Acknowledgement

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank my parents first for bringing me in this lovely earth and support me doing whatever I enjoy to do.

Then I would like to thank my honorable teacher Naznin Nahar Sultana, Assistant Professor of the Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Chittagong, for supervising our fieldwork so sincerely and friendly. I would like to thank cordially my teacher Shahidul Islam, Assistant Professor of Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Chittagong, who helped us undertaking the field work not only as a teacher, but also as a friend. We are also thankful to the other guests for going to the study area along with us.

I would like to thank the detective branch of police at Sherpur for taking good care of us and helping us during trouble. The rail officers are also thanked to provide us suitable compartments for this very long journey from Chittagong to Mymensingh. I also thank the hotel manager at Sherpur, the AGM and other industrial officials of Sherpur for helping us providing a number of relevant information.

The chairman of the Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Chittagong, is also thanked to permit us going to study area and perform our research. As well as, I am thankful to all of my fellows. I also would like to thank the stuffs of my department for helping us by taking care of the research tools and instruments

ABSTRACT

The study is about everyday geographies and vulnerabilities of the ethnic community with a case study on Garo people, Sherpur. The Garo people have been facing troubles in different aspects of their lives. They are deprived of many available facilities due to their ethnicity and geographical backwardness. The objective of undertaking this study is to know everyday life of the ethnic/Garo community, to explore spatial vulnerabilities of the Garo people. It is also aimed to provide some recommendations to improve the lifestyle of the community. Basic methods for primary data collection were questionnaire survey, observation method and physical sample collection. The study has revealed many vulnerabilities of the Garo people such as they have been the victim of negligence for a long time, the women have been suffering from different types health complications during pregnancy and they are also deprived of the available facilities of ethnic education. The study suggested some recommendations to mitigate these issues and provide the ethnic people a better daily geography.

III

TABLE OF CONTENT Chapter Page Chapter One: Introduction 1 1.1: Introduction 2 1.2: Aim and Objective 2 1.3: Literature Review 2 1.3.1: Introduction 2 1.3.2: Ethnicity and ethnic groups 3 1.3.3: Ethnic people of Bangladesh 7 1.3.4: Garo People of Bangladesh 8 1.3.5: Population Dynamic of Garo People 11 1.3.6: Everyday Geographies of Garo Community 11 1.3.7: Vulnerabilities of Garo Community 13 1.3.8: Conclusion 14 1.4: Research Gap 14 1.5: Significance of the Study 14 1.6: Limitations of the Study 15 1.7: Conclusion 16 Chapter Two: Methodology 17 2.1: Introduction 18 2.2: Background of the Study 18 2.2.1: List of Survey Areas 18 2.2.2: Sherpur District 18 2.2.3: Jhenaigati Upazila 22 2.2.4: Nalitabari Upazila 26 2.3: Study Site Selection 26 2.4: Primary Data Collection 26 2.4.1: Data Collection Methods 26 2.4.2: Determination of Sample Size 27 2.4.3: Sample Strategy 27 2.5: Data Processing, Analysis and Presentation 28 2.6: Secondary Data Collection 28 2.7: Conclusion 29 Chapter Three: Everyday Geographies of Garo People 30 IV

3.1: Introduction 31 3.2: Demographic Profile of the Respondents 31 3.2.1: Age of the Respondents 32 3.2.2: Gender of the Respondents 33 3.2.3: Family Members of the Respondents 34 3.2.4: Duration of Living 35 3.2.5: Migration Causes 35 3.3: Land Status and Housing Pattern 36 3.4: Occupation of the Respondents (Income Sources and Family Member Involvement) 37 3.5: Income Level 38 3.5.1: Daily Income 38 3.5.2: Monthly Income 38 3.6: Daily Food Intake 39 3.7: Education Level and Existing education Facilities 40 3.7.1: Number if Institutions 40 3.7.2: Level of Existing Education 41 3.7.3: Help from Organizations 41 3.7.4: Language of Instruction 42 3.7.5: Technological Advancement 43 3.8: Expenditure of the Garo Family Income 44 3.9: Culture and Customs of the Garo people 44 3.9.1: Head of the family 45 3.9.2: Marriage ceremony 45 3.9.3: Special food 46 3.9.4: Cultural Programs 47 3.9.5: Social Norms and Values 47 3.10: Conclusion 48 Chapter Four: Facilities and Vulnerabilities Experienced by Garo Community 49 4.1: Introduction 50 4.2: Existing Infrastructural Facilities and Problems 50 4.2.1: Accommodation 50 4.2.2: Transportation 50 4.2.3: Educational Institution 51 4.3 Water and Sanitation Condition 52 4.3.1: Existing Sources of Water 52 4.3.2: Contamination of water 53 V

4.3.3: Water Crisis and Water Borne Diseases 54 4.3.4: Sanitation Condition 54 4.3.5: Knowledge about Hygiene 55 4.4: Health issues and vulnerabilities 55 4.4.1: Existing Health Centre 55 4.4.2: Knowledge on Reproductive Issues 56 4.4.3: Vulnerabilities during Pre and Post Birth Periods 56 4.4.4: Medical Service during Emergency 58 4.5: Social Vulnerabilities 58 4.6: Political Rights and Duties 60 4.6.1: Voting Right of Garo people 60 4.6.2: Attitude of Political Leader 61 4.6.3: Political Commitment and their Implementation 62 4.6.4: Political Problems Faced by the Garo Community 62 4.7: Disaster Vulnerabilities 63 4.7.1: Disaster Experienced 63 4.7.2: Early warning 63 4.8: Conclusion 64 Chapter Five: Recommendation and Conclusions 66 5.1: Key Findings 67 5.2: Assessing Needs 68 5.2.1: Recommendations from Respondents 68 5.2.2: Recommendations from the Author 69 5.3: Supporting Organizations 70 5.4: Conclusion 71 Chapter Six: Reference and Appendix 72

LIST OF MAPS

Map Page

Concentration of Ethnic Population 5

Migration route of Garo community 10

Study Area in Bangladesh Map 20

Sherpur District 21

Jhenaigati Upazila 23

Nalitabari Upazila 25

VII

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page Figure 1: The ethnic population 6 Figure 2: Language based information of Garo community 9 Figure 3: Names of Districts and Upazila where the Garo Habitats 9 Figure 4: List of study locations 18 Figure 5: Climograph of Sherpur 29 Figure 6: Sample size determination 27 Figure 7: Secondary data sources 29 Figure 8: Age of the Respondents 32 Figure 9: Gender of the Respondents 33 Figure 10: Family Members of the Respondents 34 Figure 11: Duration of living 35 Figure 12: Migration causes of the respondents 35 Figure 13: Housing types of respondents 36 Figure 14: Occupation of respondents 37 Figure 15: Daily income of respondents 38 Figure 16: Monthly income of respondents 39 Figure 17: Food intake by the respondents 40 Figure 18: Education level at the study areas 41 Figure 19: NGO help to the respondents 42 Figure 20: Education medium of the respondents 43 Figure 21: Expenditure of the Garo Family Income 44 Figure 22: Head of the families of respondents 45 Figure 23: Common marriage phenomena of Garos 46 Figure 24: Common cultural programs of the respondents 47 Figure 25: Transportation coast in the study area 51 Figure 26: Educational institutes in the study area 52 Figure 27: available water sources to Garo people 53 Figure 28: Arsenic contamination in the study area 53 Figure 29: Sanitation condition of the study area 54 Figure 30: Hygiene knowledge of the respondents 55 Figure 31: Knowledge of respondents on reproductive issues 56 Figure 32 & 33: Vulnerabilities during Pre and Post Birth Periods 57 Figure 34: Medical service during emergency 58 Figure 35: Conflicts of Garo with majority of people 59 Figure 36: Negligence towards Garo due to their ethnicity 60 VIII

Figure 37: Possession of voting ID by the respondents 61 Figure 38: The arrival of political leaders during election 61 Figure 39: The tendency of keeping promises of the political leaders 62 Figure 40: Natural disasters in the study area 63 Figure 41: Natural disasters in the study area 64 Figure 42: Help provided to Garo people 71

ACRONYMS

 BBS= Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics  SEHD= Society for Environment and Human Development  WoV= Window of Vulnerability  BGB= Border Guards Bangladesh  TWA= Tribal Welfare Association of Bangladesh  LGED= Local Government Engineering Department  NU= Nalitabari Upazila  JU= Jhenaigati Upazila  MoCA= Ministry of Cultural Affairs  MoE= Ministry of Environment  BRAC= Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee  ASA= Association for Social Advancement  CARE= Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere  SDS= Shariatpur Development Society  SPSS= Statistical Package for Social Sciences

Chapter One: Introduction

In this Chapter-  Introduction  Aim and Objective  Literature Review  Significance of the Study  Limitation  Conclusion

Chapter One: Introduction

1.1: Introduction

In Bangladesh there are 29 indigenous groups (Khaleque, 1998), approximately 1.2 million and 1.13% of the total population. Among them the Garo is one of the largest indigenous communities of Bangladesh. They live in the north-eastern parts of the country especially in Gagipur, Mymensingh, Netrokona, Tangail, Sherpur , Jamalpur and some in Sylhet districts close to the Indian border.

There are several aspects in Garos’ lives that have not been come to light to discuss or research further. These aspects include both positive and negative phenomena such as their habits, cultures, vulnerabilities etc. There is an anthropogeographic significance to undertake a study on the life of Garo people. Due to geographic needs, the spatial vulnerability of the Garo people and their habitats needed to study.

As the above issues have been remarked as one of the major neglected concerns till present time, so the topic “Everyday Geographies and Vulnerabilities of the Ethnic Community: A case Study on Garo People, Sherpur.” has been chosen to study.

1.2: Aim and Objective

It’s important to have some objectives in every research work. It can be called as the base for beginning any research. The chief aim of the research was to assess everyday geographies and vulnerabilities of the ethnic community. So the aims and objectives of the research can be described as-

1. To know everyday life of the ethnic/Garo community. 2. To explore spatial vulnerabilities of the Garo people. 3. To provide some recommendations to improve the lifestyle of the community.

1.3: Literature Review:

1.3.1: Introduction:

At least 350 million (mill) people worldwide are classified as indigenous, and about two mill indigenous people of 45 different distinct ethnic communities live in Bangladesh (Costa & Dutta 2007, GOB 2008). These indigenous people of Bangladesh have distinctive social and cultural practices, languages and customs that are commonly referred to within the communities as 3

Chapter One: Introduction

'Adivasis'. The existence of these people with their traditional way of life and culture that has been practiced for centuries, has enriched the cultural and social diversity of the region. Among the indigenous people, the Garo population is one of the largest indigenous communities in Bangladesh, comprising approximately 0.1 to 0.13 mill people (Islam 2008, Burling 1997, Drong, 2004).

1.3.2: Ethnicity and ethnic groups:

An ‘ethnic group’ has been defined as a group that regards itself or is regarded by others as a distinct community by virtue of certain characteristics that will help to distinguish the group from the surrounding community. Ethnicity is considered to be shared characteristics such as culture, language, religion, and traditions, which contribute to a person or group’s identity.

Ethnicity has been described as residing in:

• The belief by members of a social group that they are culturally distinctive and different to outsiders;

• Their willingness to find symbolic markers of that difference (food habits, religion, forms of dress, language) and to emphasize their significance; and

• Their willingness to organize relationships with outsiders so that a kind of ‘group boundary’ is preserved and reproduced

This shows that ethnicity is not necessarily genetic. It also shows how someone might describe themselves by an ethnicity different to their birth identity if they reside for a considerable time in a different area and they decide to adopt the culture, symbols and relationships of their new community (Ethnicity and Ethnic Group, N.D.).

1.3.3: Ethnic people of Bangladesh:

The number of ethnic communities has been variously mentioned in the written sources. In the different articles published in Tribal Cultures of Bangladesh (Qureshi 1984), for example, the number of ethnic communities has been mentioned as 12 (Bertocci, 1984), 15 (based on 1974 Census Report), 28 and 31 (Urao 1984:129 and Qureshi 1984:XV, respectively; no source has been mentioned — both are perhaps based on personal estimates), 6 (Maloney 1984:8-22, based on his own distribution of the ethnic communities by language category), according to 4

Chapter One: Introduction the most recent government official statistics (Census Report, 2011), the number of ethnic communities is 27. The information found in the available literature and the spatial distribution given in the 1991 Census Report But if the two cases where the same tribe has been listed as two separate ethnic communities are taken into consideration, the number of ethnic communities would be 27 instead of 29 (As mentioned in Census 1991). It suggests that such mistakes were committed in the following cases: The Tipra and Tripura have been listed as two separate groups, but they are, in fact, the same people. These groups are most commonly mentioned in the literature under the name Tipra but they are variously regarded as Tipra and Tripura by their Bengali neighbours in different areas. Similarly, the Bongshi and Rajbongshi, who are really the same people, have been listed in the Census Report as two separate ethnic communities. In this case, the people prefer to identify themselves as Rajbongshi but their Bengali neighbors call them Bongshi. In the literature, the name of this ethnic group is most commonly spelt as Rajbansi.

Listing the different names of the same tribe in different areas as separate ethnic communities, as found in the Census Report, has contributed to the already-existing confusion about the number of ethnic communities. Clearly, the census enumerators were not aware of the facts that the same ethnic group is known by different names (Khaleque, 1998).

The variation in the English spelling of the name of certain ethnic groups is another source of confusion. It is sometimes hard to decide whether the different spellings of the name of any ethnic community constitute the same people or they are different ethnic communities. For example, the name of the ethnic community most commonly spelt "Oraon" has been spelt "Urang" in the 1991 Census Report. Looking at the geographical areas given in the Census Report against the name "Urang," can be figured out that "Urang" must be "Oraon," but one may easily think that these two are different groups. The same is perhaps true in the case of the "Khyang" and "khyen." These two groups were mentioned by as two separate ethnic communities, but as one ethnic group in other sources, including the government census reports.

The divisions or branches of certain ethnic communities have been listed as separate ethnic groups by Maloney (1984) in his list of ethnic communities by their language category. He also mentioned the ex-tribal groups as tribes. Which groups constitute the branches of other larger ethnic communities and which groups are the ex-tribal peoples have been mentioned by Maloney (1984). But there are no such notes in the Census Report.

