SAMIKSA JOURNAL OP THE INDIAN PSYCHOANALYTICAL SOCIETY

Editor NAGENDRANATH OE

VOLUME ff PADEXTRAM MISARO NUMBER 3 1957 JOURNAL COMMITTEE Dr. S, C. Mitra Dr. N. De , '; "NOWHERE TO HIDE"—THE PROBLEM OF WEAK Dr. T. C. Sinha IDENTIFICATIONS Dr. B. K. Bose EDMUND BERGLER. M. 0. Mr. A, Datta Dr. N. N. Chatterjee In all cases of unconscious identification, the individual is in Dr. A.K. Dev effect hiding behind someone else's broad shoulders. The preamble Mr. C. V. Ramana is an inner conflict which has been solved through acquistion of a "bodyguard." Typically, the identification is performed in two Mr. M. V. Amrith layers, "leading" and "misleading." (This was first pointed cut Mr. P. N. Choubey in my study, "The Leading and Misleading Basic Identifications, "The PA Review, 32: 263-295, 1945.) The "leading" identifica- EDITOR tion pertains to the solution of the specific infantile conflict, Dr. N. De secondarily bolstered through an identification ; the stabilization is ASST. EDITOR permanent and unchangeable during the individual's life time, except Dr. B. K. Bose through clinical analysis. The "misleading" identification is more superficial, though still unconscious. It is performed under pressure from the superego, and its purpose is acquisition of new shield to deflect or prevent the superego's attacks on the specific basic conflict, which has been petrified in the "leading" identification. Subsidiary and exchangeable defenses are thus created and concretely REVISTA DE PSICOANALISIS expressed in changing identifications. That process frequently im- Oigano De La presses the untrained observer as indication of "changing'' personality ASOCIACION PSICOANLITICA ARGENTINA it proves only that a specific defense has worn through and has had Publica en castellano los articulos fundamentals del perisamiento to be replaced. bsicoanalitico y los articulos originates escritos en espanol. Ademas s For example, a promiscuous "wolf" has his "leading" identi- Revista de Libros, Revista de Revistas, Revision de la literatura psicor 1 fication with a masochistically mistreated person, whereas his analitica clasica y Notas y Comentarios psicoanaliticos. "misleading" identification is with a hyper-He-man.

El tomo anual, Urjosamente presentado e illustrado, contiene un; In the last few years, I have frequently been confronted promedio de mil paginas. Su coleccion constituye la tseior sintesis del with patients who had consulted me on basis of my writings pensamiento psicoanalitico existente en castellano. ; on psychic masochism. These patients were fascinated by that Precio de venta : Suscripcion anual % 70 (Atg.), % 8.00 (U. S.) phenomenon. They had acquired a strange conviction (one could Volumenes atrasados $ 90 (Arg.1, % 8.50

The clean copies of the manuscript reached me from the typist receiving my manuscript from the typist, and had not changed the early one morning. I reread the talk, and found that I was (perhaps typescript afterwards, it was obvious that it could not have been my childishly) proud of the title, so proud indeed that I repeated it to mistake and had to be Mr. B.'s. myself several times. In doing so, I found that I had changed the The little incident made it possible to show again how Mr. B. figure ; I had said "eight" instead of "seven." After catching myself (and he is but a representaive of a type) could live on the on that "mistake," I began to laugh. The superego, being incapable exclusive basis of disparagement, and how unstable his identfica- of preventing subjectively enjoyed "success," devalued that success tions were, though he still enthusiastically accepted the "basic by ironically pointing out-^after the "Sc what ?" principle—that neurosis." eight points wonld be more than seven. Through this ironic "overbidding" the "success" was nullified. I used this incident as an example in two successive appoint- The question arises : how are these people to be helped ? ments tnat morning, In telling the story to the first patient, Mr. Modified elaborations of a new ego ideal are typically observable A., a deeply depresssed and analytically very ignorant person, I in successful analyses ; with these are coupled a strengthening stopped short before telling him my reaction (laughter, which of the ego. The former is poorly established in the patients devalued the superego's attack), and asked what his own reaction under discussion, though the latter process may take place. would have been in such a situation. Without hesitation, Mr. A. Before answering the question, it is necessary to clarify answered, "I would have run for Shakespeare's play to find out the fact that only a specific group of psychic masochists can be whether I had really missed something." I answered that he "convinced" by reading books masochism. The typical reaction is misunderstood the superego's intentions : these were not pedagogic