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"Do Not Fold, Spindle or Mutilate": A Cultural History of the Punch Card

Steven Lubar

One hundred years have passed since Herman Life and Casualty company used punch card Hollerith invented the punch card to tabulate the machines to compile mortality datastarting in 1910 1890ce nsus. That's also, almost exactly, the lifespan (Campbell-Kelly 144, Norberg). The machinery of the technology. Today, punch cards have found great favor with management. Using vanished from public view. The last few businesses language that we wouldn't be surprised to find in that still use punch cards are phasing them out, a modern-day report on computerization, one replacing punch card systems with , author wrote in 1926: optical scanners and magnetic storage media. But one aspect of the era of the punch card invaded the national subconscious to leave an ironic Punch card systems are a proved means of economically cultural legacy. The punch card era survives in the producing facts and figures vital to operating a railroad phrase "do not fold, spindle, or mutilate." The intelligently, from which business records can be quickly and phrase and the feelings it represents have outlasted accurately classified and presented to the executives at the time the technology, not to mention the billions of cards they arene ededin the form best suited to enable action. (Railway on which it was printed. Culture changes more Accounting !15!1-54) Punch card machines were modem and efficient­ slowly than technology. Symbols outlast machines. what we'd call today "high tech." It's easy to see The signified slides under the signifier. This cultural legacy is an important vestige how they came to symbolize all that was up to date of the punch card. Symbols are part reality and part and businesslike. mental image, and so they capture attitudes, feelings These early punch cards had no warning and beliefs-immaterial things sometimes hard to written on them. The cards Hollerith used for the find in the historic record. The phrase "do not fold, first automated census in 1890 were completely spindle or mutilate" has stuck so in our heads blank, unreadable except to machines. Either an because it captures a significant facet of American attempt to save money, or a piece of bravado, that; belief about automation, computerization and but Censusclerks soonlea rned to decipher the holes bureaucratic society. The history of the phrase can almost as quickly as the machines could (Austrian help to explain popular reaction to the ­ 63). In only a few years cards had a variety of symbols ization of American society. on them, to indicate the meanings of the holes, but The federal government became the first major it was not until the 19-'0s that the first warnings user of punch cards when the Census Bureau used appeared. This is, as far as I can tell, exactly the them to tabulate the 1890 census. Hollerith's same time that the public began to see punch cards. machines soon found wide use in government The two events are, of course, related; the public offices. During World War I, for example, the army needed to be taught how to deal with the new used them to keep inventory and medical and technology. People had to learn to respec:t it, and psychological records, and the War Industries Board not to get in its way. did its accounting on the machines (Reid-Green, Among the earliest punch cards to "go public" Austrian, Cortata). were those used by New Deal agencies. New Dealers, Businesses also used punch cards. Starting familiar with the successful World War I experience about 1906, railroads replaced the complicated with using punch cards to coordinate the military systems of paperwork they used to track operating and the economy, put punch card machinery to use expenses, the location of rolling stock and goods in many social and economic programs. The first in shipment with punch card tabulating machines. "punch card checks" -among the first punch cards Insurance companies were not far behind: the Aetna to be distributed to the "end user," the man and

This work was written by a US Federal Employee and as such is in the Public Domain woman in the street-were issued by the Agricul­ the canonical "Do not fold, spindle, or mutilate" tural Adjustment Administration in 1933. Social are lost in the mists of time. Security checks, issued starting in 1936, were also "Do not fold, spindle, or mutilate." Folding punch cards, and before long, from World War II seems clear; you might fold a card to fit in an until just a short while ago, all federal checks­ envelope, or a pockeL But you're not supposed to some 600million in 1985-were punch cards (Figure crease these cards; that would jam the machine. l) (Bartlet 29, Beninger 409, Schwartz). The public's Punch cards aren't to be used in your ways, for first introduction to punch cards was in connection your purposes, but for those of the company that with the introduction of the