Treating the branches of a major ethnic group as separate ethnic groups is perhaps the result of an exact report of what people said. When the people belonging to any ethnic communities 5

Chapter One: Introduction were asked about their group affiliation, they perhaps gave the main ethnic group's branch name which they belong to. Such divisions or sub-divisions of large ethnic communities often result from population increase and other social, economic, and political changes (Khaleque, 1998).

The primary census report of 2011 gives the number of ethnic population groups of Bangladesh as 27. The first is Chakma, consisting of 444,748 people while the Marma, the second largest ethnic group compares with 202,974 persons (BBS, 2011).

Map: Concentration of Ethnic Population (Source: Khaleque, 1998) 6

Chapter One: Introduction

The following table shows-

The ethnic population- (Source: Khaleque, 1998)

Ethnic Community Population

Bawm (also spelt as Bum, Baum, Bam) 13471

Buna (found only in the 1991 Census Report) 7421

Chakma 252858

Garo (people prefer the name Mandi) 64280

Hajong 11540

Horizon (found only in the 1991 Census Report) 1132

Khami (also spelt as Khumi, Kami) 1241

Khasi (generally known as Khasia) 12280

Khyang (also spelt as Khyen) 2343

Koch (also spelt as Kots, Kuch, Coach) 16567

Lushai (also known as Kuki, Mizo) 662

Mahat (also known as Mahatu) 3534

Manipuri (also known as Meithei) 24882

Marma (also known as Mag, Mogh, Mug) 157301

Mro (also spelt as Mrbo) 126

Mrong (also spelt as Murang, Mrung) 22178

Munda (also known as Mundari) 2132

Oraon (also spelt as Urang, Urao) 8216

Paharia (also known as Pahary) 1853

Total 1205978

Pankho (also spelt as Pangkhu, Pangkhua) 3227

Rajbansi (also spelt as Rajbongshi) 7556

Rakhaine (a branch of Marma) 16932 7

Chapter One: Introduction

1.3.4: Garo People of Bangladesh

Garo, is an ethnic group in Bangladesh belonging to Bodo sub-sect of the Tibeti-Burman sect of Mongoloid race. They also live in Indian state of Meghalaya. The present population size of Garo in Bengladesh is 150,000. They live in the districts of Tangail, Jamalpur, Sherpur, Mymensingh, Netrakona, Sunamganj, Sylhet and Gazipur with a highest concentration in Haluaghat and Dhobaura upazilas of Mymensingh, Durgapur and Kalmakanda upazilas of Netrokona, Nalitabari and Jhenaigati upazilas of Sherpur and Madhupur upazila of Tangail district.

The antecedent home of the Garo is located in the Xinjiang province, north-west of China. They left that place several thousand years ago and migrated to Tibet. Then they moved again to the north-eastern Indian Hill tracts and Northern Bangladesh about 4500 years ago. And finally they migrated to the greater Mymensingh area and established a small feudal kingdom there.

The Garo society is matrilineal and mothers inherit property and they are the head of their respective families. Each husband or the father of children works as a manager of the family. The children assume the surname of their mother. According to the Garo customs, daughters inherit the family property. However, only the selected daughter, known as Nakna in Garo language enjoys that opportunity. Generally the youngest daughter of a family is selected as Nakna. At present, the male children are also given shares in the landed property through registered deeds in Garo society during the lifetime of their parents.

The entire Garo society is divided into 13 groups. These are Aoye, Abeng, Attong, Ruga, Chibok, Chisak, Doyal, Machchi, Kochchu, Atiagra, Matjangchi, Gara-ganching and Megham. In Bangladesh, most of the Garos belong to Abeng, Ruga, Attong, Megham and Chibok groups. Beside the 13 groups, the whole Garo community is divided into five major clans. These are; Sangma, Marak, Momin, Shira and Areng. The marriage institution of Garo is totally controlled by intercaste system. It prohibits intra-clan marriage. They love to be introduced themselves as Achik Monde (the soul of hill). They think that Garo is an objectionable and inferior word imposed by others to undermine their social status (Banglapedia, 2014).

Among Garos, those who live in a hilly region are called Achik and who live in a plain land are called Mande. All the groups are living in a matrilineal family system and the male persons cannot own properties and not even transfer their land without prior permission of their mother and wife (Biswas, 2015).

Chapter One: Introduction

1.3.5: Population Dynamic of Garo People

In the first batch of influx of Garos into the Bangladesh (Migrated from Tibet, China) around 500 Garos settled in a village called Kutubpur in the Muktagacha Upazila of Tangail District. Later on they have spread out in search of food, livelihood and opportunities to sustain a better life style. They have increased the population into 1000 soon. Their further settling down points were Gazipur, Shakhipur and Madhupur and they carried out zoom agriculture and sooner they spread out to Sunamganj, Mymensingh, Rangpur and Sylhet. They have preferred these areas because of the zoom agriculture facilities and possibilities (Barkat et al., 2009).

The word Garo has been in use as a geographical term. Burling first identify the problem concerning their appellation. He stated, in the north eastern fringe of India there lives a tribe, who introduce themselves as “Garo” to the outsider, but to themselves as Mandi (Bappy, 2012).

The Garo are one of the oldest and small tribal minorities. They are neither Bangladeshi by ethnicity and culture nor Muslim by religion. In the national history of Bangladesh they are almost unrecorded. The Garos were unknown to the world before the advent of the British in India especially, before 18th century (Burling, 1997). The Garo hills become a separate district under the name of “Garo Hills” in 1872. In 1972, the Garo Hill, together with United Khasi Jaintia Hill Districts became the full-fledged state of Meghalaya in India. But the Garos (they prefer to be called Mandis, meaning individual or human being) spread over the Garo foothills, especially in the bordering places between North-east India and largely six northern districts of Bangladesh (mostly in greater mymensingh). The Garo Indigenous groups in Bangladesh largely dwell in Haluaghat, Dhubaura, Durgapur and Kolakanda (Mymensingh and Netrokona districts), Jhenaigati, Nalitabari And Madhupur (Sherpur and Tangail districts) and Sunamgonj And Moulavi Bazar (greater Sylhet) with their own culture, language and looks (Bal, 2000). The following data narrate the Garo Community on the basis of the languages they speak-

Language name: Garo

Population: 120,000 (2005).

Location: Dhaka division: Dhaka, Jamalpur, Madhupur, Netrokona, Sherpur districts; enclaves north, southwest and northwest of Mymensingh city; Sylhet division: Sylhet and Sunamganj districts.

Alternate Names: Garrow, Mande, Mandi 9

Chapter One: Introduction

Dialects: Abeng, Achik, Brak, Chibok, Dual.

Status: 5 (Dispersed). Used as LWC among all Mandi.

Language Use: All ages. Also use Bengali [ben], Hajong [haj]. Used as L2 by Atong [aot], Hajong [haj], Koch [kdq], Megam [mef].

Language Development: Literacy rate in L1: 25%. Literacy rate in L2: 80% in Bengali [ben]. Parents want their children to read and write Garo.

Other Comments: Abeng dialect is spoken but writing is in Achik. Christian, Hindu, traditional religion.

Figure 2: Language based information of Garo community (Source: Ethnologue, N.D.)

The following table shows the distribution of Garo People.

District Upazila

Mymensingh Muktagachha, Bhaluka, Phulbaria, Phulpur, Dhobaura, Haluaghat

Sherpur Sribordhi, Nakla, Nalitabari

Netrokona Purbadhala, Kalmakanda, Sushong Durgapur

Tangail Ghatail, Madhupur

Gazipur Sreepur

Figure 3: Names of Districts and Upazila where the Garo Habitats

Source: Mousumi, 2006; (Adapted from Rahman, 2006)

Chapter One: Introduction

Map: migration route of Garo community. (Source: Sangma, 1993) 11

Chapter One: Introduction

1.3.6: Everyday Geographies of Garo Community

Language and Education: The Garo in Bangladesh refer to their language as ‘Mandi khusik” (Sangma 1998). They do not have their own script and use the Roman alphabet. There are many dialects spoken, including: A'beng, Achick, A'we, Chisak, Dacca, Ganching, Kamrup and Matchi. The Achik dialect predominates among other dialects (Burling 1997). The Abeng dialect in Bangladesh is closest to Koch-another indigenous group. According to Burling (1997), there is a strong influence of Bengali language in Mandi, reflected in the use of Bengali words and sentence pattern. The literacy rate among Garo peoples is much higher than the national average. Sangma (2010) reported that the literacy rate among the Garo is about 90%. Notwithstanding, the number of highly educated (Bachelor or Masters) individuals is very low. The higher literacy rate among the Garo peoples is the result of missionary schools and development non-governmental organizations (NGOs).

Social Framework and Traditional Judgments: Traditionally the Garo social structure is village oriented. The head of the village is known as Nokma (Chakma, 1985). Garo society’s Akhing Nokma (Head of Akhing), Songni Nokma (Head of Village), Chra-panthe (male relatives of women) and honorable persons of the village would generally deal with simple problems. The Songni Nokma would act as the judge, along with all villagers, for domestic problems such as marriage issues, arguments within and between families, property disputes, etc. (Sangma, 2010). The matrilineal framework of the Garo customs means that inheritances go to the women and the Garo children take their surname of their mother as the decent of the mother is much more important to the children than that of father. However, in contrast to this, the women are not generally treated as more powerful than men in a social context.

At present Songni Nokma does not appear to exist in Garo villages. Small social and family related problems are resolved by the respected persons of the villages. In some cases, priests and chra-fanthe (male relatives) play an important role in distributing the family property and in problem solving. However, in recent years Garos have begun relying on civil courts to handle their justice issues.

Religious Beliefs: Despite having their own religion, most of the Garos have converted to Christianity. Although a significant portion of their community still believes in their traditional religion, Sangsarek, Christianity is of great importance to the Bangladeshi Garo community for several socio-economic reasons (Bal, 2000; Sattar & Jalil, 2002). According to Joshua project (2011), Christianity, Garo people mostly practice the Christian rituals for their marriage. According to the nature of the inheritance, two types of marriage are observed among the Garos. One is called Nokma marriage and the other is called Agati marriage. 12

Chapter One: Introduction

The general and customary festivities of Garo community are linked to farming practices. According to Sangma (2010), Garo celebrate seven main festivals from the beginning to the end of Jhum cultivation (which is known as shifting cultivation). These are Aaofata, Denabilsia, Agalmaka, Miamua, Rongchugalla, Jamegappa and Wangala. However, now-a-days they are not dependent on Jhum cultivation (Homrich, 1996). Only Wangala and Rongchugala - these two festivals are still celebrated by the Bangladeshi Garos.

Wangala is the biggest and the most colorful traditional festival of the Garos. This is a festivity of thanks giving after harvesting (Banglapedia, 2006). This festival is celebrated with playing flute and drums. Men and women dance to the tune of tribal songs. On the evening of the first day of the Wangala, people from all households gather in a place mostly in Banepani Nokpanthe to enjoy the food. In this feast, usually young people are involved in serving beer, rice and meat curry followed by a traditional cultural performance. However, the celebration of Wangala was stopped for long time after their conversion to Christianity until recently the Church has allowed the celebration and provided some money for arranging such festival (Zaman, 2004). Like Wangala, the celebration of Christmas has become an important festival for the Garos and is widely celebrated, where churches and other organizations arrange cultural shows and invite people for meals and festivities.

Folk-Culture and Traditions: The Garo are easily differentiated from other communities by their unique culture and traditions. Clothes play an important role in reflecting their culture and tradition. The names of their traditional dress are Gando, Katib, Salchak, Marang, Unpon, Riking etc. (Sattar, 1975). Among the Garo, men living in the village wear a turban along with other clothes. Women wear a cloth around their waist and a blouse. They use different types of ornaments to complete their dress-up. During festivals, both men and women wear bangles, jewelry and head-dresses which are designed with beads stuck on feathers of hornbill (Playfair, 1998). According to Burling (1997), traditionally Garo men wear Ningty (a narrow piece of cloth) but now they put on Lungi (the commonly used skirt like cloth used by all Bangladeshi people). Women put on Sari (common dress for women in Indian subcontinent) and Kamiz (common dress for women in Indian subcontinent) instead of their traditional skirts. The educated Garos in the urban areas where modern clothes and now-a-days, there is almost no difference between Bengali and Garo dress.

Socio-Economic Status: Agriculture is used to be the main occupation of the Garos. About 90% of the Garo people are directly involved with farming, and land is their primary livelihood. It was found that 90 to 95% of the Garo families had their own land in the past. But now only 10 to 12% of families have some form of land ownership. According to available literature and the results of our FGDs, the Garos lost their lands and properties due to illiteracy, unfavorable 13

Chapter One: Introduction environmental conditions, political ignorance, carelessness, lack of awareness of good land management practices, ignorance about the Land Act, poor settlement surveys, etc.

The Garos still depend on subsistence economies, despite technological advancements. About 90% of the Garos are now landless, even though they are still indirectly involved in agriculture (day labor, sharecroppers, etc.). As a result, they are being forced to change their professions to earn sufficient wages. Now the Garos are moving away from the forests to seek urban jobs with Government and private offices, garment stores, beauty parlors, tea gardens, factories, police and military services.

1.3.7: Vulnerabilities of Garo Community

Vulnerability refers to the inability (of a system or a unit) to withstand the effects of a hostile environment. A window of vulnerability (WoV) is a time frame within which defensive measures are diminished, compromised or lacking. Common Applications are-In relation to hazards and disasters, vulnerability is a concept that links the relationship that people have with their environment to social forces and institutions and the cultural values that sustain and contest them. “The concept of vulnerability expresses the multi-dimensionality of disasters by focusing attention on the totality of relationships in a given social situation which constitute a condition that, in combination with environmental forces, produces a disaster”.

