questioned whether shift schedules fitness assessments to more accurately and other policies truly benefit agencies. reflect the physical demands of the job. Researchers in attendance confirmed that Understanding how requirements could there is little evidence in favor of shift work better correlate with actual duties has schedules. Research examining the impact the potential to dramatically improve the of various schedules, including fixed- number and experiences of women in shift schedules, will help law enforcement policing. One attendee noted the need for executives understand the impacts of not just social science research but also various schedules on officers’ performance extensive legal review of court rulings on and duties. the subject across the country. Which U.S. agencies have progressive “Marketing materials should show policies toward parental leave, and what is what policing is really about, not the impact of these policies? all shooting and rappelling from helicopters. We always show all the American law enforcement agencies have a sexy stuff, but not conflict resolution, wide variety of parental leave policies. Little problem solving, helping people research has been conducted to understand

16 Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path National Institute of Justice | NIJ.ojp.gov the impact of various policies, both on “Daycare is the No. 1 thing they talk officers and on the agency. Attendees about. If we had this, that would solve stressed the need for maternity uniforms the majority of issues. We know what and accommodating parental policies. the issues are, but we choose not to Reviews, comparisons, and evaluations spend our money on this.” of these policies will help agencies make informed decisions regarding parental How does the availability of quality child leave. One American chief stated that her care affect women in policing? department had successfully implemented a permanent (as opposed to rotating) shift Day care provision in law enforcement schedule, nursing rooms for mothers, six agencies is a highly under-researched area. weeks of paid maternity leave for natural One major metropolitan police department births, and eight weeks of paid maternity had recently convened to examine issues leave for cesarean sections. “That’s that disproportionately impacted its women about commitment to being equitable to sworn officers and civilian staff. “Day care everyone,” she said. Participants also noted is the No. 1 thing they talk about,” said that increasing men’s access to benefits an executive from this agency about the such as paternity leave may positively convening. Studies examining the cost and impact women’s ability to balance personal impact of day care provision might point to and professional responsibilities. One its promise as a tool to recruit and retain participant noted an increase in the officers. number of requests from men officers for days off or shift changes to accommodate What health issues are specific to women child care needs. She noted that, previously, police officers, and how can they be this largely fell to women officers, who then addressed? appeared to have attendance issues when compared to their male counterparts. Although there are health issues that disproportionately or exclusively impact What is the impact of postnatal nursing women, attendees noted that we do not policies? have a good understanding of the best way law enforcement agencies can address and There is also wide diversity in postnatal accommodate issues, including physical and nursing policies across U.S. and mental health and wellness, stress, burnout, international police agencies. Many post-traumatic stress disorder, and suicide. agencies do not have postnatal nursing policies. An international officer shared How do women and men police officers that, in some agencies in her country, compare in regard to physical and postnatal nursing policies have had a mental health and wellness, stress, and significant positive impact, and women burnout? How does this compare to other can receive paid maternity leave for up to professions? one full year. “These are agencies that are listening and responding to women,” she Although research has documented the said. Many attendees doubted the feasibility physical and mental toll of police work, of such policies in America. Studies attendees identified a need for increased examining the impact of various postnatal research to compare wellness, stress, and nursing practices will help agencies make burnout between women and men officers. informed decisions in considering and Identifying these differences, if any, is the developing their own policy. first step in developing interventions to improve wellness and reduce stress and burnout in all officers.