biggest and best issued them. "Spindle" is the word that most publicized-and most controversial-new bureauc­ confuses people today. Spindling is an old filing racies. The technologywas still exotic, though. The system; a clerk would have a spindle, an upright New Yorker ran a story in 1940 about the crowds spike, on his or her desk, and would impale each that gathered in front of an office-supply store in piece of on it as he or she finished with it. Albany to watch punch card sorting machines in When the spindle was full, he'd run a piece of string action (Gibbs 54££). through the holes, tie up the bundle, and ship it Card punch technology became more wides­ off to the archives. (The custom still survives in pread in the 1940s. Libraries began to use punch some restaurants; the cashier spindles the bills as cards to keep track of books ("Automatic Book customers pay.) But you shouldn't spindle the cards: Charging," Waugh). Police departments used them they are part of someone else's system of paperwork, to track criminals. Their use in payroll and factory not your own; they demand special attention. management expanded. Newspapersand magazines ran popular articles on the technology. Almost all "Mutilate" is a lot stronger than the other of the description focused on the machines words. It expresses an angry intention on the part themselves, reporters outdoing one another with of the mutilator. From the viewpoint of the punch metaphors for the technology's utility. The card used, it suggests a fear: people might take out their frustrations on their punch cards. (Indeed, Saturday Evening Post referred to the Police Department's Hollerith machine as "a punch cards were mutilated. You could buy mechanical Sherlock Holmes," a "crime-hating machines advertised to "recondition mutilated robot," "The Detective Who Never Sleeps" punch cards" [ Processing Annual 45].) Why (Monroe, Soraghan). The 1940 Census starred in would people mutilate punch cards? Punch cards were the interface between the public and the billing a Colliers Magazine article that called the punch card machine a "statistical sausage grinder," "the system. Metaphorically, they were where the public most amazing fortunetelling machines ever devised" meshed with the corporate world. They became (Scheinfeld). symbolic of the whole system. Earlier, it had been But it was in the 1950s, after the invention of the machines that were the focus of attention; in the computer and the beginning of its use in the the cards took center stage. business, that everyone began to see punch cards. Punch cards became not only a symbol for the Companies sent punch cards out with bills. computer (MacBride 24), but a symbol of alienation. Telephone companies, utility companies and They stood for abstraction, oversimplification and department stores realized that they could save a dehumanization. The cards were, it seemed, a two­ step in their billing process, as well as make it easier dimensional portrait of people, people abstracted for them to process the returned check, by using into numbers that machines could use. The cards the cards themselves as the bills (Data Processing came to represent a society where it seemed that Annual). By the 1960s, punch cards were familiar, machines had become more importantthan people, everyday objects. where people had to change their ways to suit the While company employees could be trusted, or machines. People weren't dealing with each other required, to take care of the cards, the person in face-to-face, but rather through the medium of the the street could not. Warnings were necessary. In punch card. All of the free-floating anxiety about the 1930s the University of Iowa used cards for technology, the information society, "Big Broth­ student registration; on each card was printed "Do erism," and automation attached itself to punch not fold or bend this card" (Baehne 32). Cards cards. Examining the metaphorical ways in which reproduced in an IBM sales brochure of the 1930s punch cards were used lets us understand some of read "Do not fold, tear, or mutilate this card" and the reaction and resistance to the brave new "Do not fold, tear or destroy" ("Modem Machine information world (Terbourgh, MacBride Chaps. Accounting" 4 and 6). The author and origin of 2 and 3, Gilbert 175-81, Michael). "Do Not Fold, Spindle or Mutilate"