The Garo community has been suffereing from various vulnerabilities in different aspects of their lives. Some vulnerability can be found in several sources including journals and news articles. The Garo people have to deal with severe poverty everyday to sustain their lives. They obtain livelihood by firewood from forests and selling them to the city people (Babul, 2013). They have been fighting with wild animals (especially elephants) from the nearby forests. Though Government has taken some initials to solve these problems such as appointing BGB guards and implementing barbed wire around their habitats but still the problem hasn’t been solved. The wild elephants are ruining their houses and agricultural lands as well as they harm the farming activities of Garo people (TWA, N.D.). Influential corrupted people are invading the lands of Garo people. Many people from Garo communities are passing homeless days (Alam, 2017). Government is not aware of the problems associated with the Garo Community and they do not provide allowance for aged people, do not job opportunities for them. Although some NGOs are working for the ethnic communities as well as Garo community but they are not active enough to provide satisfactory helps to Garo people ((Babul, 2013). The Garo people cannot send their children to the schools due to poverty. For this reason, many of the Garo children are being deprived of basic educations (Threat to Ethnoc Education, 2017). The ethnic 14

Chapter One: Introduction people are not getting a chance to learn in their own language and their books in mother languages are being obsolete (Chakma, 2017). According to various news sources, there have been several natural disasters such as lighting and storms.

1.3.8: Conclusion

Garo is one of the major indigenous communities in Bangladesh with distinct ethnic identities. The traditional Garo society is changing due to many socio-economic causes. They have absorbed several traits from others communities. These changes are also increasingly transforming their social structure and dynamics. The most important challenge Garo peoples face now is the statutory rights to land.

1.4: Research Gap

From the previous enlistment, it’s evident that there have been undertaken researches on women’s experiences on food security but not on women’s pre and post pregnancy health. There have been researches on food security but not on the consumed food nutrition by Garo people. Work is observed on political sensitivity but not on the implications of political right of Garos and their conflicts as a smaller ethnic group. Also the cultural practices and marriage rituals have not been analyzed yet from the geographical point of view. Consequently, this work attempts to analyze the following phenomena-

i. Consumed food nutrition by Garo people. ii. Women’s pre and post pregnancy health. iii. Implications of political right of Garos and their conflicts as a smaller ethnic group. iv. Spatial Analysis of Garo’s culture and marriage rituals. v. Natural and Social vulnerabilities of Garo people. vi. Spatial vulnerabilities of Garo people.

1.5: Significance of the Study

Everyday vulnerabilities and geographies of ethnic community is one of the less focused topic in research arena. The topic of this research is relevant to these significances- 15

Chapter One: Introduction

 Through this study, everyday life of the ethnic/Garo community can be comprehended.  Spatial vulnerabilities of the Garo people can be explored through this study.  It is possible to provide some recommendations to improve the lifestyle of the community at the end of this study.  The consumed food nutrition by Garo people can be tabulated in this study.  Women’s pre and post pregnancy health can be focused in this research.  Implications of political right of Garos and their conflicts as a smaller ethnic group can be discussed in this research.  It I possible to provide spatial analysis of Garo’s culture and marriage rituals with this study.  Natural and Social vulnerabilities of Garo people can be analyzed with this research.  Spatial vulnerabilities of Garo people can also be measured by this study.

1.6: Limitations of the Study

The following obstacles and limitations are faced by the interviewer while interviewing the respondents as well as while data processing and analyzing-

1. Each questionnaire had 70 questions along with one or more subsections or charts, altogether there were a vast number of questions. This large quantity of questions helped us to gather much information about the problem on the one hand, but on the other hand, it was very difficult to acquire all the answers from hundreds respondents appropriately. It was a long and tiring task for both the respondents and the interviewer. As a result, the amount of “No Answer” or inappropriate answer was much more than the expectation.

2. As presumed before about the ongoing spatial vulnerabilities of the study area, the real scenario was little different. There were several questions in the questionnaire, which had been proven obsolete while investigating in the study area (Such as questions on dowry system, as dowry system does not exist in matrilineal ethnic societies). These unnecessary data creates the probability of drawing misleading conclusions at some points.

3. Because of not speaking the local dialect of Bangla language as well as the ethnic dialect, many of the interviewers faced troubles in the study area. The people of that 16

Chapter One: Introduction

area were mostly poor and illiterate, some of them only speak the regional dialect of Garo language and many of them didn’t know the proper Bengali or English. It was very difficult and time consuming task to communicate with them. It may also affect the accuracy of data.

4. Contradictory data also created the chance of producing erroneous or misleading results. Many respondents provided contradictory data on different spatial and social issues. It disrupts the data analysis process at some points.

1.7: Conclusion

The Garo people are one of the largest ethnic communities of Bangladesh and they have been suffering from negligence, political deprivation, cultural vulnerabilities and many other complications in their lives for a long period of time. It was necessary to undertake a study on these phenomena or complications to understand them, emphasize them, explore them and produce some possible solutions. Although there are several researches on closely relevant issues but not on specifically the topics included in this study. Also the geographers of Bangladesh have not yet undertaken any notable study on this topic in the study area (Sherpur), specifically on the special vulnerabilities from a geographic point of view, as far as the internet based data narrate. This sort of studies combines both the anthropology and geography which is mainly called anthropogeography. The objectives, conceptual framework, significances and the shortcomings of the study have been thoroughly discussed in this chapter. In the following chapter, the background of the study area as well as the data collection and analyzing method will be discussed. Map making process, area selection and sampling strategy and other methodologies are included as well in the following chapter.

Chapter Two: Methodology

In this Chapter-  Introduction  Background of the Study  Study Site Selection  Primary Data Collection  Determine Sample Size  Sampling Strategy  Data Processing, Analysis and Presentation  Secondary Data Collection  Conclusion

Chapter Two: Methodology

2.1: Introduction According to Merriam-Webster Dictionary, Methodology is a body of methods, rules, and postulates employed by a discipline: a particular procedure or set of procedures or the analysis of the principles or procedures of inquiry in a particular field. In other words, Methodology is the systematic, theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a field of study. It comprises the theoretical analysis of the body of methods and principles associated with a branch of knowledge. Typically, it encompasses concepts such as paradigm, theoretical model, phases and quantitative or qualitative techniques (Irny and Rose, 2010). In this study, methodology includes spatial information of the study area, map making process, sampling, data collection and data interpretation.

2.2: Background of the Study 2.2.1: List of Survey Areas The questionnaire survey took place in 6 different areas. The following table shows the place enlistment and their attachment to the Upazilas and Districts.

Areas Upazila District Baromari Nalitabari Sherpur Deplai Jhenaigati Sherpur Dudhnai Jhenaigati Sherpur Ghajini Jhenaigati Sherpur Modhutila Nalitabari Sherpur Mariamnagar Jhenaigati Sherpur Figure 4: List of study locations.

2.2.2: Sherpur District Sherpur District area 1359.87 sq km, located in between 24°18' and 25°18' north latitudes and in between 89°53' and 90°91' east longitudes. It is bounded by Meghalaya state of India on the north, mymensingh and jamalpur districts on the south, Mymensingh district on the east, Jamalpur district on the west. Population: Total 1279542; male 659512, female 620030; Muslim 1234834, Hindu 34112, Buddhist 9314, Christian 39 and others 1243. Water bodies: Main rivers: old brahmaputra, Someshwari, Chilakhali, Bhogai, kangsa, Digana; Katakhali Canal is notable. Administration: Sherpur Municipality was formed in 1869. Sherpur Sub-division was turned into a district in 1984. Of the five upazilas of the district sherpur sadar is the largest (356.12 sq km) and nakla is the smallest (174.80 sq km). 19

Chapter Two: Methodology

History of the War of Liberation: A number of freedom fighters including Commander Nazmul Ahsan were killed in an encounter with the Pak army at Cherakhali of Nalitabari upazila. On 27 July, the Pak soldiers killed 185 people at village Sohagpur of this upazila. On 24 November the Pak army killed 52 people at village Suryadi under Sherpur sadar upazila. Besides, 20 freedom fighters were killed in encounters with the Pak army at Narayankhola, Gaurdar, Boroitar and Chandrakona of Nakla upazila. Literacy rate: Average literacy 31.98%; male 29.51%, female 51%. Main sources of income: Agriculture 65.71%, non-agricultural labourer 4.30%, industry 0.95%, commerce 10.99%, transport and communication 3.16%, service 4.16%, construction 0.93%, religious service 0.18%, rent and remittance 0.15% and others 9.47% (BBS, 2001 and banglapedia, 2014). Climate: This city has a tropical climate. The summers are much rainier than the winters in Sherpur. The Köppen-Geiger climate classification is Aw. The temperature here averages 25.4 °C. The average annual rainfall is 2146 mm. The least amount of rainfall occurs in December. The average in this month is 2 mm. The greatest amount of precipitation occurs in June, with an average of 431 mm (Climate Chart of Sherpur, N.D.).

Figure 5: Climograph of Sherpur (Source: Climate Chart of Sherpur, N.D.) 20

Chapter Two: Methodology

Map: Study Area in Bangladesh Map (Source: Wikimedia, 2014). 21

Chapter Two: Methodology

Map: Sherpur District (Source: LGED, 1999) 22

Chapter Two: Methodology

2.2.3: Jhenaigati Upazila

Jhenaigati Upazila (sherpur district) area 278.63 sq km, located in between 25'04' and 25'16' north latitudes and in between 89'58' and 90'08' east longitudes. It is bounded by Meghalaya state of India on the north, sherpur sadar and sreebardi upazilas on the south, nalitabari upazila on the east, Sreebardi upazila on the west.

Population: Total 155067; male 78791, female 76276; Muslim 146153, Hindu 5435, Buddhist 3388 and others 91.

Water bodies Main rivers: Shomeshwari, Chilakhali, Malishi; Sonaikara Beel, Dholi Beel, Palka Beel, Bandhapole Beel, Baidadhanga Beel, Rurli Beel and Gur Canal are notable.

Administration: Jhenaigati Thana was formed in 1975 and it was turned into an upazila in 1983.

Literacy rate: Average literacy 33.44%; male 37.05%, female 29.73%.

Main sources of income: Agriculture 70.18%, non-agricultural labourer 3.57%, industry 0.69%, commerce 9.72%, transport and communication 3.09%, service 3.13%, construction 0.43%, religious service 0.17%, rent and remittance 0.18% and others 8.84%.

Main crops: Paddy, wheat, potato, vegetables.

Sources of drinking water: Tube-well 78.02%, pond 0.87%, tap 0.24% and others 20.87%. The presence of intolerable level of arsenic has been detected 65% in shallow tube-well water of the upazila.

Sanitation: 38.77% (rural 37.75% and urban 69.28%) of dwelling households of the upazila use sanitary latrines and 35.03% (rural 35.52% and urban 20.37%) of dwelling households use non- sanitary latrines; 26.20% of households do not have latrine facilities.

Health centres: 'Upazila health complex 1, family planning centre 7, union health and' family welfare centre 4, satellite clinic 1.

Natural disasters: Many people of the upazila died of small pox in 1974. Besides, the flood of 1988 caused heavy damages to settlements, livestock and crops of the upazila.

NGO activities: Operationally important NGOs are brac, asa, caritas, proshika, World Vision, SDS (Banglapedia, 2014 and JU, 2007).

A map of Jhenaigati is attached in the following. 23

Chapter Two: Methodology

Map: Jhenaigati Upazila (Source: LGED, 2010) 24

Chapter Two: Methodology

2.2.4: Nalitabari Upazila Nalitabari Upazila area 327.61 sq km, located in between 25°01' and 25°13' north latitudes and in between 90°04' and 90°19' east longitudes. It is bounded by Meghalaya state of India on the north, sherpur sadar and nakla upazilas on the south, haluaghat upazila on the east, jhenaigati upazila on the west. Population: Total 252935; male 128963, female 123972; Muslim 237897, Hindu 10355, Buddhist 4252, Christian 16 and others 415. Indigenous communities such as Garo, hajong, Hodi, Mandai and Koch belong to this upazila. Water bodies: Main rivers: Bhogai, kangsa, Maljhi, Thalong; Khuski, Paikal, Kasti, Bara, Kula and Dublakuri beels are notable. Administration: Nalitabari Thana was turned into an upazila in 1983. Literacy rate: Average literacy 34.27%; male 37.71%, female 30.72%. Main sources: of income Agriculture 70.06%, non-agricultural labourer 6.25%, industry 0.57%, commerce 8.59%, transport and communication 2.15%, service 2.93%, construction 0.64%, religious service 0.17%, rent and remittance 0.13% and others 8.51%. Main crops: Paddy, jute, wheat, potato, mustard, vegetables. Natural resources White soil, pebble, bolder, white sand. Sources of drinking water: Tube-well 85.9%, pond 0.86%, tap 0.62% and others 12.62%. Sanitation: 33.19% (rural 29.51% and urban 64.21%) of dwelling households of the upazila use sanitary latrines and 52.35% (rural 55.69% and urban 24.23%) of dwelling households use non- sanitary latrines; 14.46% of households do not have latrine facilities. Health centres: Upazila health complex 1, family planning centre 6, community clinic 13, satellite clinic 2. Natural disasters: Many people were victims of the famine of 1943.' NGO activities: brac, asa, CARE, caritas (Banglapedia, 2014 and NU, 2007).

Survey areas included in Jhenaigati Upazila are below-

 Ghanijini  Mariamnagar

Survey areas included in Nalitabari Upazila are below-

 Baromari  Modhutila  Dudhnai  Deplai 25

Chapter Two: Methodology

Map: Nalitabari Upazila (Source: LGED, 2010) 26

Chapter Two: Methodology

2.3: Study Site Selection

The study site was selected considering spatial factors and phenomena involving cultural practice of Garo people, their population concentration and the amount of natural, social and political vulnerabilities in the area.

Six areas from Sherpur district have been chosen because of the following reasons-

 The map making process before field survey was performed considering the population concentration of Garo community in different areas of Bangladesh as well as their origination and followed by population expansions. Through these processes, Sherpur District from Mymensingh Division seemed most opportune and suitable for the study. Garo people came to this country long time ago and settled in mostly near Mymensingh area. Sherpur was the densest area of Garo population in Mymensingh. That is the reason of selecting this district as the study area.  This area is situated near the Bangladesh-India border; consequently there are a lot of possibilities of legal or illegal ethnic migration and other spatial vulnerabilities. This phenomenon was also considered choosing the study area. One of the six study locations was Ghajini which was attached to the Indian border.  It was an agriculture dominated area which helps the observers and interviewers to comprehend the the state of consumed natural nutrition by Garo people.  There were some hilly areas where natural mishaps or disasters are much probable. Also the tendency of performing crime is higher than average in such areas. As the study needed to assess both the natural and social vulnerabilities, this study area was selected.  Sherpur district contains both plain lands and hilly areas. This could be beneficial to comprehend the spatial vulnerabilities from different aspects. It was one of the prime concerns in choosing the study area.