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Why do women leave policing, both during What are the characteristics of effective and after the academy? Are retention recruitment and retention programs with rates and reasons for leaving similar regard to women officers? What can we for men and women? What is the cost learn from departments that are recruiting to departments when they lose officers, and retaining women successfully? in whom they have invested significant training funds, particularly early in their Although attendees identified several career? promising recruitment and retention initiatives, they called for many more A special report from the Bureau of Justice of these programs, and evaluations to Statistics indicates that in academies with a understand their impact. Recruitment predominantly stress-based military model and retention programs have not been (e.g., paramilitary drills, intensive physical rigorously studied. Pilot studies and demands, and public disciplinary measures), rigorous evaluations of innovative female recruits had a 68% completion rate recruitment and retention programs will compared to 81% for male recruits. In identify promising practices for replication academies with a predominantly nonstress and further study. model (which includes an emphasis on academic achievement, physical training, Congress has supported practices to and a supportive instructor-trainee promote the recruitment of women to relationship), female and male recruits the armed services. These include family- both had a completion rate of 89%.16 We friendly programs to support dual military do not have an empirical understanding families, such as the largest child care of the reasons why women leave or are program in the United States. A career dismissed from academies. Similarly, we do intermission program allows parents to not have an understanding of why women take sabbaticals from the service to raise leave the police profession. Attendees children and to take up to 12 weeks of valued information gained from current paid family leave. Other changes include law enforcement officers, but they noted updating combat gear to better fit women’s it would also be important to capture bodies, updating the command culture to data from recruits who dropped out address sexual harassment in the armed (e.g., through exit interviews) to better services, and using centralized processes understand and address their reasons like command climate surveys to keep for leaving. An empirical understanding track of the command culture. Attendees of dropout rates and the reasons behind encouraged exploring the feasibility of them can help departments mitigate similar measures in policing. challenges and amend policies to better support women throughout their time at Attendees believed that we can learn the academy and after their departure. One from departments with higher rates of participant noted that the financial impact success in recruiting and retaining women. of losing women candidates and officers Australia has made impressive progress in must also be explored, particularly given the recruitment and retention of women. training costs and limited budgets. One officer from the Queensland Police Service said, “Inclusion creates diversity. “Inclusion creates diversity. We We treat everyone [as] equal. We create an treat everyone equal. We create an environment and the diversity comes.” environment and the diversity comes.”

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“The biggest obstacle for women in police work is the ability to balance work and family life. A lot of women simply opt out of policing for this reason.”

How can departments better help women balance their professional and personal lives?

There was consensus among attendees that the difficulty of balancing professional and personal responsibilities was a major factor driving women to leave policing or choose a different career from the outset. “The biggest obstacle for women in police work Major Wendy Stiver, Dayton (OH) Police Department. is the ability to balance work and family life,” said one attendee. “A lot of women simply opt out of policing for this reason.” counterparts. Studies have found that Research can help departments understand women officers were treated as tokens, how certain policies might help officers were subjected to sexual harassment, and balance their professional and personal received messages from male supervisors lives without significant financial and other that their promotions would be based on costs to the agency. their gender rather than qualifications and merit.17 Additional research has found that Attendees agreed that departments must women may not pursue opportunities for prioritize policy changes that would promotion because they lack confidence, help officers balance their professional paired with a lack of structured support and personal lives better. Rather than for maintaining a personal life and raising seeing these policy changes as a burden children while handling the demands of a for a department, attendees stressed policing career.18 that departments should see this as an opportunity to attract and retain Attendees at the Research Summit on the best officers. Attendees noted Women in Policing identified the following that if departments did not frame the key research questions relevant to the conversation in that way, they would risk promotion of women officers. wasting significant resources in their talent pool. Additionally, participants discussed “Women have been told it will be twice the fact that these types of considerations as hard to do this as a woman.” could — and possibly should — be relevant for all officers, not just women. What is the representation of women in law enforcement across ranks? THEME 5: PROMOTION Promotion of women officers to higher We know that women are underrepresented ranks has not been well studied. Limited in law enforcement, particularly in existing research suggests that many leadership positions. A better empirical qualified women candidates face understanding of the exact representation disproportionate barriers to promotion of women across ranks, both within when compared with their male departments and nationally, will establish a baseline against which to measure progress.

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“Who has access to power?” asked one whether women in law enforcement do seek attendee. “What are the pathways? We have promotion at a rate lower than that of their to look at the structural factors that are male counterparts and, if so, why. leading this.” Others noted that it would not be surprising to find a small number “When we talk about the ‘good old boy of women at higher ranks because of the network,’ I am living it. It’s very deep- barriers women face. “Women have been rooted and the culture is very bad. told it will be twice as hard to do this as a The mindset is that women belong at woman,” one officer said. home, cooking for their spouses.”

