PERIL AND PROMISE Emerging Technologies and WMD
Natasha E. Bajema and Diane DiEuliis
Emergence and Convergence Workshop Report 13–14 October 2016
Center for the Study of Weapons of Mass Destruction National Defense University
MR. CHARLES LUTES Director
MR. JOHN P. CAVES, JR. Deputy Director, Distinguished Research Fellow
Since its inception in 1994, the Center for the Study of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD Center) has been at the forefront of research on the implications of weapons of mass destruction for U.S. security. Originally focusing on threats to the military, the WMD Center now also applies its expertise and body of research to the challenges of homeland security. The center’s mandate includes research, education, and outreach. Research focuses on understanding the security challenges posed by WMD and on fashioning effective responses thereto. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff has designated the center as the focal point for WMD education in the joint professional military education system. Education programs, including its courses on countering WMD and consequence management, enhance awareness in the next generation of military and civilian leaders of the WMD threat as it relates to defense and homeland security policy, programs, technology, and operations. As a part of its broad outreach efforts, the WMD Center hosts annual symposia on key issues, bringing together leaders and experts from the government and private sectors. Visit the center online at http://wmdcenter.ndu.edu/.
Cover Design: Natasha, E. Bajema, PhD, Senior Research Fellow
PERIL AND PROMISE Emerging Technologies and WMD
Emergence and Convergence Workshop Report 13–14 October 2016
Natasha E. Bajema, PhD and Diane DiEuliis, PhD
National Defense University Press Washington, D.C. May 2017
Opinions, conclusions, and recommendations expressed or implied within are solely those of the contributors and do not necessarily represent the views of the Defense Department or any other agency of the Federal Government.
Portions of this work may be quoted or reprinted without permission, provided that a standard source credit line is included. NDU Press would appreciate a courtesy copy of reprints or reviews.
Table of Contents
Introduction 1
Workshop and Survey 4
Additive Manufacturing 7
Advanced Robotics 14
Nanotechnology 21
Nuclear Technology 27
Synthetic Biology 31
Governance Challenges 37
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Acknowledgments
The Emergence and Convergence study is supported by several offices within the Office of Secretary of Defense (OSD) including Countering WMD Policy (OSD–Policy) and Threat Reduction and Arms Control (OSD–AT&L). We are thankful to many of our colleagues who provided expertise that greatly assisted the research supporting this report, although they may not agree with all of the interpretations provided in this paper. In particular, we thank the speakers who gave of their time and expertise at the Emergence and Convergence Workshop on 13–14 October 2016, provided comments on this report, and shared their wisdom with us during the course of this research.
We are also immensely grateful to all of the subject matter experts who have volunteered to take the Emergence and Convergence Survey, which, when completed in 2017, will provide invaluable insights on both the risks and opportunities associated with emerging technologies for the WMD space. We acknowledge the incredible work on administering the survey provided by Ken Turner, Intern at the WMD Center. Without his assistance, there would be no survey. Thank you to Mikaela Sparks, Intern at the WMD Center, for her assistance in the editing process.
Finally, we thank Mr. John Caves and Dr. Seth Carus for their comments on an earlier version of the manuscript, although any errors are our own and should not tarnish the reputations of these esteemed professionals.
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Introduction
merging technologies are transforming enabling effects for state and nonstate E life, industry, and the global economy in actors seeking WMD. Such technologies are positive ways, but they also have significant expected to have serious effects on both potential for subversion by states and the nature of the WMD challenges faced nonstate actors. National security experts, by policymakers and options for countering lawmakers, and policymakers have WMD. Emerging technologies may create become increasingly concerned about the new WMD development pathways and/or interactions among a number of emerging enhance access to existing ones, leading technologies that could alter and increase to increased capabilities of state and the threats from weapons of mass nonstate actors to develop and use WMD. 1 destruction (WMD).0F Moreover, these technologies might one day lead to a meaningful paradigm shift in Emerging technologies are best understood how policymakers define WMD, view the as science-based innovations. Each threat of WMD, and counter WMD in the technology discussed in this paper has the future. potential to create a new industry or 2 transform an existing one.1F An emerging To assess the impact of various emerging technology can arise as an entirely new technologies, it is important to understand technology or have a more incremental how they may be game-changers for state character, resulting from an existing and nonstate actors actively seeking to technology or the convergence of several develop WMD and for policymakers 3 existing technologies.2F attempting to prevent the proliferation and the use of WMD. Policymakers with Convergence refers to the synergistic responsibilities for countering WMD need integration of new technologies, each of answers to the following questions: which advances at a rapid rate and What are the national security risks 4 interacts with more established fields.3F posed by emerging technologies? What Converging technologies interact with are their enabling effects for the WMD other technologies and enable each other space? 5 in the pursuit of a common goal.4F Critical convergences among emerging What new opportunities or solutions do technologies are often dynamic, these emerging technologies offer to reinforcing, and/or abridging, providing national security problems and/or the synergistic effects. Convergences may offer challenge of countering WMD? societal benefits, but could also lead to How will these emerging technologies unexpected consequences for national impact traditional tools and security and the WMD space. approaches for countering WMD? What new types of governance do we need Many emerging technologies have an to mitigate the risks? indirect impact on the WMD space, but only a handful are likely to have direct 1
In its multi-year study entitled Emergence and Convergence, the WMD Center will In the third step, the WMD Center will explore the risks, opportunities, and evaluate the impact of emerging governance challenges for countering technologies on current tools and WMD introduced by a diverse range of approaches for countering WMD and emerging technologies. Toward this end, explore the range of governance options the WMD Center has developed an for closing critical gaps. The risk assessment exploratory framework for first identifying will help to inform priorities and develop the emerging technologies that will have and compare different courses of action for greatest impact on the WMD space for addressing any gaps in countering WMD. state and nonstate actors and then for evaluating the nature of that impact on Over the next few years, the WMD Center current tools and approaches for will be using a variety of complementary countering WMD. The study uses and research methods to explore these critical adapts the decision framework for issues: managing the risks of dual-use technologies Subject matter expert (SME) risk developed by the late Dr. Jonathan Tucker, assessment survey using the Delphi which assesses technologies for their risk of method 6 misuse and governability.5F Annual workshop that brings SMEs As the first step, the WMD Center identified together with policymakers to discuss a list of broad groups of emerging risks, opportunities, and governance technologies expected to have the challenges greatest impact on the WMD space: Deep dives on specific issues of Additive Manufacturing concern to the countering WMD policymaking community Advanced Robotics One-on-one interviews with SMEs Nanotechnology In-depth research on latest trends Nuclear Technology and developments in emerging Synthetic Biology. technologies.
In the second step, the WMD Center will The study will conclude with a report on its assess these emerging technologies for their findings, a menu of options for addressing risk of misuse and their governability. The risk the risks and opportunities produced by assessment will include evaluation of near- emerging technologies for the WMD space, term capabilities of state and nonstate and specific recommendations to actors for using specific emerging policymakers for getting the most return on technologies to develop or deliver WMD investment across the menu of options. within the next 5 years.