2.4: Primary Data Collection

2.4.1: Data Collection Methods

Primary data was mostly collected through questionnaire survey with in-depth interviews, observation methods and collecting soil and water sample in order to analyze further. So the methods of primary data collection are- 27

Chapter Two: Methodology

1. Questionnaire survey (in-depth interviews) 2. Observation methods 3. Collecting soil and water sample

2.4.2: Determination of Sample Size

There were six areas where question surveys with in-depth interviews were undertaken and several questionnaires were undertaken in each of those places. The following table shows the sample size of each of this area and the sample size in total.

Area Number of Respondents Baromari 18

Deplai 45 Dudhnai 24 Ghajini 26 Modhutila 71

Mariamnagar 50

Total 234 Figure 6: Sample size determination.

2.4.3: Sample Strategy

Sample was taken in simple random sampling method and most respondents were woman as the study has a concentration in maternal health. Plain lands were surveyed and so done the hilly areas. Variations of spatial information were gathered by surveying in various types of areas and several types of inhabitants (educated, non-educated, married, unmarried, working, non-working etc.). An outline of the survey methods and respondents groups are written below.

 Question Theme: Spatial vulnerabilities of ethnic people, maternal health, technological backwardness, occurring natural hazards, food consumption and consumed nutrition etc.  Survey Method: Questionnaire survey, In-depth interview.  Types of Respondents: Mostly woman aged near 30s, young and old people. 28

Chapter Two: Methodology

 Types of the Habitats of the Respondents: Both plain land and hilly areas.  Duration of Survey: 45-60 minutes.  Total Number of Respondents: 234

2.5: Data Processing, Analysis and Presentation

 Map Study: Map is the raw materials of scientific research. It provides types of information about the area for conducting our research toposheet map, small area atlas map and satellite imagery studies for conducting the present study.  Case Study: Several case studies were taken and discussed in order explore the dynamic information about the vulnerabilities and everyday geography of Garo people. Techniques to Analysis:  Microsoft (MS) Word  Microsoft (MS) PowerPoint  Microsoft (MS) Excel  Photoshop & Illustrator

 Steps of Grounded Theory Method: Description Transcription and Annotation

Classification categorizing, splitting and splicing

Connection Linking and connecting corroborating evidence

2.6: Secondary Data Collection Secondary data were collected from different sources including government, non government as well as research organizations. Also data from different universities were gathered. The following figure shows the secondary data sources.

Chapter Two: Methodology

Organization Sources Government  Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics  Local Government Engineering Department  Ministry of Cultural Affairs  Ministry of Environment Local Authority  Jhenaigati Upazila Parishad  Nalitabari Upazila Parishad Research Institution  Tribal Welfare Association of Bangladesh  Society for Environment and Human Development Universities  Oakland University  Department of Agricultural Economics, Bangladesh Agricultural University  Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Tromso, Norway  Department of Development Studies, BRAC University NGOs BRAC, ASA, CARE, CARITAS, Proshika, World Vision, SDS Figure 7: Secondary data sources.

2.7: Conclusion Methodology is the key important fact to a study. The whole process of data collection, research planning, map making process, synopsis making process, data analysis, data transcription, drawing conclusion are relevant to each other and included in methodology. The details methodology has been discussed throughout this chapter. All sorts of primary and secondary data sources as well as data providing organizations are narrated in this chapter. Also the data processing and presentation procedures are discussed above. The following chapter will talk about the everyday geographies of Garo people. It will include their demographic information, housing pattern, income, expenditure, food intake, culture and custom etc.

Chapter Three: Everyday Geographies of Garo People

In this Chapter-

 Introduction  Demographic Profile of the Respondents  Land Status and Housing Pattern  Occupation of the Respondents  Income Level  Daily Food Intake  Education Level and Existing Education  Facilities Expenditure of Garo Family Income  Culture and Customs of the Garo People  Conclusion

Chapter Three: Everyday Geographies of Garo People

3.1: Introduction Everyday geographies include the lifestyle, culture, marriage ritual, food habit, educational facilities, and customs of people and other aspects of life. Garo people have widely maintained ancient rituals and traditions. They are matrilineal society and they are mostly controlled by the decisions taken by the women of the families. The nutrition they take depends on the agricultural product they produce or surrounded by. Education costs of Garo people are mostly carried out by the Christian societies and NGOs (such as-Karatas). Garos are mostly Christian and dominated by Catholic Christianity. Expenditure of Garo people was complex to measure accurately but simple to make assumptions on the basis of the observations. Details of these issues are going to be thoroughly discussed in this chapter.

3.2: Demographic Profile of the Respondents According to Business Dictionary demographic profile refers to the socioeconomic characteristics of a population expressed statistically, such as age, sex, education level, income level, marital status, occupation, religion, birth rate, death rate, average size of a family, average age at marriage. Consequently, the age, gender, family member, duration of living, migration causes of the respondents are discussed in the Chapter. Demographic profiling has long been a tool utilized by marketers so that they may be as efficient as possible with advertising products or services and identifying any possible gaps in their marketing strategy (Creating a Demographic Profile, N.D.). Demographic profiling can even be referred to as a euphemism for corporate spying. By targeting certain groups who are more likely to be interested in what you're selling, you can efficiently expend your advertising resources so that they may garner the maximum amount of sales. This is a more direct tactic than simply advertising on the basis that anyone is a potential consumer of your product, while this may be true, it does not capitalize on the increased returns that more specific marketing will bring. Traditional demographic profiling has been centered on gathering information on large groups of people in order to identify common trends. Trends such as, but not limited to: changes in total population and changes in the composition of the population over a period of time. These trends could promote change in services to a certain portion of the population, in people such as: children, elderly, and the working age population (Creating a Demographic Profile, N.D.). They can be identified through surveys, in-store purchase information, census data, and so on. New ways are also in the works of collecting and utilizing information for Demographic Profiling (Treiman, Lu and Qi, 2012).

Chapter Three: Everyday Geographies of Garo People

3.2.1 Age of the Respondents Adult and mature people have good thoughts and analyzing senses, that's why people of this age group were the precedent respondents. Also priority given to middle aged respondents as they have a lot of experiences about the living condition of Garo village. There has been an attempt to avoided very young and very old people to answer our questions. Women were specifically given priority for in-depth interview on maternal health. Here is a table that shows the number and percentage of age of respondents.

The Chart shows the percentage of the age groups at different areas of the study area. The chart shows that, as mentioned earlier, mostly the respondents were from the age group 31-45 except Baromari and Mariamnagar. In the last two areas, young people were precedent interviewee. The reason behind this is probably the young people are more enthusiastic and spontaneous than older and they were interested to be interviewed more than the aged people.

Age of the Respondents 70

40 0-15 16-30 30 31-45 20 46-60 61-75 10 76-90 0

Figure 8: Age of the Respondents (Source: Field Work-2017). 33

Chapter Three: Everyday Geographies of Garo People

3.2.2: Gender of the Respondents The questionnaire contains a sufficient number of questions on maternal health. Interviewers were aware of choosing greater number of female respondents because of this factor. Questions on maternal health can vividly be answered by only women. Another reason was that the Garos are a matrilineal society and the women of the families take charge of any kind of situation. Women are more fluent and spontaneous in the Garo families.

The following chart shows the proportion of male and female respondents. It shows that the number of female respondents conquers over the number of male respondents and the female respondents are almost three-fifth of the entire number of respondents.

Figure 9: Gender of the Respondents (Source: Field Work-2017; Complied from the data of all six areas)

Chapter Three: Everyday Geographies of Garo People

3.2.3: Family Members of the Respondents

Mostly the Garo people have families with 4-5 members as the data show. The scenario is not same at all the six areas. Baromari people have families with different number of members but most of them are equal to each other, e.g. the number of families of 3 members is equal to the number of families of 5 members. Deplai inhabitants have the average family size consisting around 4-6 people in a family, so is the Ghaijini inhabitants.

Modhutila, Mariamnagar and Dudhnai inhabitants are classified in a separate category which is different from the rest of the 3 areas but commonly applicable for 3 of them. In these areas, the families with a number of 4-6 members are higher than average but the families with 7-9 members are also plenty in number. Dudhnai inhabitants are slightly different with the category of 9-12 members’ families.

It proves that although most of the Garo people have an average family size but many of them are also tend to have large families. The following figure shows the family number of the respondents.

Number of Family Members 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Baromari Deplai Ghajini Modhutila Mariamnagar Dudhnai

1-3 4-6 7-9 9-12

Figure 10: Family Members of the Respondents (Source: Field Work-2017).

Chapter Three: Everyday Geographies of Garo People

3.2.4: Duration of Living

The Garo people have been living in the study areas mostly since their birth. The tendency of migration among Garos is unnoticeable and even if they migrate, they migrate mostly from the nearest village or from another village of Garo community in a different district (Source: Appendix). The scenario is almost same in all of the six study areas. The following table shows the living duration of respondents.

Duration of Baromari Deplai Ghajini Modhutila Mariamnagar Dudhnai Total living (Years) By birth 83.33% 84.44% 88.46% 84.51% 86.00% 83.33% 85.01% 0-10 5.55% 2.23% 1.53% 1.40% 4.17% 2.48% 10-20 11.11% 6.66% 7.69% 1.40% 6.00% 8.33% 6.87% 20-30 4.44% 0.00% 6.85% 8.00% 4.17% 3.91% Figure 11: Duration of living (Source: Field Work-2017)

3.2.5: Migration Causes

The prime reason of migration among Garos is marriage. Although it’s mentioned earlier that they have a weak tendency to migrate from one place to other, but the less amount of occurring migration takes place because of the marriage. This can indicate two things that either the Garo people wish to start a new life in a new place after marriage to raise their children in a better place and provide them a bright future or they are influenced by the Bengali culture of moving away from the birth place after marriage. The following chart shows the Migration Causes of Garo people.

Migration Baromari Deplai Ghajini Modhutila Mariamnagar Dudhnai Total Causes Employment 5.55% 6.66% 3.84% 36.36% 20.00% 0.00% 12.07% Marriage 11.11% 15.55% 7.69% 53.63% 40.00% 100.00% 38.00% Family 0.00% 0.00% 9.09% 0.00% 0.00% 1.52% Problem No Answer 83.00% 78.00% 89.00% 0.00% 40.00% 0.00% 48.33% Figure 12: Migration causes of the respondents (Source: Field Work-2017). 36

Chapter Three: Everyday Geographies of Garo People

3.3: Land Status and Housing Pattern

Lands are owned by Garo people themselves mostly. As the data show, hundred percent of the respondents own the lands they live upon with a slight difference of baromari inhabitants where the 83 percent of total dwellers own their lands and rest of them lives on rent or without rent on soil owned by the Government of Bangladesh (Source: Appendix). Apart this slight difference, all the other respondents own the land they live upon.

The houses Garo people live in are mostly Kutcha. This is the very common scenario of the study area. The situation is same at all the six areas of study. This is the indication of their poverty. Garo people are blessed by many NGOs and Christian Authorities financially but they hardly manage to live a life above poverty line. Although some semi pucca houses are observed at Dudhnai and Baromari, but they are few in comparison to the total number of respondents. The following figure shows the housing types of respondents.

Housing Types

Dudhnai

Mariamnagar Slum Modhutila Squatter Semi Kutcha Ghajini Semi Pucca Pucca Deplai Kutcha

Baromari

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Figure 13: Housing types of respondents (Source: Field Work-2017). 37

Chapter Three: Everyday Geographies of Garo People

3.4: Occupation of the Respondents (Income Sources and Family Member Involvement)

The Garo people are involved in different economic sectors that include all level of economic activities (primary, secondary and tertiary) but mainly their major income sources were primary economic activity. Agricultural activities were the major sources of income of Garo community. Many ethnic Garo women work at different parlors throughout all the country. Women also were involved in shop keeping and labor work. The Garo men work as security guards, mechanics and businessmen mainly. The average number of earning members in Garo family is 1 or 2 persons (Source: Appendix) and they are mainly the parent figures of the families. The Garo people start earning money from a very young age.

The following figure shows the occupations of Garo people. Multiple answers are considered here and null answers are found as well.

Type of Baromari Deplai Ghajini Modhutila Mariamnagar Dudhnai Total Occupatiom Shopkeeper 5.56% 9.20% 7.69% 42.00% 5.26% 11.62% Agriculture 61.11% 20.00% 76.99% 36.62% 40.00% 13.16% 41.31% Parlour 0.00% 8.88% 7.69% 15.49% 40.00% 21.05% 15.52% Govt. Service 5.56% 2.22% 7.69% 14.08% 10.00% 23.68% 10.54% Mechanic 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 2.63% 0.44% Labor 0.00% 15.55% 0.00% 19.72% 15.79% 8.51% Security Guard 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 4.00% 7.89% 1.98% Nurse 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 6.00% 0.00% 1.00% Businessmen 0.00% 11.11% 11.53% 7.04% 5.26% 5.82% NGO 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 5.26% 0.88% Teacher 0.00% 0.00% 7.69% 1.41% 1.52% No answer 28% 34% 10% Figure 14: Occupation of respondents (Source: Field Work-2017).

(Multiple answers considered)

Chapter Three: Everyday Geographies of Garo People

3.5: Income Level

3.5.1: Daily Income

From the acquired data, it is evident that the average daily income of Garo people is ranged near 300 and below 500 taka. People from Dudhnai area earn higher than average in comparison probably because of the active NGO helps and Catholic donations.

People from Madhutila and Mariamnagar are equivalent in earning money. The following figure shows the daily income of respondents.

Daily Income

80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 0-200 30.00% 300-500 20.00% 600-800 10.00% No Answer 0.00%

Figure 15: Daily income of respondents (Source: Field Work-2017).

3.5.2: Monthly Income

It is relevant to show the monthly income along with the daily. The monthly income of Garo people is assumable considering the daily income of the respondents. Garo people are at edge of upper level of poverty line that can be concluded from the derived data.