“At a hostage rescue training, I Do women face discrimination in the remember thinking ‘I don’t think promotion process? my skill sets are going to result in a positive resolution.’ All of my male There was widespread belief among colleagues were brimming with attendees that women officers face confidence, but I didn’t have the self- discrimination in the promotion process. confidence to question them. Shortly Many officers shared stories of being passed after, I retired from the team.” over despite scoring highly on promotion exams, and Harrington stated that her Why are women not being promoted nor department chose not to fill nearly 10 seeking promotion at the rates one might positions rather than promote her. Many expect? attendees felt that the promotion process was subjective and biased against women. Attendees at the summit noted that one “To get to lieutenant in my agency, it’s reason for a lack of women in leadership completely up to the chief’s discretion,” said positions stemmed from women not one officer. Officers also spoke about their applying for these opportunities. Research experiences with nepotism and entitlement, in analogous fields suggests that women both within the promotion process and are more hesitant than men in applying in day-to-day activities. One chief stated, for promotion and more likely to doubt “When we talk about the ‘good old boy their qualifications. Many attendees network,’ I am living it. It’s very deep-rooted shared stories of such experiences. For and the culture is very bad. The mindset example, one attendee said the following: is that women belong at home, cooking “At a hostage rescue training, I remember for their spouses.” Studies to examine thinking, ‘I don’t think my skill sets are discrimination in the promotion process going to result in a positive resolution.’ can help us understand it empirically. All of my male colleagues were brimming Researchers should carefully consider with confidence, but I didn’t have the methodology and data collection to ensure self-confidence to question them. Shortly that analysis can delineate discrimination after, I retired from the team.” One female based on gender, race, and other factors. participant noted that women officers told her they did not want to go through the “Power: for men it’s viewed as a process of having to prove that a woman positive but for women it’s a negative.” could do what the men had been doing. Another female participant raised the issue How do people view power and ambition in of a lack of access to career development women officers compared to how they view training and pointed to the traditionally their male counterparts? male-centric networking that occurs at events like golf, cigar nights, and fishing Summit attendees felt that differences in trips. Further research will illuminate the way power and ambition are viewed

20 Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path National Institute of Justice | NIJ.ojp.gov

by women and by men have an impact on her position (chief of a major metropolitan how women officers are perceived and, department) as a stepping stone to ultimately, on their ability to successfully “something bigger and better,” a criticism do their jobs. One attendee said, “Power: she doubted most of her male counterparts for men it’s viewed as a positive but for experienced. A different chief stressed the women it’s a negative.” An attendee raised importance of women being champions of the common conception of a woman in change in shifting this narrative. She noted leadership as “shrill, unlikable, needs to that whenever she heard a woman being smile more.” Another noted a reluctance criticized as ambitious, she would respond, to promote women because of the “That’s great, so am I.” assumption that a woman in a leadership position would be unlikable. Existing “From a research perspective, we research in analogous fields may be helpful need to learn from these women when considering research designs for about their successes. What pathways investigating this issue. got them there? We need to be very purposeful about that.” Attendees agreed that traditional command presence is laden with masculine norms. Are women more likely to be promoted Women law enforcement executives into leadership positions in organizations believed they had repeatedly received experiencing a legitimacy crisis (i.e., the less respect than their male counterparts glass cliff)? If so, what can be done to help throughout their careers because they did these women be more successful leaders? not conform to these masculine norms, despite being effective leaders. Attendees The “glass cliff” theory suggests that women urged a shift away from these traditional have a higher likelihood of being placed in masculine norms to a more open-minded leadership positions within departments definition of an effective leader. in crisis, where they are more likely to fail. Examining the context of women leaders Several law enforcement executives at in law enforcement will either affirm or the summit agreed that they had needed debunk this theory. Interviews with women to make many more sacrifices over the executives in departments in crisis, as course of their careers than their male well as other forms of research, can help counterparts. One executive stated that inform actions to support women in these because she felt constant criticism for positions. One researcher said, “From a being “a woman, and so weaker,” she had research perspective, we need to learn from never been able to let her guard down and these women about their successes. What had felt pressure to constantly project a pathways got them there? We need to be traditionally masculine command presence very purposeful about that.” “that wasn’t me or my leadership style.” A second executive agreed that differences Attendees identified a number of in the ways power and ambition are viewed unanswered questions around women across gender made it necessary for her to officers and promotion, including a work harder than her male counterparts to lack of understanding of the leadership earn respect, and her successes were often opportunities that women receive and criticized as being too ambitious. the context behind these opportunities. Although many believed that women Instead of ambition being seen as an are often put in positions of leadership asset, one attendee said it was portrayed within departments in crisis, there was as “watch out, she’s ambitious.” She noted some disagreement about whether this that she was frequently accused of using was negative. “Every challenge is an

Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path 21 National Institute of Justice | NIJ.ojp.gov

opportunity,” noted one attendee about Attendees also felt that understanding the glass cliff theory. “No matter what typical paths to promotion — and how department, we should leave it better than these differed from the paths of women we found it.” officers not promoted — would help identify factors contributing to a lack What is the impact of women taking of parity. To general agreement, one women-specific leadership training attendee prioritized the question, “How compared to general policing training? do people get into spaces that we have deemed jumping-off points for leadership?” A number of training and other Attendees identified jumping-off points like professional development programs experience in SWAT teams and other elite exist specifically for women officers. units, and competitive training such as the Attendees were divided in their opinions FBI National Academy, and they mentioned of these trainings. Although most felt the importance of developmental or that the women-specific trainings were “reach” assignments. One attendee noted helpful, there was also discussion that the particular importance of women participation in such a program could “use consciously seeking opportunities to up” an officer’s professional development attend established and respected executive opportunities, making it less likely that she development programs. Another pointed would have the opportunity to attend the to the logistical challenges of needing to be FBI National Academy or other prestigious away from home (in many cases, for weeks) trainings. in order to attend.

“A man can spend a year on patrol and “Women are change catalysts within get seven years credit. A woman gets a police organizations. Instead of quarter credit.” asking ‘are women making it in policing?’ when are we going to start What is necessary for women to be at least asking ‘how are women impacting proportionately represented in leadership? police organizations in positive ways?’ I’d love to see the research move away Attendees felt confident that empirical from whether women are making it to research would show significant disparities how they are positively impacting.” between men and women regarding promotion and opportunity. “A man can What is the impact of an increased number spend a year on patrol and get seven years’ of women in leadership? credit. A woman gets a quarter credit,” said one officer. Other attendees felt they were Studies examining promising and more often judged on their hair, makeup, effective practices will help increase the and clothing than on valid qualifications. number of women in law enforcement Studies are needed to explore this leadership positions. Equally important apparent disparity and understand how to will be measuring the impact of women increase women’s access to promotion and in leadership positions on individual opportunity. officers, law enforcement agencies, and communities. Attendees stressed the Attendees felt that the first step toward importance of studying this impact. One increasing promotions of women was attendee said, “Women are change catalysts understanding how the structure of an within police organizations. Instead of organization, the policies and practices asking, ‘Are women making it in policing?’ guiding it, and its leadership’s outlook when are we going to start asking, ‘How affect the number of women promoted. are women impacting police organizations

22 Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path National Institute of Justice | NIJ.ojp.gov in positive ways?’ I’d love to see the research move away from whether women are making it to how they are positively impacting.”

“When I was promoted to sergeant, I was the first and only female sergeant in our organization. It wasn’t until I was surrounded by all these amazing women, willing to talk about their experiences and what they were going through, that I could say, ‘Hey, I can do this.’”

Does mentoring work? What does successful mentoring look like? What (From left to right) Lt. Rachel Tolber, Redlands (CA) Police Department; are the advantages and disadvantages of Chief Carmen Best, Seattle (WA) Police Department; and Dr. Marisa Silvestri, women and men mentors? University of Kent (England).

Many attendees pointed to mentoring around. We have to stand up for each other.” as one of the most influential factors in Another participant noted the extreme their careers and a way to help women be importance of women choosing to mentor successful in an adversarial system. One other women who are new to the profession. attendee said, “When I was promoted to sergeant, I was the first and only female Summit attendees also discussed the pros sergeant in our organization. It wasn’t until I and cons of having men or women as was surrounded by all these amazing women, mentors. Men were more commonly in willing to talk about their experiences and positions of authority and influence and what they were going through, that I could were less able to identify with a woman say, ‘Hey, I can do this.’” officer’s personal experiences, particularly navigating a male-dominated culture as Not all departments have women who can a woman. Attendees reflected on their serve in a mentorship capacity. One officer positive experiences with men as mentors noted that she had to drive an hour to find and advocates, noting that the male another woman in a command position. In perspective was particularly helpful in small departments in particular, officers navigating the leadership structure. often felt they were “n = 1,” the only woman, without others to turn to for inspiration and guidance. Attendees proposed a Field Priorities statewide or national network of women Summit participants selected 15 of the mentors that would cross departmental most important questions to put forward lines. in the research agenda. They are ranked in order of importance, based on votes by the Attendees also noted that women attendees. sometimes choose not to mentor or otherwise support each other, and that this 1. What barriers do women in policing is detrimental. “We have to get out of this face?19 How do these barriers compare ‘crabs in a bucket’ syndrome,” said one chief to barriers women face in other about unhealthy competition and hostility professions? between women. “There’s so much to go

