WELFARE AND TRAINING OF YOUTH r l~'H E notable speech of Mr. R. A. Butler, President JL of the Board of Education, to a National Defence Public Tntorest Committee on December 10 is one of the indications which appear from time to time that the essential part of education both now and later lias been realized. Mr. Butler claimed that his department is becoming recognized as tho great national department of State for the training of CONTENTS the young. He gave the assurance that no further Page inroads on the teaching profession arc contemplated Welfare and Training of Youth .... I7Sat present, and he hopes the situation will nover Progress of Geomagnetism. By Sir Edward Appleton, demand them. He viewed tho registration of boys K.C.B., F.R.S...... 177 and girls of 16—18 years of age under tho now National Raw Materials. By Dr. E. H. Tripp . 178 Service Act as a step towards building tho arch from 14 to 18, and local authorities are being asked to do Industry and its Hazards ..... 179 all they can to increase the facilities for training and Roger Joseph Boscovich. By Prof. H. C. Plummer, service for boys and girls of 14-16. F . R . S ...... 180 Those steps are not intended to take the place of Newtonian Attraction. By Prof. L. M. Milne-Thomson 180 tho Fisher plan for continuation schools, but the scheme should accustom young people to the idea Feeding Post-War Europe. By Dr. Geoffrey Bourne 182 that in these early years the path to manhood and Potable W ater from Sea-Water. By Dr. A. Parker 184 womanhood lies through knowledge and, broadly, citizenship. Mr. Butler indeed linked the scheme up The Anthropological Approach to the Study of Music. By F. H. Angold ...... 186 with the idea of a now social charter, with its Bill of Duties as the counterpart of the Bill of Rights, which Obituaries : has been voicod in several quarters both in Great Prof. James Wilson. By Prof. J. P. Drew . .188 Britain and in tho United States. From early youth, Mr. Geoffrey Milne . . . . .188 he said, the young citizen should learn that there must Prof. F. von Muller. By Dr. J. D. Rolleston . 188 be acknowledged duties to be performed by the individual for the community, which should confer News and Views ...... 189 certain lights and privileges in return. Letters to the Editors : Mr. Butler’s speech is tho more encouraging to those who believe that the care of the children is the A New Technique for Mitosis in Tumours.— Dr. P. C. K o l l e r ...... 193 concern of the nation and that the welfare and training of youth are matters of supreme importance Fluorescent Lipoidal Spectra of Human Tissue.— Dr. H. S. P e n n ...... 193 at all times because of tho comparative neglect of education in the attention which has already been The Second Phase of Rennet Coagulation.— N. J. Berridge . .194 focused upon reconstruction. Despite the general recognition that the education of public opinion must Lowland Tropical Podsols in Uganda.— A. S. Thomas . .195 be a preludo to effective action in almost every field, that has been viewed as mainly a matter of Value of Molybdenum for Lettuce.— Dr. W . E. preparing opinion for change through some measure Brenchley and Dr. K. Warington . . .196 of adult education. There has been little indication Sociological Research in Race Relations.— K. L. of the conception of the education of the adolescent Little ...... 196 as part of a grand design embracing every aspect of Classification of Rheological Properties .197 life. The Minister of Labour has indeed already Investigations on Lightning in Nigeria 198 spoken in similar terms of the plans being initiated for the training of young people, and there is real Common Indian Grasses. By Dr. B. C. Sharman . 199 promiso in the evidence that Mr. Bevin and Mr. Butler The Potato in India. By Dr. Franklin Kidd . . 199 are working together. Such co-operation should create the links between technical training and indus­ try and commerce of which Mr. Butler spoke, and Editorial and Publishing Offices which are essential in the interests of both the MACMILLAN & CO., LTD., individual and the nation. ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LO N D O N , W .C.2 Equally vital is the attention to voluntary training Telephone Num ber: Whitehall 8831 which will accustom young people, as Mr. Butler said, Telegrams : Phusis Lesquare London to the idea that in their early years the path to Advertisements should be addressed to citizenship lies through knowledge, work and service. T. G. Scott & Son, Ltd., Three Gables, London Road, Merstham, Surrey Inspired leadership should turn the eagerness of the Telephone: Merstham 316 The annual subscription rate is £4 10 0, payable in advance. Inland or Abroad juveniles to play their part in the war effort into All rights reserved. Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office channels which will fit them to play an equally or 176 NATURE F eb ru ary 14, 1942, vOL. 149 even more important part in tho tasks of recon­ T he article in th e Round Table suggests th a t th e tim e struction which lie beyond. It is this vision of the! has come for the lessons learnt during the last forty future of education that is pregnant with possi­ years through the experience of the Workers’ Educa­ bilities in recorstruetion, and a notable article in the tional Association to bo applied to other sections of admirable series cn our problems of reconstruction the community, as has already been done elsewhere running through the Round Table, which is concerned in Europe. While, however, such experiments with the future of education, has particular claims deserve close study, and notably tho Danish People’s on the attention of the scientific worker. High School, we must beware of merely copying other Directing attention to the part which science—in systems. Education should be inductive and clinical, the Batin sense of the word and not the narrow based on a study of the ‘patients’, as well as de­ meaning to which wo usually restrict it—has played in ductive, and if we are to achieve that essential element stimulating the educational developments of the last in post-war reconstruction, as educated people, we seventy years, the Round Table points out that in a must bring imaginative insight to bear on our pro­ world where life is increasingly based on knowledge, blem, creative thought as well as administrative the uneducated man is useless or dangerous. He is ability and energy. Wo must plan our educational no less incompetent as a soldier or citizen than as an system not merely to include refresher courses for engineer. The need to train the intelligence of all, teachers, modical men, scientific workers and other in order to live in a civilization where as much intelli­ professional or specialist workers, but also to keep gence as possible is required, sufficiently explains the the human mind of the whole people growing and recent development of education and why such alive, giving them an opportunity of systematic development must continue. study and a chance to think methodically about life Some lines of further development have been when they have far more to think about than they can indicated in tho Haclow and in the Spens Reports, have at school or university. and the creation of a democracy which can enjoy and Leaving on ono sido for the present the question sustain the new order of society foreshadowed in the of the part which tho university and the secondary Atlantic Charter depends on our implementing such school have to play in such a frame-work of educa­ proposals. That democracy cannot be created if tion, with its emphasis on education rathor than education for the vast majority stops at fourteen, or instruction or teaching, there must bo considered if we fail to give them the right kind of education. these threo dements which are essential in any The question of tho content of education and how it is education adequate to tho needs of to-day. All men to bo given is the unsolved educational problem of need to make a living and the best that conditions to -d ay . permit. All have to live in a society and all need a In any scheme of national education we must scale of values, a sense of what is first-rate, in life provide, as at present, for two great classes—tho few as a whole, and so far as is possible, in ils many and the many. The composition of the first class provinces. To meet these needs education must pro­ will no longer be the same as at present, for it should vide a vocational, a social and a spiritual element, be recruited from the whole nation, without distinc­ and it must do this not for a limited class but, in tion of birth or wealth, and should consist of those different ways, for every citizen. whom the community chooses to be its leaders Of the vocational element it need only bo empha­ because of their fitness to lead. The selection of this sized here that a society should give its educated class will, in fact, bo ono of the most difficult problems members not only specialist knowledge but also some for society, involving as it does ono of the gravest perception of the general conditions and possibilities dangers to education. Already the competitive of modern civilization, and a sense of the importance examination system is corrupting tho disinterested­ and uses of the techniques essential to it. It is a ness which is the essence of all good education and knowledge of science in this sense, indeed, that without which liberal education is impossible. should form part of the education of every citizen If we can deal with this problem and at the same and not of the specialist alone, just as it is the wide time remove the grave defect of our newer univer­ vision and sense of perspective implied in such a sities emphasized in two recent books—that they general concept ion that should correct the narrow teach rather than educate—we have still to face tho specialism which has often warped the development larger problem of the higher education of the many. of the scientific worker himself and hindered his par­ Here everything remains to be done, and no one can ticip atio n in tile, w ork of tho com m unity. T o th a t, suppose that tho mere implementing of the provi­ indeed, a fuller corrective is tho social or political sions of the Fisher Act will provide a solution. At education of which, largely under the pressure of the tho age of fifteen or sixteen education has only com­ competitive examination system, he has so often menced ; it has certainly not reached ils goal. been deprived. Education is intended to bo used in life, and its mean­ Some training in tho art of governing and, still ing and importance cannot be apparent to an adoles­ more, of being governed ; in independence and in cent or even to an undergraduate who has seen respect for authority ; individuality and team-work ; nothing of life. It is this fact that gives value to self-assertion and self-discipline and self-sacrilieo ; part-time education for the adolescent, and to adult initiative and subordination : the value of these education, which gives men and women engaged in becomes more apparent with every passing day of the ordinary business of life the opportunity to think war. Their value will bo no less when tho nation about it systematically. turns once more to the tasks of poaco, and they are No. 3772, February 14, 1942 NATURE 177