The following figure shows the monthly income of respondents. 39

Chapter Three: Everyday Geographies of Garo People

Monthly Income

80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 0-5000 30.00% 5000-10000 20.00% 10.00% 10000-15000 0.00% 15000-20000

Figure 16: Monthly income of respondents (Source: Field Work-2017).

3.6: Daily Food Intake

Foods taken by Garo people are similar to Bengali culture. Variation is observed occasionally on festivals only. Although very few of them have ideas about the calories and nutrition of foods (Source-Appendix), but the items they take as foods do contain sufficient amount of calories. Rice, fish and vegetables are the min food items taken by Garo three times a day. This scenario is constant at all the villages of Garos. They also take meat and pulses occasionally. The following figure shows the food items consumed by Garo people three times a day.

What Containing Baromari Deplai Ghajini they Calories take Breakfast Lunc Dinn Breakf Lunch Dinne Breakfas Lunc Dinne h er ast r t h r Rice 206 72.22 72.2 66.67 100 100 100 100 2 Fish 366 5.55 100 94.38 94.38 23

Tea 2 11.11 11.1 64.44 100 100 1 Vegeta 59 16.66 76.92 100 100 ble Dal 118 16.6 16.67 42.22 78.45 100 100 7 Meat 122 20 40

Chapter Three: Everyday Geographies of Garo People

What Containing Modh Mariamnag Dudhna they Calories utila ar i take Breakf Lunch Dinner Breakfast Lunc Dinn Breakfa Lunch Dinne ast h er st r Rice 206 98.59 100% 100% 50% 40% 42% 38.10% 27.91 32.88 % % Fish 366 70.42 42.25 84.51 4% 8% 26.99% 25.58 32.88 % % % % % Tea 2 26% Vegetab 59 98.59 20% 20% 40% 20.63% 25.58 32.88 le % % % Dal 118 70.42 56.34 16% 14.99% 20.93 % % % Meat 122 28,17 6% 6% 1.37% % Figure 17: Food intake by the respondents (Source: Field Work-2017).

(Multiple answers considered.)

3.7: Education Level and Existing education Facilities

3.7.1: Number if Institutions

From the study, it is not simple to conclude an approximate number of educational institutions at the study area, but the previously studied secondary materials provide an account of the existing educational facilities at the study area.

Jhenaigati: According to the information of Upazila Education office, there are 98 primary schools, 38 high Schools, 8 colleges, 31 Non-registered pry, 7 ngo’s school & 34 kindergarten schools. In Total 220 educational institutions (Most Schools, 2016).

Nalitabari: Educational institutions: college 4, technical college 1, secondary school 33, primary school 96, madrasa 52. Noted educational institutions: Nazmul Smriti College (1972), Nalitabari Shahid Abdur Rashid Mohila College (1996), Hiranmayee High School (1919) (Banglapedia, 2014). 41

Chapter Three: Everyday Geographies of Garo People

3.7.2: Level of Existing Education

Mostly the respondents educate themselves with primary education and the existing facilities are tied with primary secondary and higher secondary levels. The facilities of higher education facilities are very few in the study areas. The scenario is slightly different only at Modhutila. There are some higher educations providing institutions as the data acquainted. The following figure shows the education level at the study area.

Education Level

90.00% 80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% Primary 40.00% 30.00% Secondary 20.00% Higher Secondary 10.00% Graduation 0.00%

Figure 18: Education level at the study areas

(Source: Field Work-2017).

3.7.3: Help from Organizations

At very few cases, NGO helps were available to the respondents. More than two-third of the populations do not receive any sort of help from NGOs for educational purposes. Although Banglapedia narrated that there are several NGOs working in Sherpur, but the real scenario seemed different in this case. It is also possible that the NGOs were active before and are inactive nowadays.

Chapter Three: Everyday Geographies of Garo People

The following figure shows the percentage of NGO helps-

NGO Help

Yes 27%

No 73%

Figure 19: NGO help to the respondents (Source: Field Work-2017).

(Compiled from the data of all six areas)

3.7.4: Language of Instruction

Dudhnai, Deplai and Mariamnagar inhabitants receive an opportunity to educate their children in Garo medium and others almost don’t. The children who receive education in Garo medium can only continue this till the 4th standard, after that they have to continue the rest of their education in Bangla medium. The local newspapers reported that the Garo people although have text books in their languages, but they are not taught in the schools (Chakma, 2017).

The following figure explains the medium of receiving education by the respondents-

Chapter Three: Everyday Geographies of Garo People

Education Medium

Dudhnai

Mariamnagar

Modhutila Bangla Ghajini Garo Language

Deplai

Baromari

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Figure 20: Education medium of the respondents

(Source: Field Work-2017).

3.7.5: Technological Advancement

Technological tools such as computer, smartphone, internet etc. are not much available at the study area. The area is rural and closer to the border, even the cell phone net work is not well at the study locations. Very few respondents answered that they are facilitated by the internet tools (Source-Appendix).

They undertake the internet related tasks such as job application, registration for examinations, creating identity cards etc. by going to the nearby cyber cafes or using conjugally owned cell phones with internet facilities (Source: Appendix). Sometimes they borrow smart phones or notebooks from friends or neighbors to perform internet based tasks. They have highly recommended providing the internet facilities of their areas (Source-Appendix). 44

Chapter Three: Everyday Geographies of Garo People

3.8: Expenditure of the Garo Family Income

Very few answers were derived from this portion of the questionnaire. Either the Garo people are not intersected in providing information in expenditure sectors or they hardly have a clear idea about the sector wise expenditure of income. The probable reason behind this is the second one according to the observations of interviewers. Mostly the money of Garos is expended in accommodation sector. The following data is obtained from the Deplai area on the expenditures of income.

Cost Accommodation Food Health Medical Education Other

0-100 0.00% 0.00% 5.68% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 100-2000 56.54% 34.00% 86.57% 0.00% 85.37% 0.00% 2001-3000 24.84% 36.58% 7.75% 0.00% 14.63% 0.00% 3001-4000 18.62% 17.84% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 4001-5000 0.00% 11.58% 1.41% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% Figure 21: Expenditure of the Garo Family Income (Source: Field Work-2017).

3.9: Culture and Customs of the Garo people

Culture and customs of the Garo people include several phenomena based on the social life of Garos. Those ares-

 Head of the family  Marriage ceremony  Special food  Cultural programs  Social norms and values

The data for Culture and Customs of the Garo people were gathered considering the above phenomena. The above mentioned phenomena are discussed elaborately in the following sections. 45

Chapter Three: Everyday Geographies of Garo People

3.9.1: Head of the family

Garos are a matrilineal society that is the reason that maximum family decisions among them are taken by women. But the recent data that is gathered from this study show that men are taking decisions equally to the woman in many areas specially Baromari and Modhutila. This can be explained with the anthropological term called “Cultural Assimilation”; where different cultures share each others’ norm, value and custom. The Bengali culture probably has been started to create an influential effect on Garos culture as the Garo people are getting mixed up with Bengali people much more than previous.

The following data shows the head of the families of respondents in different study locations-

Head of the Family

100.00% 80.00% 60.00% 40.00% 20.00% 0.00% Baromari Deplai Ghajini Modhutila Mariamnagar Dudhnai

Father Mother Husband Wife Aged persons

Figure 22: Head of the families of respondents (Source: Field Work-2017).

3.9.2: Marriage ceremony

Unlike Bengali people, they have a custom to give maximum priority to consent of women especially in the case of marriage. The Garo grooms are treated as the way Bengali brides are treated in a marriage ceremony. This is rational because that is the only way the matrilineal societies can sustain.

The acquired data on the marriage ceremony of Garo people show that the prime concern of a marriage is the mutual understanding and mental matching of bride and groom. Also educational qualifications sometimes concern the modern Garo people and in very few cases, 46

Chapter Three: Everyday Geographies of Garo People wealth of groom matters (Only in the upper class ethnic people, which are very rare). The following figure show the common marriage phenomena of Garos-

Marriage Phenomena of Garo People

Dudhnai

Mariamnagar

Modhutila

Ghajini

Deplai

Baromari

0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% 60.00% 70.00% 80.00%

Wealth Educational Qualification Mutal Understanding Metal understanding

Figure 23: Common marriage phenomena of Garos (Source: Field Work-2017).

3.9.3: Special food

It is complex to identify different special foods of ethnic people. Commonly they have pork, beef and alcohol on special occasion (Source-Appendix). Pig is the major domestic animals of Garo people; it is natural to eat pork for them. Also the culture of drinking alcohol on special occasion is strong among them. They also take different foods that are eaten by only ethnic people. The food habit of Garo people is different from others but mainly dominated by the geographies, cultural histories and religious dominations as like other indigenous groups of Bangladesh. 47

Chapter Three: Everyday Geographies of Garo People

3.9.4: Cultural Programs

The Garo people have different cultural programs celebrated widely and they are mainly religious festivals. As most of the Garo people are Catholic Christians, the two major festivals of them are Christmas and Easter Sunday. They celebrate these two festivals mainly. Also another festival to felicitate the crop production of Garo Areas is Wangala. These festivals widely celebrated in almost all the six areas. According to the data, Deplai and Modhutila inhabitants celebrate these festivals with more enthusiasm than others. Multiple answers found from them in this section. The following figure shows the common cultural programs of the respondents.

Common Cultural Programs

100.00%

80.00%

60.00%

40.00%

20.00%

0.00% Baromari Deplai Modhutila Mariamnagar Dudhnai

Christmas Easter Sunday Wangala New Year

Figure 24: Common cultural programs of the respondents (Source: Field Work-2017).

(Multiple answers considered)

3.9.5: Social Norms and Values

The social norms and values of Garo people are majorly derived from the original culture of Garos that are developed as a result of their hundreds of years’ long inhabitations in Bangladesh and the domination of Christianity as well as from personal aspects and points of views towards the ethical issues. They are matrilineal ethnic community and they have a high respect for woman for this reason. The culture of drinking alcohol is not prohibited among them due to the long sustained ethnic domination. Their looks towards the world is entirely based upon the environment they grew up with a slight mixture of cultural assimilation with 48

Chapter Three: Everyday Geographies of Garo People

Bengali people. This section is entirely based on the observation of researchers on the basis of the gathered data from Garo community of Sherpur.

3.10: Conclusion

Everyday geographies of Garo people are elaborately discussed in this chapter with a personal point of view and analytical ability. In every section of this chapter, there are several outcomes and concluding remarks to be mentioned. Those are enlisted below-

 Mostly the respondents were from the age group 31-45.  Female respondents are almost three-fifth of the entire number of respondents.  Mostly the Garo people have families with 4-5 members.  The Garo people have been living in the study areas mostly since their birth.  The prime reason of migration among Garos is marriage.  Lands are owned by Garo people themselves mostly.  Agricultural activities were the major sources of income of Garo community.  The average daily income of Garo people is ranged near 300 and below 500 taka.  The items they take as foods do contain sufficient amount of calories.  There is sufficient number of primary educational institutes in the study area but few opportunities for higher studies.  More than two-third of the populations do not receive any sort of help from NGOs for educational purposes.  The children who receive education in Garo medium can only continue this till the 4th standard.  Technological tools such as computer, smartphone, internet etc. are not much available at the study area.  Mostly the money of Garos is expended in accommodation sector.  Garos are a matrilineal society that is the reason that maximum family decisions among them are taken by women.  the prime concern of a marriage is the mutual understanding and mental matching of bride and groom.  Commonly they have pork, beef and alcohol on special occasion.  The two major festivals of them are Christmas and Easter Sunday.

Chapter Four: Facilities and Vulnerabilities Experienced by Garo Community

In this Chapter-  Existing Infrastructural Facilities and Problems  Water and Sanitation Condition  Health and Vulnerabilities  Social Vulnerabilities  Political Right and Duties  Disaster Vulnerabilities  Conclusion

Chapter Four: Facilities and Vulnerabilities Experienced by Garo Community

4.1: Introduction

Vulnerabilities at different sectors of life of Garo people will be discussed thoroughly in this chapter. The vulnerabilities include accommodation, education, water security, sanitation health hazards, maternal health problems, conflictions between major and minior groupds, identity crisis, political right and complications, natural disaster adaptations etc. There phenomena is elaborately analyzed based on the field data acquired by the interviewers. Some concluding remarks are going to be enlisted as well.

4.2: Existing Infrastructural Facilities and Problems

4.2.1: Accommodation

The Garo people usually live in hilly areas and plain lands, they live nearby forests. Their main livelihood comes from forest and agriculture. Consequently most of the Garo indigenous people are poor. Their houses are generally Kutcha or Semi Pucca. The accommodation facilities are poor. Their houses pattern and house types have already been discussed in chapter 3.3. To add some information in this chapter, it can be asserted that the accommodation facility of Garo people is not up to the mark and needs government or non government help to facilitate the living environment and uplift the living quality of Garo indigenous.

4.2.2: Transportation

Although most of the Garo people ensured that the existing transportation facilities are suitable for them to travel anywhere inside or outside their village/upazila (Source: Appendix), but the cost is not satisfactory to hundred percent of people. A notable amount of indigenous object about the high transportation cost. But considering this phenomena from a general and comparative point of view, it can be concluded that the transportation system at the study area is good on average.

The following figure shows the excessiveness of transportation cost in the study areas.

Chapter Four: Facilities and Vulnerabilities Experienced by Garo Community

Transportation Cost

Moderate Cost Excessive Cost

28%

72%

Figure 25: Transportation coast in the study area

(Source: Field Work-2017; Compiled from the data of all six areas)

4.2.3: Educational Institution

The educational institutions of the study areas are mostly primary. The amount of secondary and higher secondary institutes is moderate but institutes providing higher education than secondary level is rare.

Among the six study area, the inhabitants of Ghajini enjoy a higher education facility and few people from Baromari and Mariamnagar as well. The reason can be presumed as Ghajini is a tourist area. The following figure shows the educational institutes of study area. 52

Chapter Four: Facilities and Vulnerabilities Experienced by Garo Community

Educational Institutes

Dudhnai

Mariamnagar

Modhutila

Ghajini

Deplai

Baromari

0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% 60.00% 70.00% 80.00% 90.00% 100.00%

Secondary Primary College

Figure 26: Educational institutes in the study area (Source: Field Work-2017).