rejection of the whole deduction; the exceptional reaction is but punitive. acceptance. Why does that small group react paradoxically / My second appointment was with Mr. B., the man who interests It turns out that only "hyper-masochists" consciously accept us in this connection. I related the indident, my reaction, and the precept, and then only under the influence of the punitive Mr. A.'s reaction. My purpose was to demonstrate the thesis, just superego and its telling accusation : "That's you." discussed in his analysis : "You cannot win against the superego ; These hyper-masochists are extremely servere cases from it either prevents success or—if that cannot be done—devalues it, the start. It seems that one has more difficulty with them in The whole problem centers around the ego : one can reject the analysis than with the typical doubter. indictment (for example, by laughing at it) or submit to it The severity of these neuroses leads to one of two results, masochistically (Mr. A.'s reaction)." even in cases that are therapeutic half-successes. One result is Some time later, I delivered the lecture. Mr. B. was in the that—years after conclusion of analysis—these people begin to audience. I used this identical example in explaining some of the doubt again whether "that damned masochism really exisists" ; techniques of the superego. hence continuation of treatment is advisable. The second possi- The next day, Mr. B. told me ironically : "When you told me bility is that despite poor identification ego has become strong that story you said the title mentioned five paradoxes, and you enough to reject unjustifiable reproaches of conscience and to repeated it as having six. But in your lecture you mentioned the reject the masochistic pre-analytical submission. figures seven and eight. It seems that when the pinch came you just On the other hand, the real danger with orally, masochistically like that other patient, had run to the volume of Shakespeare's plays." regressed neurotics lies in the possibility that they fall into the It could be proved that Mr. B. had unconsciously on purpose classification I have described in a previous publication as the 1 "misheard" the figures. Since I acted out the little scene after "empty bag type." ("The 'Empty Bag Type of Neurotic," The Psychiatric Quarterly, 25: 613-617, 1951.) These patients cannot live without tneir pseudo-aggressive defense, and therefore they adhere to their provocative technique in spite of analysis. Buil- SOME NOTES ON FREUD'S PERSONALITY • ding up that defense from early childhood on has sapped all HEINR1CH RACKER their inner energy; the removal of the defense would leave them completely deflated. To avoid that specific danger, of which they When we come into touch with a scientific or artistic work we are unconsciously aware, the defense is perpetuated, and any feel how, through it, little by little, the personality of the man therapy defeated. who created it begins to acquire life. Through and behind the con- The difficulty in establishing. identifications without automati- tent in itself, traits of the author's spirit and character arise one cally correcting the new inner helper is one of the problems in after another until they form an image. Thus it was that all of treating severely masochistic neurotics. They are helpless, and us, as we became progressively acquainted with Freud's writings, cannot find props for identification. They really have "nowhere also became acquainted with Freud the man. Needless to say, to hide." according to our own individual structure, we shall have seen and lived his personality in different ways ; we shall have perceived more one aspect or more another. There are, however, some traits that are so outstanding that it is unlikely that any of us will have failed to feel them. Allow me, to begin with, to recall once again some of these well-known traits on this commemorative occasion. It is, I believe, above all his unconditional and unswerving love of truth, a love that will not be seduced by any personal interest. Freud seeks, finds, and proclaims the truth against everything that opposes it, whether coming from within or without. He never hides the imperfections of his findings and even emphasizes how far his work has remained incomplete. There is in him, in this sense, a deep devotion to reality. Freud himself refers to this attitude, when he speaks, in all modesty, of his back being used to bowing before the facts. It is also Freud himself who mentions the patience that had to assist him in his arduous research work. We well understand that these two virtues, devotion and patience, were present together, for the two are closely connected : patience as a readiness to accept things as they are, and in the time they demand, is nothing else, in essence, but an expression of devotion to reality, an expression of a silent veneration, in this case, of