an essential part of the education of every citizen, therefore, can excuse failure to place the spiritual whether ho occupies a scientific, technical or adminis­ element first in our system and to ensure that the trative position or any other, just as some under­ vision of greatness from whatever sources it springs standing of general science in the broad sense should is available to all and not merely to the privileged few. make up part of bis equipment for living in this The discussion on Science and the World Mind at tho modem world. The registration of boys and girls of Conference on Science and World Order demon­ 16-18 under (he National Service Act can serve no strated that men of science are already thinking more useful purpose than that of implementing this deeply about these problems, and they will be grateful education in citizenship which certain institutions lor tho evidence that Mr. Butler no less than his such as the Scout movement and the Youth Groups predecessor at the Board of Education is giving such themselves are already imparting. close attention to tho fundamental problem in all If we must discover new ways or forms for extend­ reconstruction—that of developing citizens, young or ing social education it is important that we should old, who can first reconstruct themselves. utilize to the full existing agencies and the founda­ tions already laid. The Round Table article empha­ sizes the value of the public, or as it should be termed the residential, school, in training in tho principles PROGRESS OF GEOMAGNETISM and practice of living in a community. This oppor­ tunity must not be thrown away, but the residential Geomagnetism school, coming under the ultimate, though not By Prof. Sydney Chapman and Prof. Julius Bartels. necessarily direct, control of the Board of Education, (International Series of Monographs on Physics.) Vol. 1 : Geomagnetic and Related Phenomena. Pp. should be open to every class in the community, and xxviii-f-542. Vol. 2 : Analysis of the Data, and the right to entry should be based on merit, assessed Physical Theories. Pp. x-f- 543-1050. (Oxford : not merely in terms of intellectual ability but also of Clarendon Press ; London : Oxford University Press, character and personality. The further opportuni­ 1940.) 63s. not. ties afforded by tho growth of school camps, the “r | ' I IE earth itself is a great magnet.” So wrote development of the Youth Movement and of any JL Dr. William Gilbert, fellow of St. John’s College, form of national service or conscription which may Cambridge, nearly throe and a half centuries ago. persist after the War must also bo seized for this Tho detailed geographical determination of the nature education in citizenship and to promote mutual of that magnetism, and the attempts to identify its understanding between the different classes of society origin, have since attracted much effort and friendly anil thus to strengthen the national unity. international co-operation. But, substantially, Gil­ bert’s challenging statement still remains something The third element is tho most neglected and at tho of a mystery. Por while much is now known of tho same time the most important and most difficult origin of the small, but significant, periodic compo­ branch of education. Upon this, which for want of nents of the earth’s magnetic field, the genesis of the a better word may be termed spiritual education, much greater quasi-permanent components continues the quality of our civilization, its standards, its unexplained. sense of values depend. Without it we shall lack Tho fundamental problem of the earth’s main field the driving force to carry through any adequate pro­ is not rendered easier by the fact that that field is gramme of reconstruction, national or international, slowly changing. It is true that it does not change which will make it endure. Knowledge or science, much in a human life-time, but, within astronomical and geological scales of time, the variation must be indispensable as they are in the framing of wise and considered very rapid indeed. The direction of tho impartial measures, are not enough. They cannot magnetic north in England has, for example, changed supply that habitual vision of greatness which, in by about 30° since Gilbert’s time, while there are Prof. W hitehead’s phrase, is essential for moral educa­ certain places on the earth’s surface whore tho in­ tion. They will not supply the driving force, the tensity of the magnetic field has altered by about right standards, values and ideals without which no 10 per cent during the last half-century. As a restilt enduring social order can be built. of the early analyses of Gauss and Schmidt, it was Difficult as this task must bo, we must not be con­ established that the greater part of the earth’s extern al tent with any system of education which does not magnetic field is due to causes operating beneath its surface. In fact, the earth behaves very much like give men both the chance of seeing the vision of a uniformly magnetized sphere with its magnetic axis greatness and of practising tho virtues. New sources making an angle of 1 1 £° with the geographical axis of that vision of greatness may need to be, and indeed of rotation. But tho average intensity of magnetiza­ are being, discovered. They can, indeed, be found tion has to be regarded as very much greater than in tho quest of truth and the highest traditions of that of the ordinary crustal rocks so far examined. science, as in other fields of human activity, tho To account for this is the central problem of geo­ Greek and Latin classics and in the Christian ideal m agnetism . and tradition. It must never be forgotten that Fortunately it is only the problem of the semi­ science, economics and sociology can do no more permanent magnetism of tho earth which proves so intractable. The transient changes of magnetism, than provide the framework of our society and satisfy which are to be noted during a period of time measured its material needs. It is tho vision and sense of in hours, are not so unaccountable. They are known values that spiritual education imparts that hold to be duo to causes operating outside the earth’s sur­ society together, supply its driving force and pre­ face, as was also shown by the Gauss-Schuster servative against corruption. No pre-occupation, analysis. They are superposed on the slow secular 178 NATURE F e b r u a r y 14, 1942, v OL. 149 variations of the main field and may be divided into taneous influence of tho sun and moon on the ter­ two classes : tho regular solar and lunar diurnal varia­ restrial atmosphero. In the second part of the volume tions and the more erratic variations characterized there are expounded the physical theories which have as magnetic storms. Both classes of variations are been evolved to explain the facts as more simply found to vary in intensity through the sunspot cycle. revealed by such mathematical analysis. Tho two Since, so far as we know, magnetic m atter does not volumes, which are generously illustrated both by exist in the space round the earth, the primary part diagrams and plates, together include about a thou­ of these transient magnetic changes is probably due sand pages of text and are very well furnished to electric currents. According to the bold speculation with bibliography and indexes. Parficulaily useful of Balfour Stewart, advanced in 1882, such currents to the research worker will also be the tables of long are to be attributed to dynamo action in the earth’s series of magnetic and solar data brought up to the upper atmosphere. Now the essential feature of a year 1937, with convenient spaces for the inclusion dynamo is that it contains an electrical conductor of later values. moving in a magnetic field. The magnetic field is Distinguished and scholarly in treatment, “Geo­ already provided by the earth, and Balfour Stewart magnetism” will assuredly become a classic. Its suggested that the electric conductor is the rarefied publication has instantly increased the already con­ upper atmosphere itself, which is made to move siderable debt which workers in this and allied fields periodically across the magnetic field by the tidal already owe to its two authors. and thermal action of the sun and tho moon. That E . V . A p p l e t o n . Balfour Stewart was correct in the essontial postu­ lates of his theory has been proved in experiments carried out in Great Britain. Thus, radio experiments in 1925 showed that the upper atmosphere is perman­ ently ionized to a marked degree, while, twelve years RAW MATERIALS later, similar experiments disclosed quite unex­ Those Raw Materials pectedly large tidal motions of that conductor result­ An Introduction to tho Study of Raw Materials. ing from tho gratitational influence of the moon. By C. A. Ward. Pp. 392. (London : George Allen Further evidence showing tho connexion between and Unwin, Ltd., 1941.) 15s. net. ionospheric events and the ephemeral changes of terrestrial magnetism has been obtained in the study ESCARTES, it will be remembered, resolved to of ionospheric phenomena through tho sunspot cycle. seek happiness by limiting his desires rather Radio experiments have shown that, at certain levels, thanD by attempting to satisfy them, thus setting tho eloctrical conductivity of the upper atmosphere himself against the grain of common human en­ increases by about 50-60 per cent from sunspot deavour. In these times, thanks to science, invention minimum to sunspot maximum. During tho same and advertising, our needs have multiplied like the poriod there is a corresponding and equal enhance­ seed of Abraham, and although some of them appear ment of the solar diurnal variation of the earth’s superfluous, or even harmful, many can be ethically magnotism. By the same radio tochnique it has been justified on the score of self-preservation or self­ further shown that this remarkable chango in the development. ionosphero is caused by what may be as much as a Very early man seems to have thrived on a dietary 150 per cent increase in solar ultra-violet radiation. of berries, eggs and shellfish, and on clothing made of But, although great progress has been made in loaves and of the bark of trees ; his heirs have disclosing the naturo and identifying the causes of scoured land and sea to find and exploit materials these transient variations of the earth’s magnetism in that administer to their well-being, and when frus­ work carried out sinco the nineteenth century, there trated they have fought-—and still fight—for pos­ has not hitherto been available any up-to-date session or control of them. The spirit of adventure, account of such recent progress. In this book, now believed to be on the decline, and the instinct “Geomagnetism”, we have, however, the most satisfy­ of acquisition, still very much to tho fore, have ing fulfilment of this need. Those who know the brought within range an almost untold wealth of subject would have chosen no other authors for its raw materials which, when used rightly, add to the magnum opus. In zealous devotion to the subject sum of human happiness, but, when used wrongly, over a period of many years, each has enriched our lead to envy, hatred, masochism, sadism, and their knowledge of both the nature and significance of the sequel—war. Unfortunately, though there is seeming temporal magnetic variations ; whilo Prof. Chap­ abundance for all, the will to dominate and possess man’s theoretical studios of ionizod layer formation has operated to alienate much of the world’s natural have greatly assisted those ionospheric physicists who wealth for the possession and enjoyment of the have used the radio wave as a supplementary tool in few, and this process has been assisted by the exploring the nature of tho upper atmospheric extremely haphazard way in which raw materials dynam o. are distributed over the earth’s surface (air, and to The two substantial volumes into which the work some extent water, excepted). That is not- tho fault is divided cover the subject both widely and closely. of man. Nature—personified as a woman, somewhat The first volume contains an exposition of the mag­ unchivali'ously to the fair sex—does not, like the netic facts, as gleaned from years of observation, and moon, always show the same face to beholders. She also includes briefer, but up-to-date, accounts of can be exceeding fair, but she can be red in tooth related subjects such as earth currents, auroral and claw; generally she seems to be supremely phenomena and ionospheric characteristics. Tho indifferent to human welfare : as callous as was second volume is in two parts. In the first there is a Herod to the 1 loly Innocents, or is ILitler to the .Jews. most illuminating description of tho mathematical Tho teleological doctrine, which reads into N a tu re a apparatus which has boon devised, much of it by the benevolent purpose, has now joined tho scrap-heap authors themselves, for use in the analysis of such of discarded wish fulfilments, anti virile folk have complicated phenomena as result from the simul­ come to realize that man is largely the master of his No. 3772, February 14, 1942 NATURE 179 own fate : it is ho alone who can smooth out some of those grosser inequalities of natural wealth and INDUSTRY AND ITS HAZARDS human endowment that undermine men’s sense of The Ana'ytical Chemistry of Industrial Poisons, security and load to bitterness and strife. The Hazards and Solvents Atlantic Charter has done well in postulating equal By Dr. Morris B. Jacobs. (Chemical Analysis, Vol. 1 .) access to raw materials as a sine qua non of a lasting Pp. xviii-f 661. (New York : Interscieuoe Publishers, peace. Inc. : London : H. K. Lewis and Co., Ltd., 1941.) Mr. Ward’s introduction to the study of raw 7 dollars ; 42s. materials gives a good idea of their range and their uses ; except when he wanders off into electronic T the present time, when tho future of Great theory, his treatment is entirely factual, consisting A Britain and the very lives of our people depend mainly of short notes and brief descriptions. Its upon the output, of industry, the safeguarding of the main defect is that, with tho exeoption of the chapters health of industrial workers is a matter of supreme on coal and petroleum, it ignores the very important importance. We are prepared, therefore, to welcome economic background ; there is no discussion of any contribution which may be a real help in im­ rates of exhaustion and probable lives of mineral proving tho health of the worker or combating any deposits, of improved moans of extraction and condition which may be lexicological or otherwise conservation, or of geographical distribution in deleterious. Although there is quite a number of relation to marketing ; and there is no map. On the publications dealing with industrial medicino and other hand, much space is devoted to “metallurgical hygiene, there has boon comparatively little pub­ treatments as applied in the final preparation of lished in connexion with the analytical chemistry of metals”, and to materials which cannot be accurately industrial poisons. This book attempts to fill this classed as ‘raw’. Thus he devotes two chapters to gap and though tho treatment of the subject is chemical products, among which are included many somewhat uneven, and though there are a good many intermediate substances, as well as finished products gaps, it does give something of value in dealing with like dycstuffs, explosives, lead compounds, synthetic the particular hazards which are met with in in­ rubber and artificial silks. But little consideration d u stry . is given to those ubiquitous raw materials, atmo­ The preliminary chapters are devoted to sampling spheric nitrogen and oxygen, and water, which in procedure and practice, and the methods given for recent times have been used more and more by the obtaining samples of dust, and gases are very good chemical industry. The future importance of the and helpful, as are the methods of dust and gas exhaustion of supplies of rock phosphate is ignored, analysis. In the chapters dealing with the metallic as also are the possibilities of using sea-water as a poisons, the methods adopted are clearly sot forth, source of commercial magnesium, potassium and but there is often too much descriptive matter for bromine, and clay as a source of aluminium. the skilled chemist, and not enough for tho person Criticism must also l)e extended to certain defects who is not, accustomed to carrying out tho particular in literary style. Sir A. Quiller-Couch’s lectures on tests described. One might, also question the value “The Art of Writing” arc still largely ignored by of the clinical and physiological information which technical writers. Among the stylistic sins he is given. It, is in general correct, but it is insufficient denounced was the use of circum'ocutory and re­ to be of any particular use and it. is difficult to ascer­ dundant expressions, liko ‘in the case of’, ‘in con­ tain to whom it might appeal. nexion with’, and ‘as regards’. In the book under Industrial solvents and their examination are care­ review the first of these occurs hundreds of times, fully and adequately described. The author in his and ‘in the very first place’ is a frequent, substitute colorimetric tests does not appear to use the colori­ for ‘first’ or ‘firstly’. Tho schoolboy error of referring meter, but depends on using standard colours and to one thing, or to the last of three or four things, matching thorn by the eye. There is a condensed as ‘the latter’, disfigures many sentences. The title but useful chapter on the gases of warfare ; tables also savours of ‘journalese’, and in conformity with of concentration limits of exposure for fumes, vapours it the author overdoes the journalistic ‘while’, and dusts ; the toxicity data of various gases and reminding one of A. P. Herbert’s example : “Tho vapours in the atmosphere, and the limits, in­ curate read the lessons while the vicar preached the flammability and explosive range of substances likely serm on” . to be met with in industry. Books on scientific and technical subjects intended There is a fairly wide and up-to-date bibliography, for the general reader are notoriously difficult to mainly referring to publications in the United States, write. The first consideration for an author is to but this is not, unexpected as a great deal of the work ‘remember the reader’ and adapt his style to the in industrial toxicology has been carried out in that class of reader he has in mind. For the reason just co u n try . mentioned, Mr. Ward’s book cannot lie recom­ The index could be greatly improved, and whore mended for use in schools, and tho serious student will a number of references are given, some indication find it too fragmentary and too lacking in insight to should be made as to the more important ones by meet, his purpose. It will probably appeal most to stressing them in darker type or some other con­ the middle-aged man who wishes to rub up and venient method. extend the knowledge lie acquired long ago ; he will In future editions the author would do well to use find it, especially useful in reading company reports tho initial or Christian name of the various authors and similar ‘literature’. One camiot help feeling in his references, for without this it, is almost im­ that the author has lost, an opportunity to write a possible to obtain any idea of the authorship of a book of real human interest, one that, touches life particular paper, especially if the name is a common at many points besides tho purely technical. When one. he is asked to revise the present edition, perhaps he Taking it all round, tho book is sound, and should will try to convert, his own ‘raw material’ into a be of service to those dealing with industrial medicine finished product. E. H. T b i p p . and industrial toxicology. 180 NATURE F eb ru ary 14, 1942, vOL. 149

hero, it may have boon wise. In truth, Boscovich ROGER JOSEPH BOSCOVICH seems to have been spoilt by success in early life. Roger Boscovich, S.J. (1711-1787) His character was warped by vanity, egotism and Forerunner of Modem Physical Theories. By H. V. petulance ; finally, disappointed with the measure of Gill. Pp. xviii-f 76. (Dublin : M. H. Gill and Son, appreciation which came to him, he became the prey Ltd., 1941.) 7s. 6 d. of melancholy and before his death sank into fits of HOUGH the author speaks (p. 64) of “Newton madness. Reverting to the practice of an earlier age, and other scientists of the time, including Boscovich wrote a long work, “Do Solis et Luna> T Boscovich” as though they were roughly contem­Defectibus”, a synopsis of astronomy in verse, which porary, this is clearly misleading ; for Newton was Delambro described as uninstructive to an astronomer nearly seventy when Boscovich was born at Dubrovnik and unintelligible to anybody else. It is hard wit hout (Ragusa) in Dalmatia. This means that one was proof to accept the legend of greatness. In some a man of the seventeenth, the other of tho eighteenth ways Boscovich seems a survival from an ago long century. Similarly, when at the out-sot of his “Theoria past rather than a forward-looking man of the Philosophiae Naturalis”, Boscovich asserts that his eighteenth century. For that, century had its really own system is midway between that of Leibniz and great men, and Boscovich can scarcely bo reckoned that of Newton, it may bo suspected that, this is of their company. H. 0. P l u m m e r . true in the sense that, but for tho matter of dates, both would have expressed equal disagreement with his ideas. It is, in fact, hard to understand what he did moan, for tho particles of his system never came NEWTONIAN ATTRACTION into mutual contact and they are not subject to the An Introduction to the Theory of Newtonian action of a surrounding medium. Yet Boscovich Attraction emphatically denied the possibility of action at a By A. S. Ramsey. Pp. ix + 184. (Cambridge : At. distance. the University Press, 1940.) 10s. 6 d. n e t. In spite of this inconsistency in his natural HE preface states that, this book was written at philosophy, Boscovich was a voluminous writer who tho suggestion of some students who were achieved a considerable reputation in his lifetime and T unablo to find a book on the subject suitable for oven now cannot bo dismissed altogether lightly. In their requirements. The seven chapters deal with order to understand these facts it is necessary to preliminary mathematics ; gravitational attraction have a clear account of the physical theory which and potential, simple applications ; attraction and Boscovich developed. But the present small work potential internal points, spheres ; theorems of La­ scarcely touches the history or explains why the place, Poisson and Gauss, general theory ; Green’s theory took the shape it did, or in what way it was theorem ; harmonic functions ; attraction of ellipsoids. founded on the contemplation of experimental facts. In writing an account of a branch of applied In the absence of this background the system seems mathematics in which tho subject-matter has long purely intuitive and to owe its power of adaptation since been stabilized, an author can still choose his to later problems to good fortune rather than to method of presentation, and it is interesting to see intrinsic merit. that in the first chapter tho reader is introduced to Indeed the origin of this eighteenth century system vector methods. With the vector notation estab­ seems to have been in the main metaphysical. Its lished, one rather regrets that the matter is not greatest influence was exercised in Great Britain, and pushed to a conclusion with tho introduction of particularly in Scotland. In this way it came to the Gauss’s general theorem in the symbolic form attention of Lord Kelvin, who found a use for it in his later work on elasticity and molecular physics. J ' n X d S = y V Xdv Similarly J. ,T. Thomson, when presented with the puzzling properties of his newly discovered electron, for the relation between surface and volume integrals. had recourse to the ideas of Boscovich. Now again From this form flow the various particular cases of Fr. Gill recalls the Boscovichian corpuscle and sets this theorem and Green’s theorem. There is the it to tho task of explaining the interference and added advantage that the emphasis is thus laid on diffraction of light, the Bohr atom and even wave a statement which is of general application to mechanics in a primitive form. More than this, potential theory whether in gravitation, electricity, Boscovich had some clear ideas of the principle of magnetism, or hydrodynamics. Indeed, the student relativity as it involves the perception of scale and of any one of these subjects is seldom forcibly pre­ orientation. His view of space and time was interest­ sented with a clear picture showing how much ing, though clearly derived to a groat extent from belongs simply to general mathematics and how the Newtonian theory of fluxions. much to tho particular subject which ho is studying. The Boscovichian particle is an infinitesimal centre Gauss’s normal induction theorem and Poisson’s surrounded by a field of force which is alternately equation may bo cited as instances. an attraction and a repulsion at different close The book as a whole is intended for students distances, ultimately becoming a positive attraction taking an honours course, but tho needs of the of the normal gravitational type. Further than this student, reading for a pass degree are not forgotten. the nature of tho particle is undefined, and so it Tho author writes with the clarity and flair for makes a capital plaything for the physicist. But exposition to which readers of his other text-books more is wanted to establish a scientific reputation are accustomed. There are numerous examples at on a sound foundation, and contacts with the past the end of each chapter, many taken from Cambridge are even more important than contacts with the and London papers, the easier examples being fu tu re. divided from the more difficult. The book completes Henco it may be regretted that here so slight a the series on mechanics which the author has pro­ sketch of the life and character of Boscovich has been duced in recent, years and takes a worthy place included. Yet, if tho object was to present a scientific among them. L. M . M i l n e -T h o m s o n . n o . 3772, F e b r u a r y 14, 1942 NATURE 181