Figure l. Social Security checks, starting with this first one in 1940, were punch cards. Courtesy U.S. Social Security Administration. The first place that "do not fold, spindle or Berkeley students were well aware of the mutilate" was taken off the punch card and standard 1960s notion that the United States had unpacked in all its metaphorical glory was the become an "organizational society." They believed, student protests at the ­ with most of the popular sociological writers of Berkeley in the mid-l 960s, what became known as the day, that "the shape and tone of our society, the "." The University of indeed the very way we think is dependent upon California administration used punch cardsfor class the products and information processed by large registration. Berkeley protestors used punch cards organizations" (Otten 6 and Chap. 7, Kerr et al.). as a metaphor, both as a symbol of the "system" - The university, wrote one student, was "a first the registration system and then bureaucratic bureaucratic machine" (Levine 12). Another called systems more generally-and as a symbol of it a "knowledge factory": "mass production; no alienation (Edge, Joergesfn 6). The Berkeley student deviations from the norms are tolerated" (Draper newspaper recognized their symbolic importance 40). The "information machine" metaphor was when it put the punch card at the top of the list made explicit in 's history of the Free of student lessons. "The incoming freshman has Speech MovemenL Draper, a participant in the much to learn" the paper editorialized to new movement, wrote that the student in the "mass students in Fall 1965, "perhaps lesson number one university of today" feels that it is "an overpow­ is not to fold, spindle, or mutilate his IBM card" ering, over-towering, impersonal, alien machine in (Daily Californian Sept. 15, 1968: 8). The punch which he is nothing but a cog going through card stoodfor the university,and, of course, students pre­programmed motions-the 'IBM' syndrome" had begun to fold, spindle andmutilate them. (153).2 Punch cards were the symbol of The Berkeley Free Speech Movement had its information machines, and so they became the start in late 1964 when students were prohibited symbolic point of attack. Todd Gitlin sums from raising funds for political causes on campus. up-and dismisses­the Free Speech Movement It opposedwhat it saw as the increasingconformity as a protest against "suburban blandness, and alienation of American society and, more middle-class impersonality, and specifically, to the pro-business policies of the folding-spindling-and-mutilating universities'' University of California's president, . (164). MarioSavio, a leader of the Free Speech Movement, Punch cards, used for class registration, were wrote that the main internal reasons for the revolt first and foremost a symbol of uniformity. Mario Savio wrote that individuals were processed by the derive primarily from the style of the factory-like mass university, emerging as IBM cards with degrees miseducationof which ClarkKerr is theleading ideologist. There (Rorabaugh, photograph caption after 50). A are many impersonal universities in America; there is probably student editorial suggested that the inflexibility of none more impersonal in its treatment of students than the the bureaucracy and the impersonal grading system University of California. (2) might make a student feel "he is one out of 27,500 IBM cards in the registrar's office" ("The Big U" Opposition to the bureaucratic organization, 8). The president of the Undergraduate Association standardization and automation of the university, criticized the University as "a machine ... an IBM and by extension, modern industrial society, were pattern of education" (Gartner 9). A flyer distributed centralthemes of the protestors' (Savio, by Berkeley's W.E.B. DuBois club showed the Draper, Peck). In the most famous speech of the university as a card punch machine run by big movement, Mario Savio used a memorable business, its product students as identical to one technological metaphor: another as IBM cards (Figure 2). It took a professor of sociology, Robert Blaumer, to explicate the There's a time when the operation of the machine becomes so symbolism: he referred to the "sense of odious, it makes you so sick at heart, that ...you've got to put imperso­nality ... symbolized by the IBM your bodies upon the gears and upon wheels... and you've got technology (Berlandt, "Why FSM" 9). to make it stop. And you've got to indicate to the people who run it, to the people who own it, that unless you're free, the In an ironic twist, students began to use punch machine will be prevented from working at all. (Peck 28)1 cards as symbols themselves. (After all, that was, in their eyes, the way the University saw them.) Savio's speechis famous, but few have realized This was an attempt to claim the authority that that "the machine" he had in mind was not merely was invested in the punch card. Punch cards were, a mechanical metaphor for society; it was, at least after all, the visible part of the bureaucratic system as much, a metaphor for information technology. that held power at the university. People deserved at least the same rights as punch cards. One student "Do Not Fold, Spindle or Mutilate"