1 In this study, WMD refer to traditional CBRN Occasional Paper No. 8, (Washington, DC: NDU weapons and new weapons with similar effects. Press, 2012), For further discussion on definitions, see W. Seth and Technology 10, no. 1 (2008): 12, doi: 10.1007/s11051-007-9269-8. 5 Alfred Nordmann, Converging Technologies: s/occasional/cswmd/CSWMD_OccationalPape Shaping the Future of European Societies, r-8.pdf>. Report of the High Level Expert Group on 2 George S. Day, Paul J.H. Schoemaker, and Foresighting the New Technology Wave Robert E. Gunther, Wharton on Managing (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of Emerging Technologies (New York: Wiley, 2000). the European Communities, 2004), 14, 3 Raji Srinivasan, “Sources, Characteristics and 3 Workshop and Survey n 13–14 October 2016, the WMD the community of interest together to Ohosted a workshop at the National discuss the risks posed by advances in Defense University to explore the risks, biotechnology and options for opportunities, and governance challenges mitigating the risks for the WMD space caused by emerging Cyber Nexus Project: A one-year technologies—in particular, additive investigation of the relationship of cyber manufacturing, advanced robotics, to WMD nanotechnology, nuclear technology, and synthetic biology. About 100 participants Emergence and Convergence: A multi- from government, academia, industry, and year study that takes a holistic look the nonprofit sector took part in the across relevant emerging technologies workshop over the 2 days. The workshop to identify priorities for policy was hosted under NDU’s policy of intervention. nonattribution, in which remarks are not attributed to speakers or participants Together, these research efforts will help to without their express permission. This section inform policymakers with responsibilities in provides a summary of the proceedings countering WMD and guide their followed by a more in-depth treatment of decisionmaking. the discussion for each technology group. Dr. Natasha Bajema, Senior Research Fellow Mr. Chuck Lutes, Director of the WMD at the WMD Center, provided a preview of Center, opened the workshop by preliminary results from the Delphi method highlighting the challenge of technological subject matter expert survey. The Delphi forecasting and discussing the WMD method is a structured technique for Center’s broader approach to the Future of eliciting expert opinion that was developed WMD 2.0. From 2012 to 2014, the WMD by RAND in the 1960s, and it has become Center undertook a study entitled WMD an important tool for forecasting the Futures to forecast developments for the potential risks of new technologies. The WMD space. The study examined, inter alia, method involves a series of iterative a number of emerging technologies— questionnaires designed to build an expert information technology, biotechnology, consensus on a topic for which there is little nanotechnology, advanced energy or no existing data. systems and energetic materials, additive manufacturing, and geophysical An invitation to participate in the survey weapons—and evaluated their potential was sent to about 3,500 subject matter for creating “new kinds” of WMD. Several of experts across the Department of Defense, the WMD Center’s current efforts build the interagency, academia, industry, and upon the findings of the study: think tanks. The first round of the survey closed on 31 December 2016 with 120 Emerging Biotechnology: An ongoing completed responses. series of deep-dive activities that bring 4 of new developments. Dr. Brian Pate, Delphi studies typically involve a small Defense Threat Reduction Agency, number of targeted respondents and are discussed the prospects of bioengineering not intended to produce statistically for defense against WMD. Dr. Eleonore significant results or predict the response of Pauwels, Woodrow Wilson Center, spoke to a larger population. Once concluded, the the challenges of governing the fast- survey will provide insights derived from the moving and complex field of collective wisdom of an informed biotechnology. Concluding the panel, Dr. community on the risks and opportunities Sarah Carter, Science Policy Consulting posed by emerging technologies for the LLC, highlighted lessons learned from WMD space. existing policy instruments for biotechnology. The major portion of the workshop consisted of five technology panels. These Dr. R.E. Burnett, Associate Dean of addressed additive manufacturing, Academics of the College of International emerging biotechnology, advanced Security Affairs at NDU, chaired the final robotics, nuclear technology, and panel of the first day on advanced robotics nanotechnology. Each panel featured and began by outlining the big picture. Dr. subject matter experts on the risks, T.X. Hammes, Institute for National Strategic opportunities, and governance challenges Studies (INSS), discussed how small systems of emerging technologies. such as commercial drones pose a significant threat to national security. Mr. Dr. Natasha Bajema, Senior Research Fellow Mark Colgan, U.S. Army Edgewood at the WMD Center, chaired the first panel Chemical Biological Center, highlighted the on additive manufacturing. Dr. Tom potential of unmanned aerial vehicles Campbell, Office of the Director of National (UAVs) and other robotics for countering Intelligence, provided a big-picture WMD. Concluding the panel, Maj Gen overview of the national security Marke “Hoot” Gibson, USAF (Ret.), Federal challenges of 3D printing. Dr. Bruce Aviation Administration, talked about the Goodwin, Lawrence Livermore National governance challenges for countering Laboratory, discussed specific applications threats posed by UAVs. of 3D printing for the nuclear industry. Ms. Anne Kusterbeck, U.S. Naval Research Dr. Tristan Volpe, Carnegie Endowment for Laboratory, highlighted the convergence International Peace, kicked off the second between 3D printing and biotechnology. day by chairing the panel on nuclear Concluding the panel, Mr. Michael technology. Dr. Edwin Lyman, Union of Rithmire, Bureau of Industry and Security at Concerned Scientists, provided an the Department of Commerce, spoke to overview of trends in the nuclear industry the challenges of 3D printing for export and proliferation risk. Dr. Ryan Snyder, controls and governance. Princeton University, discussed the risks associated with laser enrichment Dr. Diane DiEuliis, Senior Research Fellow at technology. Dr. Wayne King, Lawrence the WMD Center, chaired the second Livermore National Laboratory, highlighted panel on emerging biotechnology. Dr. the ways in which the nuclear industry is Megan Palmer, Stanford University, harnessing the potential of 3D printing. provided an overview of industry trends in Concluding the panel, Dr. James Acton, biotechnology and the security implications Carnegie Endowment for International 5 Peace, analyzed the different strategies for managing the risks associated with nuclear technology. Ms. Joanna Gabryszewski, Senior Research Fellow at the WMD Center, chaired the last technology panel on nanotechnology. Dr. Donna Dulo, Naval Postgraduate School, provided an overview of nanotechnology and its relevance for WMD. Dr. Andrew Maynard, Arizona State University, highlighted the enabling features of nanotechnology. Concluding the panel, Dr. Michael Meador, National Nanotechnology Coordination Office, discussed recent efforts to manage the risks and opportunities of nanotechnology. The workshop concluded with a moderated discussion on the challenges and implications for governance led by Mr. Chuck Lutes, Director of the WMD Center. Dr. Gerald Epstein, Office of Science and Technology Policy at the White House, began the discussion by outlining different approaches to governance. Dr. Amy Nelson, Stimson Center, outlined general challenges to the governance of emerging technology. 6 Additive Manufacturing dditive manufacturing creates both To perform a print, the 3D printer reads the Anew risks and opportunities for the digital 3D blueprint, lays down successive WMD space as a digital manufacturing layers of material, and builds the object. It is process, enabling states and nonstate worth noting that scanning does not actors interested in WMD with new capture the mechanical functionality of the capabilities. Given the impressive range of object. For a complex object, each part manufacturing benefits offered by 3D would have to be separately scanned and printing, defense communities will also be assembled to achieve full functionality. able to exploit the technology to develop Nonetheless, with some skill, the pathway new solutions to counter WMD and can be used to reverse-engineer existing enhance operations in hazardous parts or items. environments. In recent years, engineers have developed Technology Overview new 3D printing techniques at breathtaking speed, all of which apply the same Additive manufacturing, more commonly conceptual process, but use different known as 3D printing, refers to a material types and forms and different manufacturing process first developed in printing methods for adding and fusing the 1980s. The term “additive” refers to a layers to build objects. Although plastic is growing family of technologies through the most common material used in 3D which material is added gradually, layer by printing, a wide range of materials or “inks” layer (printed), to build up a 3D object. are being used in commercial and Every print begins via one of two pathways. scientific sectors including plastics, resin, metals (steel, aluminum, bronze, copper, The first pathway starts with a digital 3D titanium, gold, and silver), ceramics, living blueprint. A 3D model is developed using tissue, chemical compounds, and modeling software such as computer-aided nanomaterials. design (CAD) software or purchased and downloaded. The 3D model is then In 2012, 3D printing overcame nearly two converted to an “STL” file or digital blueprint decades of relative obscurity to hit the using “slicing” software, which divides the mainstream with a plethora of media three-dimensional model into horizontal articles appearing in newspapers such as cross-sections of varying thickness that can The Economist, New York Times, and Wall be printed sequentially. Street Journal and a wide range of technical journals. Referred to as The second path begins with any three- “manufacturing for the masses,” 3D printing dimensional object. A 3D model is provides broad access to the means of produced by scanning an existing object production due to the low capital and creating a digital model. The digital investment needed to get involved. With model can be modified using modeling just a computer, 3D printer, scanner, and software and converted into an STL file. design software, a consumer can design his 7 Additive Manufacturing or her own product on the computer or traditional manufacturing processes. The scan an existing object, purchase and speed and resolution of 3D printers are modify a digital product design, distribute improving each year but have some the product designs via the Internet and/or distance to go to meet industry print finished products, and sell them online expectations for mass production. The or elsewhere. prices of materials, due to a limited number of suppliers charging proprietary prices, By 2020, the market for 3D printers and remain high relative to those for traditional 7 software is expected to exceed $20 billion.6F manufacturing. Given its status as a new The rise of 3D printing will lead to many field, standards need to be developed to economic benefits for the United States certify the quality and performance of parts including the ability to create complex produced by 3D printers. Moreover, designs and mass customization and engineers schooled on traditional methods achieve cost savings on materials and need to be retrained as the number of distribution and transportation. In the future, experienced operators is lagging behind manufacturing will be located closer to demand for the technology. customers in smaller production spaces. Rather than print mass numbers of parts That said, the capabilities, versatility, and held in inventory, manufacturers will print on user-friendliness of 3D printers are improving demand and customize without additional at a rapid pace, reducing existing cost. limitations of the technology for broader use. In the future, sensors and monitors As such, 3D printing has the potential to integrated into 3D printers will send alerts in disrupt traditional supply