A Laboratory Manual of Electricity and Magnetism ment, of the normal human child, but his approach By Leonard B. Loch. Revised edition. Pp. xii + could have been more strictly scientific and loss 122+112 Experiment Data Sheets. (Stanford Uni­ literary. Any judgment on the facts upon which versity, Calif. : Stanford University Press ; London : Dr. Gesell relies would be out of place before the Oxford University Press, 1941.) 22s. 6 d. n o t. publication of the diary and details which Prof. HE author raises the old controversy about, Zingg is preparing. It will be awaited with no laboratory work in teaching : Should the little interest by the readers of Dr. Gesell’s book, Tstudent be confronted with a set of apparatus to

55 oz., Greece .'50 oz.. there may be danger of starva­ FEEDING POST-WAR EUROPE tion. (All figures are those for normal consumers.) By DR. GEOFFREY BOURNE One may think that- 30 oz. of bread is a fairly University Laboratory of Physiology, Oxford generous allowance, but such an amount is seriously low when there is so little else to eat. Thirty ounces N the Atlantic Charter one of the primary post­ of bread a week provide about 300 calories a day. war objects of the British Empire and the The daily requirement of a normal consumer is UnitedI States is that of freeing tho peoples of about 2,800 calories, so that a diet which supplies the world from want. Mtic-h has been said and only 30 oz. of bread a week may be a starvation diet written of plans for post-war reconstruction, and of if there is not plenty of other food with which to these that of feeding Europe must be put into make up the calories. One way of doing this, in a operation the moment the W ar ends, and, unless it is diet deficient in bread, is by eating a lot of fats or provided for, a situation might well develop which potatoes ; but in most countries fats are rationed and will become completely out of hand. in some potatoes also. Belgium has a potato ration Tho problem of feeding Europe after the War is of ] lb. a day, which supplies only 400 calories. really a dual one. First we must have supplies of the Potatoes are not rationed in Greece ; but this is of right foods which can he rushed to Europe as soon little value because they do not normally form a as hostilities cease. Then, secondly, we must plan significant part, of tho Greek diet. Tho fat ration is for the continued feeding of Europe ; and that lowest in Finland, where! it is 2-J oz. a week ; it means planning not only European, but also world is very low in Belgium anti Italy (3£ oz. a week), agriculture. This latter problem was brilliantly and in France (4 oz. a week). The highest fat rations discussed by Sir John Orr at the British Associa­ on the continent of Europe are enjoyed by Denmark tion Conference on Science and World Order last w ith 11 ez. a week, and by Germany with 9£ oz. Septem ber. a w eek. Here it is proposed to deal with the more imme­ Meat is officially rationed in a,11 but one country, diate problem : What foods must the British Empire namely, Denmark. The amount of the ration is not and the United States hold in readiness to rush to known for all countries, but from the figures available Europe with whatever shipping they can beg, borrow, it appears that it is lowest in Belgium (8-J oz. a week) or happen to have left themselves when the War and France (9 oz. a week). ends ? But before we discuss this matter it is neces­ Sugar is rationed in all countries, the lowest being sary to review the present food position of the in France, Italy and parts of Hungary (4-| oz. a various countries of Europe and attempt to predict week). the direction which food deficiencies will take. Besides these standard foods which are rationed, The population of Europe can be divided broadly many others, for example, cereal products, cheese, into two grotips of people : the peasant population milk, flour, fruit, vegetables, fish, poultry, biscuits, and the townspeople. The peasants will probably cocoa, chocolate, jam, eggs, etc.. are nationally or not suffer any serious food deficiency whatever the locally rationed. length of the War. They are the producers, and it is In view of the difficulty of satisfying the calorie difficult for any nation to ration severely those who requirement in France the people have been urged produce the food. It is the urban population who to drink more wine, which has a calorific value of will suffer. Not only is food production lowered and about 350 per pint. This they have done to such imports reduced, in some eases to practically nothing, good effect that wine has now been rationed. The but in many countries such as Italy, France and adult ration is about two litres a week. In Italy most Belgium the peasant is withholding grain which of the population drinks, on an average, half a pint might have been sent to feed people in the towns of wine a day and this provides an appreciable pro­ and instead feeding it to pigs and poultry, which portion of their caloi'ie requirement . sell at considerable profit on the ‘black market’. In The only countries in Europe to-day in which each country there is also a small well-to-do section there is no food rationing are Portugal and Turkey. which is unaffected by dietary stringencies. These Assuming that the average calorie requirement, for are the people who patronize the black markets, or a non-combatant or normal consumer (that is one the hotels and restaurants which do so, or who are not doing heavy manual work) is about 2,800 a day, able to make up their dietary requirements with the we can, by examination of the average calorie intake aid of expensivo unrationed foods. in the various countries of Europe obtain a more Black markets thrive in all the occupied countries accurate estimate of the gravity of the food situa­ but some are worse than others. Belgium has the tion. In the first place, Germany and Denmark have biggost black market in Europe. It was so bad that suffered very little so far. The average figure for Germany refused to give any help to that country daily calorie intake in the former is 2,900 and in the until the Belgian authorities assumed control over latter 3,100. In some of the other countries, however, all the essential foodstuffs. During 1940 and 1941 the figures are not so good. They are the “Pro­ huge hoards of black market food were seized from tectorate” (Bohemia ami Moravia) 2,300, Italy 2,400, the various restaurants and shops. Even bread is Norway 2,500, Occupied France 2,100, Unoccupied sold on tho Belgian black market, and there are France 2,160, Netherlands 2,250, Belgium and reports that potato skins have been sold there too. Luxemburg 1,870. It is impossible to estimate the Black markets closely rivalling that of Belgium exist calorie intake in Poland and Greece because of the also in Luxemburg, Franco and Italy. difficulty of obtaining figures for food consumption ; Bread is rationed in all the occupied countries and but it is almost certain that they are at least as in Germany itself. In some countries where the badly off as Belgium. In fact, it seems certain that allowance is generous there is little hardship ; for Greece has been near famine for some months and example, Germany 80 oz. a week, Denmark 85 oz., that the food situation there is now extremely grave. Slovakia 80 oz., Bulgaria 74 oz. In others where it In Poland there is no uniform system of rationing. is low, for example, Italy 50 oz. a week, Belgium Germans appear to be unrationed and the Poles no. 3772, F e b r u a r y 14, 1942 N A TURE 183 receive a bet ter rat ion than .Jews. 'These figures (2) Deficiency of protein, particularly first-class indicate that many of the peoples of Europe are protein. undergoing slow starvation. Jt is probable, too, that (3) Deficiency of vitamin D. the figures given represent a rather optimistic (4) Deficiency of vitamin A. estimate of the calorie consumption in Europe. (a) Djficiency of vitamin ('. Deficiency occurs not only in quantity of food but also in quality. There is a serious decrease in the (0) Deficiency of riboflavin. amount of protein eaten, and if this continues, as it (7) D eficiency of calcium. is likely to do, it will have a serious effect on the The difficulty of securing an adequate diet par­ general health of the people of Europe, particularly ticularly for the 'susceptible classes’ (children and that of growing children. pregnant women) is appreciated by the authorities There is little doubt- that there is a deficiency of in all European countries. There is a fear in Occupied certain vitamins. Some months ago Dr. Russell M. France of deficiencies, in particular of vitamins A Wilder, chairman of the American National Nutrition and C, and it is proposed to produce vitamin con­ Council, stated that (lonnany was starving the centrates from tunny fish liver, carrots, brewer’s peoples of the occupied countries of foods containing yeast and lemons to correct these and other possible vitamin Bt with the object of lowering their morale. deficiencies. Children between the ages of six and (Adequate! vitamin B, is claimed to be necessary for fifteen are to receive a free distribution of tablets the maintenance of morale.) In actual fact it appears containing vitamins A, C and D. Expectant mothers that supplies of wheat are so low in Europe that it and children are to receive a portion of a distribution has been found necessary to extract the grain as far of ICO million vitam in pills which are to cost thirty-five as possible to make the best use of it. Thus most of million francs. All European countries are attempting the wheaten bread oaten in Europe to-day is at by distributing vitamin pills, or by giving priority least 85 per cent extraction, and is therefore bread in vital foods, to keep their expectant mothers and comparable with our own National wheatmeal loaf children in good health. In Luxemburg children get which is relatively rich in vitamin and most of freo vitamin A and D capsules. In many Belgian the other members of the vitamin B complex. We schools the children have been eating a raw carrot can, therefore, safely assume that of all the vitamins, every morning, and it is now proposed to distribute those of the B group which are found in whole cereals to them free milk, chocolate and cod-liver oil. An are least likely to be deficient in post-war Europe. illuminating sidelight on the Belgian food situation The decrease in the consumption of milk, cheese is given by an advertisement which was published and butter will result, however, in a reduction of last year in a Ghent newspaper, which offered free intake of vitamins A and D and of riboflavin. The supplies of vitamins A, C and D to all young men widespread deficiency of vitamin D may have serious who joined up with a voluntary labour organization. effects, particularly in adolescents who got no In Germany in the springs of 1940 and 1941 vitamin priority in food, and who, of all groups in the popu­ C tablets were issued to school-children, nursing lation, need more of everything. The increase in the mothers, infants, soldiers and miners. Heavy use of whole-grain products combined with a restric­ workers were included in 1941. In some parts of tion of milk will probably cause a widespread Germany milk for infants is irradiated to increase calcium deficiency. its vitamin D content, and from three months In Great Britain an investigation of a series of onwards babies can receive a vitamin D preparation middle-class diets by E. M. Widdowson and B. K. from the clinics. There seems to have been a pos­ A lington 1 has shown that the restriction of fruit in sibility of vitamin A deficiency in the German diet, the diet has not been compensated for by an increase but it was not until January of 1941 that this vitamin in the amount of vegetables eaten, and that, there­ was added to margarine. fore, the vitamin 0 intake has been reduced to half Having indicated briefly the possible deficiencies that consumed by the same families in 1935. It is which may arise it is now necessary to consider very likely that in Europe there has boon a similar what foods will be required to remedy them. Two decrease in the vitamin C intake of the population, foods spring immediately to mind. First, wheat, and it is fairly certain that the intake of vitamin and secondly, dried milk. Flour of high extraction will continue to decrease ; but that in most countries will supply calories (1,600 per pound, 1 ,1 0 0 per pound it will not reach a level in which there will be serious whim made into bread) and vitamins of the B group. danger of frank scurvy unless there is a widescale The dried milk may be skimmed or whole. Whole failure of the potato crop. The same principle will dried milk does not keep as well as the skimmed apply to Great Britain unless the consumption of variety and it would probably bo better if the milk vegetables is increased by inspired propaganda. The were skimmed, and the fat so obtained turned into populations of some countries, such as Norway. dehydrated butter which will keep for a much Greece and Poland, are probably suffering now from longer time than dried whole milk. The dried at least a mild form of scurvy and there is every skimmed milk will be an excellent source of first- likelihood that this will become worse. Last winter class protein, of sugar, of riboflavin and of calcium. in Norway, even the German army of occupation From the dehydrated butter we shall obtain fat began to develop scorbutic symptoms, and at the (providing 4,200 calories per pound) and the fat- onset of this winter, according to reports, vitamin C soluble vitamins A and D. tablets were taken to the German army on the The amount of drying plant and the storage area Russian front by aeroplane. available are the factors which will limit tho amount It is probable that at the end of this War the of dried milk and dehydrated butter which will be following dietary deficiencies will occur to a greater available. It will, therefore, be necessary to store or lessor degree on the continent of Europe. extra fats such as whale oil, concentrates of vitamins (1) Absolute lack of food. There will not be A and D, and further supplies of protein in the form enough food to supply the calorie requirements of of dried meat and fish. Some soya bean flour could the populations. also be stored with the object of adding it to wheat 184 NAT U R E F e b r u a r y 14, 1942, v o l . 149

