The Arctic Ocean and Nordic Seas: Supplementary Materials

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CHAPTER S12

FIGURE S12.1 Principal currents of the Nordic Seas. Shaded currents show upper ocean circulation; thin black arrows show deep circulation. ÓAmerican Meteorological Society. Reprinted with permission. Source: From Østerhus and Gammelsrød (1999).

1 2 S12. THE ARCTIC OCEAN AND NORDIC SEAS: SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

(a)

(b)

FIGURE S12.2 Classical and recent structure of the Nordic Seas water column: (a) with deep convection and (b) with intermediate depth convection. PW, Polar Water; RAW, Return Atlantic Water; AODW, Arctic Ocean Deep Water; and NSDW, Norwegian Sea Deep Water. Source: From Ronski and Bude´us (2005b). S12. THE ARCTIC OCEAN AND NORDIC SEAS: SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS 3

FIGURE S12.3 (a) Salinity, (b) potential density (kg/m3), and (c) potential temperature ( C) sections at 75 N across the Greenland Sea “chimney.” The last shows the whole section, while the ﬁrst two are expanded views of the chimney itself. Source: From Wadhams, Holfort, Hansen, and Wilkinson (2002). 4 S12. THE ARCTIC OCEAN AND NORDIC SEAS: SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

FIGURE S12.4 Monthly mean Arctic sea ice motion from 1979e2003 from Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I) passive microwave satellite data. Extended from Emery, Fowler, and Maslanik (1997); data from NSIDC (2008a). S12. THE ARCTIC OCEAN AND NORDIC SEAS: SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS 5

FIGURE S12.5 Mean sea level pressure from ERA-15 and NCEP-NCAR reanalyses for (a) winter (DecembereFebruary) and (b) summer (JulyeSeptember) ÓAmerican Meteorological Society. Reprinted with permission. Source: From Bitz, Fyfe, and Flato (2002). 6 S12. THE ARCTIC OCEAN AND NORDIC SEAS: SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

(a) Nansen B Amundsen B Lomo R -49 -50 -55 -60 - -64 -72 -57 -62 -68 -69 -51 -52 -53 -54 -59 - -66 - -56 -58 - -70 - - -29 - -39 -38 -43 -30 -37 -40 -41 -44 -48 - -33 - -42 -45 -47 0 - -35 -1.70 -1.50 -1.00 -1.50 -1.70 -0.50 1.50 0.00 1.00 1.50 2.00 250 2.50 1.00

0.50

1.00 500 1.00 0.50 0.00 0.50

Pressure (dbar) 1000 -0.50 2000 -0.80 -0.90 3000 -0.95

4000

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 Distance (km) (b) -60 - -62 -49 -50 -51 -52 -53 -55 -64 - -66 - -68 -69 -70 -54 -56 -57 -58 -59 - - -72 - - -35 - -38 -41 - -48 -29 - -33 -37 -39 -40 -43 -44 -45 -47 -30 0 -42 34.00 34.00 33.50

34.50 34.85 34.80 250 34.90 34.95

34.93 34.93

500 - 34.92 Pressure (dbar) 1000 34.90 34.90 34.92 2000 34.93 34.95 3000 34.94 4000 S

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 Distance (km) (c) -51 -52 -53 -54 -56 -58 -59 - -62 - -64 - -66 -68 -69 -70 - -49 -50 -55 -57 -60 - -72 - - -35 -38 -40 -42 0 -29 -30 - -33 - -37 -39 -41 -43 -44 -45 - -47 -48 27.20 27.50 27.50 27.80 250 27.90

27.95 27.95

500 Pressure (dbar) 28.00 1000 28.05 28.05 28.08 2000 28.09

3000 28.10

4000 o

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 Distance (km)

FIGURE S12.6 (a) Potential temperature ( C), (b) salinity, and (c) potential density sq in the Eurasian Basin, with the Russian coast on the left and Lomonosov Ridge at the right. Source: From Schauer et al. (2002). S12. THE ARCTIC OCEAN AND NORDIC SEAS: SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS 7

FIGURE S12.7 Volume transport budget for the Nordic Seas. Source: From Hansen et al. (2008). 8 S12. THE ARCTIC OCEAN AND NORDIC SEAS: SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

(a)

(b)

FIGURE S12.8 (a) Winter (spring 1949) and (b) melting (spring 1950) sea ice in the Beaufort Sea. http://www.photolib. noaa.gov/htmls/corp1014.htm and http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/corp1104.htm (NOAA Photo Library, accessed 2009.) (Photographer: Harley D. Nygren.) S12. THE ARCTIC OCEAN AND NORDIC SEAS: SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS 9

FIGURE S12.9 Ice cover in the Barents Sea in early June 1994, using NASA AVHRR near-infrared imaging. Black indicates lack of ice (open water and polynyas). Source: From Anselme (1998).