* Lecture delivered in commernoration of the Centenary of Freud's Birth, at the. .Argentine Psychoanalytic Association, June 1956. 149

awakening of it to new life that constitutes one of the most out- reality in its spiritual aspect, that is to say, of truth. Equally standing features of his vocation. The individual and collective past, united to these two qualities by bonds of psychological kinship is the infancy of each man and of all humanity, his animal and instinctual tenacity, which is active patience or patient activity, capable of history, and the history of primitive and ancient cultures. Starting contending with many difficulties, a characteristic highly developed with his first studies, on the development of nerve cells in the in Freud. And there is another virtue as well, also a sister to evolutionary scale running from the lower to the higher fish, and devotion, that we have all felt in reading his writings : it is Freud's ending with his last great work "The Man Moses and the Mono- fidelity, here again the fidelity to reality, to the facts, which we felt theistic Religion" we are ever and again confronted with Freud through the confidence that arose within us as regards what Freud the "historian"—taking this word in its widest sense—with the describes and relates. Freud who more than anything wished to know the genesis of the Such fidelity is not to be taken for granted in great thinkers. facts. To be sure, he assumed, as Darwin did, that in this genesis There were those who lacked it or possessed another kind of fidelity. the egg came before the chicken ; but this is truth, albeit only a It is stated, for instance, that the great Haeckel, the discoverer part of it. And I think mankind owes gratitude to him for this of the fundamental biogenetic law could not resist the temptation limitation to certain aspects of the truth, this limitation won from to "comb" the facts on which his conclusions were based, that is himself against a strong leaning to philosophical speculation, which to say, to do a little cheating. And when the disciples of another can still be discerned on some occasions, as, for instance, in a certain great thinker, the philosopher Hegel, raised the objection : "but, rejection of philosophy wherein we may perceive his struggle against Professor, your ideas do not agree with reality !", he is said to an attraction. It is also thanks to this voluntary limitation, to have replied, "Well,—so much the worse for reality". This too is this, severe scientific discipline that Freud was able to give humanity fidelity of a sort, a fidelity to the principles and logic of one's what he did. own thinking, as we might also speak of a fidelity of what ought to I said above that Freud's vocation was one of awakening a be (which would be an ethical fidelity) or to what might be (which buried past to new life. To this should be added something more would be an artistic fidelity) ; so that Freud's fidelity had its specific The field to which Freud directed his tireless attention, his ever- quality, namely, fidelity to what is, i.e. scientific fidelity par renewed scrutiny, and his constant search after the origin was, in excellence. fact, the past internal and external. But the road he travelled, and Some of you may already be feeling apprehensive kst I should how he travelled it, was in strange opposition to this ; for his road pursue a line of conduct not infrequent on such commemorative was quite a new one and even meant a total break with the past. occasions, namely to catalogue the finest virtues of the man we You all know how the science, and especially the medicine, of the are here to honour. That would be hardly faithful to what psycho- end of the last century regarded the human psyche ; even today, analysis has taught us and it is not my intention to do so. But I 60 years after the birth of psychoanalysis, we meet with no few too wish to be true to the facts and the points I have made are, I remnants of this outlook. If we consider that in those daj'S Freud believe, facts indeed. I shall have to continue a while along these was the only one who thought in another way, against the principles lines, but more specific traits of Freud's are already beginning and axioms of his scientific fathers and with no brothers to accompany to emerge. Moreover, the moment will come for adding some shade him, we have some idea of the revolutionary nature of psychoanalysis to all this light. and we realize how much courage, how much capacity for the To return to what I was saying before. Every true fidelity is renunciation of fathers and history was necessary for creating this a bond of love that has memory of the past, and in Freud this bond new science, and how strong must have been Freud's urge to go his referred to the facts, i.e. to what was already