flour to give an augmented protein and calorie value Composition of Sea-Water to bread . If there is widespread failure of the potato crops To understand the problem it is necessary in the in Great Britain and Europo wo may be faced with first place to know the concentration and nature of the problem of supplying vitamin C to a large number the salts in sea-water. Analyses of numerous samples of people. The plant available for synthesizing have shown that the composition of the mixture of vitamin C in Great Britain may be insufficient to dissolved salts in the waters of the open sea is prac­ supply our own people in such circumstances. tically the same in all parts of the world. Though Tho total requirement for vitamin C from all sources tho composition of sea salt varies little from fine sea for the population of Britain is about thirty to another so far as the principal constituents are tons a year, although it is doubtful if even concerned, there is an appreciable variation in the half this amount is actually consumed. A smaller concentration, apart from the offects of local dilution amount still would be required just to protect the by inflowing rivers or by melting ice. In general, population from frank scurvy. Most of this could however, the concentration of the salts in the open probably be obtained from natural sources even if sea lies between 32 and 38 parts by weight in l ,000 there were no potatoes available, provided equitable parts of sea-water, and for the purpose of this article distribution of these foods could be obtained. We a salinity of 35 parts per 1,000 parts can be taken as should be able, however, to offer little help to Europe an approximate average. An artificial sea-water can if there wore any serious widespread deficiency of be made up by dissolving the following salts in dis­ vitamin C there, unless we increased considerably tilled water containing some carbon dioxide and then our plant for synthesizing this vitamin. Fortunately, diluting the solution to give a total volume of I litre : the chances of a pan-European potato failure are sodium chloride, 27-2 pm. ; magnesium chloride, not very large, although there may be extensive 3-8 gm. ; magnesium sulphate, 1-6 gm. ; calcium local shortages. The situation might be met in part sulphate, 1-3 gm. ; potassium sulphate, 0-9 gm. ; by the storage of orange, lemon and grape-fruit calcium carbonate, 0 -1 gm. ; magnesium bromide. concentrates. 0-1 gm. The weights given all refer to anhydrous In conclusion, we may say that the immediate salts. True sea-water also contains very small dietary deficiencies liable to bo encountered in post­ quantities of phosphates, silicates, and compounds war Europo can bo met if appropriate quantities of of nitrogen, and traces of compounds of other wheat, dried skimmed milk, dehydrated butter, elements. The main points, however, are that the whale oil, soya beans, dried meat and fish, vitamin concentration of the salts in sea-water is about A and D concentrates, synthetic vitamin (' and/or 35 parts per 1,000 parts, and that nearly 80 per cent citrus fruit concentrates are stored. of the salt is sodium chloride. In most of the hard waters used as sources of It has obviously not been possible in an article of public water supply in Great Britain, the concentra­ this -length to discuss all the ramificat ions of such a tion of the salts in solution is not more than about proposal, but at least it has been possible to formulate ono hundredth of the concentration of the salts in the problem and to indicate the solution. sea-water ; the salts in hard water are mainly the 1 Widdowson, E, M., and Alington, li. If., Lancet, 241, 361 (1941). bicarbonates and sulphates of calcium and magnesium which are easily removed by chemical precipitation, whereas sodium chloride cannot readily be removed completely by simple chemical precipitation. It is thus clear that the problem of removal of salt from sea-water is much more difficult than that of softening POTABLE WATER FROM ordinary hard water. At the same time, it should be mentioned that it is not necessary to remove the SEA-WATER whole of the salt from sea-water to produce potable By DR. A. PARKER water. Most people would consider that water con­ taining not more than 0 -8 part by weight of sodium W ater Pollution Research Laboratory, chloride in 1 ,0 0 0 parts is not too unpleasant for Watford, Herts. drinking ; but to reduce the salinity of sea-water to this value means removing more than 97 per cent of HE possibilities of obtaining potable water from the salt. In some circumstances it may be satis­ T sea-water by some simple method suitable for factory to drink water containing as much as say use on lifeboats and in similar circumstances have4 parts of salt in 1,000 parts, but to reduce the been much discussed during the last few months in salinity of sea-water only to this value would require the daily Press and in other quarters. Some of the the removal of nearly 90 per cent of the salt. statements made and the opinions expressed have indicated lack of knowledge of the scientific and practical aspects of the problem and of the pos­ T reatment sibilities and impossibilities. In some instances the statements seem to be of obscure origin and to be Distillation. An obvious method of obtaining reminiscent of the wonderful claims of alchemists of drinking water from sea-water and one which has former times. There have been references to a long been used in certain parti of the world for con­ mysterious method of obtaining half a glass of siderable quantities of water is to boil the sea-water drinking water by adding tablets of undisclosed and to cool and condense tho steam evolved. With composition to sea-water. In the circumstances, it evaporators or stills able to produce 5-20 tons of seems to be desirable to direct attention to some of distilled water a day from sea-water, and of simple the possible methods of removing salt from sea­ design and without elaborate equipment to conserve water to produce potable water, and to indicate heat, there is no difficulty in obtaining 6-7 tons of their limitations. distilled water for each ton of coal or oil burnt. If No. 3772, F e b r u a r y 14, 1942 NAT UR E 185 t lie equipment, is designed and operated greatly to method of this kind could not be carried out so reduce the losses of heat by radiation and convection simply and efficiently as distillation. from the evaporator and condenser, and to recover Osmosis and Electro-osmosis. If sea-water is placed heat from the steam, 9 JO tons of distilled water and in the middle cell of a vessel divided into three com­ i?ven more can be obtained for each ton of fuel partments by t.wTo semi-permeable membranes, and consumed. To obtain this greater efficiency requires fresh water is placed in the outer compartments, more elaborate and costly equipment and more salts slowly diffuse from the middle compartment skilled supervision. into tho water in the outer compartments. In this The question at once arises as to whether it is way the salinity of the sea-water is decreased. practicable to design a small still, which can easily To bring about any great reduction in the salinity, be operated and will utilize the fuel with reasonable very large volumes of fresh water must bo circulated efficiency to produce say 1 pint of distilled water an through the outer compartments. The quantity of hour. If the still is of simple design so that- it is fresh water required can be reduced considerably unlikely to fail under difficult conditions, it is improb­ by placing electrodes in the outer compartments and able that, the high efficiencies of some large installa­ passing current between them so that positive ions tions can be obtained. With careful attention to the such as sodium migrate to one side and negative ions design of the still and the burner, it may be practic­ such as chlorine migrate to the other side. Even able in some circumstances to obtain five or six with this system, which requires a large expenditure volumes of distilled water from sea-water with the of electricity, the q u a n t i t y of fresh water which combustion of one volume of oil or spirit ; this must be circulated through the outer cells is much represents an efficiency of heating and evaporation greater than the quantity of sea-water converted of the order of only 50 per cent. The space occupied into drinking water. This method thus seems to be by the equipment and fuel, and the weight, in relation impracticable. to the quantity of distilled water produced, are Chemical Precipitation. Tt is possible to remove important factors. Investigations are in progress on practically the whole of the magnesium, calcium, the possibilities of designing a still and burner suitable chloride, sulphate, bromide and bicarbonate from foi use in lifeboats. It must be emphasized, how­ sea-water by the addition of chemical reagents which ever, that the conditions to be met are stringent and react with these radicals to form insoluble compounds. the difficulties to be overcome are great. There must For example, addition of lime water precipitates be no appreciable risk of failure in any part of the magnesium as hydroxide, and bicarbonate as calcium still or the burner. carbonate ; and soluble salts of silver remove Absorption of Water Vapour. It is possible to chloride and bromide as insoluble silver chloride and obtain drinking water from sea-water by utilizing silver bromide. There is much more difficulty in the property possessed by certain substances such as removing sodium and potassium, as the simple salts silica gel of absorbing large quantities of water of these metals are all to some extent soluble. Several vapour. If silica gel is exposed over the surface of complex salts of sodium, which are sparingly soluble sea-water, the gel absorbs water vapour from the in water, are the basis of recognized methods of moist air ; this vapour is replaced in the air by the quantitative analysis for sodium. The conditions of natural evaporation of the sea-water, and the process precipitation, however, have to be carefully controlled, continues until the absorptive capacity of the silica and some of the best of the precipitating agents are gel is exhausted. Tf the gel has been suitably pre­ toxic. pared it may take up water vapour equal to about Even after precipitation of the various radicals as one fifth of its own weight. This absorbed water can insoluble substances, the complete separation of the be removed by heating the gel, and the vapour so precipitates is not easy, as some of the precipitates obtained can bo condensed by cooling. After heating, are in a finely divided condition and are not readily the gel can Vie re-used and the process repeated. Tn removed by filtration. Any toxic substances must effect, this method is similar to that of simple dis­ also be removed if the treated water is to be satis­ tillation but is less efficient and presents greater factory for human consumption. It thus seems difficulties. that it is not easy to devise a simple method of Freezing. It has long been known that drinkable removal of salts from sea-water by chemical pre­ water can bo obtained by melting the ice formed on cipitation. cooling sea-water. As the cooling proceeds, ice separates Base-exchange and Acid-exchange. It has been until the remaining liquid is saturated with the known for a long time that certain aluminos'licates salts ; the solid which afterwards forms is a mixture possess base-exchange properties and can remove of ice and salt. Though the latent heat of ice is very calcium and magnesium from water. The process much less than the latent heat of evaporation of has been in use for some years in the well-known water, it is unlikely with present methods of re­ household water softeners and on a much larger frigeration that a simple apparatus could be devised scale in softening water for public supply and for to produce drinking water from sea-water so effi­ industrial purposes. The sodium compound of the ciently as by distillation. aluminosilicates is ordinarily employed for this Hydrates. Another possible method is to add to process of water softening. When the hard water is the sea-water salts which dissolve readily when the passed through a bed of granules of the sodium water is warm and which on cooling the solution compound, the calcium and magnesium bicarbonates separate as crystals containing a considerable pro­ and sulphates in the water are replaced by the portion of water of crystallization. The crystals can soluble sodium salts, and tho sodium in the alumino- be removed and, on heating, some of these hydrated silicate is replaced bv calcium and magnesium. salts lose water of crystallization as vapour which When the whole of the replaceable sodium has entered can be condensed. The remaining de-hydrated or the water and has been replaced by calcium and partially de-hydrated salt can then be re-used. magnesium, the material is regene-ated for further Substai e c s other than salts also form hydrates. A use by treatment with a solution of sodium chloride, 186 N A T U R E F ebruary 14, 1942, vOL. 149

whereby the calcium and magnesium are again replaced by sodium. Though the process softens THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL water, it does not reduce the total quantity of salts APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF in solution. In 1934, during the course of experiments at the MUSIC Chemical Research Laboratory, Teddington, for the Water Pollution Research Hoard of the Department By F. H. ANGOLD of Scientific and Industrial Research, B. A. Adams and E. L. Holmes1 discovered that certain synthetic N attempting any study of this kind, or seeking to resins possess base-exchange properties. These resins gain some light 011 the question of the relation­ have the advantage over the aluminosilicates that shipI between anthropology and music, it is necessary they are insolublo in dilute solutions of acids, such to define the term music. The dictionary does this as sulphuric and hydrochloric acids. It was also in the following terms : “Melody or harmony ; any discovered that other resins with acid-exchange succession of sound so modulated as to please the properties can be prepared. By treating saline water car ; the science of harmonic sounds, or the art of with a base-exchange resin, previously regenerated producing such ; rhythmic order.” with a solution of sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid, With this definition in mind we have to realize the sodium chloride in solution is replaced by hydro­ that the definition was an attempt to explain some­ chloric acid. When this water is treated with an thing already in existence : musical performance acid-exchange resin, previously regenerated with a preceded the definition of meaning. Music is there­ solution of an alkali, the hydrochloric acid is removed. fore an attribute of man, apparently as old as man In this way the whole of the salts can be removed himself. In style to-day it varies as widely as do the from t he w ater. characters of the human species. It is not confined At about the time of the discovery of the exchange to any one particular aspect of man’s existence: he resins, several investigators in different parts of the gives vent to music 011 occasions clouded by sorrow, world found that base-exchange material similar in equally as on others which are brightened by seasons properties to the base-exchange resins can be pre­ of joy. Wo are led therefore to ask: Why on all pared by treatment of coal with strong sulphuric occasions does man t urn to music as the medium for acid. This material can also be used in conjunction the expression of feelings which words might prove with acid-exchange resins to remove dissolved salts inadequate to define ? The animal is able to give from water. The acid-exchange resins are unique in vent to sound, the bird to trill its notes of music; that no other substances have been discovered with man alone possesses the power to define the gifts similar acid-exchange properties. with which he is endowed. The music used by man Base-exchange materials and acid-exchange resins to express his joy or sorrow does not necessarily are now in use in several parts of the world for the come exclusively from man himself; he co-operates removal of salts from certain waters, not nearly so with Nature. This reminds us of Beethoven who, saline as sea-water, to produce the equivalent of visiting in after years the place where he composed distilled water, and for the recovery of valuable his fifth and sixth symphonies, remarked to his materials from trade waste waters. friend Schindler : “Here I composed the ‘Scene by In sea-water the concentration of the salts in the Brook’ and the yellowhammers up there, the solution is so great that the volume of the exchange quails, nightingales and cuckoos round about, com­ materials required to remove the salts is about the posed with me”1. same as the volume of potable water obtained. It To-day, music like painting is a specialized art : may be, however, that investigation will lead to in earlier time's it was the gift of all men. There is some improvement, though the prospect of con­ evidence that Palaeolithic, man had his music and at siderable improvement within a short time is not least possessed a primitive type of flute made with great. reindeer horn, while relics of the Bronze' Age reveal It is also possible that further investigation will prehistoric horns made of metal2. lead to some practicable method in which the salts In modern civilized society the musician, like the are removed partly by exchange materials and painter, performs a particular task ; he fulfils the partly by chemical precipitating agents. The diffi­ normal functions of man, functions which so far as culty is to develop a method which is simple in the majority are concerned have become atrophied (>} icration. through non-use. This development in the history of man has had a. diverse effect upon his well-being, Conclusion ft means that while the vast majority may be unable It may be that investigations now being made to express their feelings in musical terms, the person will lead to some practicable method, suitable for devoting himself entirely to musical composition has use in lifeboats, of obtaining drinking water from been able to create a type of music far removed from sea-water by simple distillation or by the use of the crude melodies of more primitive people. This, base-exchange and acid-exchange materials and however, is not the whole story, for we find that the chemical precipitating agents. Any method proposed, Sumerians and the Egyptians had developed a high however, must be submitted to stringent tests before standard of musical instruments. A good idea of the it is recommended, if undue risk of failure with type of instruments in use may be gained, from the serious consequences is to be avoided. works of Canon K. W. Galpin, Sir Leonard Woolley Meanwhile arrangements have been made to and C. Engel. We are faced therefore with a musical provide lifeboats with larger quantities of drinking- knowledge of groat antiquity’. water than has previously been the practice. The question arises as to whether harmony was a feature of this ancient music, for in China there is 1 J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 54, IT (1935); B ritish P a te n ts 2s'os. 450,308, melody but not harmony. We find that the Greeks used 47)0,309, and 474,361, and foreign equivalents ; Annual Reports of tin; W ater Pollution Research Board for tin* years ended 30th June, a crude accompaniment of drone bass t o some of their J {>37), 1930, 1937. and 1938 (H.ftT. Stationery Office). songs, while Pythagoras about 600 B.C. introduced

No. 3772, February 14, 1942 NATURE 187

intervals. The five-toned pentatonic scale is the most We are all familiar with the use of the drum for primitive form now in use among civilized people. military purposes, and tho part it plays in keeping This was tho form chiefly used by the Chinese even men in stop on the march. four thousand years ago, and is used in such familiar Music is therefore based on hearing, tho modern hymns as “There is a Happy Land,” and Scottish composer is an individual who possesses tho ability songs such as “Ye Banks and Braes”1. That this of hearing sounds which to tho loss sensitive ears are pentatonic scale is of great antiquity in Asia there non -existent, and of being able to put those sounds can be little doubt ; it is also interesting to find that on record. Man must have music ; tho closer man the scale in music of Scottish and other Celtic races lives to Nature the more musical his life becomes. bears resemblance to the pentatonic scale of the In music man unites with the other members of ancient North American Indians5. creation and, dispensing with words, using a medium In his book “Science and Music” Sir James Jeans common to all creatures, gives vent to sound and in suggests a possible manner by which organs originally so doing seeks to harmonize with Nature. Ho becomes designed for registering pressure in water became a part of that undying flame, of which all through adapted for registering the pressure of the air, thus tho ages man has been aware but never able to becoming associated with sounds and the presence of explain—life. We find therefore that modern man is food and danger6. He suggests that as tho result of not far removed from his more primitive ancestors. a period of drought the tishes came on dry land We may listen to some of the crude music of the (according to the geologists about 300 million years African, or the weird chants of the Indian ; they are ago), the survivors eventually becoming pure land expressive. Then wo may turn our t houghts to tunes animals, and incidentally our ancestors. The new such as “All through the Night”, the Welsh tune functional operation was a gradual development from without words, but one which admirably expresses the old. The illustrations in Jeans’s book which are a the night coming over the mountains. As we listen photographic record of eddies caused by sound and the scene comes up before us. Or take another water are full of interest. One shows an eddy formed at example, the Irish tune “Londonderry Air”, to the lip of a flute organ pipe, another depicts the eddies which there* are 110 proper words. It conjures up a, formed by drawing an obstacle through still water, picture of Ireland, soul-stirring to the dept hs. To-day while yet another shows tho type of eddy formed in we are divided into groups. Not only is the composer water as it streams past a long thin wire. Looking in a class apart, but the ordinary people are also at these photographs I was at once reminded of some divided into sections : on one hand, those who are able to appreciate and enjoy music, and on the other, of the Chinese landscape paintings where the those who are less fortunate. Even these sections water eddies are frequently depicted in a manner almost are subdivided, for among the music lovers we have identical with the illustrations given by Jeans. Such those whoso interest lies mainly in classical music, eddies may be seen in the painting “Ten Thousand while others find complete satisfaction in jazz. In Li down the River”, by Hsia Kuoi, a reproduction seeking to understand such diversity we are con­ <>f which is to be seen in “Chinese A rt’ 1 >y Ashton and fronted with the fact that it is not always the Cray7. Incidentally, these eddies closely resemble the educated class who appreciate good music, thus intro­ ‘running spiral’, a design which figures prominently ducing the vexatious question of the difference in ornamental decoration all over the world. It seems between culture and education. We are also made probable that science is revealing to the present age aware of another fact. things which in remote times were familiar but have Music, being creative, is therefore of necessity long been obscured to the morn sophisticated. If, as peaceful ; warlike music in consequenco is anoma­ Joans suggests, wo are the descendants of water lous. Music, like painting, transcends the barriers of creatures which became pure land animals, involving nationality and race 5 in consequence it serves as a change in the functional use of our organs, wo may signposts to the path of man’s ultimato salvation. have an explanation for the similarity in sound and The fact that under modem conditions it is the water eddies. Maybe the Chinese with their greater particular interest of the few may help to throw some measure of placidity have been able to keep in mind light upon the tragedy of modern times, and any what we have lost. increasing interest shown by the majority must serve to indicate that man is slowly coming to realize what The Chinese writer, Lin Yutang, describes music he has lost. A greater interest can only tend to reveal in tho following terms : “Music is pure sentiment the truth that man’s interests are common the world itself, dispensing entirely with the language of words over, and any attempt to study the relationship of with which alone the intellect can operate. Music man to music must help to lead men back to the can portray for us the sounds of cowbells and fish- fundamental truth that there is but one race—tho markets and the battlefield ; it can portray for us even the delicacy of flowers, the undulating motion race of men.