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Figure 2. From the W.E.B. DuBois Club newsletter, Bancroft Library, Berkeley. Courtesy Bancroft Library; reproduced from Rorabaugh (after p. 50). and administration beliefs and methods. This sort at Berkeley pinned a sign to his chest: "I am a UC of metaphorical technical subversion rarely rises student. Please don't bend, fold, spindle or mutilate above the level of prank. 4 me" ("Letter from Berkeley" 12; Draper 225). The punch card, its protection by the Establishment Perhaps more radical, or at least with less guaranteed by the words printed on it, became an confused symbolism, were students who destroyed ironic model for emulation. But like most punch cards in symbolic protest: the punch cards metaphors, the metaphor of the punch cardcut both that the university used for class registration stood ways. An editorial welcoming new students to the for all that was wrong with the university, and by university in 1964 suggested that there was small extension, America. Students at Berkeley and other chance of surviving Registration without being University of California branches burned their "torn, mutilated or spindled by an IBM machine" registration punch cards in anti-University protests just as they burned draft cards in anti-Vietnam ("The 'Welcome'" 12). At least one student felt she protests (Bradley). had failed: she complained, after registration, "I feel like a small number stamped on a computer The alienation symbolized by punch cards at card" ("Registration, Lines" 3). Berkeley was an aspect of a broader feeling of Because the punch card symbolically repres­ alienation, the "depersonalization" of being treated ented the powerof the university, it made a suitable like a number, not an individual. This reaction to point of attack. Some students used the punch cards the demands of information processing technology in subversive ways. An underground newspaper can be found back at least as far as the introduction reported: of serial numbers for prisoners and members of the military, and of Social Security numbers. The prisoner who loses his name and becomes "just a Some ingenious people (where did they get this arcane number" is a staple of country music and prison knowledge? Isn't this part of the Mysteries belonging to blues songs. These earlier precedents no doubt Administration?) got hold of a number of blank IBM cards, and influenced reaction to the introduction of social gimmicked the card-puncher till it spoke no mechanical security numbers: a cartoon shows Uncle Sam language, but with its little slots wrote on the cardssimple letters: "FSM", "STRIKE" and so on. A symbol, maybe: the rebels are insisting that a citizen give his number when asked better at making the machine talk sense than itsowners. ("Letter for his name (Figure 4). The impersonality of from Berkeley" 12; Draper 113) identification numbers became a staple of 1960s counterculture: In "I'm Goin' to Say it Now," his ballad of student protest based on the Berkeley Free Students wore these punch cards like name tags. Speech Movement, Phil Ochs sang "You've given They were thought sufficiently important symbols me a number and you've taken off my name." The of the Free Speech Movement that they were used same feeling reached into popular culture: Prisoner as illustrations on the album cover of the record Number 6 on the TV show The Prisoner repeated: that the Movement issued (Free Speech Movement) "I am not a number; I am a person." He summarized (Figure 3). his stand against the "system" by saying, in the Another form of technological subversion was first episode: "I will not be pushed, filed, stamped, forstudents to punch their own cards, and slip them indexed, briefed, debriefed, or numbered. My life in along with the official ones: is my own" (White and Ali 9-11 and 154-55). 5 The depersonalization of the punch-card era Some joker among the campus eggheads fed a string of found its catch phrase in the words on the cards; obscenities into one of Cal's biggest and best computers-with its ubiquity gave it instant familiarity. One observer the result that the lists of new students in various classes just of the period wrote that marijuana, the 60s escape c:an NOT be read in mixed company. (Berlandt, "IBM Enrolls" from the rigors of the real world, let you see "the l)' strangeness of real unfolded-unspindled­unmutilated life" (Gitlan 202). "Do not fold, spindle, or These pranks were the subversion of the mutilate" became shorthand for a whole realm of technician. The students were indicating their countercultural experience. The ecological ability to control the machines, and thus, movement of the early 1970s, a child of the 1960s symbolically, the machinery of the university. But counterculture, picked up on it too: a popular poster it also indicates, like the students' and administra­ for Earth Day 1970 showed a picture of the Earth tions' shared use of the machine metaphor, taken from space with the legend "Do not fold, something of the degree of convergence of student spindle, or mutilate." z i

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Figure 3. Punch cards punched with words, from the album cover for "FSM's Sounds Be Songs of the De Courtesy Libraryof Congress. monstration!"