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2. How can law enforcement agencies — in are the advantages and disadvantages of partnership with other organizations — women and men mentors? improve data collection and measures 14. What are the experiences of women to better inform efforts to improve working in police departments as the representation and experiences of civilians and contractors? women in policing? 15. What is necessary for women to be at 3. Why are women not being promoted least proportionately represented in nor seeking promotion at the rates one leadership? might expect? 4. What is the relationship between race, ethnicity, and gender in these issues? Promising Practices and Next Between sexual orientation, gender Steps identity, and gender? What are the Attendees identified a number of promising specific experiences of officers who practices. These recommendations reflect are women of color, and how does the the opinions of attendees at the summit. intersection of gender and race affect They are not necessarily evidence-based the challenges women of color face in and do not reflect the official position of this occupation? the National Institute of Justice. 5. What role can/do men play in improving the representation and Support mentoring and sponsorship. experiences of women in policing? Attendees almost unanimously agreed that 6. What is the impact of an increased having strong role models, advocates, and number of women in leadership? mentors (both women and men) among law enforcement leaders was important in 7. What is the role of a police officer today a woman officer’s career track and success. and how can we recruit accordingly? They pointed to the need for national 8. What are the characteristics of effective or statewide networks to mentor women recruitment and retention programs officers who may not have women leaders with regard to women officers? What within their own organizations to look can we learn from departments that up to. “Some agencies don’t have enough are recruiting and retaining women women — or none — to do this,” said successfully? one attendee. “We need to find a way to reach into these spaces to connect women 9. What negative aspects of policing cultures need to change in order for with mentors to help them be successful women officers to be better integrated in a system that doesn’t want them to be into and integral to departments? successful.” Attendees noted the value of women officers supporting and lifting 10. What is the most effective business case up other women officers, rather than for advancing women in policing? competing or fighting with each other. 11. What experience and skills are necessary to have a successful policing Create flexible, family-friendly policies. The career, and how can more opportunities research suggests that agencies with higher be created for women to acquire these levels of procedural, distributive, and critical attributes? interpersonal justice are more efficient and effective organizations. Law enforcement 12. How can we make the police profession organizations need to identify and adopt more enticing to women? standards that promote equality and 13. Does mentoring work? What does equity for all employees. Policies that have successful mentoring look like? What a disproportionate negative impact on

24 Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path National Institute of Justice | NIJ.ojp.gov a group of workers should be reviewed Newark, New Jersey, to help women recruits and changed. The long-term benefits of pass physical fitness tests, create a network promising practices such as family-friendly of women officers, advocate for these policies (e.g., parental leave, postnatal officers, and increase the recruitment and nursing, and nonrotating shift schedules) promotion of women in law enforcement. should be explored. Similar programs can provide important community, support, and advocacy for Improve and enforce harassment policies. women officers. Beyond the initial harm of a harassment incident, attendees enumerated the One attendee spoke about a quarterly many difficulties faced by women filing meeting she had started after she became sexual harassment claims. These included the first and only woman in a leadership retaliation, waiting hours to speak to an position in her small agency. She invited all internal affairs or commanding officer of the women in her agency to the meeting about a complaint, unnecessarily lengthy but noted that almost all attendees were and cumbersome processes, and the lack nonsworn officers. She noted that the of assurance that complaints would remain women who attend “have great ideas about anonymous and confidential. how to improve things,” and that she was continuing to work to increase participation Find advocates for change. Women did not from sworn officers. create the barriers and challenges that they face in policing, and they will not solve Reframe the profession. Attendees criticized these issues alone. Allies will be integral stereotypes of policing as masculine in making progress. Attendees identified and violent. They called for a shift in police chiefs, male counterparts, mayors, emphasis toward community policing, trade organizations, and politicians as valuing relationships, and increasing trust. groups that could serve as partners. Attendees believed this shift would increase the appeal of policing for women, more Re-examine physical fitness standards. accurately portray policing’s mission, and Physical fitness standards were identified result in a stronger, more effective police as one of the key reasons that women profession. They noted the successful shift recruits did not complete academy in police departments abroad from “police training, yet attendees noted that these force” to “police service” as a promising requirements were largely not based on model for framing this necessary shift. evidence nor reflective of the physical requirements of the job. Re-examining Look to the “bright spots.” With and revising these standards to more approximately 30% women, the Madison accurately reflect the physical demands of (Wisconsin) Police Department has one of the job has the potential to dramatically the highest percentages of women officers increase the number of women in policing. in the country. Some Canadian agencies Some attendees noted the need for more offer progressive policies, such as postnatal rigorous assessments of other, nonphysical nursing and extended paid parental leave. requirements, such as emotional Medicine, technology, the military, and intelligence, negotiation and de-escalation other fields have made progress toward ability, and interpersonal skills. parity, and these should be viewed as allied fields when considering how to make Support women. After finding that women progress on issues related to women in failed out of police academy at a rate two policing. These “bright spots” can offer to three times that of men, officers formed lessons. the Women’s Leadership Academy in