done, to the product own way and find and produce by himself. It is true that, outside of the past. It is indeed the knowledge of the past and the re- 2 » j^iwvyiN n.L.1 I 1 151 the empirical sciences, in philosophy and in literature, there were may accept Freud's warrior courage and his great self-confidence some few spirits, such as Schopenhauer and Nietzsche, who had as regards his work was largely based on the experience having already intuitively sensed something of what was to become scientific been his mother's favourite. and objective psychoanalytic knowledge. But it was more a matter As we have said, in Freud's case this object of knowledge of sporadic penetration into psychological depths, and, besides, Freud —the mother for whose conquest he fought—was above all, the knew very little of these philosophers. He did not want to know past i.e. the origin of the facts, E. Jones, in posing the question much about them because, I think, it was so important to him to of what childhood circumstances had incited to such a high discover man by himself. degree this search for the genesis of things, points out the Various psychoanalytic considerations suggest themselves here, extraordinarily 'complex character of Freud's family sett-ing which in the first place concerning Freud's relationship with his father. roust have greatly troubled the mind of the young Sigmund, We know something more about this to-day, thanks to Freud's The complexity of the situation lay in the fact that Freud found correspondence with Fliess and the biography by E. Jones. Never himself with two stepbrothers, the offspring of his father's the less, even these data only allow us a measure of conjecture. former marriage, twenty-odd years older than himself, one of whom Freud discovers the boy's ambivalence towards his father through already had a son when Freud was born. Freud thus came into his self-analysis, traversing the conscious level of his mind in which the world an uncle, and this nephew, who had the advantage of there was almost exclusively admiration and love for his father. I him in age, was the main companion and rival in his play think that his unflogging will to know and create by himself is an during early childhood. The younger of Freud's stepbrothers, expression of his desire to be a father himself and his need of Philipp, was the same age as Freud's mother. It was upon Philipp confirming his paternity ever and again. The argument, for instance,- that the little Freud seems to have placed the image of his sexual that Freud gave to explain why he had not acquainted himself with father but this phantasy clashed with the fact that it was another the above-mentioned philosophers or with other thinkers who had man, his father, who slept with his mother. The early appea- anticipated him in one or another of his ideas, was that he wanted rance of younger siblings—the first was born before Freud was to be free from preconceived ideas in his investigations. One must one year old and died when Ereud was one and a half, the recognize a certain objectivity in this argument, but we cannot help second, a sister, was born a year later—the repeated trauma, feeling that it was not the only motive. The wish to be unhampered then, of the mother's pregancy and the birth of these and other by preconceived ideas is, in one respect, a sound scientific aim, rival siblings must have greatly stimulated the boy Freud's search but when one believes it is really attainable or has actually been after the genesis of "things", complicated as they were by the attained, it becomes an illusion. Illusions spring from wishes, and family constellation I have described. I think that the above-mentioned argument also served Freud, in However, the intensiry and multiplicity of external stimuli point of fact, for the fulfilment of a wish. The wish to have - no do not explain genius. As Freud himself affirmed, we have not preconceived ideas is the wish to have no father or, I should say, as yet sufficient access to this enigma. What, on the other hand, to be the father oneself. In general terms, the object of the battle the data set forth and the brief analytic considerations do indeed for knowledge is alwaays, basically, the mother. "Truth is a female", show us is how a characteristic—as the urge to uncover the said Nietzsche, and added : "she loves the warrior". Indeed, since past—may be understood in its roots or elso in its instinctive those distant times in which Adam "knew" Eve (as the Bible says, and infantile expressions. In a similar manner we may assume in consequence of which she gave him his no less famous sons), that the death of the first brother-rival, which caused a great gnosis and genesis have been one and the same thing. Knowledge deal of unconscious guilt feelings in Freud, served to stimulate is the union of love with the object of investigation