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Figure 5. Birthday greeting card, 1968. Courtesy Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. � � :z ....0 � p,.- �.... 5. 1"- 0.. a:: c:-.= �- �:

Figure 6. Drawing from advertisement for computer dating, from The Daily Californian, October 18, 1966(14). 1The Free Speechmovement made wide use of machine spindling, or mutilating make no sense in this context, and metaphors; the university was a "factory," a "machine," so I feel sure that Microsoft is using the expression with students "cogs" ("We want a university"). In this, they were, an awareness of its historical echo, and with humorous (and to some extent, picking up on widespread belief: the Free perhaps ironic?) intent. My thanks to Kenneth Lubar for Speech Movement's arch-enemy, University of California's bringing this label to my attention. president Clark Kerr, had described the university as a Knowledge Factory, "a mechanism-a series of processes producing a series of results-a mechanism held together by administrative rules and powered by money" (Draper, Works Cited "Mind" 204-5). As David Edge has noted (lSIO-lSU), it's not uncommon for one metaphor to mean exactly opposite things to two groups of people. Edge suggests that this indicates basic agreement on the way the world works; I Austrian, Geoffrey D. believe that was, to a large degree, true to the Free Speech , Forgotten Giant : Columbia UP, demonstrators and the University administrators they of Information Processing. 1982. opposed. "Automatic Book Charging." 15 Sept. The most widespread use of the machine metaphor was Library Journal 66 1941: 80lS. in reference to the war in Vietnam: the Berkeley Vietnam Baehne, G.W. Day Committee, successor (in some ways) to the FreeSpeech Practical Applications of the Punched Card New York: Movement, used as its motto: "Stop the War Machine" Method in Colleges and Universities. Columbia UP, 19lS5. (Rubin /JlS). The "Yippie" branch of the 60s protest Bartlet, E.F. movement also used machine metaphors, but to a more Accounting Procedures of the US Government. Washington: Public AdministrationService, 1940. radical end: they didn't care if "the machine" ran or not, Beninger, James. as long as they weren't part of it. For example Peter Berg, The Control Revolution: Technological and leader of the Diggers, a San Francisco radical street theater Economic Origins of the Information Society. group, told a 1967 Detroit meeting of the Students for a Cambridge: HarvardUP, 1986. Berlandt, Konstantin. "IBM Enrolls Phonies." Democratic Society: "Don't let them make a machine out The Daily 20 Oct. 1964: l. of you, get out of the system, do your own thing." Or Abbie Californian Hoffman, swearing at the boring at the same -- "Why FSM? Impersonality." The Daily Californian meeting: "You guys are fags, machines" (Free [Abbie 16 Feb. 1965: 9. Hoffman], lS5 and lS8). Bradley, Susan. Conversation with the author. 1990. 2IBM, by far the largestcomputer manufacturer, became Campbell-Kelly, M. "Punched Card Machinery," in in itself a symbol of computeri1.ation and dehumani1.ation. Computing before Computers. William Aspray, ed. "Our lives," wrote one student, are "manipulated by IBM Ames: Iowa State UP, 1990. machines" (Shaffer llS). Another referred to Berkeley's Cortata, James. Conversation with the author. 1990. "alleged 'IBM atmosphere' " (Miner 2). The use of IBM as Curran, Delores. Do Not Fold, Staple or Mutilate! A Book symbol of the modernage went beyond the Berkeley campus, about People. NotreDame, Indiana:Ave Maria P, 1970. of course: Tom Wolfe refers to the kids in Greenwich Village Darling, Sharon. Conversation with the author. 1990. in the early 1960s "participat[ing] in discussions denouncing Data Processing Annual: Punched Card and Computer our IBM civilil.ation" (1107). Applications and Reference Guide. Detroit: Gille 3The notion of getting back at computers by punching Associates, 1961-64. new holes in the cards that came as bills was widespread Disney, Doris Miles. Do Not Fold, Spindle or Mutilate. (Troxell). GardenCity, New York: Published for the Crime Club •Tue technical prank-or "hack" as it's known at by Doubleday and Co., 1970. engineering schools-generally serves to reinforce the Draper, Hal. Berkeley: The New Student Revolt. New York: importance of technology than to subvert it. Hackers are, Grove P, 1965, for the most part, playing on the surface of technological Edge, David. "TechnicalMetaphor and SocialControl."The George systems rathertha n trying to underminethem. Phone hackers History and Philosophy of Technology. in the 1960s and 1970s and computer hackers in the 1980s Bugliarello, and Dean B. Doner, eds. Urbana, IL: The are good examples of this phenomenon. U of Illinois P, 19711: !S09-24. 