of tho waves, or tho sweet serenity of the moonlight ; 1 'l' I layer, " 1, i («■ of iSeethovcn” , vol. 2, p. 12U ; Spencer and Huxley but the moment it steps outside tho limit of the senses suggested imitativeness of Nature (bird-songs, etc.) as a possible and tries to portray for us a philosophic idea, it must commencement of emotional music (“Encyclopedia Americana ’, 19, 024 ; 1937). bo considered decadent and the product of a decadent 3 “Encyclopedia Americana”, 19, 024 (1937). w orld . ” 8 “ Galpin, V. W.. “The Music of the Sumerians” ; Woolley, ],., “The The question of sound is full of interest. Drums Sumerlans” : Engel, C., “The Music of Most Ancient Nations". and rattles seem to have been the earliest types of 4 "Encyclopedia Americana” , 19, 024 (1937). musical instruments ; they still figure prominently ‘ E ngel, (J.. "The Music of Most Ancient Nations”. in the world of music. The hour-glass-shaped drum e Sir Janies .leans, “Science and Music", p. 3. of China was in use in the Indus Valley early in the 7 p. 204. third millennium B .C .9. It has been suggested that B “The Importance of Living” , p. J4f>. the drum came into being as a means for reproducing • Galpin, K. W., "The Music of tho Sumerlans”, p. 70. the sounds made by the footsteps of walking man10. » Engel, <•.. "Music of Most. Ancient Nations” , p. 10. 188 N ATUR E F e b r u a r y 14, 1942, Vol. 149 OBITUARIES and quickly earned a reputation in the field of soil geography. It is largely duo to his efforts that soil Prof. James W ilson cartography has been unified throughout the East T h e first professor to be appointed to the chair African dependencies and a rational basis established of agriculture in the Royal College of Science for soil classification. He combined in an unusual for Ireland by the Department of Agriculture and degree the qualifications of a geographer and a Technical Instruction for Ireland was James Wilson, laboratory worker, and of a theoretical and a practical a Scotsman who, as a student and a young agricul­ soil scientist. turist, had already won distinction in his native Mr. Milne will bo remembered chiefly as the country, and whose death occurred on December 0, editor and principal compiler of the first F o il m ap of 1941. It is now forty years since he delivered his East Africa, published in 1936. The map, though first set of lectures to Irish students, who for a period necessarily incomplete, introduced many novel of twenty years received from him successive courses features of soil cartography. In particular Milne in technical agriculture and to whom the memory of made use for the first time of the concept of the Wilson will ever remain dear. ‘catena’, a sequence of several soil types recurring He very quickly gained knowledge of Irish con­ in regular order in association with certain types of ditions and made a special study of the economics of topography, usually undulating or hummocky. This agriculture in the country. Numerous papers on marked the formal recognition by soil cartographers this subject appeared in the Jo urnal of the Depart­ that the delineation of type of landscape may be ment of Agriculture and elsewhere. As a result, equally important on a soil map as type of soil. Wilson’s influence soon extended beyond the sphere In recent years Milne was much occupied by the of the lecture room and in a short time he became a urgent, practical problems of soil conservation in leading figure in the field of Irish agriculture. N atur­ East Africa, and in 1938 made an extensive tour of ally, a man of his talent found himself in conflict the American soil-conservation stations. Afterwards with certain aspects of agricultural practice, and, con­ he published a report of his tour that gave an excep­ sequently, much of his writing was of a controversial tionally vivid picture of the state and organization nature. Ho thought independently and wrote forcibly, of soil research work in the United States. At the but his pleasing style and frank exposition won the time of his death, ho was about to take up the post admiration of his readers, while his erudition com­ of scientific secretary to the East African Supplies manded the respect even of those with whom he B oard. disagreed. Wilson’s greatest contribution was, however, in Prof. F. von Muller the sphero of scientific agriculture. He was an ardent student and an untiring worker, and his many pub­ P h o f. F k i e d u i c u v o n M u l l e r , emeritus professor lications on the breeding and feeding of farm stock of internal medicine at Munich, a brief announcement testify to his industry and ability. Most of his of whose death appeared in the Schweizerische scient ific work is recorded in the Scientific Proceedings medizinische Wochenschrift of November 29, was born of the Royal Dublin Society, in the activities of which on September 17, 1858, the son of the director of he took the keenest interest. He specialized in the Augsburg Hospital. After studying medicine at Mondelian heredity. Among his productions on this Wurzburg and Munich, where he qualified in 1882, and cognate subjects are the following books : “A he became assistant to Prof. Carl Gerhardt, whom Manual of Mondelism”, “The Principles of Stock he accompanied to Berlin in 1885. He was afterwards Breeding”, “The Evolution of British Cattle”. Later appointed professor of medicine at Marburg, Basle his attention was directed to stock feeding, on which and finally at Munich, where he became director of subject numerous contributions flowed from his pen. the Second Medical Clinic. The comprehensive volume, “The Principles of Stock According to Garrison, who describes him sis Feeding”, was his latest big work in this connexion. “perhaps the most scientific teacher of internal As a lecturer and teacher Wilson endeared himself medicine to-day”, he had one of the most largely to his students. His geniality was overflowing and attended clinics in Europe. He was well known in his method of imparting knowledge quite fascinating. Great Britain, where he was elected an honorary Formal lectures he disliked : he preferred to converse member of the Clinical Section of the Royal Society with his class and a feature of his lecture was that of Medicine in 1933. His first publications were the students talked as much as the professor. His devoted to problems of physiological chemistry, such students are now engaged in a variety of agricultural as the metabolism of albumin, fat absorption, the activities where the influence of the teacher will be oiigin of urobilin, and metabolism in fever and con­ manifest for many a year. valescence. Later he directed his attention to various departments of internal medicine, including intestinal .T. P. D r e w . intoxication, exophthalmic goitre, Bright’s disease and bronchitis. His principal books were a handbook Mr. Geoffrey Milne of clinical diagnosis in collaboration with O. Seifert T h e death, at Nairobi on January 16, of Mr. (1886), investigations on two fasting men (1893) and Geoffrey Milne, of the East African Research Station, some problems in metabolism and nutrition (1900). Amani, at the age of forty-three, deprives t he world J . D . R ot/l e s t o n . of a most able and experienced investigator of tropical soils. Mr. Milne, who was the brother of Prof. E. A. Milne, Rouse Ball professor of mathe­ We regret to announce the following deaths: matics in the University of Oxford, graduated at the Prof. T. Levi-Civita, For. Mem. R.S., formerly pro­ University of Leeds in 1921, to which he returned fessor of mechanics in the University of Rome, on after a period as agricultural chemist in the Univer­ December 29, aged sixty-eight. sity of Aberdeen, to occupy a post in the Department Prof. Virgilio Tedesehi, professor of biological of Agriculture. He joined the staff at Amani in 1928 physics in the National University of La Plata. No. 3772, February 14, 194‘2 NATURE 189 NEWS and VIEWS Science and W orld O rder Royal Meteorological Society : New President A b u l l e t i n has been issued by the British Asso­ ciation summarizing action taken and inquiries made T h e election of Prof. D. Brunt as president of the by the officers anti council of tho Association and the Royal Meteorological Society will be welcomed by all executive of the Division for the Social and Inter­ meteorologists. Prof Brunt received a mathematical national Relations of Science, down to the end training at Cambridge and lectured on mathematics of January, on matters arising out of the Con­ before joining the Meteorological Section of the ference on Science and World Order. The Advance­ Royal Engineers in 1910. During the War of 1914-18 ment of Science, No. 5 (Pp. 120, 5s.), contains a full his first book appeared, on “The Combination of report of the transactions of the Conference, together Observations”, which gave a systematic account of with certain related communications received later. the application of mathematics to observational A Penguin volume on “Science anti World Order”, data, especially in meteorology ; it reached a second based on the proceedings of the Conference and edition in 1931. After the war ended, he joined the compiled by J. G. Crowtlier, D. P. Riley, and Dr! staff of the Meteorological Office as superintendent O. J. R. Howarth, is in preparation. On the direction of Army Meteorological Services, where he remained of the Council of the Association, the executive sub­ until 1934. During this period ho carried out a great committee of the Division convened a meeting, deal of research into periodicity in meteorological which included representatives of Government and phenomena, bringing to the subject rigid mathe­ other bodies interested in building and territorial matical criteria of reality which did a great deal to planning to consider what action, if any, might be correct the rather credulous attitude of earlier desirable on the part of the Association in connexion workers, and disposed of the belief in dominant with this matter. It was decided to form a repre­ ‘weather cycles'. He then turned his attention to sentative committee, in accordance with a regular dynamical meteorology and to the fundamental practice of the Association, to inquire into and physical properties of the atmosphere, especially in report upon the state of science in relation to building connexion with radiation. In 1934 he was appointed and territorial planning, with the view of summarizing to the chair of meteorology at the Imperial College the present position of researches in these connexions of Science and Technology, succeeding Sir Gilbert and indicating their services. Walker. In the same year ho published his well- The executive subcommittee of the Division, on known text-book on “Physical and Dynamical the instruction of the Council, held a meeting, with Meteorology”, from which most of the younger assessors, to consider what action, if any, should be generation of meteorologists have received a thorough taken by the Association in relation to post-war grounding. He was elected to tho fellowship of the university education. It was decided that a com­ Royal Society in 1939. Prof. Brunt has been associated mittee be appointed with wide terms of reference, as with the Royal Meteorological Society for many follows : (a) To consider the general policy and methods years, as councillor, vice-president, editor and as the of university education with a view to promoting author of numerous stimulating papers in the Society’s international collaboration and the free interchange Quarterly Journal. of ideas, and relating university education to the needs and service of the community ; (6 ) to consider Conference on European Agriculture the replanning of teaching departments and curricula T h e British Association announces a conference in accordance with modern conceptions of the inter­ on “European Agriculture : Scientific Problems in relations of different branches of knowledge, par­ Post-War Reconstruction”, arranged under the aus­ ticularly those of science and the humanities ; (c) pices of the Division for the Social and International to survey the position regarding teaching material, Relations of Science as a matter arising out of the apparatus, books and staff in universities which recent conference on Science and World Order. This have been damaged, destroyed, disorganiz d, or agricultural conference will be held on Friday and closed as a result of the War, and to make recom­ Saturday, March 13 and 14, in the rooms of the mendations for their rehabilitation. This committee Royal Society, Burlington House, London, W.l. is in progress of formation ; its joint secretaries are There will be morning and afternoon sessions on Prof. F. E. Weiss and Mr. A. Gray Jones. each day, and British and foreign experts will deal Certain further matters have appeared, after with such subjects as the immediate technical steps inquiry, not to call for action, or at any rate imme­ necessary for reconstruction, settlement, marketing diate action, on the j z i a r t of the Association. Thus, and prices, farm and factory, nutrition, the co­ the Council has taken no immediate action upon operative system, land reforms, peasant prosperity, various suggestions, made during and after the excess population, peasant education, the improve­ Conference, concerning the establishment of an ment of peasant farming, livestock problems, arti­ international league of science, and a standing con­ ficial insemination, milk production, market garden­ sultative committee representative of British and ing, and the relations of European agriculture to foreign science in Great Britain. The Council en­ world conditions. A regional survey of European dorsed the view of the executive subcommittee of the agriculture is contemplated, inasmuch as it is felt Division that the International Council of Scientific that many of the problems of reconstruction may be Unions and th > Unions themselves, if effectively recon­ better viewed regionally than within the limits of stituted after the War, should provide adequate oppor­ political divisions. The chair of the opening and tunities for international co-operation in science ; and closing sessions will be taken by Sir John Russell ; it is understood that discussions to this end are in pro­ the names of other chairmen and of speakers will gress. The Association received a report arising out be announced when the programme is complete. of proposals for a register of, and meeting-place for, Further particulars can be obtained from the Secre­ foreign men of science now in Great Britain. It is tary, British Association, Burlington House, London, understood that material exists for a register in the W .l. records of the International Labour Department of 190 N A T U R E F ebruary 14, 1942, v,.L. 149 tiie Ministry of Labour and of other organizations ; retired from the presidency on November 18, also that another organization is contemplating the states that of grants totalling 2,706,834 dollars provision of facilities which may offer arrangements made during the year, 500,000 dollars were allocated for periodical meetings of allied scientific workers. for matters relating directly to the national emer­ gency. Special stress is laid upon the importance of Carrots for Domestic Animals timing in enterprises involving effective co-operation between public and private agencies, public offices, W a r conditions have established the merits of car­ and private cit izens or groups. Besides contributions rots as an ingredient of the human dietary : that they to the National Academy of Sciences totalling are no less excellent as a food for farm animals, is 1 0 0 .0 0 0 dollars, emergency grants were made to the shown in a recent article by Mr. H. E. Woodman, of Institute of Public Administration for special studies the School of Agriculture, Cambridge (J. M in. A grin., undertaken at the request of Government agencies, 48, No. 3, 185; 1941). Indeed, all kinds of stock to Harvard University for training supply officers, are fond of carrots, and although their importance to the National Bureau of Economic Research and in animal feeding is overshadowed by that of the the Institute of Pacific Relations, as well as to other other root crops—swedes, mangolds and turnips- agencies. Of other grants, 398,511 dollars was this is not duo to any inferiority in feeding quality, allotted for library interests, including support of but rather to price considerations and to the fact th e Journal of Documentary Reproduction, 566,930 that when the human requirements in Great Britain dollars for adult education and 906,956 dollars for have been met. the supply of carrots left over for research and studies. The Committee on Scientific animals has usually been quite small. This year Aids to Learning has steadily proceeded with its it seems there will be a large surplus. On the basis work in the fields selected for intensive study, of starch equivalents, 80 lb. of carrots should be namely, the problems of microphotography, including able, on an average, to replace 1 0 0 lb. of mangolds, visual fatigue, and the development of the best or 90 lb. of swedes. With the more watery turnips, visual and auditory equipment for classroom use. however, two parts by weight may be replaced by From the special fund set aside by Mr. Carnegie for one part, of carrots. Carrots are not so rich as swedes the Dominions and Colonies, 70,000 dollars was in vitamin C, the anti-scurvy factor, but are dis­ allotted for library and educational services in tinguished from all other roots by their high content Trinidad and the Windward and Leeward Islands, of carotene. Since this yellowr pigment is convertible 30.000 dollars for the research activities of the into vitamin A in the body of the animal, it follows International Labour Office at McGill University, that carrots are a good source of this important 14,800 dollars to the Canadian Research Council in health factor. the Social Services and 7,500 dollars to the Royal Raw carrots have always been a favourite food for Institute of International Affairs for a study of the horses. The allowance should not exceed 20 lb. per internal economy and external relations of Newfound­ head per day, but smaller amounts may be fed with land ; a further grant has also been made to the benefit to condition. They should be used in partial Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. replacement of oats, 7 lb. of carrots being equal to 1 lb. of the cereal. Dairy cows may receive up to 40 lb. of sliced carrots per head per day and fattening bullocks Mr. Keppel's report includes a review of develop­ up to 60 lb. The carotene in the carrots enriches the ments and changes in the field of activity of the colour of winter milk and improves its content of vita­ Carnegie Corporation during his nineteen years of min A, and for this reason, carrots are specially valu­ office, in which he emphasizes the possibility of a able when the dairy ration contains neither kale nor foundation adjusting itself to meet sharply changing silage. They may be used to replace dried sugar- conditions if its house is in order financially and beet pulp (7 lb. of carrots ; - 1 lb. of dried beet otherwise. Its trustees should not only represent pulp) or cereals (8 lb. of carrots - = 1 lb. of crushed financial judgment and experience but also lay barley). Pigs may also be given carrots with ad­ opinion, and they should possess a true understanding vantage to health and condition ; and cereal meal, of the importance of education in a civilized up to one fifth of the total ration, may be replaced society. He also stresses the value of a closely by this succulent food, of which 8 lb. should be fed knit programme in each field of activity, and the for every lb. of cereal meal replaced. The carrots necessity of being prepared to withdraw from a. form a useful source of vitamin A for pigs that are field in which the law of diminishing returns kept entirely indoors. Some authorities recommend begins to operate, and finally the importance cooking or steaming them for pigs, but the full of timing, of endeavouring to have the idea, the beneficial effect is only obtained when they are fed man and the setting in perfect conjunction : the raw. Grated or shredded carrots, when mixed with idea, vital and timely ; the scholar or executive at the meal ration, provide a palatable and health- the peak of his powers ; and the organization at promoting feed. Carrots form a useful supplement Hood tide. to the growing and laying mashes of poultry during winter, and their vitamin A potency is particularly Rodent Pests in War-time beneficial in these cases. They are best fed raw. Grated or shredded carrots may replace cereals up Mis. A. D . M i d d l e t o n has given some useful to one fifth of the total mash, 8 parts by weight information for the control of the rabbit population being used to replace 1 part of cereal. of Great Britain (J. Min. Ayric., 48, No. 2). He believes the best prospects for success depend upon better co-ordination of effort with county post officers Carnegie Corporation of New York instead of individual efforts at control without co­ I n the report o f the president of the Carnegie operative schemes, but that it is unreasonable to Corporation of New York, covering the year ended commercialize it and to expect a profit from rabbit September 30, 1941, Mr. Frederick P. Keppel, who control. However, the high price of rabbits and the No. MTi, F e b r u a r y 14, 1942 N A T UKE 191 intensive efforts of gamekeepers and trappers appear exchange of seeds with most of the botanical gardens to have reduced the rabbit to comparative scarcity abroad. Among the latter is the botanical garden over most parts of Great Britain, a position approach- of Tokyo, which had to place considerable orders to ing that of t he end of the War of 1914-18, when wild complete its collections, part of which were destroyed rabbits became very scarce. On the other hand, the in the earthquake ten years ago. The Bergianum is position of the rat- is still serious, and in some ‘blitzed’ also in close touch with the United States, and some centres and ports with bigger food stores than plants from the salt steppes of Russian Turkestan usual, conditions have encouraged its increase. In recently came from Russian botanical gardens. Most an article on rat control (Lancet, 1, N o. 5. 1942). of the seeds received are of purely scientific interest, Air. E ric H a rd y direct* a tte n tio n to th e value of but sometimes seeds and plants of commercial value asbestos and three-ply wood as rat-proofing materials are also received. The results of experiments on the when many usual materials are unobtainable. White effects of the vigorous cold of the last two years on arsenic is the most useful of the poisons permitted different plants will shortly be published in A cla by the law. Attention is also directed to the need IJorti Berijiani, which contains the results of resear, h for using more traps- even ten times as many traps work in systematic#, cytology and embryology. The as rats- and to using unbaited traps, and the celebrated collection known as “Ieonothoca Botaniea encouragement of those predatory enemies of rats Borgiana” contains 10,000 photographs by most of tho in the countryside usually destroyed by game- botanists in the world. A large room in the main preservation, n a m e l y , stoats, foxes, badgers, owls, building is filled with cupboards which originally herons, otters, buzzards and polecats. The Ministry belonged to Bergius and contain his collections of of Food’s Infestation Order 1941, which came into plants and insects. Thanks to a donation, the force in January, gives added power for compulsory Bergianum will soon have a winter garden where all control of rats and other warehouse vermin. the flora of the Mediterranean will be grown.