chains and the event of mistakes/failures, eventually distribution channels. With 3D printing, allowing users to “just press print” for manufacturing today is digitally enabled, advanced metal components. distributed, and democratized. In time, it will probably become easier to use, The Risks affordable, and available to anyone with access to the Internet. Despite the many benefits, additive manufacturing has significant implications Despite the significant promise of 3D for national security and is likely to generate printing, the technology still faces several some new risks for the WMD space. In constraints to universal adoption. At the theory, 3D printing will allow state and lower end of the market, some industry nonstate actors to circumvent the need for experts argue that the range of materials engineers and scientists with tacit 9 used in producing household products and knowledge.8F Digital blueprints, designed requisite skills makes the technology and tested by scientists and engineers, 8 would embed a certain level of technical impractical for consumers.7F expertise in electronic form. This At the higher end of the market, 3D printers “embedded expertise” would allow people suitable for advanced industrial processes without traditional manufacturing skills to continue to require high capital produce parts or objects by simply loading investments. Companies may resist up a 3D printer with the required raw adopting the new technology if they have materials and then pressing the print significant sunk costs in machinery for button. Of course, these blueprints do not 8 Additive Manufacturing include post-print finishing or assembly, but With the ability to easily embed objects a digital build file could come with within objects, additive manufacturing can instructions for finishing and assembly. enhance concealment and complicate detection by authorities. Using 3D printers, Several years ago, 3D printing became nonstate actors could print seamless Trojan known as a potential enabler of mischief. In horses—objects that appear normal but 2012, Cody Wilson, a second-year law contain illicit substances such as drugs or student at the University of Texas, and his explosives that are embedded into the friends, naming themselves “Defense object itself. 3D-printed and embedded Distributed,” launched the “Wiki Weapon electronics could be used for RFID chips, Project” to develop a 3D-printed plastic cameras, or other tracking devices. These gun using a low-cost, open-source 3D strategies will complicate detection by 10 printer known as a RepRap. 9F The group authorities with existing techniques (for successfully produced the “Liberator,” example, x-rays). which was capable of firing a .22 caliber bullet, and released the blueprint online. Converging with information technology, The design was downloaded 100,000 times additive manufacturing introduces new in just 2 days before the U.S. State cybersecurity challenges. The inherently Department stepped in, demanding the digital character of 3D printers means that removal of the blueprint file from the Web many machines will become part of the site under the International Traffic in Arms growing “Internet of things,” leading to Regulations. Nonetheless, the file remains questions about their security from available on disreputable file-sharing Web cyberattacks. Additionally, the security of sites. the CAD software used to design digital models must also be scrutinized for In the near term, 3D printing may enhance vulnerabilities to ensure that finished the capabilities of state and nonstate products are printed to the intended actors in similar ways with national security design. Loopholes in the software could implications, from enabling the printing of allow actors to engage in sophisticated counterfeit goods to the development of sabotage actions against advanced advanced conventional weapons and militaries. even non-nuclear components for nuclear weapons. Leading manufacturers and advanced militaries are exploring the potential of 3D Additive manufacturing enables the printing to produce advanced weapons production of counterfeit goods. “With a systems. Raytheon recently announced the high-resolution laser scanner and a good capability to print over 80 percent of a enough [additive manufacturing] system, a guided missile’s components, with 100 product counterfeiter could potentially percent capability a stated near-term 11 12 replicate all sorts of luxury items.”10F Using goal.11F This would allow soldiers to 3D-print the same principles, state actors may guided missiles in the field as needed. These someday be able to reverse-engineer sensitive “build files” need to be secured components, for example, of a uranium against hacking by both states and enrichment program and circumvent steps nonstate actors. If state and nonstate in the development process. actors were able to gain access to sensitive digital files, they may be able to gain 9 Additive Manufacturing access to technology traditionally only with the technology—they found available to advanced militaries. advantages in quick and easy production value at these lower-end desktop printers Additive manufacturing may lower barriers and saved $10 million in development costs 14 to nuclear weapons acquisition and using 30 MakerBot printers for prototyping.13F reduce program signatures. Given its small footprint, the use of 3D printing for However, the advantages of additive manufacturing non-nuclear components of manufacturing for current nuclear weapons nuclear weapons would lead to significant states are not guaranteed. Advanced reduction in required factory floor space. nuclear states may already have millions of Moreover, additive manufacturing dollars of sunk costs in their nuclear machine operators do not need to know program, and the existing technology is still what they are making and would not likely meeting their needs. New proliferators, on recognize nuclear components. The the other hand, might seek to exploit the manufacturing process could be distributed benefits of 3D printing if their scientists over several plants to further conceal the already have training on the technology. intended purpose. This would allow them to speed up the development timeline. If a state were Metal additive manufacturing offers a simply able to download and print plans for powerful technology for producing non- advanced centrifuges or parts, this would nuclear components. Many metals used for circumvent the decades of development making non-nuclear components such as undertaken by existing nuclear weapons 15 maraging steel existed before the states.14F emergence of 3D printing. If a state cannot acquire maraging steel powder, atomizers Over the longer term, the cutting edge of are readily available and inexpensive. additive manufacturing will add several Although uranium is a metal and exists in new risk dimensions, including hybrid powder form, the technology is not technologies, bioprinting, and microreactor practically suitable for printing pits with printing. special nuclear material because the powder bed for the laser sintering printers Multi-material printing and hybrid would have to contain multiple critical technologies—combining 3D printing, masses. finishing, and assembly—may enable states and nonstate actors to someday print a Current efforts under way to support the robot that walks off the printer on its own, U.S. nuclear weapons program with no assembly required. Such demonstrate the massive advantages capabilities would allow for the offered by the technology for producing manufacturing of functional systems non-nuclear components. The Kansas City without the tacit knowledge that is usually plant, part of the U.S. nuclear weapons required. complex, has been using 3D printing to design and produce non-nuclear 3D printing may also enable the components to improve the way they are development of chemical weapons. 13 designed and manufactured.12F Kansas City Additive manufacturing is being used to plant engineers experimented with lower- make miniaturized fluidic reaction ware end 3D printers to see what they could do devices that can produce chemical 10 Additive Manufacturing syntheses in just a few hours. This may countermeasures, and/or custom-printed enable state and nonstate actors to more masks to protect against chemical and easily develop chemical agents in the biological agents. 16 future.15F Since the 3D printer can be housed in a In the United Kingdom, Dr. Leroy Cronin of much smaller space compared to the the University of Glasgow wants to create traditional manufacturing line, parts can be downloadable chemistry, with the ultimate manufactured in the field, simplifying aim of allowing people to "print" their own logistics. To support chemical, biological, pharmaceuticals at home. In his lab, his radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) team has used a 3D printer costing less operations, one could simply send 3D than $2,000 to build a prototype chemical printers and raw materials into the field and 3D printer, which could be programmed to transmit designs electronically. The U.S. make basic chemical reactions and Navy is experimenting with 3-D printers produce different molecules. After the aboard ships that allow them to print microreactors are printed, he injects drones custom tailored to mission 18 "chemical inks" to create sequenced objectives from a base set of supplies.17F The reactions. He envisions that it should Navy is also looking at 3D printing to find someday be possible with a relatively small cost savings for its logistical supply chains. number of inks to make any organic Submarines are typically at sea for 4 to 6 17 molecule.16F months and need to carry a full load of supplies. With a more compact supply of The Opportunities powders and raw materials, submarine crew could simply produce needed parts Given its many benefits for the on board. manufacturing industry, 3D printing may offer new opportunities and solutions to As 3D printing converges with new defense communities for countering WMD, materials such as biological tissues, carbon including on demand, production, fiber, and nanomaterials, the technology customization, printing in the field, and new could offer new solutions for countering materials. WMD in the future. Bioprinting currently enables the printing of cells and organ Additive manufacturing allows for the systems for the purpose of drug testing and production of small numbers of items the development of new medical quickly and cheaply—and then a reworked countermeasures. version with no additional cost for the design modifications. This is particularly Meanwhile, carbon fiber printing produces advantageous when there is no need for lighter, stronger parts than other economy of scale. Whereas new prototype 19 manufacturing materials.18F Printing with designs usually required making new molds composite nanomaterials offers increased or dies in the past, 3D printing enables the strength (tensile, fracture, yield stresses), production of parts individually and on improved thermal stability, reduced or demand, significantly reducing the overall increased density, decreased shrinkage, cost of prototypes and customization. 