(Multiple answers considered)

4.3 Water and Sanitation Condition

4.3.1: Existing Sources of Water

Most of the Garo people collect water for drinking and household usages from the same sources, especially who own wells in the homesteads (Source: Appendix). Tube well is the main sources of water among Garo people. Well comes second in number and then comes pond. These are the major sources of water in the study areas. But from the observation method, it can be concluded that the Garo people have a tendency to collect water from wells. The following figure shows the available water sources to Garo people. 53

Chapter Four: Facilities and Vulnerabilities Experienced by Garo Community

Available Water Sources

100.00%

80.00%

60.00%

40.00%

20.00%

0.00% Baromari Deplai Ghajini Modhutila Mariamnagar Dudhnai

Tubewell Well Pond

Figure 27: available water sources to Garo people (Source: Field Work-2017).

4.3.2: Contamination of water

The water that respondents use is mostly free from contamination, the only contamination that found is arsenic. But only few percentage of water is contaminated by arsenic. It can be concluded that the Garo people use fresh water mostly and do not suffer much from water contamination. The following figure shows the arsenic contamination in the study area.

Arsenic Contamination

Fresh Water Contaminated Water

11%

89%

Figure 28: Arsenic contamination in the study area (Source: Field Work-2017). 54

Chapter Four: Facilities and Vulnerabilities Experienced by Garo Community

4.3.3: Water Crisis and Water Borne Diseases

As mentioned earlier, the water contamination is unnoticeable at the study areas. But there are some houses where the respondents reported a lack of sufficient water, but these cases are not plenty in number. The conclusion can be drawn that the people of study area do not suffer from water related issues. Although some water borne diseases have been reported by some of the respondents, those ares-

1. Arsenic contamination 2. Digestion problem 3. Diarrhea 4. Skin diseases 5. Typhoid 6. Dengue etc.

4.3.4: Sanitation Condition

With the blessing of NGOs and GOs, the respondents mostly do not suffer from poor sanitation condition. Still at some areas, improper sanitation or lack of sanitation is observed. The percentage is not great but accountable indeed. The following chart shows the sanitation condition of the respondents.

Sanitation Condition

Good sanitation Poor Santiation

14%

86%

Figure 29: Sanitation condition of the study area (Source: Field Work-2017). 55

Chapter Four: Facilities and Vulnerabilities Experienced by Garo Community

4.3.5: Knowledge about Hygiene

The hygiene knowledge of the respondents is not sufficient. Respondents are mainly ignorant about hygiene. Still few of them possess some knowledge about hygiene. It is not unsual among poor people to have less knowledge on health issues. The following figure shows the proportion of acknowledged and ignorant people.

Hygiene Knowledge

Yes 9%

No 91%

Figure 30: Hygiene knowledge of the respondents (Source: Field Work-2017).

4.4: Health issues and vulnerabilities

4.4.1: Existing Health Centre

The number of public hospitals is few in numbers at sherpur but there are a plenty of private clinics. The public health centers are Upazila Complexes (3 in total, one in Jhenagati), Sherpur Hospital etc. People sometimes go to Mymensingh Medical College to get better treatments. The ambulance systems are not much available and it will be discussed in chapter 4.4.4.

Chapter Four: Facilities and Vulnerabilities Experienced by Garo Community

4.4.2: Knowledge on Reproductive Issues

Most female respondents seem to have sufficient knowledge on reproductive issues. The scenario is same almost in all the study locations apart from Deplai, Also the respondents from Mariamnagar tend to have a lower knowledge on reproductive issues. But, on an average, it can be concluded that the women have moderate or sufficient knowledge on reproductive issues in the study areas. As there is not enough number of clinics in the study area the people of those areas are obliged to have good knowledge on these issues, especially for the case of women. The following figure shows the reproductive knowledge of respondents.

Reproductive Knowledge

100.00% 90.00% 80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% Baromari Deplai Ghajini Modhutila Mariamnagar Dudhnai

Sufficient Low Ignorant

Figure 31: Knowledge of respondents on reproductive issues (Source: Field Work-2017).

4.4.3: Vulnerabilities during Pre and Post Birth Periods

The Garo women suffer from various complications during pregnancy such as scissoring, stomache, scissor situation, miscarriage, chlorosis, bleeding, malnutrition etc. According to the obtained data, chlorosis and physical weakness are severe before giving birth to the children and malnutrition and stomache are severe during post birth period. The situation differs from one place to another in the study locations. The following figure shows the vulnerabilities of the Garo woman during Pre and Post Birth Periods in the study areas. 57

Chapter Four: Facilities and Vulnerabilities Experienced by Garo Community

Pre-birth Problem

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0 Baromari Deplai Ghajini Modhutila Mariamnagar Dudhnai

Miscarriages Stomache Weakness Chlorosis Scissor situation Bleeding

Post-birth Problem

Insufficient Nutrition

Fever

Maternal difficulties

Malnutrition

Stomache

Bleeding

Chlorosis

0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00 90.00

Dudhnai Mariamnagar Modhutila Ghajini Deplai Baromari

Figure 32 & 33: Vulnerabilities during Pre and Post Birth Periods (Source: Field Work-2017). 58

Chapter Four: Facilities and Vulnerabilities Experienced by Garo Community

4.4.4: Medical Service during Emergency

During emergency, respondents mainly go to the hospitals. People from Mariamnagar and Dudhnai go to the missionary clinics because of the availability of missionary clinics in those areas. Ambulance service is not available most of the time. It’s evident that the nearby hospitals, especially the Upazila Health Complex and missionary clinics have an important role in providing medical services to the respondents. The following figure shows the medical service during emergency in the study locations.

Emergency Medical Service

100.00% 90.00% 80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% Baromari Deplai Modhutila Mariamnagar Dudhnai

Hospital Missionary clinic Ambulance to nearest city

Figure 34: Medical service during emergency (Source: Field Work-2017).

4.5: Social Vulnerabilities

T analysis the social vulnerabilities the following phenomena can be discussed.

 Conflict with majority of people: Garo community is a minor group of population like any other ethnic community. There are some ongoing conflictions between major and minor groups at different areas of Bangladesh reported by the newspapers. The study area was not free from them, but the level of confliction is certainly less than other communities of Bangladesh. But not unnoticeable either. Almost two-fifth of the Garo population is 59

Chapter Four: Facilities and Vulnerabilities Experienced by Garo Community

suffering conflictions between major and minor groups at different areas and extents of life. The following figure proves this. Confliction between Majority and Minority

Involved in conflicts Not involved in conflicts

38%

62%

Figure 35: Conflicts of Garo with majority of people (Source: field Work-2017).

 Relationship: The relationship of Garo with Bengali people is mostly good and decent. Very few cases are found when the Garo people have troubles with Bengali People. In most of the study areas, the Garo people and Bengali people live in the same village simultaneously.

 Access in Festivals: Although there have been conflictions and restrictions in celebrating ethnic festivals in recent times at different places of Bangladesh, but those were not observed or found in the study areas.

 Ceremony and Occasion: The cultural ceremony and festivals of Garo are mainly confined with Wangala, Christmas and Easter Sunday as mentioned in chapter 3.9.4.

 Identity Crisis: The reason behind identity crisis is ethnicity and this phenomenon is observed at different study areas. Some of them have even reported that they got fired from their jobs just because of their ethnicities. Also at many times the Garo people 60

Chapter Four: Facilities and Vulnerabilities Experienced by Garo Community

became the victim of negligence due to being indigenous. The following figure shows the negligence towards Garo due to their ethnicity.

Negligence due to Ethnicity

0 Ignored Not ignored

Figure 36: Negligence towards Garo due to their ethnicity (Source: field Work-2017).

4.6: Political Rights and Duties 4.6.1: Voting Right of Garo people The Garo people seem to have good concern about their voting right. Most of the Garo people possess voter ID according to the obtained data. Their concern in voting right is probably an intense attempt to get the government privileges at all sectors of lives and it is also possible that they are aware about the political state of the country. The following figure shows the possession of Voting ID by the respondents. 61

Chapter Four: Facilities and Vulnerabilities Experienced by Garo Community

Voter ID Possession

With Voter ID Without Voter ID

94%

Figure 37: Possession of voting ID by the respondents (Source: field Work-2017).

4.6.2: Attitude of Political Leader The political leaders often used come during the election and make plenty of promises to the Garo people. Some of them are kept later, some of them are not. This phenomenon is severe specially the study locations near tourist spots such as Ghajini and Modhutila. The following figure shows the arraivalof political leaders during election.

Arraival of Political Leaders during Election

Don’t Come 46% Come 54%

Figure 38: The arrival of political leaders during election (Source: field Work-2017). 62

Chapter Four: Facilities and Vulnerabilities Experienced by Garo Community

4.6.3: Political Commitment and their Implementation:

Mostly the political leaders don’t keep their promises after election. More than 70 percent promises are gone into oblivion after the election. But still the rest of the promises are kept which can be a good sign of progress for the indigenous people. The following figure shows the tendency of keeping promises of the political leaders.

Promises of Political Leaders

Keep promises Don't Keep promises

31%

69%

Figure 39: The tendency of keeping promises of the political leaders (Source: field Work-2017).

4.6.4: Political Problems Faced by the Garo Community

In this section, no suitable answers were found. Most respondents directly denied about suffering from political problems. Some of them mentioned some problems though, e.g. I personally interviewed some respondents who mentioned some political problems such as negligence at work place due to being indigenous. Although these people are very much few comparably with the entire number of respondents, but still these comments have some values to the social aspects of Garo people.

Chapter Four: Facilities and Vulnerabilities Experienced by Garo Community

4.7: Disaster Vulnerabilities

4.7.1: Disaster Experienced

Although the number of natural disasters and the sort of natural disasters are different in different areas but earthquake seems to be the most common natural disaster in the study area. That is probably because of the closeness of Indian earthquake zones. Drought is observed severely near Ghajini, eathwauke is severe at Modhutila, lighting is observed in Ghajini, Deplai and Dudhnai, severe in Dudhnai. The following data shows the natural disasters in the study area.

Natural Disaster

90.00 80.00 70.00 60.00 50.00 40.00 30.00 20.00 10.00 0.00 Baromari Deplai Ghajini Modhutila Mariamnagar Dudhnai

Cyclone Drought Recessive rainfall Earthquake Storm surges Thunderstorm

Figure 40: Natural disasters in the study area (Source: field Work-2017).

4.7.2: Early warning

Respondents mostly get early warning before disasters (Source: Appendix). Television was available to lots of houses; consequently they were alarmed by radio and TV. Also miking in the areas another way of alarming the respondents. But mainly they rely on radio and TV to get notified about the disaster warning. The following figure shows the warning systems of study areas. 64

Chapter Four: Facilities and Vulnerabilities Experienced by Garo Community

Warning Signal

Dudhnai

Mariamnagar

Modhutila

Ghajini

Deplai

Baromari

0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% 60.00% 70.00% 80.00%

Miking TV Radio

Figure 41: Natural disasters in the study area (Source: field Work-2017).

4.8: Conclusion

Facilities and vulnerabilities experienced by Garo community are elaborately discussed in this chapter with a personal point of view and analytical ability. In every section of this chapter, there are several outcomes and concluding remarks to be mentioned. Those are enlisted below-

 The Garo people usually live in both hilly areas and plain lands.  Transportation system at the study area is good on average.  The educational institutions of the study areas are mostly primary.  Tube well is the main sources of water among Garo people.  The Garo people use fresh water mostly and do not suffer much from water contamination.  The respondents mostly do not suffer from poor sanitation condition.  The hygiene knowledge of the respondents is not sufficient.  The number of public hospitals is few in numbers at sherpur.  The women have moderate or sufficient knowledge on reproductive issues in the study areas. 65

Chapter Four: Facilities and Vulnerabilities Experienced by Garo Community

 The Garo women suffer from various complications during pregnancy,  Ambulance service is not available most of the time in the study area.  Two-fifth of the Garo population is suffering conflictions between major and minor groups.  Many times the Garo people became the victim of negligence due to being indigenous.  The Garo people seem to have good concern about their voting right.  Mostly the political leaders don’t keep their promises after election.  Negligence at work place due to being indigenous is observed in this study.  Earthquake seems to be the most common natural disaster in the study area.  Respondents mostly get early warning before disasters  They rely on radio and TV to get notified about the disaster warning.

Chapter Five: Recommendation and Conclusions

In this Chapter-  Key Finding  Assessing Need  Supporting Organization  Conclusion

Chapter Five: Recommendation and Conclusions

5.1: Key Findings

By analyzing the data thoroughly, several findings can be remarked. That includes their everyday geographies and vulnerabilities. Findings from their everyday geographies are narrated below.

Mostly the respondents were from the age group 31-45. Female respondents are almost three- fifth of the entire number of respondents. Mostly the Garo people have families with 4-5 members. The Garo people have been living in the study areas mostly since their birth. The prime reason of migration among Garos is marriage. Lands are owned by Garo people themselves mostly.Agricultural activities were the major sources of income of Garo community. The average daily income of Garo people is ranged near 300 and below 500 taka. The items they take as foods do contain sufficient amount of calories.There is sufficient number of primary educational institutes in the study area but few opportunities for higher studies. More than two-third of the populations do not receive any sort of help from NGOs for educational purposes. The children who receive education in Garo medium can only continue this till the 4th standard. Technological tools such as computer, smartphone, internet etc. are not much available at the study area. Mostly the money of Garos is expended in accommodation sector. Garos are a matrilineal society that is the reason that maximum family decisions among them are taken by women. The prime concern of a marriage is the mutual understanding and mental matching of bride and groom. Commonly they have pork, beef and alcohol on special occasion. The two major festivals of them are Christmas and Easter Sunday.

These are summary of everyday geographies of Garo people. Summary of everyday vulnerabilities of Garo community is narrated below.