and we to a high degree his desire to make repair through creative action. Let us now continue with our attempt at building up and "Freud's capacity fot empat\vy mtVi anotVvet's £ee\mg,s atid passions defining the image of Freud from the glimpses his work has also leads us to another of bis capacities : that of empathy -with afforded us. We have seen how Freud felt called upon to explore the thinking of his fellow men. Although these two capacities the history of the facts and we have seen how wide this sphere ars associated by their quality of empathy, we are, as a matter of interest was for him. Yet we cannot fail to note that there of fact, dealing with two quite different factors of Freud's persona- was one main object in his field of investigation, namely, man's lity. The former had much of vocation about it (though an psychological suffering and its genesis. unconfessed and dampened vocation) whereas the latter, the When Freud describes the path he followed, from his choice intellectual empathy, was merely a gift, one more talent among of profession to the creation of psychoanalysis, and, in particular, several but a particularly marked one. One of its most delightful when he tells of the gradual shifting of his interest from expressions we find in those parts of his writings where he makes neurology to psychopathology, he draws attention to a series of the reader or listener speak, for instance, in raising objections to external factors, such as the financial problem, the fact that he what Freud has just stated. You will remember how frequently could not maintain his growing family on what was to be earned these passages recur in the "Introductory Lectures to Psychoana- from his very limited neurological consultations. He also stresses lysis" or in ''Lay Analysis'', this latter book being almost entirely his desire to know the nature and causes of pathological a dialogue between Freud and an imaginary opponent. This phenomena and his aversion to blindly applying unspecific therapeutic empathy with the other's thinking is the consequence of a bent methods such as hydro-or electro-therapy or suggestion technique towards dialectic reasoning, i.e. towards reasoning in thesis and of hypnosis. But these two factors, the financial and the scientific antithesis, towards inner intellectual duality, that is to say, doubt. ones, do not suffice to explain this evolution in Freud. His This inner intellectual struggle renders him familiar with the most evolution and his work point to one further inclination and one diverse intellectual standpoints, just as his own emotional and in- further capacity: the inclination to identify himself with those stinctual struggles opened the way for him to the psychological who suffer in the spirit and the vocation and capacity to depths in others. When Freud makes a statement, there stands understand and aid them. In several of his writings Freud denies next to it, with remarkable frequency, an antithesis which, as in some measure this concern for therapy and it is true that it the case may be, he either expresses as a doubt of his own or was not predominant in him. But it is no less true that projects ont:> the reader. Hence the "intellectual empathy" which confers upon him, at the same time, such extraordinary intellectual psychoanalysis could only have been created by someone who universality, skill and ease. This is, moreover, one of his capacities tended strongly towards psychological union with others, and that, together with his artistic gifts, make the reading of his perhaps even towards suffering with them, and who through this works a feast for the spirit. union desired to be and was able to be an understanding, strong, and kind father, who never condemns and can therefore help, Doubt appears in Freud in yet another form, deeper but protect and guide. His works and especially his clinical case- graver. Not only as talent, play and art but also as burden, need histories speak clearly of this power of being the kind father and sorrow. I refer to a certain compulsion to doubt and for this whom one can confide in and trust, in spite of all Freud's I find support in part in Freud himself who was of the opinion attempts at modestly covering up this capacity and these affective that, in the event of his ever having developed a full neurosis, motives and in spite of a certain dampening they do indeed this would have bean an obsessional neurosis, an illness in which, undergo on account of another psychological factor in his nature. as you know, doubt plays a central part. This compulsion to I refer to Freud's so-called pessimism, a trait that will concern doubt is expressed in various aspects ; in its mildest form in his us later. scepticism and in its extreme form in whot some of his adverse . ~. ^, nu,;,j avjivui IMUTES ON FREUD'S PERSONALITY 155 critics have called