20 and enhanced electrical conductivity.19F These features allow for rapid prototyping, Important challenges remain, however, to for example, of WMD detection the use of nanomaterials in additive technology, urgent military or medical 11 Additive Manufacturing manufacturing including material already begun to leverage the benefits of accumulations in the machine, rough additive manufacturing to print non- surface finishes, increased part porosity, nuclear components to support its nuclear nozzle clogging, low resolution, and arsenal. Additionally, the U.S. defense difficulty retaining part shape. community has started to explore the value of using 3D printing to enhance capabilities Conclusion to counter WMD. As the technology advances and becomes cheaper and The impact of additive manufacturing as easier to use, it will offer states and nonstate an enabler of WMD remains mostly in the actors a powerful enabling tool in the area theoretical realm at the current time. States of WMD. and nonstate actors have not yet harnessed the technology to develop new WMD. Even so, the United States has 7 Andrew Zaleski, “Here’s Why 2016 Could be 3D American, 5 December 2013, Printing’s Breakout Year,” Fortune, 30 December 8 Connor M. McNulty, Neyla Arnas, and Thomas 12 Raytheon, “To Print a Missile: Raytheon A. Campbell, “Toward the Printed World: Research Points to 3-D Printing for Tomorrow’s Additive Manufacturing and Implications for Technology,” 19 March 2016, National Security,” Defense Horizons 37 12 Additive Manufacturing 19 Kira, “The Strongest Players in Carbon Fiber 3d printing today,” 3ders.org, 29 February 2016, 17 See Lee Cronin, “Print Your Own Medicine,” 20 Olga S. Ivanova, Christopher B. Williams, and Ted Talk, June 2012, Thomas A. Campbell, “Additive Manufacturing 13 Advanced Robotics dvanced robotics generates both new control the machinery, and some level of Arisks and opportunities for the WMD computer programming code. space. Increasingly, sophisticated robots are available commercially for industrial Artificial intelligence refers to near-human, and domestic use, with commercial drones human, or super-human ability to respond at the forefront of this trend. Whereas to a complex environment. Robots are commercial drones offer states and intelligent systems that apply a certain level nonstate actors a potential delivery system of AI to a specific problem or domain. The for WMD, the wide range of robotics across sophistication of the computer program the sea, land, and air domains enhances embedded in a robot determines its level of defense capabilities for countering WMD autonomy and the nature of its human by providing agile and cheap platforms for oversight. detecting WMD and operating in a hazardous environment. Weak artificial intelligence, the cognitive ability to solve specific problems or perform Technology Overview certain tasks, has supported a broad range 23 of applications for many decades.22F Robots The development of advanced robotics, a using weak AI are controlled by humans. A branch of mechanical engineering, remote-control robot has programming electrical engineering, and computer with a preexisting set of commands that it science, began in the 1960s with a basic will perform when it receives a signal from a robotic arm designed to perform tasks that control source, typically a human with a were difficult or too dangerous for humans. remote control. This is referred to as “in the The field of advanced robotics has tracked loop,” in which a human confirms actions, closely with advances in computing, denies actions outside designed artificial intelligence (AI), and energy constraints, and denies actions outside the storage. Today, increasingly sophisticated operational context. robots are widely available on the commercial market and prices are On the opposite side of the spectrum are dropping dramatically, expanding their 21 autonomous robots, which are intelligent use.20F machines capable of performing tasks in the world by themselves normally requiring A robot is a reprogrammable, human intelligence (e.g., perception, multifunctional manipulator designed to conversation, decision-making), without move material, parts, tools, or specialized 24 explicit human control.23F This is referred to devices through various programmed as “out of the loop,” since machines functions for the performance of a variety 22 function without the ability of humans to of tasks.21F All robots have certain defining intervene. features including a mechanical structure designed to carry out a specific task, To be autonomous, a system must have the electrical components that power and capability to independently compose and 14 Advanced Robotics select among different courses of action to accomplish goals based on its knowledge In the agricultural sector, for example, and understanding of the world, itself, and drones allow for precision farming. This 25 the situation.24F In the future, robots will be method reduces the amount of chemicals increasingly able to operate autonomously, sprayed on crops by precisely dusting 26 without human intervention.25F crops. Drones can also fly close to the ground and stream videos to provide a Hybrid systems involve both elements of comprehensive picture of the farm, human control and autonomy. This is allowing producers to be more efficient in referred to as “on the loop,” in which a addressing growth issues and even human can allow actions outside designed monitoring unexpected pests. This can help constraints or outside operational context in farmers address levels of water damage or order to take advantage of evolving dryness and aid in the monitoring of large context. crops that need a lot of attention. In addition to different levels of complexity, Although robotics are becoming more robots can be developed to address many accessible, cheaper systems remain limited types of problems or for use in and across in terms of autonomy and capabilities. The many different domains, including industry, utility of drones for many applications is commerce, land, sea, and air. Of these constrained by range, flight time, and domains, UAVs in particular (or “drones” as payload or carry weight (enabled by they are popularly known) are taking off in battery/energy storage). Typically, there 27 the civilian and commercial sectors.26F are trade-offs between flight time and carry weight. The heavier the carry weight, Industry experts are hailing the year 2016 as the shorter the flight time. Much of the the dawn of the drone age. Consumer promise of robotics remains a prospect of sales are expected to reach four million in the future. Engineers have thus far not been 28 2016 and 16 million by 2020.27F The number able to build a machine capable of of operators of drones, both large and human-like cognition. However, advances small, is rising rapidly. Many affordable in computing and energy storage may commercial drones offer significant off-the- offer near-term leaps forward in the field of shelf capabilities. UAV technology has advanced robotics. enabled thousands of individuals the opportunity to enter the field of aviation, The Risks with comparably little training and Among the wide range of robotics coming oversight. of age in the neart erm, policymakers are most immediately concerned about the In addition to the growing market for use of hobbyist and commercial drones for civilian drones, the commercial drone potential mischief by nonstate actors and sector is booming. Companies like Amazon the development of advanced UAVs by and Google, among others, are state actors as an asymmetrical capability developing drones as a platform for making vis-à-vis high-tech platforms such as fighter rapid deliveries across cities. According to 29 jets.28F the Federal Aviation Administration, the most significant uses of UAVs come from Enabling aerial operations, drones can agriculture, photography, and mapping. provide unfettered access to targets in 15 Advanced Robotics ways that terrorists could previously only and electronics could do far more damage dream about and security planners have and has the potential to take down a not had to worry about. Airborne passenger jet. improvised explosive devices (IEDs) could be used to attack people, infrastructure, or As advances in artificial intelligence are aircraft, among many other possible mated with drone technology, drones will targets, where large destructive power may begin to perform previously pilot-controlled not be necessary to cause tremendous tasks (navigation, coordination, targeting) amounts of damage. Hobbyist drones have autonomously, without the need for input limited payloads and ranges but can still be from the primary operator. Multiple drones used for disproportionate effects. possessing these autonomous capabilities could “swarm” a target and offer a For example, in September 2013 in powerful asymmetric capability to both Germany, a political protester flew a drone states and nonstate actors. within feet of German Chancellor Angela Merkel and Defense Minister Thomas de Carrying biological, chemical, or Maiziere, before it crash-landed next to radiological materials, drones offer an 30 them.29F Armed with even a small amount of extremely agile delivery platform for WMD, explosive, fragments or shrapnel could even if they are still limited to a small have killed or maimed two members of payload. On 24 April 2015, a Japanese Germany’s leadership. man landed a drone containing radioactive material on the roof of In early November 2014, multiple drones Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe’s office were sighted over French nuclear power in protest of Japan’s nuclear energy policy. plants, in what was described as a In October 2016, ISIS used a drone loaded 31 “provocation of French authorities.”30F A with explosives for the first time in an attack squadron of drones armed with explosives that killed two soldiers and injured two 34 and detonated in certain positions may be others.33F Given the use of chlorine and able to cause significant damage to mustard agents by ISIS, it is conceivable expensive infrastructure. that insurgents might use drones as delivery vehicles for chemical and biological agents Military aircraft and other high-technology in the near future. platforms are not immune to this threat. A small number of expendable drones could Drones flown over crowded venues or cause significant damage to a military around aircraft at airports do not have to aircraft costing hundreds of millions of be lethally armed to lead to panicked 32 dollars.31F The number of drones is scalable, responses from people, companies, and whereas explosive capacity is limited by the authorities and therefore could be used to physical capability of each individual instill fear into a target. drone. Converging with 3D printing, some drones In 2009, US Airways Flight 1549 had to make can now be printed relatively quickly; they an emergency landing on the Hudson River are lighter, travel farther, and have greater after colliding with a gaggle of Canada capacity to carry payloads than other 33 geese.32F Compared to a bird, a drone remote-controlled electronics. For example, consisting of metal, hard plastics, batteries, researchers at the University of Virginia were 16 Advanced Robotics tasked to create a drone that was similar to the interior, map the layout, and provide current military drones but that could be data on the building’s occupants and their 3D-printed and that utilized only off-the- locations. shelf parts. The Razor drone is tailorable to meet operational needs and is capable of The U.S. Army also developed the WMD variable flight time (45+ minutes) and Aerial Collection System, an unmanned speeds (40+ mph). Its cost was about capability designed to assess the presence $2,500, most of which was for the cellphone of airborne CBRN material during military that acts as the entire electronics package operations. The UAV mounted with trackers of the drone and is capable of command and collectors is capable of locating, 35 and control via cell signal.34F The Razor intercepting, and collecting aerial samples drone can be built in just over 24 hours. from a CBRN plume for analysis in a laboratory facility. The system allows for in- The costs are expected to drop even flight detection reporting. further. In March 2014, engineers in the United Kingdom successfully developed a Enhanced by AI and 3D printing 3D-printed drone that cost $9 per copy and technologies, small teams of MAST robots could be built and assembled in less than are being designed to be autonomous and 36 39 24 hours.35F If a nonstate actor group capable of coordination or “swarming.”38F acquired the blueprint and 10 printers, it These robots are envisioned to support could print 10 per day and 300 per month soldiers with improved tactical situational at a cost of $2,700 plus the cost of the awareness in urban and complex terrain. In 37 printers.36F the future, the U.S. Army hopes to be able to 3D-print drones while on mission in less 40 The Opportunities than 24 hours.39F Advanced robotics offer ideal platforms to Robotics are ideal platforms for detecting perform dangerous counter-WMD missions the presence of CBRN materials in hostile including surveillance and detection, areas. The U.S. Army partnered with decontamination, and operations. Carnegie Mellon University and Sikorsky Aircraft to design an autonomous ground Cheap, expendable, and often tiny in size, vehicle delivered by UAV (modified Black robotics offers a powerful tool for Hawk helicopter) into hostile or inaccessible surveillance and detection missions. The U.S. areas equipped with chemical, biological, Army is developing the Micro Autonomous and radiological sensors for missions in Systems and Technology (MAST). These tiny 41 contaminated areas.40F insect-shaped ground and aerial robots