FIGURE S12.10 Kara Sea polynya distribution for JanuaryeApril 2001. Light gray indicates land: Novaya Zemlya is at the bottom of the image. Dark gray is masked regions. Source: From Kern (2008). 10 S12. THE ARCTIC OCEAN AND NORDIC SEAS: SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

FIGURE S12.11 The Laptev Sea ﬂaw polynya, imaged using Envisat advanced synthetic aperture radar, 1 May 2008. The polynya region is labeled as “new ice.” Source: From Dmitrenko et al. (2010). S12. THE ARCTIC OCEAN AND NORDIC SEAS: SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS 11

TABLE S12.1 Major Nordic Seas Water Masses

Water Mass Acronym Depth Characteristic Properties Source

Polar (Arctic) Surface PSW (ASW) Surface to 25e50 m À1.5 to Àl.9 C Local (associated with Water 28 to 33.5 psu (polar mixed sea ice) and inﬂow from layer and halocline) Arctic S: 28 to 33.5 Atlantic Water AW 200e900 m >3 C Norwegian Atlantic >34.9 psu Current ﬂow (q and salinity maximum) Arctic Intermediate AIW Upper ocean to À1.2 C, 34.88 psu (salinity Intermediate depth Water 1200 m minimum at ~800 m) convection in the Greenland and Iceland Seas Upper Polar Deep uPDW 800e1500 m À0.5e0 C Upper Polar Deep Water (Nordic Seas) 34.85 to 34.9 psu (salinity Water from the Arctic minimum) Ocean Arctic Ocean Deep AODW 2000 m to bottom À0.53 C, >34.95 psu Canadian and Eurasian Water -0.4 to -0 2 C Basin Deep Waters from the Arctic Ocean Greenland Sea Deep GSDW 2000 m to bottom <À1.2 C Greenland Sea deep Water 34.88e34.90 psu convection Norwegian Sea Deep NSDW 2000 m to bottom À1.055 C, 34.91 psu GSDW and mixing Water

Source: After Aagaard, Swift, and Carmack, 1985 and Rudels et al., 2005. 12 S12. THE ARCTIC OCEAN AND NORDIC SEAS: SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

TABLE S12.2 Arctic Ocean and Nordic Seas Surface Circulation Elements (Partial List)

Name Description

Transpolar Drift (TPD) Broad drift across Arctic from Siberian region to Greenland Beaufort Gyre Anticyclonic gyre in the Canadian Basin “Rim” current Cyclonic coastal flow around the Arctic Siberian Coastal Current Portion of rim current along the Siberian coast Alaskan Coastal Current Portion of rim current along the Alaskan coast Bering Strait inflow Inflow to the Arctic from the Bering Sea

West Spitsbergen Current (WSC) Northward flow through Fram Strait Norwegian Atlantic Current (NAC) Northward eastern boundary flow in the Nordic Seas Norwegian Coastal Current (NCC) Northward coastal current along Norway in the Nordic Seas (rim current along Norwegian coast) East Greenland Current (EGC) Southward western boundary current along Greenland coast Jan Mayen Current (JMC) Eastward flow branching from the EGC into the Greenland Sea toward Jan Mayen East Iceland Current (EIC) Southeastward flow branching from the EGC in the Iceland Basin Iceland-Faroe Front (IFF) Eastward flow along the Iceland-Faroe Ridge Irminger Current (IC) and North Irminger Northward flow in the North Atlantic along the western flank Current (NIC) of the Reykjanes Ridge, and its northeastward branch around Iceland

West Greenland Current Northward eastern boundary flow along Greenland in the Labrador Sea and Baffin Bay Baffin Current Southward western boundary flow in Baffin Bay

Labrador Current Southward western boundary flow in the Labrador Sea Canadian Archipelago flows Outflow from Arctic to Baffin and Hudson Bays through the many island passages, including Lancaster Sound, Jones Sound, and Nares Strait TABLE S12.3 Major Arctic Ocean Water Massesa

Water Mass Acronym Depth Characteristic Properties Source MATERIALS SUPPLEMENTARY SEAS: NORDIC AND OCEAN ARCTIC THE S12.

Polar Surface Water PSW Surface to 25e50 m À1.5 to Àl.9 C Local, associated with sea 31e34 psu ice, river runoff; includes S: 28 to 33.5 Polar Mixed Layer and halocline Alaskan Coastal Water ACW À1.1 to À1.2 C Surface water with river 31e32 psu (temperature runoff maximum) summer Bering Strait sBSW 70e130 m À1.3 C Bering Strait summer flow Water (Pacific Summer 32e33 psu (temperature Water) maximum) winter Bering Strait Water wBSW 33.1 psu Bering Strait winter flow (Pacific Winter Water) Atlantic Water (Atlantic AW 200e1000 m 0e 3 C Norwegian Atlantic Layer) >34.9 psu (q maximum) Current inflow, modified within the Arctic upper Polar Deep Water uPDW 1000e1700 m À0.5e 0 C 34.85e34.9 psu Canadian Basin Deep CBDW 1700 m to bottom À0.53 C Eurasian Basin; bottom Water; bottom water ~34.95 psu water isolated À0.4 to À0.2 C Eurasian Basin Deep EBDW 1700 m to bottom À0.95 C Brine-rejected shelf waters Water; bottom water ~34.94 psu and Greenland Sea Deep Water

Source: From Jones, 2001 and Steele et al., 2004. 13 14 S12. THE ARCTIC OCEAN AND NORDIC SEAS: SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

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