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policing are pilot projects. Evaluating interventions to measure and quantify their impact will create an evidence base to help departments understand what works.

Learn from research in other fields. Like women in policing, women in medicine also face significant barriers. Dr. Linda Pololi described how she has helped build a consortium of five medical schools to examine issues of women in medicine. After conducting in-depth interviews with both men and women who work in medical Deputy Commissioner (retired) Nola Joyce, Philadelphia (PA) Police Department. schools, Dr. Pololi’s team performed a quantitative analysis and ultimately Publish issue briefs on relevant research. developed a survey of medical schools’ Attendees expressed a desire for easy-to- approach to women in academic leadership digest issue briefs that would summarize all positions. This research helped illustrate relevant research on an issue in one place. the challenges that women in medicine They suggested a target audience of city face, differences in perception between managers, unions, and police executives. men and women, and promising steps for making progress. Similar research and Convene follow-up meetings. NIJ’s methodologies would be helpful in better research summit was a first step toward understanding issues of women in policing. understanding and making progress on the state of women in policing, but additional Learn from successful efforts abroad. meetings are needed to collect more input Representation of women in U.S. policing from the field, explore priority areas in is especially low when compared to many greater detail, and generate promising of our international counterparts. Law practices. Attendees suggested that, in enforcement participants from New follow-up meetings, women attendees might Zealand, Australia, and Canada shared bring a male officer from their department. steps their agencies have taken not only Attendees also suggested that focus groups to recruit and retain women in greater of women officers would be helpful to delve numbers but also to completely transform into specific issues at greater length. the mission of their departments — thus creating an environment where diversity Create a space for relevant research. is not only welcomed but celebrated. Attendees pointed to the lack of a Transferability assessments of these efforts centralized database or other source of could identify a framework for how U.S. information for law enforcement leaders agencies may apply similar strategies. who want to learn more about how to work toward parity. “There’s no one place, Prioritize the issue. The New York Police that’s part of the problem,” an attendee Department has a unit dedicated to equity said about research relevant to women in and inclusion, and it recently convened policing, and best practices for shifting an a women’s institute to look at issues agency’s culture and increasing parity. that disproportionately impact women in the agency who are sworn officers, Evaluate the impact of interventions. With civilians, and contractors. This was done a lack of rigorous research, many initiatives with full support of the commissioner for increasing the number of women in and demonstrates the department’s

26 Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path National Institute of Justice | NIJ.ojp.gov commitment to the issue. Creating commitment to engaging with gender issues units with the dedicated purpose of both in the policing field and beyond. understanding the issues women officers face, and supporting these officers, creates infrastructure within an agency’s Notes organization that can be powerful in 1. The terms “law enforcement” shifting its culture and practices. “It’s and “policing” are used somewhat very intentional,” said one officer about interchangeably in this report. For the initiatives in New York City. “It does the purposes of this convening, law create angst. There are some folks that are enforcement includes police, sheriffs, very disturbed. As they should be. I would and other peace officers. It does encourage anyone interested in doing this not include correctional officers, to reach out.” prosecutors, or other practitioners, Invest in partnerships. This research although many of the issues are also agenda is only the first step in a long relevant to those stakeholder groups. road toward gender equality in policing. 2. 2013 Law Enforcement Management Law enforcement, researchers, and other and Administrative Statistics data stakeholders will need to establish and indicated that 9.5% of first-line maintain strong partnerships to answer supervisors were women, and 2.7% of the research questions in this research chiefs or executives were women. agenda, and many more. Law enforcement 3. Federal Bureau of Investigation, Crime executives will need to commit to in the United States, 2016 (Washington, supporting and valuing the women officers DC: U.S. Department of Justice, in their departments. Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2016), https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the- Reframe conversations about women u.s/2016/crime-in-the-u.s.-2016. in policing. Conversations about the challenges that women in policing 4. Amie M. Schuck, “Female face often focus on the ways that Representation in Law Enforcement: law enforcement agencies can better The Influence of Screening, Unions, accommodate their women employees. Incentives, Community Policing, Asking instead how agencies can optimally CALEA, and Size,” Police Quarterly 17 use their talent pool reframes the no. 1 (2014): 54-78. conversation around opportunities for 5. The background information at the departments to optimize their resources. beginning of each theme is adapted from a literature review compiled Commit to long-term work. Advancing by Kristin Silver in advance of the women in policing should not be seen December research summit. These as a series of short-term solutions. The paragraphs are intended solely to barriers that women in policing face provide limited background on existing were not created overnight, and quick-fix research relevant to each theme. They solutions are likely to be ineffective in the are not intended to represent the long term. Changing the negative aspects full extent of all relevant literature. of the culture of an organization or in Kristin Silver, Women in Policing (2018), the policing field takes time and effort. unpublished manuscript. Many of the issues women in policing 6. For more information on the face are not specific to policing; rather, Women’s Leadership Academy, visit they are reflective of broader societal https://www.womensleadpd.org. issues. Attendees called for a long-term