are designed to assist soldiers with rapid and Robots can safely operate in hazardous mobile intelligence, surveillance, and 38 environments and assist in counter-WMD reconnaissance missions in high-risk zones.37F missions including decontamination and Microbots can capitalize on their size to operations. The U.S. Army is working to move quietly and easily access small develop a robot capable of locating, spaces. If a unit approaches a building and lifting, and carrying wounded soldiers out of needs to know what is inside, for example, dangerous zones to safety for treatment. the soldiers could deploy a reconnaissance The Battlefield Extraction-Assist Robot team of microbots. The robots could (BEAR) is currently designed to be remote- penetrate the building undetected, search 17 Advanced Robotics controlled by combat medics, but The U.S. Navy has developed the developers are working to expand its Battlespace Preparation Autonomous capacity to assume semi-autonomous Underwater Vehicle (BPAUV), a small, fast, tasks. The BEAR has a “teddy bear” face to autonomous underwater robot, primarily to reassure injured soldiers and can be used handle its mine countermeasure mission in 44 for other missions such as search and shallow water.43F With its compact size and rescue, handling hazardous materials, accurate navigation, the BPAUV can be surveillance and reconnaissance, mine operated from a ship or boat, function in a inspection, lifting hospital patients, or even variety of weather conditions, and collect 42 warehouse automation.41F high-quality imagery necessary for successful operations. Other applications Leveraging robots’ ability to operate in include unexploded ordnance, anti- hazardous environments, the Department submarine warfare, and oceanography. of Defense contracted with Boston Dynamics and the Midwest Research Conclusion Institute to create a robot capable of testing chemical warfare suits called the Robotics offer powerful, and often cheap, 43 platforms for performing a wide range of PETMAN.42F Once completed, the PETMAN weighed 180 pounds and was capable of tasks. For nonstate actors, drones may serve running 4.4 mph on smooth surfaces. Tests as a readily available delivery platform for conducted with these robots ensure that an IED or WMD. For advanced states and the suits maintain their integrity in a militaries, robotics offer significant contaminated environment while moving in advantages for operating in hazardous the same way a human would. environments on land, in the sea, and in the air. 21 James Kadtke and Linton Wells, Policy 25 L.G. Shattuck, “Transitioning to Autonomy: A Challenges of Accelerating Technological Humans Systems Integration Perspective,” Change: Security Policy and Strategy paper presented at the Autonomy Workshop, Implications of Parallel Scientific Revolutions NASA Ames Conference Center, Moffett Field, (Washington, DC: NDU Press, 2014), 43, CA, 10–12 March 2015, 22 As defined by the Robot Institute of America 26 As defined by Kadte and Wells. in 1979. 27 Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are defined 23 As defined by Kadte and Wells in Policy by the Department of Defense as powered Challenges of Accelerating Technological aerial vehicles that do not carry a human Change. operator, use aerodynamic forces to provide vehicle lift, can fly autonomously or be piloted 24 As defined by George Bekey in Autonomous remotely, can be expendable or recoverable, Robots: From Biological Inspiration to and can carry a lethal or nonlethal payload. Implementation and Control (Cambridge, MA: Joint Publication 1-02, Department of Defense The MIT Press, 2005). Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, 12 18 Advanced Robotics 35 Jordan Golson, “A Military-Grade Drone that Can Be Printed Anywhere,” Wired, 16 September 2014, April 2001, 28 Adario Strange, “2016 Will Be the Dawn of the 36 Victoria Woollaston, “Cheap Drones Are Drone Age,” Mashable, 21 December 2015, Coming! Researchers Successfully Build and Fly 43 Defense Threat Reduction Agency, “WMD Aerial Collection System (WACS),” 20 Nanotechnology anotechnology produces new risks and and gold (normally a solid and gold- Nopportunities for the WMD space. colored) becomes a liquid and a Mostly considered a materials science to reddish/purplish color. date, nanotechnology functions as an enabling technology by making other Additionally, properties at the nanoscale technologies work better or do things not are “tunable,” meaning that scientists can previously possible. adjust the material properties by changing the size of the particle (for example, dial up Technology Overview or dial down fluorescence of a material). Another unique feature of nanomaterials is Nanoscience emerged as a field in 1981 surface area. For the same mass of with the development of microscopes materials, nanoscale materials have a capable of seeing individual atoms and relatively larger surface area. Larger operating at the nanoscale (1 to 100 surface area in nanomaterials has nanometers). The prefix “nano” means one- advantages in different applications. billionth or 10-9; one nanometer is one- billionth of a meter. Nanotechnology—that Different types of nanomaterials are named is, applied science and engineering— for their shapes and dimensions; they are involves manipulation and control of atoms tubes, wires, particles, films, flakes, or shells and molecules to leverage the unique that have one or more nanometer-sized properties of materials at the nanoscale. dimension. For example, carbon nanotubes have a diameter in the nanoscale, but their At a normal scale, common materials have length can be several hundred nanometers a range of different physical, chemical, or longer. Similarly, nanofilms have a mechanical, and optical properties. thickness in nanoscale, but their other However, matter behaves quite differently dimensions are larger. at the nanoscale, deviating from the laws of physics that apply to bigger objects and Manufacturing using carbon nanomaterials operating according to a new set of rules is leading to improvements among existing (quantum effects) that alter the electrical, products. Carbon nanotubes are light, stiff, optical, thermal, and mechanical and strong fibers that have outstanding properties of materials. mechanical and electronic properties and are good thermal conductors. In addition, When the particle size of a material is the tensile strength of carbon nanotubes is reduced to the nanoscale, it can have six to seven times that of steel. If used in different melting points, fluorescence, place of steel and other metals, they electrical conductivity, magnetic enable products to become lighter and permeability, and chemical reactivity. For stronger. example, copper (normally opaque) is transparent at the nanoscale, aluminum Graphene is a flat one-atom-thick sheet of (normally stable) becomes combustible, carbon and exhibits thermal stability and 21 Nanotechnology electrical conductivity. It is also one of the nanomaterials first began to appear on the lightest material ever discovered, weighing marketplace in the early 2000s. Today, seven times less than an equal volume of companies around the world manufacture 45 air.44F The minimal weight of graphene nanomaterials to make new products and combined with its conductivity makes the improve existing ones. More than 800 material a powerful alternative to everyday commercial products use 50 conventional materials used to produce nanoscale materials and processes.49F electronics. According to research by Lux Research Advanced Functional Fabrics of America is (supported by the National Science producing carbon fibers and yarns that Foundation), nanotechnology has become 46 have ten times the strength of steel.45F A a global enterprise. In 2014, governments typical commercial aircraft has about 8,000 and the private sector worldwide invested 47 pounds of wires on board.46F Instead of over $18.1 billion in nanotechnology (33 conventional copper wire, composites percent of that amount in the United containing carbon at the nanoscale can States). Within the United States, corporate be used to produce the wiring needed for spending on research and development aircraft and commercial drones, reducing reached $4 billion, significantly exceeding 48 the weight and using less energy to fly.47F In the $1.67 billion invested by the U.S. addition to reduced fuel consumption, Government. The global value of nano- wiring made from carbon nanotubes enabled products is expected to reach 51 conducts electricity with improved $3.6 trillion by 2018.50F 49 efficiency.48F Convergence with other emerging Nanomanufacturing involves two distinct technologies is expected to make approaches to producing nanomaterials. nanotechnology even more potent as an Top-down processes reduce materials enabling technology. For example, down to the nanoscale. By taking the advances in nanotechnology will enable material around us, reducing it to the the next generation of AI and allow for nanoscale, and rearranging atoms, more sophisticated robotics and nanotechnology offers new capabilities to computing power. New nanomaterials will engineer materials with new and precisely allow for higher resolutions in 3D printing. In tuned properties, which will enhance many the distant future, molecules, delivered by existing products. nanoparticles into the human body, may be capable of gene editing to treat The bottom-up approach makes products disease. by building them up from atoms and molecules. In this sense, nanotechnology Despite all its promise, nanotechnology has replicates what already is possible in the several limitations that will constraint its field of synthetic biology. impact more broadly in the near term. Nanotechnology requires specialized and Manufacturing at the nanoscale leverages expensive equipment, which could serve as unique new properties to make products a barrier to less advanced actors. In stronger, more durable, lightweight, anti- addition, the need for extensive training reflective, conductive, and even water- and significant tacit knowledge makes the resistant. Consumer products made with 22 Nanotechnology technology inaccessible and economically or more carbon atoms that exhibit costly for many actors. properties making the material suitable for medical use, specifically the delivery of The Risks targeted medicine. In addition to their small size, customized surface, and solubility, Nanotechnology will produce several new fullerenes are strong antioxidants and risks for the WMD space in the future for the capable of binding with antibiotics to delivery of WMD and development of high target resistant bacteria or other treatments explosives. As the technology advances for targeting cancer cells. The fullerene is and new discoveries are made, this list is used to transport the drug into diseased likely to increase. However, as noted 52 cells.51F These nanomaterials could also be above, there are still significant barriers to used as Trojan horses for delivering using nanotechnology. Economic cost, biological and chemical agents. sophisticated equipment, and a high level of training and tacit knowledge will prevent Exploiting new developments in the delivery less advanced state actors and nonstate of drugs, nanotechnology might also be actors from exploiting the advantages of used to improve dispersal of agents for a nanotechnology in the near term. 53 more targeted delivery.52F Given their size, nanomaterials are capable of crossing the Nanotechnology may enhance the blood-brain barrier, allowing rare access to delivery of WMD by enabling lighter, more the brain. If effectively dispersed, a small capable drones. Fears about the potential number of nanoparticles containing a use of commercial drones by nonstate chemical or biological agent (assuming the actor for mischief are on the rise. Today, off- materials being delivered by the the-shelf commercial drones remain nanoparticles are successfully reduced to constrained in terms of their range, flight the nanoscale) could conceivably traverse time, and payload, all of which are the olfactory nerve in the nose (a backdoor affected by the weight of the drone and route to the brain). battery capacity. Nanomaterials are expected to reduce these constraints and Nanotechnology may have indirect expand the capabilities of commercial enabling effects for the WMD space in the drones. area of nanoenergetics and high explosives. If nanoexplosives are combined Materials science at the nanoscale is with other emerging technologies (for producing more powerful materials with example, commercial drones and higher strength-to-weight ratios than steel swarming), the technology could and better electrical conductivity. As new contribute to the development of weapons nanomaterials are used in the with mass effects by state and nonstate manufacturing of drones and batteries, 54 actors.53F commercial drones will have longer flight times and longer ranges and be capable The field of nanoenergetics takes of carrying heavier payloads. advantage of the large surface area of nanomaterials to increase the rate of Nanotechnology may also someday reaction in explosive materials and facilitate targeted delivery of biological produce a more powerful explosion. The and chemical agents. Fullerenes are use of nanomaterials in explosives allows for spherical carbon-cage molecules with 60 23 Nanotechnology more precise control of fuel combustion cancer cells or deliver drugs to specific and detonation, making possible smaller, areas within the body. However, at the more powerful rockets, propellants, bombs, current phase of development, crossing and explosive devices. This means that two barriers remains challenging even for smaller platforms, like commercial drones, nanoparticles. For the WMD space, will be able to carry greater destructive nanoparticles may be able to deliver power and pose a threat to harder, more antidotes to viruses or chemical agents, 55 sophisticated targets.54F allowing for the development of new and more effective medical countermeasures. The Opportunities Nanomaterials exhibit powerful capabilities In the near term, nanotechnology holds for sensing, given their large ratio of surface tremendous promise for producing new area to mass. Sensors using nanomaterials solutions to counter threats posed by WMD, have better selectivity, better specificity, including the development of new medical lower power demands, and lower volume countermeasures, advances in sensing, than conventional sensors. These sensors and improved ability for response to WMD are able to discriminate between incidents. hazardous and nonhazardous substances and more exactly determine the identity of Nanotechnology is contributing to a detected substance. Nanomaterials also advances in medicine and medical improve the speed, accuracy, and countermeasures for people exposed to sensitivity of assays designed to detect WMD materials. Nanoscale materials are protein toxins from complex samples. found in nature. Moreover, chemistry and biology often operate at the nanoscale. For Given the range of properties of example, hemoglobin, the oxygen- nanomaterials, nanoparticles can act as transporting protein found in red blood sensors, antennas, and communication cells, is 5.5 nanometers in diameter. systems. Smaller, more powerful sensors will enable rapid detection, identification, and Nanomaterials such as quantum dots and quantification of biological and chemical fullerenes are about the same size as agents in the field. Moreover, biological materials such as liposomes or nanomaterials will enable the development dendrimers. Quantum dots are man-made of flexible armor with medical sensors, crystals capable of semi-conduction. By medical treatment, and integrated varying the diameter/size of the quantum chemical and biological sensing systems dot, scientists and engineers can change 56 woven into fabric.55F the wavelength of light that it emits. This feature is exploited for high-definition LED Finally, nanotechnology will enhance television sets, but also for illuminating emergency response capabilities in the tumors in the body during surgical event of a WMD incident. In addition to procedures. WMD detection, nanomaterials can be used to develop lightweight Nanomaterials are powerful because they communication devices for first responders can be put in the bloodstream to combat with lower power requirements and longer disease and are small enough to cross ranges. In addition to larger surface areas, biological barriers such as the blood-brain nanomaterials offer enhanced absorption barrier. As such, they can be used to target 24 Nanotechnology capacity and chemical reactivity, making Conclusion them powerful decontaminants. As nanotechnology advances, the field will Conventional solutions to the problem of continue to offer new and improved decontamination use highly aggressive versions of existing products and chemicals. Given their absorptive potentially, also new applications for the capacities, nanoparticles such as carbon WMD space. However, in the near term, the nanotubes can be developed to contain field of nanotechnology is more likely to specific biochemical catalysts capable of assist in countering WMD threats rather than performing decontamination without the pose new and immediate risks for the WMD 57 use of aggressive chemicals.56F space. 45 Tyler Koslow, “This Might Be the Strongest AND 51 National Science Foundation, “Market Report Lightest Material Ever Seen in 3D Printing,” 3D on Emerging Nanotechnology Now Available,” Printing Industry, 12 February 2016, Media Advisory 14-004, 25 February 2014, 46 David L. Chandler, “New Institute Will 52 Rajesh Singh and James W. Lillard, Jr., Accelerate Innovative Fibers and Fabrics,” “Nanoparticle-Based Targeted Drug Delivery,” Massachusetts Institute of Technology News U.S. National Library of Medicine National Office, 1 April 2016, Institutes of Health, 7 January 2009, 47 Mike Guarrera, “Lightweight: How Much Is a 53 National Research Council, Emerging Gallon of Fuel Worth?” Nanocomp Cognitive Neuroscience and Related Technologies, Inc., 4 September 2014, Technologies, 2008, 25 Nanotechnology Nanotechnology Education Research Center, University of South Florida, 57 Manoj K. Ram and Ashok Kumar, “Decontamination Using Nanotechnology,” 26 Nuclear Technology n contrast to emerging technologies, the advanced nuclear technologies and I wide range of nuclear technologies has reactor construction in many countries, been understood for many decades. Still, primarily in Asia. given their direct relevance for the WMD space, it is worth considering whether Unlike emerging technologies, recent technological innovations might technological innovations in the nuclear lead to unanticipated leaps forward in field are generally not new ideas, but rather nuclear capabilities by states and create new interest in old technologies. Minor new risks and/or opportunities for the WMD modifications to these old technologies space. might address longstanding barriers to growth in the nuclear power. Many of these Technology Overview technologies were developed decades ago but were not pursued commercially Production of weapons-usable fissile because the alternatives were more material remains the primary barrier to economically viable. The nuclear industry is developing nuclear weapons. Thus, the taking a second look at them to explore if nuclear technologies of most concern for improving these known technologies could national security policymakers include mitigate some of the risks of nuclear power, nuclear reactors and processes for uranium including safety, sustainability, efficiency, enrichment and plutonium reprocessing, all and cost. of which can be used to produce weapons-usable nuclear material. All commercial-scale projects are based on conventional or evolutionary variants of In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the operating reactors (light water reactors) nuclear industry anticipated a renaissance except for the Russian BN-800 (sodium- of nuclear power after decades of cooled fast reactor), which is mostly fueled stagnation due to the Three Mile Island with highly enriched uranium (HEU). For incident in 1979 and Chernobyl accident in example, to mitigate safety risks, engineers 1986. However, the promised nuclear are revisiting nuclear reactors with passive renaissance mostly fizzled out when the systems, underground siting, and increased industry was confronted with high capital safety margins. To address the problem of costs of new nuclear powerplants, low high capital costs, the nuclear industry is prices for natural gas, and the Fukushima developing small modular light-water accident in Japan in 2011, a chilling reactors. In an attempt to increase reminder of the risks of nuclear power. efficiency, engineers are looking to raise the temperature of the coolant in reactors, Despite the many obstacles to a robust which would increase the efficiency with future for nuclear power around the world, which the reactor’s heat output can be there is again growing enthusiasm about converted into electricity. the prospect of a second nuclear renaissance, signaled by new interest in 27 Nuclear Technology Notably, rekindled interest in advanced uranium (LEU). Enriched uranium at this nuclear technologies is not focused on level would provide a good starting opportunities for reducing the proliferation material for producing HEU for state actors risk of nuclear power. Many of the seeking nuclear weapons. Plans for space advanced nuclear technologies reduce exploration have renewed interest in fuels risks in one area only to increase risk in that are compact, light, and dense with another area—especially in nuclear energy. Although a norm has been proliferation. established to minimize HEU applications for peaceful purposes, scientists may look to In the event of a nuclear renaissance, HEU as a solution for energy production in expanded nuclear power is likely to create space. a need for greater uranium enrichment capacity and more interest in plutonium A rise in the use of fast reactor systems reprocessing. The increased production, would require additional plutonium storage, transport, and use of plutonium, reprocessing capacity, possibly leading to uranium-233, and other weapons-usable a wider distribution of fuel cycle facilities material and their greater distribution and separated plutonium. Advanced around the world raise the risk not only of reprocessing technologies (aqueous greater proliferation at the state level, but reprocessing and pyro-reprocessing) are also of nonstate actors acquiring the designed to produce higher purity necessary material for an improvised plutonium to improve efficiency of energy nuclear device. production. This process would also make the plutonium more suitable for nuclear The Risks weapons. Whereas many other emerging Nuclear power has been greatly technologies have a great diversity of constrained by the high capital costs of potential end users, nuclear reactors, building massive production capacity for uranium enrichment, and plutonium urban settings. The nuclear industry is reprocessing are much more restricted in exploring small modular reactors with the their legitimate application. Dual-use vision of deploying a fleet of reactors, nuclear technologies can be used to widely distributed to supply small remote generate nuclear power or radioisotopes or communities and military bases. Greater develop nuclear weapons, and any mobility of small reactors and a wider advanced nuclear technology that makes distribution would increase targets of it easier to produce the requisite nuclear opportunity for sabotage and theft. material for a bomb increases the risk of misuse of the technology by states and The nuclear industry is abuzz about molten- nonstate actors. salt reactors, which may address some concerns about large amounts of nuclear Increased production of weapons-usable waste but generate other safety and material or material at higher levels of security problems. In a molten-salt reactor, enrichment raises the proliferation risks of the fissile fuel is dissolved in a circulating nuclear power. For example, some molten salt consisting of thorium-232, LEU, advanced reactors require enrichment and fission products. Such reactors require greater than light-water reactors, which “on-line” reprocessing of the fuel to remove typically use 3–5 percet low-enriched 28 Nuclear Technology fission products, making each unit both a uranium using gas centrifuges, supply reactor and a fuel-cycle facility. While currently exceeds demand, keeping the reducing the volume of nuclear waste, price too low to make the enterprise these reactors produce bulk quantities of sufficiently profitable. uranium-233, which is fissile material. In addition, the liquid form of the fuel Although the market has currently shifted increases the vulnerability of such reactors away from third-generation laser to sabotage. enrichment, research is ongoing, and a spike in demand for enriched