his "pessimism". Against this criticism, E. Jones rightly poiats out the many experessions of Freud's optimism and difficult" and our striving for it is merely a product of our accepts the term "pessimism" only insofar as this may mean narcissism, then all the works of culture, science, and art, and one's being free from illusion i.e. as realism. But it Is plain that among them Freud's own achievments are devoid of objective- worth. this is not what those critics mean and I believe that they did It might be said that objective values become at times the 1 indeed point to something that realy existed in Freud, only that terrifying spectre of a conscience smitten by neurotic guilt, where it was greatly moderated by other characterological components the ego feels safer under the shelter of relativism. For if every- of a different and more optimistic nature. Further : thanks to thing is relative, so is what we unconsciously deem our unforgivable his caeative powers, Freud converted this burden, this pessimism, sins and our irreparable, i.e. absolute, misdeeds. In this sense into a stimulus (like a physical resistance may act as a stimulus our lack of faith would spring from a fear of punishment and to our muscles) and it even became a factor that codetermined would be a protection against it. Nevertheless, I have the the direction that Freud's investigations took. For I think that it impression that the lack of faith is even more the punishment demanded a consideraderable dose of scepticism and mistrust as itself, an unconscious self-punishment. If this is so, then we fear regards everything that is usually called "higher" in human nature the faith in objective values and we repress it in the same way to discover the unconscious and, in particular, its instinctive part. way as the moral masochist fears and represses anything good, This mistrust is at the same time a mistrust of higher things in since what is bad, i.e. punishment, offers him greater safety. general so that it was not a matter of chance that Freud should On the ther hand as happens with neurotic symptoms, here as have repeatedly taken as the subject of his research ideas about well the repressed returns in the defence, for faith returns within God and religion, i.e. beliefs about something higher than man. scepticism and relativism itself, the faith in something absolute, To this mistrust and pessimism we owe, then, the deepest insight indubitable, this faith in values, which is a reflection of love into the origins of religion and infantile religiosity in the collective itself that lets us know what is good, even if this knowing begins and individudal history of man. It was a scepticism made fruitful so modestly with the knowledge that the good is the mother's and Freud was, as he himself said, a "gay pessimist". milk. I say that faith returns in the scepticism itself for now Yet in certain respects he had something of the lack of it is relativism that is taken as objective truth par excellence, faith that characterizes true pessimist. Take, for instance, to cite as the absolute. That is to say that, in reality, even the relativist but one example, the following words from his book "The Man and pessimist continues to believe. To return to Freud, we Moses and the Monotheistic Religon", in which Freud refers to have already mentioned that there acted upon him intense uncon- the question of the nature of "higher things" : "Perhaps," says scious guilt feelings, increased by the death of his first younger he, "man proclaims as higher what is more difficult to achieve, and brother, and I think that is was the fear and need of punish- his pride in this is no more than his narcissism of having ment they entailed, that overshadowed his profound faith in - overcome a difficulty." We see then, how Freud, thanks to objective values and submerged it, in part, in his unconscious. his great scepticism, obtains a new psychological understanding : The passing attempt at spiritual suicide I cited above as an narcissism determines our evaluations. But at the same time we example confirms it, for it is murder that is paid with one's own feel—or I do at least—a certain absence of faith, a lack of hope death. In Freud's physical life there was, besides, something similar : for the existence of objective values, which even implies a certain some fainting-fits after certain personal triumphs, which Freud despair. Furthermore, if we accept in its full bearing what Freud himself connects with the death of his little brother. We may says, his words imply something like a spiritual suicide. For if say once again that they were passing suicide attempts, here on there are no objective values, if the "higher" is only the "more the bodily plane. And in fact in the physical we find what we supposed, about the spiritual suicide : it is self-punishment and the same time a