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The Role of Non-Official Diplomacy in a Multi 1 ..... 1e.,V R:•.. A >o••• ,I :e. .. Y of•• Y .... N:on~.Ofifi~'J·:a.. : ···"'····· ....• ~ ..•...•.....~- ..•......,) D'iP' · ... ~ .. /.~:)'om:' .... -.·._ .. :a, .•..•. .. .-:cv .JJ~ 1"n,... :.. ·_ a....... Th ,,,... .Y Multl·Track..• lf ..•... ,:.·.... : .. '............. .- .• ................. Ap~... :.:·~·~p' .... ~--~:·_·_ ,~o' .. ,".a~'·b~ ....- ..-·"-·····-<· t·o·.. ' ... ·'. Peace:....... .. Y ... - .• • ... / .... 1'.; A/.' ........ n· :... ·' Al••• ·-tern(.. ::.- •.. !--"" ••. ·••. : . :a·.' •.•••. t•t"'ve ,_ ..: .•.•-· A·, :. P' ____, __ .. v:p· ...... -·1r'O' :. ·./,a· .. ,.-~-.·~'h··· · _·: to__ ..... · ~ad1"l1"·o·.I.,_ I_:· .. :. ;. ...... :.~.: ......... : .,./"',' ·D' .. ·ali·... -..... · i ·.dr ·Dr:fl> 0/ =•••• : •• '".: ............. • .•.• :0' Mo.' ,; .d:eJs·' · •.: .. / ....: .. ,: .. ,:~,f: ... : M•-~-- j ....·e· ,.:~ , ...;'ia· .... :. : .. ~·:trior , ...... :.,.'/;n .... a·nd·.··• cr7 · .. / ... ." .......... : ...........:i~t·· :.~- )! A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Political Science in the University of Canterbury by Janine Ogg University of Canterbury 2002 11 Table of Contents Abstract...................................................................................... 1 Introduction . 2 1. The Nature and Scope of the Research . 3 2. Barriers to the Research .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 5 Chapter One: The Challenges of Post-Cold War Era Conflict Resolution 1.1 Introduction . .. 7 1.2 The Contemporary Conflict Environment: Trends in Violent Conflict.................................................................... 7 1.3 Analysing the Internal Conflicts of the 1980s and 1990s ........... 10 1.4 Responding to the Challenge of Contemporary Internal Conflict.. 15 1.5 Conclusion . 42 Chapter Two: The Inadequacies of Current Diplomatic Reponses 2.1 Introduction . 44 2.2 The Story Thus Far . 45 2.3 Understanding the Mediation Process . 47 2.4 The Shortcomings of Traditional Mediation and Conflict Resolution Approaches . .. 49 2.5 Conclusion . .. 56 Chapter Three: Non-Official Mediators in Internal Conflict: An Alternative Approach to Peace 3.1 Introduction . 59 3.2 The Rise of Global Civil Society....................................... 60 3.3 What is Non-Official, or Track II Diplomacy........................ 63 3.4 The Rise of Non-Official Diplomacy .................................. 66 3.5 Non-Official Mediation: Part of an Alternative Conflict Resolution Paradigm?..................................................................... 71 3.6 Conclusion . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... 76 Chapter Four: The Strengths and Challenges of Non-Official Mediation: Sant'Egidio in the Mozambique Peace Process 4.1 Introduction............................................................... 79 4.2 The Community of Sant'Egidio and the Mozambican Peace Process..................................................................... 80 4.3 The Strengths of Non-Official Mediation . 82 4.4 The Challenges Faced by Non-Official Mediation .. .. .. .... 96 4.5 Conclusion . 105 Conclusion: Lessons Learned . .. .. .. .. .. ... 109 References . 117 iii Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to express a sincere thank-you to my parents. They have both supported me throughout my studies, encouraging me to carry on yet never pressuring. Most importantly, they have fostered my love of learning and encouraged all my endeavours unquestionably. In particular, I would like to thank them for their large part in enabling me to attend the International Student Symposium in Negotiation and Conflict Resolution at The Hague, the Netherlands. It was an unforgettable experience that has inspired me, both in my studies and in my personal life. Several other people also deserve credit for the completion of this thesis. The teachings of my supervisor, Professor Jacob Bercovitch, were the source of my initial interest in the field of mediation and conflict resolution. His continued support and encouragement have been great, and his wry sense of humour has kept me on my toes at all times. Doctor Richard Jackson, although a late addition to the project, has also provided support and advice that has been greatly appreciated. It was great to find someone who shares a similar interest in non-official mediation and its potential role in the response to violent conflict. Richard, I wish you the best of luck in your endeavours at the University of Manchester - their gain is definitely our loss. Thanks must also go out to various departmental figures - Jill and Philippa in the department office, and Judith Fretter, who diligently helps everyone with their last minute formatting and editing. Finally, thanks must go to my grandmother, Joyce, for housing and feeding me on all those overnight trips to Christchurch, to my partner Richy, for treating me to dinner when I couldn't afford it and putting up with my bad moods during times of crisis, and to the rest of my family and friends, who have at all times maintained faith in my abilities. IV List of Tables and Figures Tables Page 1.1 TheDeclineofinterstateWars 1715-1995 ........................... 