uranium Advanced laser enrichment also has could turn the table back in its favor. If garnered much attention of late. As soon commercialized, the technology may as lasers were developed in the 1960s, increase risk of proliferation by sparking scientists began looking for ways to use enrichment programs. Compared to gas them to separate uranium-235 from centrifuges, laser enrichment is extremely uranium-238. The first technologies for laser energy efficient and more compact, isotope separation emerged in Livermore requiring a smaller facility footprint. The National Laboratory (AVLIS) and Los Alamos primary barrier to the technology is the National Laboratory (MLIS). Less efficient for availability of suitable lasers. Unlike gas enriching uranium than gas centrifuges, centrifuge technology, which requires neither of these technologies was specialized knowledge, extensive expertise commercialized. on lasers abounds in medical and telecommunications fields. Today, laser enrichment technology has experienced new life with the development The Opportunities of third-generation approaches. In the nuclear field, some nuclear technologies could mitigate the risks The SILEX process, a third-generation associated with nuclear energy, including technology, exploits the fact that uranium- environmental risks and the potential 235 and uranium-238 absorb different spread of nuclear weapons. For example, wavelengths of light. The uranium-235 in advances in measurement technologies for uranium hexafluoride gas is blasted with a nuclear materials would reduce the risk of laser, which causes the isotopes to reach a diversion. The use of lasers in place of state of vibrational excitation and move International Atomic Energy Agency out toward the outer rim of the gas. From environmental sampling processes would there, the isotopes can be separated from improve timeliness of detection of the the uranium-238. presence of undeclared materials, serving as a deterrent for clandestine activities. In 2012, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) granted a license to GE-Hitachi for Fast reactors and molten-salt reactors are construction and operation, thereby often touted for their ability to “burn” paving the way for first-ever nuclear waste rather than to breed fissile commercialization of the technology. material as other reactors do. In a Progress toward a laser enrichment facility conventional approach to breeding fissile stalled in 2014 for several reasons, including materials, reusing the nuclear waste the lack of demand for enriched uranium. produced in a reactor requires spent fuel With 12 countries producing enriched reprocessing, fuel fabrication, 29 Nuclear Technology transportation, irradiation, additional consideration in the decisionmaking reprocessing, and waste treatment. In process. This should be instructive when contrast, molten-salt fueled reactors require considering how to manage the risks posed “on-line” processing to remove the fission by emerging technologies, which are products. Thus, each unit is both a reactor changing daily and have unlimited and a bulk-handling fuel cycle facility. The peaceful applications. additional fuel burn-up reduces the environmental risks associated with producing and storing nuclear waste. Yet such closed fuel cycles produce huge quantities of separated plutonium that, if acquired by states or nonstate actors, could be used in a nuclear weapon. Moreover, the bulk amounts of material complicate the effectiveness of material accounting in that the windows of error are large enough to allow sufficient material for a bomb to pass through. To address these risks, alternatives to conventional reprocessing that are more proliferation- and theft-resistant have received interest. PUREX reprocessing could be replaced by technologies that do not completely separate plutonium, but rather keep it mixed together with other actinides or fission products. However, the plutonium would not be significantly more difficult or hazardous to steal than separated plutonium and could be used to make a nuclear weapon, either directly or after minimal chemical processing. Conclusion Nuclear technology offers a useful contrast to the risks posed by emerging technologies in terms of its maturity, the limited and specialized audience for its legitimate applications, and the magnitude of consequences if the technology is misused. Notably, the U.S. Government and the NRC failed to holistically assess all of the risk factors of laser enrichment when it approved GE-Hitachi’s license application. The risk of nuclear proliferation was not a 30 Synthetic Biology ynthetic biology creates new risks and molecular, cell, and systems biology and Sopport unities for the WMD space that seeks to transform biology in the same way leverage new genome editing tools, that synthesis transformed chemistry and growing collections of genomic data, and integrated circuit design transformed 59 expansion of computing power. Advances computing.”58F in the life sciences can create new pathways for biological weapons With recent advances in synthetic biology, development but at the same time will we now have direct access to life’s genetic provide new capabilities for countering code. All of life is encoded using DNA’s those weapons. four-letter alphabet (A, G, T, and C). DNA sequences made up of strings of letters are Technology Overview copied from nature and then produced synthetically using a DNA synthesizer. As a Scientists have been altering the genetic platform, biology is incredibly sophisticated, code of plants and animals for thousands programmable, capable of manipulating of years through the practice of husbandry. matter at the nanoscale, and scalable to In the 1970s, scientists leveraged advances any mass. Synthetic biology can be used in in recombinant DNA technology to take several ways: as a tool for discovery (for genetic code from one organism and insert example, understanding disease); to make it into another (cut and paste) to transform new things, alter microbes and single cells, the plant or animal for the first time. or create specialty cells, microbes, and materials, or to change existing organisms More recent advances in synthetic biology, (plants, animals, and human beings). specifically in the reading and writing of DNA and computer modeling, allow To simplify the creation of new organisms or scientists to make sequences of DNA and modify existing ones, scientists are living organisms from scratch, alter DNA of identifying greater numbers of standard existing organisms, and potentially create 58 DNA sequences that code for certain entirely new organisms in the future.57F functions. These can be used by scientists Although synthesizing genetic material has around the world to construct new genes been possible for decades, early and DNA sequences. techniques were extremely difficult and impractically time-intensive. Today, DNA Gene editing tools such as CRISPR have synthesizers can produce genetic material made it easier, faster, and cheaper to of any sequence at a rapid speed. 60 modify genomes.59F CRISPR is an acronym for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Synthetic biology involves “the design and Palindromic Repeat. CRISPR refers to a construction of new biological entities such cellular defense mechanism in bacteria as enzymes, genetic circuits, and cells, or involving proteins (Cas9) that have the the redesign of existing biological systems. ability to locate and cut strands of DNA at Synthetic biology builds on the advances in locations corresponding to specific genetic 31 Synthetic Biology sequences. Technologies based on these Government funding is just one of many mechanisms allow gene editing that is factors shaping the trend. more precise, cheaper, and faster than any prior tools. In the United States, revenue from the biotechnology sector has grown more than Along with easy-to-use and inexpensive 10 percent each year on average over the 61 gene editing tools, standard components past decade.60F In 2012, biotech revenues and increasing information about the exceeded $324 billion, which amounts to functions of certain gene sequences have more than 2 percent of U.S. gross domestic helped to fuel the “democratization of product, rivaling other critical sectors to the science.” The open nature of the life U.S. economy. sciences and easy-to-use tools have lowered the requirement for tacit Applications of synthetic biology remain knowledge and reduced the costs for using constrained, however, by the extent to advanced techniques in biology. A wider which the underlying biological functions range of actors have easier access to both are understood. Biological systems are explicit and tacit knowledge, lowering the extremely complex, and the interactions barriers to entry for some portions of the among various different processes are not pathway to biological weapons always understood sufficiently well to development. Do-it-yourself open biology predict and/or design the behavior of laboratories and the annual International systems with synthetic components. This Genetically Engineered Machine limitation is mitigated by the ability to run a competition are examples of this trend. great many experiments in parallel, empirically identifying and then optimizing Meanwhile, in academic and government systems that have the desired properties. labs, scientists and engineers are working The rise of cyber espionage could serve as with computer-aided design and modeling, a further constraint to the development of which allows them to rewrite and synthetic biology. For example, Ginkgo reprogram entire genomes. Advances in Bioworks, a company that recently won an this area are important for designing investment of $45 million, makes money out genomes of organisms engineered for of creating “custom-made organisms” from specific purposes and large-scale digital genetic codes it has built. Protecting production of biological products made these codes from industrial espionage once from these organisms. they are incorporated in engineered organisms is extremely challenging Biology is a strategic technology for the 21st because as the engineered organism is century. Just as information technology shipped out to clients, its genetic instruction and the Internet have transformed society, code can be copied, costing millions in lost business, government, and warfare since revenue. the late 20th century, biotechnology will similarly shape the global landscape for the The Risks next several decades. Synthetic biology will become increasingly available and possibly of greater interest to The locus of this economic innovation is in nefarious actors with malicious intent. The industry, and particularly startups. ability to circumvent traditional detection and countermeasures and increasing ease 32 Synthetic Biology and access to technology will empower a introducing engineered species into diverse range of actors to investigate the environments, yet we now have the feasibility of biological weapons. However, capability to create engineered species significant challenges remain—particularly that can change a wild-type population in 62 in the areas of weaponization and the environment into an engineered one.61F dissemination—that will not be overcome We do not have a good baseline for solely through advancements of monitoring biological/ecological systems biotechnology. that would indicate when a harmful gene drive had been introduced. State actors will leverage synthetic biology for military purposes that are not prohibited Bioinformatics, the collection, storage, and by the Biological Weapons Convention, analysis of biological information using and they may see opportunities or computers, is a growing sector. Protection incentives to start, or restart, biological of genomic information is a critical weapons programs. State actors will invest biosecurity issue. An understanding of the in biotechnology to improve warfighting underlying function of DNA and genomes is capabilities such as enhanced human a key enabler of emerging biotechnology. performance, adaptive materials and Genome data for humans, animals, and sensors, and so forth. These kinds of plants will be crucial to the bioeconomy, “legitimate” military uses of biotechnology national biodefense, and important health could mask illegitimate programs. Militaries initiatives such as Precision Medicine. It will may see incentives and impetus to be key to leverage genomic data for best regenerate biological weapons programs if advantage