Wood Pigeon Investigation Public Health in India

T h e British Trust for Ornithology is organizing a. A c c o r d i n g to the annual report for 1940 of the winter wood pigeon investigation in the British Isles Public Health Commissioner with the Government which ought to shed much light upon the habits of India, there were no abnormal outbreaks of of this serious agricultural post. Although organized disease in that year, and the common epidemic from the natural history point of view, the investiga­ diseases such as malaria, smallpox and plague had tion may well provide information of considerable been less prevalent than in 1939. The most important value in the control of this pest. Explanatory forms public health event was the third meeting of the and recording cards for field counts and roost posi­ Advisory Board of Health at Poona, where reports tions have been circulated, and the inquiry will also were made on the compulsory inoculation of pilgrims include the examination of crop-eontents of shot at festival centres against cholera and on the control birds and post-mortems upon diseased birds. The of food adulteration. The Board recommended a field counts will make observation upon tho sizes of plan for the provision of laboratories, including for the local flocks at every opportunity when they porch, each Province or State a central laboratory, regional feed, roost or are in flight, and in addition to record­ laboratories for groups of districts and others for ing the day and place, the hour of tho count will be individual districts. The low incidence or complete noted. Record will also bo made of their daily feed­ absence of the common infectious diseases such as ing, drinking and resting times, and the influence, cholera, smallpox and plague in the prisons, of if any, of fog, mist, rain and increasing daylight, which the daily population was more than 13,000. and if special fields are favoured for feeding and showed the efficacious control of these infections. resting. Observations will bo mado to see if tho The report also contained a chapter on medical flocks remain intact throughout the day or break tip, research, especially on nutrition, by the Indian and if pairing takes place in flocks. The roost Research Fund Association, field studies on cholera, observations will count or estimate the number of plague and malaria, leprosy research carried out birds using the roosts, the type of wood, the trees mainly at the Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine, most favoured, the period in use, and whether it is and maternal mortality investigated at Calcutta, used annually and if the size of the roosting flock Bombay, Delhi and Madras. Cerebrospinal fever had is increasing or decreasing. An effort will also be occurred in sporadic form in many provinces. made to get experienced people to weigh, measure and determine tho sex of shot wood pigeons. The Radio Receiver Design field counts will be returned to the Edward Grey Institute at Oxford monthly, and the rest of tho I n the past few years radio manufacturers in (treat winter stage of the investigation will be completed Britain have awakened to tho fact that the export by tho end of May. industry has boon very much neglected. This is shown clearly in a paper read before the Students and Graduates Sections of the Institution of Electrical The Swedish Botanical Garden Engineers by Mr. J. H. Lemmon, on “Tropical Receiver T h e January issue of the Anglo-Swedish Review D esign” (Quart. J. Inst. Elec. Eng. o f D ecem ber 1941). announces that the Bergianska Tradgarden or In British colonies, the majority of radio receivers in Bergianum, the botanical garden of Stockholm, is to use until about 1938 were of either American or mark its hundred and fiftieth anniversary this year. Dutch origin. British manufacturers had sent out It was founded in 1791 by Peter Jonas Berg, a doctor to India or other tropical countries receivers which of medicine and a botanist, who bequeathed it to differed very little from those sold in the home the Swedish Academy of Science. It consists of a market, and little attention was paid to the internal purely scientific botanical section and a practical parts of the receiver. Mr. Lemmon takes India as section, which in poaee-time carries on a large the basic country, since a fairly comprehensivev 192 NATURE F eb ru ary 14, 1942, vOL. 149 knowledge of the radio markets there is available. In courses similar to the School Leaver’s Courses pro­ India, where tho transmitters may be many hundreds posed by the Board. In several areas teachers of miles apart, medium-wave broadcasts are not of attending these lectures have expressed a wish for very much use, except for local listening-in areas a further course of practical work, and to meet this near tho large towns. They cator mainly for the demand, and that of other teachers, a summer school local inhabitants and native listeners, and the value in human biology has been arranged to be held in of the programme transmitted from one town may Cambridge during August 5-19. bo of very little uso in an adjacent area. The European The school is planned to be of help to teachers in listener abroad wants to hear programmes and news junior and senior schools and tho junior forms of from his homo country, and for this reason ho has secondary schools. Each morning there will be to rely on short-wave listening. The most used wave­ a lecture on some biological topic, followed by lengths for th is purpose are in th e 13-, 16- a n d 19 -m etre practical laboratory work. The practical work will bands, which give reliable services over very long consist mainly of fairly simple experiments and distances for the greater part of the year, while cer­ demonstrations of such a nature as to bo of use in tain other stations work on 30-, 60- and 90-metre schools where comparatively little equipment is bands. Tho exported radio receiver therefore, in available. In the afternoons there will be organized addition to withstanding tropical conditions, should excursions to places of interest such as various cover all wavo-bands from 13 metros to 90 metres, research laboratories and biological museums and and also medium waves between 2 0 0 metros and institutes. After tea each day there will bo seminars at 330 metros. wliicli practical teaching problems will be discussed, and there will be a display of biological films and text­ Infra-Red Radiation in Industry books. Most evenings after dinner will be devoted to A p a p e r on “Infra-Red Radiation and Equipment : their Application to Industrial Processes”, read lectures, by eminent biologists, on the social implica­ recently by Mr. R. Maxted before the Illuminating tions of biology. Accommodation will be provided Engineering Society, emphasizes that the technique in one of the colleges for both men and women. of radiant heating depends on direct experiment There will be free time in which tho members of the rather than upon an understanding of wave-length school will be able to visit tho colleges and other effects, properties of materials, etc., although a places of architectural and natural interest. Furt her knowledge of the spectral characteristics of the details may be obtained from the Education Officer, materials is necessary if optimum combinations of British Social Hygiene Council, Tavistock Bouse wave-bands and materials are desired. Transforma­ South, Tavistock Square, W.C.l. tion into sensible heat is one effect of the absorption of radiant energy, and radiant heating depends Food and N utritional Needs entirely upon this effect, the energy absorbed by the material being instantly converted into heat upon T h e Nutrition Society has arranged a whole-day exposure to radiation. The incident energy is partially conference on “Food Production and Distribution in reflected, transmitted and absorbed when any sub­ Relation to Nutritional Needs” to be held on February stance is irradiated, the magnitude of each effect 28, beginning at 10.30 a.m., at the London School of ranging throughout the electromagnetic spectrum Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. Papers will be read with any given material. The direct effect of absorp­ by Sir John Orr (“The Agricultural Implications of a tion is that energy is re-radiated at longer wave­ Food Policy Based on Nutritional Needs”), Dr. N. C. lengths, change of structural state takes place, or Wright (“Rival Claims of Animals and Man for sensible heat is produced within the absorbing sub­ F o o d ” ), M r. E . T . Hainan (“Animals as Food Con­ stance . verters”) and Sir John Russell (“Planning for Agri­ Radiant heating is usually employed for dehydra­ cultural Production”). Among those who have agreed tion, enamel stoving, or other change-of-state to participate in the discussion are Prof. A. W. Ashby, phenomena, and it is believed that the practical Sir Joseph Barcroft, Mr. A. N. Duekham, Prof. H. I). results obtained are solely due to heat application Kay and Dr. T. F. Macrae. Sir Wilson Jameson (chief and not to any structural change arising from the medical officer, Ministry of Health) will take the chair direct action of radiation. Further developments at the morning session. Provisional arrangements may conceivably lead to the utilization of spectral have been made for further meetings to discuss, among effects but present-day practice aims at applying other topics, (1) “The Preparation of Food in W ar­ heat. It should be noted, however, that while interest time with Special Reference to Collective Feeding” centres in the thermal effects of absorption, the and (2) “Nutritional Requirements for Optimum material receiving heat treatment is not necessarily Health”. Further information about the Nutrition the absorbing substance : an enamelled metal sheet, Society can be obtained from the Hon. Secretary, for example, may be irradiated from the back, or a Dr. Leslie J. Harris, Dunn Nutritional Laboratory, transparent lacquer may be indirectly heated by Milton Road, Cambridge. absorption in the under surface. The Newton Tercentenary

Summer School in Human Biology N e w t o n was born on Christmas Day, 1642. The D u r i n g the last year, the Educational Advisory Physical Society will celebrate the tercentenary of Board of tho British Social Hygiene, Council has his birth by holding a special meeting at which an arranged, in co-operation with local education authori­ address will be delivered dealing with the life, work ties in different parts of the country, refresher and influence of Newton. The lecturer will be Prof. courses in biology for teachers. These were primarily E. N. da C. Andrade, Quain professor of physics in designed to help to equip teachers with a background tho University of London. Details of the meeting of biological knowledge, to undertake, in the schools, will be announced later. n o . 3772, February 14, 1942 NATURE 193

atmosphere at freezing point and make it permanent LETTERS TO THE EDITORS by the usual method1. In order to make well-stained The Editors do not hold themselves responsible for permanent preparations, leave tissue in acetic- opinions expressed by their correspondents. No lacmoid for twenty-four hours. Using the above notice is taken of anonymous communications. method, good smear preparations of rat carcinoma and mouse sarcoma have also been obtained. A New Technique for Mitosis in Tumours Fixed tumour tissues can be stored in 70 per cent I n cancer therapy it is of great interest to distin­ alcohol, but the best preparations are obtained from guish between tumours according to their degree of freshly fixed material. If the tissue is left in fixative mitotic activity. This requires a determination of more than forty-eight hours the chromosomes swell the proportion of dividing to resting cells. It may and their staining is not satisfactory.