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7. Cara Rabe-Hemp, Thriving in an 14. William T. Jordan, Lorie Fridell, Donald All-Boys Club: Female Police and Their Faggiani, and Bruce Kubu, “Attracting Fight for Equality (Lanham, Maryland: Females and Racial/Ethnic Minorities Rowman & Littlefield, 2018). to Law Enforcement,” Journal of 8. Anne Li Kringen and Madeleine Novich, Criminal Justice 37 no. 4 (2009): 333-341. “Is It ‘Just Hair’ or Is It ‘Everything’? 15. Watch the recruiting video Embodiment and Gender Repression in at https://www.youtube.com/ Policing,” Gender, Work & Organization watch?v=f9psILoYmCc#action=share. 25 no. 2 (2018): 195-213, doi:10.1111/ 16. Bureau of Justice Statistics, “State gwao.12207. and Local Law Enforcement Training 9. Richard J. Lundman, “Officer Gender Academies, 2006,” Special Report and Traffic Ticket Decisions: Police (Washington, DC: U.S. Department Blue or Women Too?” Journal of of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Criminal Justice 37 no. 4 (2009): 342-352, 2009), https://www.bjs.gov/content/ doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2009.06.002. pub/pdf/slleta06.pdf. 10. Cara Rabe-Hemp, “Female Officers and 17. Carol A. Archbold and Dorothy Moses the Ethic of Care: Does Officer Gender Schulz, “Making Rank: The Lingering Impact Police Behaviors?” Journal of Effects of Tokenism on Female Police Criminal Justice 36 no. 5 (2008): 426-434, Officers’ Promotion Aspirations,” doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2008.07.001. Police Quarterly 11 no. 1 (2008): 50-73, 11. P. Colin Bolger, “Just Following Orders: doi:10.1177/1098611107309628. A Meta-Analysis of the Correlates 18. Carol A. Archbold and Kimberly of American Police Officer Use of D. Hassell, “Paying a Marriage Tax: Force Decisions,” American Journal of An Examination of the Barriers Criminal Justice 40 no. 3 (2014): 466- to the Promotion of Female Police 492, doi:10.1007/s12103-014-9278-y; Officers,” Policing: An International and Natalie Todak, “The Decision to Journal of Police Strategies & Become a Police Officer in a Legitimacy Management 32 no. 1 (2009): 56-74, Crisis,” Women & Criminal Justice 27 no. doi:10.1108/13639510910937111. 4 (2017): 250-270, doi:10.1080/08974454. 19. Although the largest number of 2016.1256804. participants ranked this question as a 12. Timothy M. Maher, “Police Sexual priority, there was some discussion as Misconduct: Female Police Officers’ to whether part of the limited research Views Regarding Its Nature and Extent,” funding should be used to explore it, Women & Criminal Justice 20 no. 3 given that some participants felt many (2010): 263-282, doi:10.1080/08974454.2 of the barriers are well-known. They 010.490480. suggested that research might be more 13. Josie Francesca Cambareri and impactful if it focuses on promising Joseph B. Kuhns, “Perceptions and practices for overcoming barriers and/ Perceived Challenges Associated or how these barriers compare to those With a Hypothetical Career in Law in other fields. Enforcement: Differences Among Male and Female College Students,” Police Quarterly 21 no. 3 (2018): 335-357, doi:10.1177/1098611118760862.