The Garo people usually live in both hilly areas and plain lands. Transportation system at the study area is good on average. The educational institutions of the study areas are mostly primary. Tube well is the main sources of water among Garo people. The Garo people use fresh water mostly and do not suffer much from water contamination. The respondents mostly do not suffer from poor sanitation condition. The hygiene knowledge of the respondents is not sufficient. The number of public hospitals is few in numbers at Sherpur. The women have moderate or sufficient knowledge on reproductive issues in the study areas. The Garo women suffer from various complications during pregnancy. Ambulance service is not available most of the time in the study area. Two-fifth of the Garo population is suffering conflictions between major and minor groups. Many times the Garo people became the victim of negligence due to being indigenous. The Garo people seem to have good concern about their voting right. Mostly the political leaders don’t keep their promises after election. Negligence at work place due to being indigenous is observed in this study. Earthquake seems to be the most common natural 68

Chapter Five: Recommendation and Conclusions disaster in the study area. Respondents mostly get early warning before disasters. They rely on radio and TV to get notified about the disaster warning.

5.2: Assessing Needs

5.2.1: Recommendations from Respondents

 Respondents’ suggestions to improve the educational facility:

 School increase  Eveteasing prevention  Financial support  Appointing qualified teacher  College establishment  Electricity facilities increase

 Respondents’ suggestions to improve the technological aspects:  Using cell phone  Using computer  Decrease load-shedding  Increase internet speed  Improvising telecommunication system

 Respondents’ suggestions to improve the transportation facility:  Road construction  Improvisation of transport

 Respondents’ suggestions to improve the accommodation facility:  Govt help  NGO help  Good drainage system

 Respondents’ suggestions to improve the water facilities:  Providing 69

Chapter Five: Recommendation and Conclusions

tubewells  Providing supply water

 Respondents’ expectation from government for overall improvement of lifestyle:  Cultural facilities  Well treatment/beha vior  Solving water crisis  Govt help  Employment  Financial help  NGO help

5.2.2: Recommendations from the Author

. Garo people mostly have small families with 4-5 members. Small allowance from the government for aged people will suffice their needs. . Some lands are owned by them and some were governments’ land. Govt. should make a policy to define the ownership of the lands they live upon. . Job opportunities for the ethnic people should be created by the govt. and NGOs. . Opportunities of higher education should be more availed towards Garo people. . The NGOS of the study areas are inactive nowadays. They should be more and more active to provide supports and helps to the ethnic people. . The text books of Garo people in their own languages should be taught in schools and not to make those obsolete as like the present situation. . Technological devices such as computers, internet devices should be available to the ethnic community for public use. . There should be enough security while celebrating the cultural festivals of ethnic people to avoid conflicts. . Sufficient institutes for higher studies should be established in the study areas. . The available arsenic contamination in Garo villages should immediately be abolished by the govt. effort. . Sanitation condition in the Garo villages should be improved further. 70

Chapter Five: Recommendation and Conclusions

. The hygiene knowledge of the respondents is not sufficient. They should be provided materials to know about health and hygiene and initials should be taken to educate them about health. . Number of public hospitals in the study area in son sufficient and they should be increased. . Emergency medical procedure should be availed at the study area to avoild pre or post pregnancy complications of the Garo women. . Ambulance service should actively be available in Sherpur district. . Two-fifth of the Garo population is suffering conflictions between major and minor groups. Law imposing forces should be active in the study areas to avoid such conflicts . Many times the Garo people became the victim of negligence due to being indigenous. The look of non-ethnic people toward ethnic people should be changed and mutual understanding should be developed by working along them together at work place or other. . The political leaders should make influential promises and to kept those later to provide assistances to the ethnic. . Necessary measures during and after earthquake should be available at the study area as it is situated nearby the Indian Tectonic Plate.

5.3: Supporting Organizations

There is several organizations at the study area that provide help to the Garo people. Those organizations can be enlisted-

 BRAC= Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee  ASA= Association for Social Advancement  CARE= Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere  SDS= Shariatpur Development Society  CARITAS  Proshika  World Vision

The respondents are mostly satisfied with the help they receive from these organizations (Source: Appendix). The following figure explains the type of help and organization from where the respondents receive helps. The chart indicates that the most of the government and non government relief programs provide maximum help to the respondents.

Chapter Five: Recommendation and Conclusions

Type of Help Baromari Deplai Ghajini Modhutila Mariamnagar Dudhnai Tubewell 16.67% 26% 73.33% Relief 44.45% 60% 24% 26.67% Government support 38.88% 33.33% 38.46% 12.67% 24% NGO’s support 6.66% 84.51% 26% Figure 42: Help provided to Garo people. (Source: Field Work-2017)

5.4: Conclusion

The above mentioned organizations work for the assistance of ethnic people in the study area. Apart from them, local authority and influential people should step forward to provide helps to the back warded indigenous people. On an average, it be concluded that the condition of Garo people are better than many other back warded ethnic although several vulnerabilities in the different aspects of Gaos’ lives still exist.

Chapter Six: Reference and Appendix

REFERENCES

 Khaleque, K. (1998) Ethnic Communities of Bangladesh.  Ethnicity and Ethnic Group-An Explanation of this Term, (N.D.) Retrieved from: http://www.intercultural.ie/content/ethnicity-and-ethnic-groups-–-explanation-these- terms [Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  Bertocci, P.J. (1985) Bangladesh in 1984: A Year of Protracted Turmoil, Asian Survey, Vol. 25 (2), pp. 155-168.  BBS (1974) Population Census Report, Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Dhaka.  Qureshi, B.A. (1984) Skin problem in multiethnic groups, pp.346.  BBS (2011) Population Census Report, Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Dhaka.  BBS (1991) Population Census Report, Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Dhaka.  Khaleque, k. (1998) Bangladesh - Land Forest and Forest People, SEHD.  Maloney, J.C. (1984) Scheffler on Ambiguity, Oakland University.  Khaleque, k. (1998) Bangladesh - Land Forest and Forest People, SEHD.  Maloney, J.C. (1984) Scheffler on Ambiguity, Oakland University.  BBS (2011) Population Census Report, Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Dhaka.  Khaleque, k. (1998)Bangladesh - Land Forest and Forest People, SEHD.  Banglapedia (2014) Garo People, Retrieved from: http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Garo,_The [Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  Rafi, M. (2006) Small Ethnic Groups of Bangladesh: A Mapping Exercise.  Barkat, A. et al. (2009) Life and Land of Adibashis: Land Dispossession and Alienation of Adibashis in the Plain Districts of Bangladesh, pp. 85-86.  Bappy, A.K.M.A.A. (2012) Indigenous People in Greater Mymensingh Area: An Economic Study on Their Livelihood and Food Security, An unpublished MS thesis, Department of Agricultural Economics, Bangladesh Agricultural University, pp. 8.  Burling, R. (1997) The Strong Women of Madhupur, The University Press Ltd., Dhaka.  Mousumi, A. A. (2006) Historico-geographical Mapping of Garos. The Garos: Struggling to Survive to the Valley of Death. Empowerment through Law of the Common People (ELCOP), Dhaka, p. 65.  Rahman, M. (2006) Struggling to Survive in the Valley of Death. Empowerment through Law Of Common People. Dhaka. P. 65.  Biswas, A. A. (2015) Indigenous North East of Bangladesh, pp. 91-92.  Bankoff, Greg; et al. (2004). Mapping Vulnerability: Disasters, Development and People. London: Earth scan.  Babul, G. A. (2013) Neglected Garo Ethnic Community at Sherpur, Retrieved from: http://bdn24x7.com/?p=107082 [Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  TWA, N.D. Neglected Garo People, Retrieved from: http://bdn24x7.com/?p=107082 [Accessed on 19th April, 2017]. 74

Chapter Six: Reference and Appendix

 Alam, K. (2017) The Koach People at Jhenaigati are not Well, Retrieved from: http://www.ittefaq.com.bd/print-edition/country/2017/01/22/170764.html[Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  Babul, G. A. (2013) Neglected Garo Ethnic Community at Sherpur, Retrieved from: http://bdn24x7.com/?p=107082 [Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  Threat to Ethnic Education at Khagrachari (2017) R etrieved from: http://bn.societynews24.net/2017/01/08/ - - - /[Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  Chakma, B. (2017) Three Ethnic Text Books are Obsolete, R etrieved from: http://www.prothom-alo.com/bangladesh/article/1077377/ ------[Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  Ethnologue (N.D.) Garo Ethnologue, Retrieved from: https://www.ethnologue.com/language/grt[Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  Sangma, M.N. (1993) Migration Route of Garos, An unpublished document, Scholars Publishing House, New Delhi.  Merriam Webster Dictionary (N.D.) Retrieved from: https://www.merriam- webster.com/dictionary/methodology[Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  Irny, S.I. and Rose, A.A. (2005) Designing a Strategic Information Systems Planning Methodology for Malaysian Institutes of Higher Learning (isp- ipta), Issues in Information System, Volume VI, No. 1, 2005.  Local Government Engineering Department (1999) Retrieved from: http://www.lged.gov.bd/UploadedDocument/Map[Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  BBS (2001) Population Census Report, Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Dhaka.  Banglapedia (2014) Sherpur District, Retrieved from: http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sherpur_District[Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  Wikimedia (2014) Sherpur District Locator Map, Retrieved from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherpur_District#/media/File:BD_Sherpur_District_locato r_map.svg[Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  Banglapedia (2014) Sherpur District, Retrieved from: http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sherpur_District[Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  LGED (1999) Retrieved from: http://www.lged.gov.bd/UploadedDocument/Map [Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  Banglapedia (2014) Jhenaigati Upazila, Retrieved from: http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Jhenaigati_Upazila[Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  LGED (2010) Retrieved from: http://www.lged.gov.bd/UploadedDocument/Map[Accessed on 19th April, 2017]. 75

Chapter Six: Reference and Appendix

 Banglapedia (2014) Nalitabari Upazila, Retrieved from: http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Nalitabari_Upazila [Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  NU (2007) Cultural survey report of Nalitabari Upazila, Nalitabari Upazila, Sherpur.  JU (2007) Cultural survey report of Jhenaigati Upazila, Jhenaigati Upazila, Sherpur.  LGED (2010) Retrieved from: http://www.lged.gov.bd/UploadedDocument/Map[Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  Business Dictionary (N.D.) Retrieved from: www.businessdictionary.com/definition/demographic-factors.html [Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  Creating a Demographic Profile — MEASURE Evaluation". Retrieved from: www.measureevaluation.org [Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  Treiman, D. J., Lu, Y., Qi, Y. (2012). New Approaches to Demographic Data Collection, Chinese sociological review, 44 (3).  Creating a Demographic Profile — MEASURE Evaluation". Retrieved from: www.measureevaluation.org [Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  Most of the Schools have no Soheed Minar (2016) Retrieved from: http://www.mtnews24.com/print_article/print_page/590 [Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  Banglapedia (2014) Nalitabari Upazila, Retrieved from: http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Nalitabari_Upazila [Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  Banglapedia (2014) Sherpur District, Retrieved from: http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sherpur_District[Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  Chakma, B. (2017) Three Ethnic Text Books are Obsolete, R etrieved from: http://www.prothom-alo.com/bangladesh/article/1077377/ ------[Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  Banglapedia (2014) Sherpur District, Retrieved from: http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sherpur_District[Accessed on 19th April, 2017].  Sangma, U. (1998) Adibashi Barta (In Bengali), Tribal Welfare Association, Sunamgonj, Sylhet, Bangladesh.  Sangma, S. (2010) Bangladesh Indigenous Peoples’ Forum. Dhaka, Bangladesh.  Burling, R. (1997) The Strong Women of Modhupur, The University Press Limited, Dhaka.  Chakma, S. (1985) Tribals of Bangladesh, Bangla Academy, Dhaka, Bangladesh.  Bal, E. (1999) Manderangni Jagring: Images of the Garos in Bangladesh, University Press Limited, Dhaka, Bangladesh.  Sattar, A. and Jalil, A. (2002) Family Structure and Cultural Pattern of Garos in Sunamgonj, Masters Thesis, Dept. of Social Work, Shahjalal University of Science & Technology, Sylhet, Bangladesh. 76

Chapter Six: Reference and Appendix

 Homrich, E. (1996) The Garos of the Modhupur Forest in Bangladesh, St. Paul’s Church, Tangail, Bangladesh.  Banglapedia (2006) Indigenous people, retrieved from: http://www.banglapedia.org/httpdocs/english/catagory/catagory.html [Accessed on Feb 31, 2017].  Zaman, M. (2004) Garo Celebrate Wangala after Seventy Years in Haluaghat, The Daily Star Magazine (published on January 02, 2004).  Sattar, A. (1975) Showing the Seeds, In Saha, C. Tribal Culture of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh.  Playfair, M. A. (1998) The Garos, D.K. Fine Art Press Limited, Delhi, India.

Chapter Six: Reference and Appendix

APPENDIX-I (QUESTIONNAIRE) Everyday Geographies and Vulnerabilities of the Ethnic Community: A Case Study on Garo People, Sherpur

(Survey data will be used for research purpose only)

S.L No: Interviewer Name and Date

Survey area

1. Name of the Respondents : 2. Age: 3. Gender: 4. Educational Qualification: 5. Number of family members? 6. Information on duration of living Where have you come Because of migration Duration of living from

7. Type of Respondent’s house:

a) Kutcha b) Pucca c) Semi Pucca d) Semi Kutcha e) Squatter f) Slum

8.How many earning members do you have in your family?

9.Which type of occupation do you involve ?