9 1.2 Military Units Involved in Internal Conflict.......................... 35 1.3 The Number of Victims Resulting from Conflicts in Africa since 1972 . ... 41 1.4 The Key Conflict Resolution Challenges of the Post-Cold War Era..................................................................... 43 2.1 Gaps in Current Responses to the Resolution of Internal Conflict . 58 3.1 A Multi-Track Framework for Peace ................................... 68 3.2 The Peacemaking Activities of Non-Official Actors . ... .... 70 3.3 A Comparison of Official and Non-Official Mediation in Internal Conflict ............................................................ 78 4.1 Redressing the Gaps in Current Responses to Internal Conflict.... 107-108 Figures 1.1 The Nature of Conflict in the International System ................... 10 1.2 Major Armed Conflicts of the 1990s .................................... 12 1.3 The Level of Civil and International Violence ......................... 39 2.1 A Contingency Approach to Mediation . .. 49 3.1 The Place Called Reconciliation......................................... 74 3.2 Actors and Approaches to Peacebuilding ............................... 76 4.1 Map of Mozambique...................................................... 81 1 Abstract This thesis proposes that the unique and intractable nature of contemporary internal conflict has necessitated a change in the way the international community responds to violent conflict. The inadequacies of current official and state-led approaches to mediation and conflict resolution suggest that conflict practitioners must place greater emphasis on establishing a more effective, alternative approach to the processes of mediation and conflict resolution. This approach should recognise and incorporate the potential role that non-official, or non-state actors, may have to play in a co-ordinated and "multi-track" approach to peace. Using the mediation activities of the Community of Sant'Egidio, a voluntary Catholic organisation based in Rome, as an illustrative example, this study finds that non-official mediators bring a unique set of benefits to the mediation process. It argues that non-official mediators- representatives of community groups, non-governmental organisations, religious leaders, or indigenous groups, for example - therefore have the potential to make a unique contribution to conflict resolution in the post-Cold War era. The research also finds that non-official mediation is faced with several potential weaknesses, or challenges, that may compromise the effectiveness of its efforts. It concludes, however, that the effectiveness of the Sant'Egidio mediation efforts in the case of Mozambique demonstrates that those challenges can be overcome, particularly when the actors concerned recognise that their efforts must occur as part of a comprehensive and multi-faceted approach to peace that incorporates both official and non-official aspects of internal conflict. It is concluded, therefore, that mediation by non-official actors differs from traditional diplomatic concepts because it encourages mutual problem solving between the parties, addresses the psychological and relational aspects of the conflict, empowers actors at all levels and attempts to attack the root causes of the conflict. As a result, non-official mediation efforts have the potential to redress the gap between current (official and state-led) approaches and the remedies necessary to meet the challenges of contemporary internal conflict. 2 Introduction The vast majority of international conflicts today are internal in nature, increasingly a result of tensions between regional or intrastate actors, as opposed to the influence or intervention of external actors that characte1ised international relations in the past. Without the ideological framework of the Cold War era, the resolution of internal conflicts has become increasingly challenging as the nature of the issues and the functions of violence have become more and more complex and in many cases, entrenched. Today, violent internal conflict is a particularly destructive and barbaric type of struggle, widely recognised as posing a serious threat to international peace and security. Consequently, foreign policy decision makers are faced with challenging decisions over when, how and who should intervene in situations of internal conflict,
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