5The rock group Iron Maiden turned the expression on Free [Abbie Hoffman). Revolution for the Hell of It. New its head in "Back to the Village": "I don't have a number, York: Dial P, 1968. I'm a name" (White and Ali U2). Free Speech MovemenL "Songs of the Demonstrations" 6A punch card machine will be featuredin Washington, (Long-playing record). Berkeley: FSM-Records Dept., D.C. 's United States Holocaust Memorial Museum(Milton). 1965. 7The most recent place I've seen it used is on a 1990 Gartner, Larry. "Undergraduate Association to tune up the mailing label from Microsoft, Inc., one of the largest 'Machine'," The Daily Californian 15 February 1965: manufacturers of computer software. The mailing label reads 9. "Do not fold, spindle, mutilate, or x-ray." Folding, Gibbs, Angelica. "Punch With Care." The New Yorker 17 "Do Not Fold, Spindle or Mutilate" 79

Feb. 1940: Another54££. Chance: Postwar America, 1945- (September 4, 1926): 353-54. The Daily Californian 1968. Gilbert, James. Hope, "Registration, Lines, Both Begin." Philadelphia:The Sixties: Temple Years UP,of 1981. Days of Rage. 16 September 1964: 3. Gitlin, Todd. Reid-Green,cientific Keith American S. "The History of CensusTabulation. "S­ Between Breaks, Toronto: Bantam Books, 1987. 260 (February, 1989): 98-103. Joerges, Bernward. "Images of TechnologyTechnology in Society: and Rogers,Live! Stan. "White Collar Holler." the ComputerCulture as Butterfly and Bat." ,Berkeley 1979. at War: The Nineteen Sixties. 31 (AprilIndustrialism 1990): 203-27. and Industrial Man. Rorabaugh, William. Kerr, Clark, et. al. Oxford:Do Oxford It; Scenarios UP, 1989. of the Revolution. Cambridge: HarvardDespite UP, 1960. Everything. Rubin, Jerry. New York: Berkeley: The New Student "Letter from Berkeley." Special Letter, Simon and Schuster, 1970. Revolt. January 1965: 12. The Daily Savio, Mario. "Introduction." Collier's Magazine Levine,Californian Eric. "The Lines of Conformity." By Hal Draper. New York: Grove P, 1965. 15The September Automated 1964: State: 12. Computer Systems Scheinfeld, Arnram. "It's in the cards." MacBride,as a NewRobert. Force in Society. 29 May 1944: 18. Washing­ Philadelphia: Chilton Book Schwartz, James. "Goodbye, Punch Cards: Treasury Begins ton Post, Co., 1967. Cybernation: The Silent Conquest. Conversion to More Secure Paper Checks." The Daily Californian Michael, Donald N. 3 December 1985: Al 7. Santa Barbara: Center for the Study of Democratic Shaffer, Michael. "Brakes Next?" 4 Feb. 1965: 13. Institutions, 1962. The American City The Daily Soraghan, Joseph P. "Modern Equipment for St. Louis Milton, Sybil. Conversation with the author 1990. The Automation Hysteria. Miner,Californian Val. "UC Time Sharing Computer." Police." February 1949: 80-Slff. Terbourgh, George. Washington, 21 Nov. 1966:2. D.C.: Machinery and Products Institute and Council "Modern Machine Accounting for the Manufacturer." No for TechnologicalThe Advanc Daily emCalifornianent, 1965. publisher: no date. In the collection of the Division "The 'Welcome.' " 15 September of Computers, Information, and Society, National 1964: 12.The Daily Californian Museum of American History, Smithsonian pr Me." "The Big U." 7 A il 1964: 8. Institution. Saturday Troxell,Stanford John P.Graduate "Don't poinSchoolt that of ComputerBusiness Bulletinat Monroe,Evening Keith. Post."The Detective Who Never Sleeps." IO Oct. 1953: 32-33. Autumn 1965: 24-29. Norberg, Arthur L. "High-Technology Calculation in the Wilson Library Bulletin Technology and Culture Waugh, Dorothy. "Business Machines in the Public Early 20th Century: Punched Card Machinery in Library." January 1942: 366- Business and Government." 367. 31 (October 1990): 753-779. I Ain't Marching Berkeley: The New Student Revolt. Anymore "We want a university." Anonymous brochure reprinted in Ochs, Phil. 'Tm Going to Say it Now." By Hal Draper. University Authority and the Student: long-playing record, 1965. New York: TheGrove Kandy-Kolo P, 1965: 188-196.red Tangerine-Flake The Berkeley Experience. Otten, C. Michael. WolfeStreamline, Tom. Baby. Berkeley: U of California New York: Farrar, Straus and Uncovering the Sixties: the Life and Times of P, 1970. Giroux, 1965. Peck, Abe.the Underground Press. New York: Pantheon Books, 1985. Railway Review Steven Lubu is Curator of Engineering and Industry at the "Railway Accounting with Punch Cards." National Museum of AmericanHistory Smithsonian Institution.