even be useful to follow the character of mitosis after The work is a part of the programme aided by X-ray treatment. Human cells are difficult to the British Empire Cancer Campaign. handle for this purpose. The usual techniques are P . C. K o l l e r . tedious and unsatisfactory. Indeed, misleading con­ Institute of Animal Genetics, clusions have often been reached owing to the in­ University of Edinburgh. adequacy of the preparations used. In contrast with J a n . 16. tho older methods, I find that La Cour’s acetic- 1 Darlington, C. D., and La Cour, L. F., "The Handling of Chromo­ lacmoid (resorcin-blue) treatm ent1 is rapid and, as may somes” (Allen and Unwin, London, 1942). be seen from the photographs, capable of showing both the character as well as the stage of division. The method is as follows. Fix small pieces of Fluorescent Lipoidal Spectra of tumour in acetic-alcohol (1:3) fo r 10 m in .-2 4 hr. Before staining, cut small shreds of tissue from the Human Tissue surface with scalpel and transfer them into 10 per HrF.OF.it1 pointed out that most of the carcinogenic cent acetic acid for five minutes and 45 per cent for hydrocarbons studied were highly fluorescent and ten minutes. Then stain with warm (40° C.) acetic- they produced characteristic bands in the regions lacmoid for 15-30 minutes. Put one drop of acetic - 4,000, 4,180 and 4,400 A. The investigation of the lacmoid on slide with one piece of stained tissue. presence or absence of similar spectrographic charac­ Crush the tissue by tapping with the blunt end of a teristics in non-malignant and malignant tissues was bone needle-holder. Remove all unmacerated frag­ instituted with the end in view that it might shed ments. Cover and press with blotting paper to spread some light on the presence of possible carcinogens in the cells and remove surplus stain. Heat slide gently the latter. without boiling. It is at once ready for study. If In 1935 I suggested the possibility that “cholesterol required for further use, keep slide 1—5 days in moist or some of its decomposition products” may, under 194 NATURE F ebruary 14, 1942, vol. 149 certain conditions, act as carcinogens®. Among such alcoholic solution of mercuric chloride and allowed compounds methyl cholanthrene is considered, “the to stand about twenty-four hours. To this was most active cancer-producing agent known . . . yet added a saturated alcoholic solution of caustic potash the actual presence of any such substances in traum a­ until pH8 or higher was reached. This was filtered, and tized tissues has not been demonstrated”3. On the the precipitate washed several times with petroleum basis of the hypothesis of cholesterol carcinogenesis ether, which was added to the filtrate. The partitioned this work dealt primarily with an acetone-soluble petroleum ether fraction was then pipetted off, lipoid fraction obtained from human cancer tissue. washed again with alcohol caustic potash solution, In connexion with the fluorescence phenomenon it re-pipetted off, evaporated and the pale yellow lipoid was noted that the cancer tissue lipoids produced a fraction taken up in CP toluene. The resultant far stronger fluorescence within a given period of solution (about 0-5 per cent) must be clear. time than the lipoids obtained from non-malignant The spectrographic differences between partial and tissue. maximum deproteinization as well as the difference The apparatus used consisted of a spectrograph, between normal and malignant fractions are shown made by combining a direct-vision spectroscope, in in the accompanying plates. These differences are which the spectrum, produced by a glass prism, was easily recognized. photographed with an //2-5 camera, a mercury arc, There seems to be a qualitative as well as a quanti­ and a filter eliminating light up to about 3,400 A. tative difference in the fluorescence between non- cancerous and cancerous tissue lipoids. Spectro­ graphic characteristics identical with those found in methyl cholanthrene are evident in the lipoid of human cancer tissue (carcinoma). I wish to express my sincere thanks to Prof. Joseph Kaplan and to Dr. S. M. Rubens of the University of California at Los Angeles, for their co-operation and assistance in obtaining the spectrographic data in connexion with this work. H . S. P e n n . Department of Physics, University of California at Los Angeles. 1 Hieger, I., Biochem. J., 505 (1930). 2 Penn, H. S., M ed. Rec. (1935). 3 Ewing, James, “Ewing’s Neoplastic Diseases”, p. 106.

The Second Phase of Rennet Coagulation

V a r i o u s hypotheses have been put forward in attempts to explain the clotting of milk by rennet. That from the Carlsberg Laboratories1,2 has probably been the most widely accepted. This theory states that tho clot is due to the precipitation of the in­ soluble calcium salt of paracasein after the enzymic alteration of a constituent of the original casein, which is presumed to behave, before this alteration, A Pyrex container specially blown to egg-shell thick­ as a protective colloid for the other constituents. ness, of about 50 mm. in diameter and about 40-50 Thus the coagulation process can be divided into two mm. in depth, was placed with the solution directly phases, one enzymic and one non-enzymic. It has under the filter. The spectrograph was placed at right been generally agreed that these two phases can be angles to, and about 10 mm. from, the container. It differentiated, but their precise nature has not yet is noteworthy that an empty Pyrex container did been made clear. not register any fluorescence above 4,047 A. This note is concerned with the second phase, All tissues used were carcinomata. Briefly, the sometimes referred to as the precipitation of calcium lipo-proteins were prepared as follows : paracaseinate1-3. This is probably not the simple Tissue was minced, then ground very finely with precipitation of an insoluble salt ; for example, it sand and extracted alternately with acetone, pe­ does not occur readily at a low temperature. Effront troleum ether, and acetone, 250 c.c. of solvent to states4 that below 15° C. milk is not clotted by rennet, 100 gm. of tissue. These extracts were pooled, although the enzyme does alter the protein. Most evaporated and then treated with excess acetone to chemical changes, including the majority of enzyme precipitate out the lecithins. The acetone solution reactions, have a temperature coefficient of 2-4 per was then placed in a refrigerator for forty-eight 10° C. That this coefficient holds approximately for hours, filtered and evapoiated. (This may have to rennet over the range 37°-0° C. is shown by the fact be repeated until residue gives a clear solution in that the first phase is completed at 0° C. after a excess cold acetone.) definite time which can be calculated from that re­ Other methods, whereby a greater amount of quired at 37° C. For example, a sample of milk lipo-protein may be obtained from a given quantity which contained sufficient rennet to clot it in eight of tissue, are being investigated. The results will be minutes at 37° C. was kept at 0° C. for 130 minutes published in a subsequent communication. (130 = 8 x 2-12™, w here n = 37/10). Its clotting About 10 c.c. of the lipo-protein was shaken time at 37° C. was then 90 seconds. Longer storage vigorously with 3-4 times its volume of a saturated at 0° C. caused only a slight further reduction of No. 3772, February 14, 1942 NATURE 195 clotting time. This took place at tho rate of seconds time. Tho temperature coefficient of the reaction only per day. Thus a method is available for separ­ was not affected by the presence of added calcium. ating the two phases of rennet action, and tho effect A phosphorus-containing protein from malt wort of various factors, such as temporature on the second also exhibits this phenomenon6. In tho absence of stage, can lie studied. calcium, it can bo heated under certain conditions for several hours at 100° C. without coagulating, but in the presence of 2V/200 calcium chloride it coagulates as soon as the temperature reaches 50° 0. Most of the lines in the accompanying graph con­ verge as the temperature diminishes and would meet between 10° and 20° C. if tho relation still hold. This would mean that the differences between the milk samples used affected the temperature coefficient only, and that therefore, for example, the contents of calcium ion wore equal. The fact that a very small quantity of calcium exerts such a large effect suggests that the quantity of ionized calcium originally present is very small. It is thought that the observations recorded here will provide a means by which many factors con­ trolling milk coagulation may be studied, and that tho hypothesis put forward may bo of use in such investigations. N . .1. B e r b i d g e . National Inst itute for Research in Dairying, University of Reading.

1 Hotter, H., Biochem. Z., 255, Kid (19:12). 2 Linilcrstrem-Lang, Z. 'physiol. Ckem., 176, 70 (1928). 3 Brigando, J., L a it, 13, 657 (1933). 4 ElFront, .T., “ Biochemical Catalysts in Life and Industry” , (New York, 1917). 6 Chick and Martin. J. Physiol., 40, 404 (1910). 6 Berridge (unpublished).

Using samples of milk on which ronnot has been Lowland Tropical Podsols in Uganda allowed to complete the first stage of its action at 0° C., it has been found that tho relation between R i c h a r d s has stated1 that there are indications, temperature and rate of clotting over a range of though no definite evidence, that lowland tropical clotting times from 1 to 9 minutes is described by podsols are found in Africa. Such soils appear to the equation exist in one small area of Uganda, near Lake Nabugabo, which is adjacent to the north western corner of Lake Victoria (lat. 0° 20' S., long. 30° 50' E.). w here E^T+t) is rate of clotting at T + t° C. (1/clotting These soils, which are just' above the level of Lake timo in seconds), R t is rate of clotting at T ° C., a n d k Victoria (altitude 1,135 m.), are derived from recent is a constant, the value of which depends upon lake deposits of sand. The deposits are poor in bases, th e m ilk. like the sands of tropical Asia and tropical America Thus the graph obtained by plotting log rate from which podsols have been formed : the poverty against the temperature is a straight line. The in bases is reflected in tho composition of the water observed values of k w ere 0 -16 fo r fresh m ilk, 0 -32 for in Lake Nabugabo, where the alkaline reserve varies another milk which had been preserved at 1° C. for between 0-00027 and 0-00029 normal, as compared a day, 0-28 for pasteurized milk, and 0-25 for re­ with the average figure 0-0012 for Lake Victoria2. constituted spray-ilried skim milk. Those values of k Analyses of the Nabugabo soils are not available correspond to temperature coefficients and cannot be undertaken at the present timo, but there seems no doubt that they must be regarded between 1-6 and 1 -3 per degree. The only relevant as podsols ; they are very acid in reaction ; the reaction with a tem perature coefficient- of this order is surface layers are dark with organic matter and the (lenaturation of proteins. That of ovalbumin lias there is a layer of bleached sand in the subsoil. In a coefficient of 1 -9 per degree between 60° and 70° C., the hollows well-marked peaty deposits have de­ while the corresponding figure for haemoglobin is 1-3 veloped. over the same rango6. It is therefore suggested that Some of the plants in the peaty hollows at tho second phase of the coagulation of milk by rennet Nabugabo have been recorded from other swamps ; is a (lenaturation (unfolding and relinking of poly­ for example, the tall grass Miscanthidium violaceum peptide chains) or partial (lenaturation of the casein, Robyns, which is common there, is dominant in which has boon rendered heat-sensitive by the many swamps in the west of Uganda. Several species, enzym e. however, have been found in no other locality in the This hypothesis is supported by the sensitiveness Protectorate. The most notable is Sphagnum of the reaction to calcium ions. Addition of calcium macromolluscum Dixon, dominant over an area of equivalent to N 15,000 in the milk led to a decrease some acres at Nabugabo but not known to occur in clotting timo of 18 per cent, and an increase to anywhere else. Other species of Sphagnum are iV/500 caused a decrease of 61 per cent in the clotting common on some of the mountains, but there is no 196 NATURE F eb ru ary 14, 1942, vOI_. 149 record of them at altitudes below 3,000 in., with the Value of Molybdenum for Lettuce exception of Sphagnum Franeon-ii W a m s t’. In tho course of work on the minor el,-mont con­ Many species of Utricularia also are found at stituents of Chilean nitrate, the value of molybdenum Nabugabo, among them being Utricularia appendi- in improving the growth and health of 1 ft tueos has culata B ruce, U. e-recta K am ., U. exilia O liv., U. been apparent. With ono part of molybdenum (as exoleta- R . B r., U. K ir k ii S tapf, U. obtusa Sw., U. sodium molybdato) in ten million parts of nutrient prehensilis E . M ey., TJ. reflexa Oliv., U. spiralis solution the plants are larger, deeper green and S m ith, U. stellaria L., U. subulata L., U. Thonningii appear to be much more resistant to disease. This Schumach. The genus Utricularia does not seem to improvement occurs whether the molybdenum is be so well represented at any other place in the used alone or in conjunction with one or more other Protectorate, although some of these species have minor elements as strontium, titanium, vanadium, been found at much higher altitudes on the moun­ chromium and zinc. Preliminary experiments even tain s. suggest that molybdenum can fend off symptoms of Trichopteryx gracillima C. E. Hubbard is another boron deficiency for some time in the early stages species recorded from the peat logs of Nabugabo of growth, but this point needs confirmation. but from no other locality in Uganda. Drosera If molybdenum in such small doses can definitely B urkeana Planch, also has been found nowhere else bo shown to render lettuces less susceptible to disease, in Uganda, but D. madagascarensis D. C., which it may prove to be a valuable asset to commercial is more abundant at Nabugabo, is also more widely growers, whoso losses from various causes are very spread. The type specimens of several of the species considerable. w E B b e n c h l e y . enumerated above have been collected in recent K . W a b i n g t o n . years at Nabugabo and, therefore, it seems probable Botanical Department, that similar deposits of peat at low altitudes are Rothamsted Experimental Station, not very common in tropical Africa. No other Harpenden, Herts. striking examples of lowland podsols have been J a n . 26. noticed in Uganda, nor is it to be expected that they would occur : for nowhere else at low altitudes Sociological Research in Race Relations is there the same combination of a climate with a I n the light of some present sociological research heavy rainfall and of soils made up of leached sands. in the subject of race relations in Great Britain, may E g g elin g 1 has suggested that at low altitudes in I be allowed briefly to endorse the general arguments Uganda the Sphagnum community develops only advanced by Mrs. Neville-Rolfe in her article on where the natural succession is upset and cites other “Biology as a Social Science” 1, and more particularly examples where it has occurred in annually burnt her paragraph on social biology in education ? Miscanthidium swamps. So far as my present observations show, popular Miscanthidium violaceum is dominant in many information in respect to problems of human heredity swamps in the west of Uganda, and scattered plants and human biology in general has barely advanced of Sphagnum, Utricularia and Drosera are often out of the stage of superstition in many aspects, and found in association with it. Tho soil reaction in much confusion exists over the meaning of various these swamps is always very acid but the subsoils, terms of technical or semi-technical usage. Perhaps when tested by the chemical section of this depart­ the most common confusion is in respect to the ment with Comber’s reagent, have given a bright red connotation of the word ‘race’. This term is used colour, showing that the iron had not yet been and accepted quite freely as a synonym for ‘nation’, leached out. ‘people’, or any other similar concept for which an Crocodiles, which are abundant in Lake Victoria, alternative noun cannot readily be found. There are absent from Lake Nabugabo. The reason has appears to be also a fairly wide and quite unanalysed remained a complete mystery. Lake Nabugabo was acceptance of such conceptions as ‘national psycho­ formed when a sand spit shut off a bay of Lake logy’, etc., the logical implications of which are that Victoria, and at the present time it is separated from an individual’s cultural or social behaviour is ‘in­ the larger lake by a stretch of level ground, only herited’ much in the same manner as tho colour of three quarters of a mile wide, which could easily be his skin. Further mysticisms surround the biological crossed by crocodiles. Yet no crocodiles have been and social implications of the phenomenon of racial seen in Lake Nabugabo, although the temperature miscegenation, and that ‘blood’ itself fulfils the of the water and the supply of fish would seem to be function less romantically ascribed to the genes is favourable to them. as usual an explanation of heredity as tho existence It is possible that the water of tho lake which, near of ‘criminal types’ and the ‘science of bumps’ ! the eastern shore beside Lake Victoria, has a faint The ‘etiology’ of this core of popular ‘knowledge’ peaty smell and is acid in reaction, may be so dis­ need not be discussed here. The situation, however, tasteful to crocodiles that they avoid it. If this is plainly suggests that there has been something the case, it is an interesting example of the com­ seriously amiss in previous educational policy. The plexity of the ecosystem, in that the character of moral would appear equally plain. W ithout a founda­ the soil has controlled the distribution of so large tion of up-to-date information on such subjects it an animal as the crocodile. is not easy to see how the average citizen can face Department o f Agriculture, A. S. T h o m a s . with any clarity the many complex problems that K am p ala, are involved in modern social and political policy. U ganda. Thomeycreek Cage, IjITTLE. O ct. 5. Herschel Road, •Richards, P. W., N a t u r e , 148, 129 (1941). C am bridge. a W orth in g to n , E . I'.., “ A lt ep o rt on th e Fisheries o f U g an d a” (L ondon, 1932), p. (it. Ja n . 31. s Eggeling, W. J. 23, 430 (1935). ’N a t u r e . 149, 90 (1 9 4 2 ). >;<>. 3772, February 14, 1942 NATURE 197