to U.S. science, economy, and synthetic biology enables capabilities biodefense, while safeguarding against providing significant military advantages, potential misuse and protecting group and such as masking detection, complicating individual privacy. attribution, and providing targeted and discriminate effects previously Convergence with other emerging unattainable. For example, synthetic technologies will further accelerate biology may enable intentional creation of economic development and societal new forms of biological weapons that change. Emerging trends in include modifications or enhancements of nanotechnology, robotics, information traditional threats, novel threat agents, and technology, and other fields will impact genetically selective effects weapons. biotechnology’s advancement. For example, the industry is in the process of Gene drives, a technique that promotes adopting automated manufacturing the inheritance of a particular gene to platforms (automated fermentation increase its prevalence in a population, platforms, for example, and automated can be enabled by emerging laboratory processes), which may pose biotechnology. Gene drives may be additional vulnerabilities and biosecurity subverted as disease dissemination tools or challenges. environmental or agricultural threats; and our lack of ability to detect them may also Synthetic biology has increasingly be a problem. We do not have a complete converged with concepts related to 3D understanding of the potential impacts that printing over the past few years in the 63 gene editing technology may have when growing field of bioprinting.62F Synthetic 33 Synthetic Biology biology allows for the reprogramming of national defense and stimulate the U.S. cells to enhance or leverage particular economy. Moreover, synthetic biology desired pathways. Combined with 3D holds significant promise for new solutions printing that can precisely place particular and countermeasures for the WMD space. cell types at particular locations in a In fact, the tools of biotechnology itself are structure or material, synthetic biology has likely the best options for ensuring potential for highly predictive human cell- biodefense against misuse. and tissue-based technologies that can be used for drug discovery, drug toxicity, Synthetic biology will break new ground in environmental toxicology assays, and the health sector and force protection, complex in vitro models of human providing new approaches for disease development and diseases. treatment and prevention that take into account individual variability in genes, Organovo developed the first 3D bioprinter environment, and lifestyle for each 65 in 2009 for making human tissue and person.64F These advances will extend to the organs. To print an organ, scientists take a development of new medical small piece of tissue from the patient’s countermeasures such as new vaccines, organ and then tease the tissue apart into antibiotics, and treatments. Genome its individual components. After a month of editing tools, which allow for the precise growing the cells in a lab, they are engineering of targeting, function, and combined with a gel and fed into a printing control mechanisms, can be used to cartridge. The tissue is then printed layer by develop immune therapies or T cell 64 layer to form a 3D shape.63F therapies for use in treating HIV infection and cancer. As another example, the Bioprinters are still not capable of chemical countermeasures program at the reproducing the complexity of living Defense Threat Reduction Agency is systems. Depending on how bioprinting leveraging the convergence between advances in the future, this technology synthetic biology and nanotechnology to could conceivably be used with minimal develop a targeted nanodelivery platform tacit knowledge by state and nonstate with a payload consisting of DNA plasmids actors to modify existing pathogens or coding for proteins active in scavenging develop novel pathogens designed to nerve agents. harm humans, animals, or plants. Recent developments in genetic engineering and Applications of new technologies such as genomic information have been published gene drives can counter disease vectors in open-source literature and could serve (such as mosquitoes and rodents) to as blueprints for others. The starting prevent disease. Such technologies may materials and equipment are inexpensive also be applied to invasive species 66 to obtain. management, improving biodiversity.65F The Opportunities Synthetic biology is also being used to enhance sensing capabilities for WMD in Synthetic biology is essential for addressing which living organisms detect ionizing the global challenge of resource scarcity, radiation or small changes in environments. providing unprecedented advances in Synthetic biology is producing new classes public health and medicine and for of inexpensive, rapidly deployable creating innovative products that support 34 Synthetic Biology diagnostic devices, getting closer to the in their milk. A single goat produces about prospect of real-time surveillance of an ounce of protein per milking session, disease agents. yielding several thousand yards of a single 67 spider-silk thread.66F The milk proteins are Synthetic biology may lead to direct separated and purified, washed, freeze- improvements to the warfighter. Bio-inspired dried, and converted to powder form. The innovations (human performance powder is spun into a fiber or used to make enhancements, advanced materials, coatings or adhesives. Textiles made from “living” sensors, and new forms of energy silk are lighter and tougher than Kevlar and production) will enable new military do not melt like nylon. In addition to armor, capabilities that can alter current dynamics spider silk can be used for medical in military competition. Research and purposes. development of products for skin and gut microbiomes (probiotics) will lead to Conclusion enhanced human performance. Advances in synthetic biology produce great promise for health, the environment, Synthetic biology can also be used to make the economy, and the WMD space. “specialty” materials such as corrosion- However, the dual-use problem long resistant coatings or high-strength polymers. associated with biology will also become For example, the U.S. Army is funding an intensified. The rapid pace of change in effort at Utah State University to produce synthetic biology far outpaces policy spider silk. By splicing genes from orb- innovation, making risk mitigation extremely weaving spiders and inserting them into challenging for policymakers. goats, the goats produce spider silk protein 58 Jay Bennett, “New Organisms with Synthetic 62 Antonio Regalado, “We Have the Technology 64 “Changing the Shape of Medical Research to Destroy all Zika Mosquitoes,” MIT Technology and Practice,” Organovo, updated 2017, Review, February 8, 2016, 35 Synthetic Biology James E. DiCarlo et al., “Safeguarding CRISPR- Cas9 Gene Drives in Yeast,” Nature Biotechnology 33 (2015): 1250–1255. 65 As defined by NIH, “About the Precision 67 Sarah Kramer, “Genetically Engineered Spider Medicine Initiative,” Goats Could Be Biotechnology’s Next Big Hit,” 36 Governance Challenges ver the course of several years, the used by many people, whereas those OEmergence and Convergence study seeking legitimate applications of at the WMD Center will examine the nuclear power are a relatively small set impact of emerging technologies on of actors who can all be identified and current tools and approaches for more feasibly placed under regulation. countering WMD and will explore the range Many more people are doing legitimate of governance options for closing critical things than illegitimate things, and it has gaps. Emerging technologies present become more difficult to distinguish policymakers with a complex and between legitimate use and misuse. inherently contradictory challenge of mitigating risk while simultaneously The digital nature of emerging promoting innovation and economic technologies makes them harder to growth. control than technologies whose spread depends primarily on physical objects. The dual-use challenge is not a new one for To the extent that “top-down” the WMD space, but the unique features of governance measures on emerging emerging technologies make it far more technologies are feasible, the window difficult to devise meaningful governance for implementing them before mechanisms that reduce threats and avoid technologies become pervasive is likely unintended consequences: to be more narrow than in the past, due Advances in emerging technologies are in part to the fact that the technology is being primarily driven by the private likely to diffuse more rapidly than in the sector and nonstate actors rather than past. governments. Our current set of tools for countering The rapid pace of change across all WMD is not sufficient for addressing risks emerging technologies outpaces policy posed by emerging technologies that innovation and will make it harder to have strategic significance without track those developments that creating “mass destruction.” enhance the capability to do harm. Numerous features of emerging Past experience with nuclear technology technologies are reducing barriers to offers a useful contrast in terms of its advanced capability and making them maturity, the limited and specialized accessible to a wider variety of actors, audience for its legitimate applications, making it difficult to conceive of any and the magnitude of consequences if the type of top-down governance measure technology is misused. Relatively speaking, that could be applied across the board control of nuclear technology should be to maximize benefit and minimize risk. more straightforward than the challenge of controlling emerging technologies. Nuclear The legitimate applications of emerging technology was not developed first as a technologies are very broad and are civilian technology; rather, it was a military 37 technology that happened to have civilian menu of options for addressing the risks and applications. Despite its greater opportunities produced by emerging amenability, governance for the risk factors technologies for the WMD space, and of nuclear technology consistently fail to be specific recommendations to policymakers assessed in a holistic manner. The risk of for getting the most return on investment nuclear proliferation has often not been across the menu of options. decisive in the decisionmaking process. Emerging technologies generally have very widespread civilian application, yet they may also have nefarious applications for states and nonstate actors. Any attempt to control emerging technologies like we control nuclear technology is destined for failure. Additionally, emerging technologies may provide the most effective solutions to countering WMD. Understandably, scientists and engineers fear that any talk about governance for emerging technologies will lead to draconian and highly damaging policies in which the prevention of possible misuse overwhelms all other concerns. Given the wealth of both benefits and risks these technologies pose that are unrelated to WMD, it is clear that the WMD paradigm for control is an inappropriate lens through which to view emerging technologies, but this begs the question about the right approach. While emerging technologies will challenge current nonproliferation regimes, WMD concerns should not drive the overall U.S. approach to emerging technologies, but should be considered in the context of a holistic policy. To avoid unintended consequences of governance, risk assessments must drive to consideration of the range of policy solutions. The Emergence and Convergence study has launched a risk and opportunity assessment that will help to inform priorities and develop and compare different courses of action for addressing any gaps in countering WMD that are raised by emerging technologies. The study will conclude with a report on its findings, a 38 Graphic Credits: All graphics in the cover image are licensed under CC BY 2.0 and available from the Noun Project. Designers include Aaron K. Kim (robot), Bakunetsu Kaito (drone), To Uyen (DNA), Will Adams (3D printer), Christopher Holm-Hansen (security symbol), Rohith M S (chemical symbol), Delwar Hossain (biology), Maxim Kulikov (bacteria, microscope), Josy Dom Alexis (flask), unlimicon (laptop), Jeremie Sommet (microbe), Luca Reghellin (molecule), Gyan Lakhwani (nanoparticle), Wes Breazell (brain), Edward Boatman (wireless), and Rflor (biohazard).