28 Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path National Institute of Justice | NIJ.ojp.gov

Attendees

Carol Archbold Joan Fiesta North Dakota State University University of Illinois Police Department

Catherine Ashcraft Heather Foust Cummings National Center for Women & Information Catalyst Technology Erin Freidline Carmen Best Riley County (KS) Police Department Seattle (WA) Police Department Tammy Fryer Amy Bonney Windsor (Ontario) Police Service Prescott (AZ) Police Department Glendaly Garcia Vera Bumpers State of Connecticut Department of Houston (TX) METRO Police Department Public Health

Tara Coffey Laura Goodman New York City Police Department Education for Critical Thinking

Christine Cole Aimee Haley Crime and Justice Institute Columbus (OH) Police Department

AnnMarie Cordner Natalie Holder Kutztown University of Pennsylvania U.S. Capitol Police

Marilyn Corsianos Meghan Hollis Eastern Michigan University Texas Department of Health and Human Services Kym Craven National Association of Women Law Aimee Jackson Oberon Enforcement Executives Milwaukee (WI) Police Department

Julie Duncan Nola Joyce Queensland (Australia) Police Service Philadelphia (PA) Police Department, retired

Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path 29 National Institute of Justice | NIJ.ojp.gov

Hyun Jung Jeon Danielle Outlaw American University Portland (OR) Police Bureau

Kristy Kamarck Glennis Polanco Congressional Research Service Ocean Township (NJ) Police Department

Sandra Karsten Linda Pololi Missouri Department of Public Safety Brandeis University

Tracie Keesee Nicole Powell New York City Police Department New Orleans (LA) Police Department

Anne Kirkpatrick Cara Rabe-Hemp Oakland (CA) Police Department Illinois State University

Anne Kringen Ivonne Roman University of New Haven (CT) Newark (NJ) Police Department

Emily Kuhn Richard Rosa International Association of Chiefs of Police Hispanic American Police Command Officers Association Claudia Leyden Redlands (CA) Police Department Kaye Ryan New Zealand Police Leah McFadden Windsor (Ontario) Police Department Catherine Sanz Women in Federal Law Enforcement Sara McFann Florida International University Dana Schrad Virginia Association of Chiefs of Police and Heavan Mitchell Foundation Asheville (NC) Police Department Amie Schuck Renee Mitchell University of Illinois at Chicago Sacramento (CA) Police Department Cynthia Shain Karin Montejo Louisville (KY) Police Department, retired, Miami-Dade (FL) Police Department, and Southern Police Institute retired Marisa Silvestri Brenda Moore University of Kent (England) University at Buffalo, SUNY Nicola Smith-Kea Carolyn Naoroz Laura and John Arnold Foundation Richmond (VA) Police Department Alexis Smollok Rebecca Neusteter Federal Air Marshal Service Vera Institute of Justice Madison Soltys Emma O’Flanagan American University Rutgers University Police Department

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Kathy Spillar Jessica Toliver National Center for Women in Policing Police Executive Research Forum

Wendy Stiver Cynthia Turcios Dayton (OH) Police Department American University

Stephanie Stoiloff Paige Valenta Miami-Dade (FL) Police Department Madison (WI) Police Department

Natalie Todak Chelsea Van Horne University of Alabama at Birmingham American University

Rachel Tolber LaTesha Watson Redlands (CA) Police Department Henderson (NV) Police Department

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National Institute of Justice | NIJ.ojp.gov

DOJ Participants

Geoff Alpert Matt Scheider National Institute of Justice Office of Community Oriented Policing Services Trisha Chakraborty National Institute of Justice Jennifer Scherer National Institute of Justice Brett Chapman National Institute of Justice Donellen Schlosser Office of the Inspector General Billie Coleman Community Oriented Policing Services Steve Schuetz National Institute of Justice Gary Cordner National Institute of Justice Kevin Scott Bureau of Justice Statistics Joel Hunt National Institute of Justice Cornelia Sigworth Bureau of Justice Assistance Shelley Hyland Bureau of Justice Statistics Kristin Silver National Institute of Justice Nancy Kolb Bureau of Justice Assistance Erica Smith Bureau of Justice Statistics Maureen McGough National Institute of Justice Rianna Starheim Contractor for National Institute of Justice Angela Moore National Institute of Justice Veronica Taylor National Institute of Justice

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