that it is believed that real materials follow these CLASSIFICATION OF definitions exactly. We need not suppose that any RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES material shows a 'perfect yield-value ; still less that there are any perfect Bingham systems in Nature HROUGH the courtesy of Prof. M. L. Oliphant, (that is, systems which flow at a rate strictly pro­ T tho British Rheologists’ Club held a meeting at portional to the excess of the applied pressure over the Physics Department, University of Birmingham,the yield-value). These categories are of use in on Saturday, January 24. After business proceedings, giving a practical approximation to the behaviour a discussion on “Classification of Rheological Pro­ of real materials. perties” was introduced by Dr. L. R. G. Treloar, on Deformations which are produced only after a behalf of the committee of the Club. yield-value has been exceeded but which do not obey Dr. Treloar reminded members that at the annual Bingham’s law may be subdivided into inelastic general meeting of the Club, the question of definitions and plasto-elastic ; the latter differs from visco­ had been discussed and the committee had been in­ elastic only in showing a yield-value. structed to draw up a tentative scheme for classifica­ Returning to viscous systems which show no yield- tion of properties of materials subjected to specific value, these may show Newtonian (rate of deforma­ conditions, rather than to define terms many of which tion proportional to stress) or non-Newtonian flow. might not even approximate to tho behaviour of real The latter group subdivides into inelastic and visco­ materials. This scheme, which was to be regarded as elastic, thus re-merging with the elastic group.

preliminary and subject to modification, is shown on The table should also be extended in another the accompanying table. dimension to allow for tho fact that, for example, Deformations are conveniently subdivided into under constant stress, the rate of deformation of elastic deformations and flow, the former being many materials accelerates (thixotropy, false body, generally defined as ‘recoverable’ and the latter as etc.) or decelerates (work-hardening, dilataney). ‘non-rocoverable’. Recoverable deformations are sub­ Detailed subdivision of these properties has not yet divided into those which are ‘ideal’, in which a been attempted by the committee but, so that the definite strain occurs immediately on the application importance of such properties should not be forgotten, of a stress, and those which are non-ideal, showing a all categories for which such behaviour is not pre­ time lag. Ideal deformations may be Hookean (that cluded by definition are included in a hatched is, directly proportional to stress) or non-Hookean. ‘fram e’. By definition, ideal deformations are completely Dr. Treloar concluded by expressing tho hope that recoverable, but non-ideal deformations may be members would criticise this table freely both with either completely or incompletely recoverable. The respect to suggested alterations and additions. latter give rise to visco-elastic deformations corre­ Dr. G. W. Scott Blair, honorary secretary of the sponding to systems which show no yield-value, Club, said that ho thought members ought to know that is, the smallest applied stresses jiroduce a how much the committee owed to Dr. Treloar for deformation. his contribution to the preparation of the table. Plow may be viscous (no yield-value) or plastic He had only one other point to make, namely, that (yield-value). Here Dr. Treloar stressed the fact those who worked in specialized fields would doubt­ that postulating such categories does not imply less find the table still inadequate in the special 198 NATURE F e b r u a r y 14, 1942, vOL. 149 parts which concerned them. For the present, a number of phenomena which are known to exist INVESTIGATIONS ON LIGHTNING have been omitted since they are not of great practical IN NIGERIA importance, and it is hoped for the present to keep the table simple. Tims, just as rate of deformation can N a recent paper entitled “The Measurement of increase or decrease at constant stress, so the partial Lightning Voltages and Currents in Nigeria, Part 2, differential of strain with respect to stress can like­ I1938-1939”, read in London before the Institution of wise increase or decrease with stress considered at Electrical Engineers, F. R. Perry, G. H. Webster and any given time. This would necessitate a second P. W. Baguley record the details of an investigation frame and a further subdivision of the ‘non-ideal’ on the magnitude of lightning voltages and currents category, but the committee believes that this is on Nigerian high-tension transmission lines, and con­ best not included for the present. tinue an earlier work commenced by one of the authors. Mr. van Someren suggested that it would be helpful Three-phase oscillographic and klydonographic records if each category could be considered in turn, and of voltages were obtained, together with magnetic link suggestions offered by members (not for inclusion in measurements of currents on pole and lattice-mast the table) of materials which would, under specified structures. In addition, continuous records have been conditions, approximate in their behaviour to the obtained of the interchange of current between earth category in question. This was done, though in some and atmosphere during weather disturbances. The in­ eases the suggestions were tentative. vestigation resulted in a large amount of data for There was some discussion on the meaning of statistical analysis, and the results derived are briefly 'recoverable’ as applied to deformations. Dr. Scott summarized below. Blair pointed out that the committee meant by Surges of all types were analysed and resulted in ‘recoverable’ that the energy causing the recovery wide variety of wave shapes, having wave-front must be part of that originally applied and stored values varying from 0-2 to 65 microsec., and wave- potentially, whether the recovery is spontaneous or tail values from 0-9 to 93 microsec., the lowest initiated by some outside agent such as heat, values being generally associated with flash-over mechanical or supersonic vibration, etc. Some conditions. In general, the ratio between the length members felt that ‘recoverable’ should be subdivided of wave tail to length of wave front covered a limited into ‘spontaneously recoverable’ and ‘recoverable range of 1-2/1 to 4/1, higher values being obtained by activation by some external agent’. No final on occasions, these ratios being practically indepen­ decision was reached and the committee was asked dent of the wave front and tail magnitudes. These to consider the matter further. values were, for example, smaller than for the 1/50 A member raised the question of ‘seepage’ when microsec. wave usually adopted as the test standard. the composition of a material is altered as it is de­ A number of records of direct stroke voltages were formed, and Mr. J. C. Gage pressed the point that also obtained, most of these being associated with many complex properties such as thixotropy, false power system faults caused by line insulation flash- body, dilatancy, etc., have not yet been dealt with in over. In such instances, the complete sequence of the classification. Dr. Scott Blair said that the events was not always apparent, but it has been committee was grateful for such comments and would found that the recording of voltages on all three bear them in mind, and Dr. V. G. W. Harrison asked conductors is preferable to single-phase recording, a that members should express freely any views they more complete history of the phenomenon being might hold, especially about any important omissions obtained. In two cases, it was found possible to in the table. obtain wave-shape records of the constituent strokes Mr. van Someren pointed out that, at the top of the of multiple-stroke flashes, resulting in evidence of table, elastic deformations appear on tho left and flow the family resemblance of such strokes. Certain (‘liquid’) properties on the right ; whereas at the aspects of the oscillographic records of lightning bottom, tho plasto-elastic deformations, implying voltages were confirmed by klydonograms, the data yield-values, a property of solids, are now on obtained from the latter, however, being less accurate, the right, and the visco-elastic on the left. The and, in general, not so complete. committee might consider somo slight mollification Current measurements were made in the case of of the table by which this apparent anomaly might clirect line strokes, the line in this instance being lie avoided. supported by tubular steel poles, and in addition, the Mr. Maunder Foster stressed the importance of the current distribution in the members of a lattice adhesive properties of many materials, and gave structure was obtained ; of those, one set of such some account of the significance of this group of measurements involving eighteen lattice masts still rheological properties in the boot and shoo industry. awaits analysis. Dr. T. L. Ibbs, who had presided during the meet­ Pronounced double pulses were obtained in certain ing, concluded by saying that, as a non-rheologist, he oscillographic records of lightning voltages, and the appreciated the simplicity of the table. It was easily suggestion is made that these are dependent on the understood by those who were not highly specialized current pulses in the main return lightning stroke, as in rlieology, and he, for one, hoped that this simplicity was the opinion of Malan and Collens. Many of the might be maintained. observations made at Kow have been confirmed by Following the discussion, it was unanimously observations made by means of a point-discharge resolved to accept tho table of classification as a basis recorder, certain differences relating to storm activity for further discussion. being simultaneously revealed with a contrast between Dr. G. W. Scott Blair then road a paper on temperate and tropica] zone storm conditions. It “Rheological Developments Past and Present”, was apparent from these records that a more compli­ illustrated by lantern slides. A number of members cated form of a Simpson-Robinson storm model could also showed apparatus and materials of rheological advantageously be applied to the task of explaining in terest. point-discharge records of lightning phenomena. G. W . S c o t t B l a i r . Following upon an analysis and discussion of the no. 3772, February 14, 1942 NATURE 199 data obtained, certain suggestions are made as to the plants or full-page drawings which show clearly their lines upon which future investigation should be habit arid more essential features, a task which is conducted, and it is suggested that a study should be not at- all easy with the grasses. The illustrations of made of the voltages produced by multiple-stroke Saccharum aro especially good, though in some of flashes to transmission lines, and an attem pt made to the other genera a few more detailed illustrations of ascertain whether any relationship exists between spikolet dissections would have been welcomed. voltage pulses and the predicted currents fluctuating A number of small points detract from the work. in lightning return strokes. It is further suggested Phraseology of the type “a feature which is made that these data could be got most efficaciously by use of in separating these species”, “The nodes are combining photographic studies obtained by a Boys oasily made out”, “anker roots” (all on p. 19) and camera with simultaneous oscillographic records of “Many species of the Andropogono;e are collections the corresponding lightning surge voltages. Sudden of spike-like branches” (p. 2 0 ) tend to jar the reader. fluctuations in the point discharge current magnitudes Again, the use of the word Gramineie without its might easily be obtained by means of a cathode ray capital initial, twice in the introduction and occasion­ oscillograph, and synchronized records taken of the ally elsewhere is not acceptable, especially as the discharge current at two or more points situated on aut hor has no good reason for this and restores its the storm track axis, and spaced about 3 miles apart. capital later in the work. A number of plates have If the power lines should run at right angles to the the bottom half an inch folded up as they are t oo storm, then the additional discharge points could largo for the volume. This could have been avoided advantageously be located along the line. in most cases by a more careful placing of the figures, or even the titles. However, these are only small defects : tho book will be useful to anyone concerned with grasses and COMMON INDIAN GRASSES will provide good illustrations and descriptions of a N interesting volume which was “written at number of most interesting tropical grasses not A the request of the Forest Department of the 'adequately treated in most text-books. United Provinces, India, who wished to have a manual B. C. S i i a k m a n . which would enable forest officers to recognize the common grasses found in their forests, taungyas and plantations” has a much wider appeal and deserves THE POTATO IN INDIA a place among the books of everyone interested in H E p o ta to (Solarium, tuberosum) is cultivated in the Graminea;. Its low price should help to give it India in the plains as well as in the hills. In tho diffusion it deserves*. T the plains it is difficult to store the crop through The author points out that the grasslands of India the hot season. Hence seed in the plains comes from are what Tansley would call a biotic climax, and the hills or is imported. It is also difficult to hold only exist and aro maintained when there is a potatoes in the plains in storage for table purposes harmony between tho climatic and biotic factors so owing to shrivelling, moth attack, wet and dry rots, as to prevent- the formation of forest. As a con­ high-temperature rot and sprouting. Potatoes after sequence, forest officers need to regulate the grazing lifting will not sprout during a dormant period vary­ and burning of the grasslands under their manage­ ing with temperature, variety and maturity at harvest. ment with care, since too little of either is as harmful Dr. D. Y. Karmarkar and Mr. B. M. Joshi began as too much. experiments on the cold storage of the Indian potato After a summary of tho ecology of the grasslands in 1936, and their results are now published in of the United Provinces, the author briefly discusses Miscellaneous Bulletin No. 45 of tho Imperial Council the morphology of the Gramineie and gives short but of Agricultural Research. The work was done under precise! instructions for making detailed examina­ the Council’s cold storage research scheme at tions of specim ens. Two keys aro included, th e first- Ganeshkhind Fruit Experimental Station, Kirkee. being an artificial one dealing mainly with larger and Below 35° F. dormancy was indefinitely prolonged. more obvious characters and intended for tho less At 40° F. the maximum period of dormancy observed specialized user. Tiie second is based on ('. E. was nine months. Delay in placing potatoes at this Hubbard, and contains keys to all the genera and temperature after harvest reduced the period of species with which tho book deals, except that- no dormancy. There was no wastage at 40° F. or 35° F., key is included to the genera of the Maydeae (possibly but at lower temperatures, 30° and 32° F., the by an oversight) so that the user is not given a clue to potatoes were injured after three months exposure. the position of Chionachne and Coix. Tho author The injury was a blackening of the central tissues might have been bold and included them in tho (black-heart). Andropogonea!, since they are, as Bews says, little The sprouting vigour of potatoes was not affected more than a sub-tribe of tho former. by extending the dormant period at 35° or 40° F. Tho rest of the work consists of descriptions of the Tire growth and yield of crops grown from seed long species common to tho United Provinces arranged stored at these temperatures may even be favourably alphabotically under tho genera, each species having affected. Black-hearted potatoes merely rot when two descriptions, one of a more ‘popular’ typo and used as seed. the other of a more detailed technical character. This report, of which tho main results are quoted The known and possible economic uses of each above, is a sound piece of systematic scientific survey species are briefly mentioned. Tho ninety-two com­ work of permanent value. It provides bed-rock data monest grasses are described and tho work is illus­ for agriculture and industry under Indian conditions, trated with sixty-four plates, most of the species such as can only be acquired by years of organized being illustrated either by photographs of living effort. It is to be hoped that work of this character •Common Grasses of the United Provinces. By N. L. Bor. {In d ia n will be continued and extended. Far. Rec.. New Series. Botany. 2, No. 1.) Pp. vii + 222 + 64 plates. (Delhi: Manager of Publications, 1941.) 9.14 ru p ees ; 158. Gd. n et. F b a n k l i n K i d d . 200 NATURE February 14, 1942, vOL. 149

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