Family members Type of Occupation Daily Income Total monthly income

10. What type of difficulties are faced in the occupation?

Physical health Type Rank Adaptation process

Economic 78

Chapter Six: Reference and Appendix

Social

*type: Very high =5, high =4, medium=3,low=2, very low

11. Land Type ? a) Own b) Govt.

12. Do your children go to school? a) Yes b) No

13. If No, Why ………………………..

14. Do you get any help from government/ NGO for their education? a) Yes b) No

15. If yes

Type of Help Organization Is it Sufficient(Yes / No)

16. Do you have any chance to learn in your language? a) Yes b) No

17.If no, are you worried about that? a) Yes b) No

18. If yes, why……………

19. How do you receive your education here?(or which school /institute do your children go?) a) b) c)

20. The local educational institutes provide education till which level? a) Primary b) Secondary c) Higher Secondary d) Graduation

21. Are you satisfied with the educational system in your region? a) Yes b) No 79

Chapter Six: Reference and Appendix

22. In which level do you want to educate your children? ………………….

23. What do you suggest to improve the educational system in this region?------

24. Is modern technologies (Computer, smart phone & Internet) are available in this region? a) Yes b) No

25. How do you perform the internet based tasks ( job application , registration for exam etc) ?------

26. What do you suggest to improve the technological aspects of this region?------

27. Does your current income cover all expenditure of your family ? a) Yes b) No

28. Cost of the family in different sectors

Sectors Costs Accommodation Food Medical Health/Nutrition Education Other

29. Do you think that the available transportation of this area meets your needs ? a) Yes b) No

30. Is the transportation cost moderate in this region ? a) Yes b) No

31. What do you suggest to improve the transportation facilities of this area ?------

32. Is the available sanitation facilities are good in this region? a) Yes b) No 80

Chapter Six: Reference and Appendix

33. What do you suggest to improve the accommodation and sanitation facilities of this region ?------

34. Where do you collect the drinking water from?------

35. Where do you collect water for bathing, cloth washing & household usages?------

36. Is there arsenic contamination in the water ? a) Yes b) No

37. What do you suggest to improvise the water facilities?------

38. Have you ever been ignored or misbehaved by other because of being of minor group? a) Yes b) No

39. Have you ever got involved in a conflict between a major or minor group ? a) Yes b) No

40. In such situations, does the local administration or police protect / help you ? a) Yes b) No

41. How can these incidents be avoided in this area (own opinion)------

42.Who is the head of your family?

Answer:

43. Who take the lead on family matter/decision?

a) Father /Male person b) Mother/ Women 44. On which age do you get married?

a) Below 18 b) After 18

45. What is the common phenomenon in deciding marriage ceremony? 81

Chapter Six: Reference and Appendix

Ans

46. Do you have system of dowry? a) Yes b) No

47. If yes how do you manage it?

Answer:

48. What are the common cultural program in your community?

Serial No Name How Do You Celebrate them

49. Do you have voter ID ? a) Yes b) No

50. If No, Why ?......

51. Do political leader come during election? a) Yes b) No

52. Do they come or keep in touch with you after election? a) Yes b) No

53. Do they keep promises? a) Yes b) No

54. If yes,

What they have kept/type When

Chapter Six: Reference and Appendix

55. What type of political problems do you face?

Type of Problems Who is responsible Why

56.What do you take every day?

period Item Members take

Morning Lunch Dinner

57. Do you know how much calorie one should take every day?

a) Yes b) No

58. Cost on food daily

Food Item Cost per head Total Total taka

59.What type of diseases do you suffer usually ? 83

Chapter Six: Reference and Appendix

Name of the diseases causes Suffering period

Stomach ache

Diarrhea Skin diseases

Other

60.What type of health problems do you face in different season ?

Name of the season Health problems Causes Summer Winter Rainy

61.What type of health problem are faced by girls and women (In Depth Interview)

Serial Types of Problems Causes Age Category

No (Adolescent, Young, Married)

62. What are the levels of their knowledge depth on reproductive health issue?

a) Sufficient b) Low c) Ignorant 84

Chapter Six: Reference and Appendix

63. What type of difficulties are faced by the pregnant women (Case Study)

Period Types of Difficulties Coping pattern

Pre Birth Period

Post Birth Period

64. How they manage medical service during emergency?

65.What type of disaster you faced before?

Name of the Disaster When/period

66. Do you get any warning / news/information from any organization? a) Yes b) No

67.If yes,

Type of information Disaster Name Organization

Chapter Six: Reference and Appendix

68. Do you get any support from Government/NGO? a) Yes b) No

69.If yes,

Type of Government NGO Sufficient Insufficient

Support

70.If you have chance what type of support you want

Serial No Sector Types of Support 1 Political Support

2 Social Status

3 Economic Support

Thank you 86

Chapter Six: Reference and Appendix

Total 100.00%

5 Number of Family Number Percentage APPENDIX-II (FIELD 1-3 16.67% 4-6 37.50% DATA) 7-9 20.83% 9-12 25.00% Total 100.00%

FIELD WORK - 2017 6.1 Migrated from Percentage EVERYDAY GEOGRAPHIES AND By birth 83.33% VULNERABILITIES OF THE ETHNIC Mymensingh 4.17% COMMUNITY: A CASE STUDY ON GARO Sherpur 12.50% PEOPLE, SHERPUR. Total 100.00% 3rd Year, Session : 2013-2014

Department of Geography and Environmental 6.2 Cause of Migration Percentage Studies Marriage 100.00% University of Chittagong Employment 0.00%

Total 100.00%

2 Age Percentage 6.3 Duration of living Percentage 1-15 0.00% By birth 83.33% 16-30 12.50% 0-10 4.17% 31-45 41.67% 10-20 8.33% 46-60 25.00% 20-30 4.17% 61-75 20.83% Total 100.00% 76-90 0.00%

Total 100.00% 7 Types of respondents' Percentage house 3 Gender Percentage Kutcha 62.50% Male 37.50% Pucca 16.67% Female 62.50% Semi Pucca 20.83% Total 100.00% Semi Kutcha 0.00% Squatter 0.00% 4 Educational Qualification Percentage Slum 0.00% Illiterate 12.50% Total 100.00% Primary 29.17% Secondary 33.33% Higher Secondary 20.83% 8 Number of earning Percentage Graduation 4.17% members 87

Chapter Six: Reference and Appendix

1 160.00% 10000-15000 54.17% 2 20.00% 15000-20000 4.17% 3 36.00% Total 100.00% 4 12.00% 10.1 Economic Percentage 5 0.00% Very High 0.00% 6 0.00% High 20.83% 7 0.00% Medium 62.50% Total 228.00% Low 16.67% Very Low 0.00% 9.1 Family members Percentage Total 100.00% Father 16.67% Mother 10.00% 10.2 Social Percentage Son 26.67% Very High 0.00% Husband 13.33% High 0.00% Daughter 6.67% Medium 54.17% Son's wife 0.00% Low 45.83% Own 26.67% Total 100.00% Total 100.00%

9.2 Type of Occupatiom Percentage Shopkeeper 5.26% 10.3 Economic adaptation Agriculture 13.16% Parlour 21.05% 10.4 Social Adaptation Govt. Service 23.68% Mechanic 2.63% 11 Land Type Percentage Labor 15.79% Govt 0.00% Security Guard 7.89% Own 100.00% Nurse 0.00% Total 100.00% Businessmen 5.26% NGO 5.26% 12 Do your children go to Percentage Total 100.00% school? Yes 58.33% 9.3 Daily income Percentage No 41.67% 1-200 24.39% Total 100.00% 300-500 73.17% 600-800 2.44% 13 If no, why- Percentage Total 100.00% No Children 70.00% 9.4 Monthly income Percentage Financial 30.00% 0-5000 4.17% Total 100.00% 5000-10000 37.50% 88

Chapter Six: Reference and Appendix

14 Do you get any help from Percentage Primary 62.50% govt or Ngo for Eduction Secondary 25.00% Yes 41.67% Total 100.00% No 58.33% Total 100.00% 20 Local institutes provide Percentage education till 15.1 If yes, type of help Percentage Primary 20.83% Education purpose (NGO) 20.00% Secondary 20.83% Education purpose (Govt) 10.00% Higher Secondary 58.33% Scholarship (NGO) 30.00% Total 100.00% Scholarship (Govt) 20.00% Financial Help (NGO) 10.00% 21 Are you satisfied with local Percentage Financial Help (Govt) 10.00% education? Total 100.00% Yes 50.00% No 50.00% 15.2 Insufficient Percentage Total 100.00% Yes 62.50% No 37.50% 22 Want to educate children Percentage till- Total 100.00% Secondary 0.00%

Higher Secondary 20.83% 16 Chance to learn in own Percentage language Graduation 79.17% Yes 16.67% Total 100.00% No 83.33% Total 100.00% 23 Suggestion to improve the Percentage education

School increase 41.67% 17 Are you worried? Percentage Eveteasing prevention 0.00% yes 54.17% Financial support 0.00% No 45.83% Appointing qualified 4.17% Total 100.00% teacher College establishment 16.67% 18 If yes, why- Percentage Electricity facilities 8.33% Enriched Own Language 54.17% increase Extinction of Language 33.33% No Answer 29.17% Insufficient Books 12.50% Total 100.00% Total 100.00%

24 Whether the modern Percentage 19 Education received from Percentage technologies are available College 12.50% or not Yes 33.33% 89

Chapter Six: Reference and Appendix

No 66.67% 31 Suggestion to improve the Percentage Total 100% transportation facility Road construction 62.50% 25 The way to perform Percentage Improvisation of transport 37.50% internet based tasks Total 100.00% Cell phone internet 29.17% Cyber café 70.83% 32 Whether the sanitation Percentage Total 100% facilities are good Yes 87.50% 26 Suggestion to improve Percentage No 12.50% technological aspects Total 100.00% Using cell phone 25% Using computer 41.67% 33 Suggestion to improve the Percentage Decrease load-shedding 8.33% accommodation & Increase internet speed 8.33% sanitation Govt help 33.33% Improvising 16.67% telecommunication NGO help 33.33% system Good drainage system 33.33% Total 100% Total 100.00%

27 Whether the income Percentage 34 Drinking water source Percentage covers expenditures Tubewell 83.33% Yes 70.83% Well 16.67% No 29.17% Total 100.00% Total 100% 35 Water sources for other Percentage 28 usage Tubewell 62.50% 29 Whether the Percentage Pond 12.50% transportation meets your Well 25.00% needs Total 100.00% Yes 91.67%

No 8.33% 36 Whether the water is Percentage Total 100% arsenic contaminated Total Yes 95.83% 30 Whether the Percentage No 4.17% transportation system is Total 100.00% moderate

Yes 95.83% 37 No 4.17%

Total 100.00% 38 Whether the respondents Percentage

Chapter Six: Reference and Appendix

have been Wealth 25% ignored/misbehaved Total 100% Yes 0% No 100% 46 Whether they have to Percentage Total 100% provide dowry Yes 0% 39 Whether the respondents Percentage No 100% got involved in any conflict Total 100% Yes 0% No 100% 47 Total 100% 48.1 Common cultural program Percentage 40 Christmas 30% Easter Sunday 30% 41 Wangala 30% New Year 10% 42 Head of the family Percentage Total 100% Father 62.50% Mother 16.67% 48.2 How do they celebrate Percentage Husband 8.33% them Wife 4.17% Drinking alchohol 33.80% Aged persons 8.33% Dancing & singing 33.80% Total 100.00% Eating beef 12.68% Eating pork 19.72% Total 100.00% 43 Who takes decision Percentage Father 12.50% 49 Whether they have voter Percentage Mother 87.50% id Total 100.00% Yes 100% No 0% 44 Age to get married Percentage Total 100% Before 18 0% After 18 100% 50 Total 100% 51 Whether the political Percentage leaders come during 45 Common phenomenon Percentage election considered during marriage Yes 0% Metal understanding 41.67% No 100% Mutal Understanding 25% Total 100% Educational Qualification 8.33% 91

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52 Whether they keep in Percentage Rice 32.88% touch after election Fish 32.88% Yes 29.17% Tea No 70.83% Vegetable 32.88% Total 100% Dal Meat 1.37% 53 Whether they keep Percentage Total 100.00% promises

Yes 25% 57 Whether they know the Percentage No 75% amount of calory Total 100% Yes 12.50% No 87.50% 54 Help Percentage Total 100.00% Build house (After 4.17% election) 58 No answer found No Answer 95.83%

Total 100.00% 59 Diseases Percentage

Stomache 37.50% 55 No Answer found Dairrhoea 25%

Skin Diseases 37.50% 56.1 What they take (Breakfast) Percentage Total 100.00% Rice 38.10%

Fish 26.99% 60 Season of health problem Percentage Tea Summer 54% Vegetable 20.63% Winter 16.67% Dal 14.99% Rainy 29.17% Meat Total 100% Total 100%

61 No answer found

56.2 What they take (Lunch) Percentage 62 Knowledge of productive Percentage Rice 27.91% health Fish 25.58% Sufficient 19.17% Tea Low 70.83% Vegetable 25.58% Ignorant 0% Dal 20.93% Total 100% Meat Total 100% 63.1 Type of difficulties (pre Percentage birth period) Miscarriages 16.67% 56.3 What they take (Dinner) Percentage Stomache 20.83% 92

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No problem 4.17% Recessive rainfall Weakness 8.33% Earthquake 33.33% No answer 16.67% Storm surges 29.17% Chlorosis 8.33% Thunderstorm 29.17% Scissor situation 4.17% Total 100.00% Bleeding 20.83% Total 100.00% 66 Whether they get warning Percentage Signal 63.2 Post birth period Percentage Yes 37.50% Chlorosis 4.17% No 62.50% Bleeding 4.17% Total 100.00% Stomache 54.17% Malnutrition 12.50% 67 If yes, how- Percentage Maternal difficulties 8.33% Radio 37.50% Fever 8.33% TV 62.50% No Answer 8.33% Total 100% Total 100.00% 63.3 Coping pattern (pre birth) Percentage 68 Whether they get any help Percentage Doctor visits 25% Yes 87.50% No problem 16.67% No 12.50% Food 37.50% Total 100.00% Home-made medicine 20.83% Total 100% 69.1 Support type Percentage Tube well 73.33% 63.4 Coping pattern (post birth) Percentage Relief 26.67% Doctor visits 75% Total 100.00% Home-made medicine 25% Total 100% 69.2 Donor Type Percentage Govt 38.10% 64 Medical service during Percentage NGO 61.90% pregnancy Total 100.00% Hospital 29.17% Clinic 45.83% 69.3 Amount type Percentage Ambulance to nearest city 25% Sufficient 75.00% Total 100.00% Insufficient 25.00% Total 100.00% 65 Type of disaster they Percentage faced Cyclone 8.33% 70.1 Demanded support type Percentage Drought (Political) 93

Chapter Six: Reference and Appendix

Govt help 75.00% No answer 25.00% Total 100.00%

70.2 Demanded support type Percentage (Social) Cultural facilities 50.00% Well treatment/behavior 33.33% Solving water crisis 16.67% Total 100.00%

70.3 Demanded support type Percentage (economic) Govt help 20.83% Employment 12.50% Financial help 16.67% NGO help 50.00% Total 100.00%