protection against the punishment, a protection prompted by the motto : "Better a horrible end than an endless THE YOGA SUTRAS horror". But in Freud it was, in both the spiritual and the (Continued from Previous Issue) physical respects, no more than a transitory phase, a partial and secondary component of his psychism. Even in the above-men- GIRINDRASEKHAR BOSE tioned example, he puts a "perhaps'' at the start of his "pessi- TEXT mistic" affirmation. The doubt, the scepticism, induced perhaps 134 First quarter by the repressed faith, avails itself of this very scepticsm and Samadhipadah opens to more optimistic thougnts, "gayer ones" (as he said), access to the faith in objective values, to enthusiasm for truth I. 1 atha yoga-nu^asanam and beauty, to which his mind heart—thanks to many other I. 2 yoga3 citta-vrtti-nirodhah qualities of his rich nature—were open to the highest degree. I. 3 tada drastufr svarupe vasthanam So we may celebrate the day on which, one hundred years I. 4 vftti-sarupyami-taratra ago, a a man was born who not only devoted his life to striving I. 5 vfttayak pancatayyah klista-klistah for the victory of truth over falsehood, of love over hatred and I. 6 pramana-viparyaya-vikalpa-nidra-smrtayah of health over sickness, but also found it in him to bring to I. 7 pratyaksa-numana-gamaii pramanani light a work that was destined to be one of the most precious I. 8 viparyayo mithya-jnanama-tadrupa-pratistham gifts to humanity that one man alone has ever been able to I. 9 sabda-jnana-nupati vastu-sflnyo vikaipah offer. This gift is the knowledge that has been sought by many I. 10 abhava-pratyaya-latnbana vlttir-nidra since man has existed, the knowledge that frees humankind from I. 11 anubhuta-viSaya-sampramoSalj smrtik the worst enemy of his happiness and of what he feels to be I. 12 abhyasa-vairagyabhyam tan-nirodhah his true destiny. This enemy is anxiety and the whelp of anxiety, I. 13 tatra sthitau tatno bhyasait hatred, which bar man's path to his innermost self, to his capacity I. 14 sa tu dlrgha-kala-nairantarya-satkara-sevito-drdha-bhumih for creation and to his love for his neighbour. Hitherto it has I. 15 drsta-nusravika-visaya-vitrsnasya vasikara- samjiia vairagyam been given to few to enjoy this great gift well. Much remains I. 16 tat param puru?a-khyater-guna-vaitrsnyam to be done for all to partake fully. But the great harvest will I. 17 vitarka-vicara-nanda-smita-rupa-nugamat samprajnatalj come, for the seed has been cast and the first fruits have already I. 18 virama-pratyaya-bhyasa-purvali samskara-seso'nyaij ripened. Our thanks for what this sowing has yielded us, and has I. 19 bhava-pratyayo videha-prakrci-layanam yet to yield us, go out to the great sower—Sigmund Freud. I. 20 sraddha-vlrya-smrti-samadhi-prajna-purvaka itare?am I. 21 tivra-samvegSnama-sannaJb I. 22 mFdu-madhya-dhimatratvat tato'pi I. 23 isvara-pranidhanad-va I. 24 kle^a-karma-vipaka-savair-aparamrstah purusa-visasa Isvaralj I. 25 tatra nirati^ayam sarvajna-bijam I. 26 purvesama-piguruh kalena-navacchedat I. 27 tasya vacakah pranavah I. 28 taj-japas-tad-artha-bhavanam 3 I. 29 tatalj pratyak-cetana-dhigamo'py-antaraya-bhava^-ca II. 6 drg-darsana-saktyor-ekatmate-va-stmt& I. 30 vyadhi-styanasam§aya-pramada-lasya-virati-bhrantidarsana- II. 7 sukha-nusayl ragalj labdha^bhumikatva-navastliitatvani citta-viksepas-te'n-tarayal> II. 8 dubkha-nusayi dve?a]-t I. 31 dukkha-daurmanasya-ngame-jayatva-svasa-pra§vasa vik?epa- II. 9 sva-rasa-vahi vidu?o'pi tatha-riidho sahabhuvab II.10 te pratiprasava-heyak suk?ma]j I.32 tat-pratisedha-rthame-katattva-bhyasalj II.11 dhyana-heyas-tad-vrttayah I.33 maitri-karuna-mudito-peksanam sukha-duljkha-punya-punya- II.12 klefe-mulab karma-sayo-drsta-drsta-janma-vedaniyak visayanam bhavanata§-citta-prasadanam II.13 sati mule tad-vipako-jaty-ayur-bhoga^ I.34 pracchardana-vidharanabhyam va pranasya II.14 te hlada-paritapa-phaialj punya-punya-hetutvat I.35 vi?ayatl v& pravTttir-utpanna tnanasab sthiti-nibandham II.15 parinama-tapa-samskara-duhkhair-guna-vrtti-virodhac-ca I.36 visoka va jyoti?mati du3jkhame-va sarvain vivekinaii I.37 vltaraga-visyam va cittam II.16 heyam duhkhama-nagatam I.38 svapna-nidra-jfiana-lambanam va II.17 drastr-drsyayob. samyogo-heya-hetulj I.39 yatha-bbim ata-d hyanad-va II-18 praka^a-kriya-sthiti-silam bhute-ndriya-tmakam bhoga-pavargS- I.40 paramanu-parama-mahattva-nto'sya va^ikarab rtham dFSyam II.19 J- l 41 ksina-vytter-abhijatasye-va maner-grahitr-grahana-grahyesu viSesa-visaSa-Iingamatra-lingani guna-parvani tatstha-tadanjanata samapattilj II.20 drasta, d?si-matrab suddho'pi pratyaya-nupaSyah I.42 tatra sabdartha-jfiana-vikalpaib samkirna savitarka samapattih II.21 tad-airtha eva dr^yasya-tma I.43 smrti-pari^uddhau svarupa-sunye-va-rthamatra-nirbbasa II.22 krtartham prati nastama-py-anastam tad-anya-sadharanatv at nirvitarka II.23 sva-svami-saktyob sva-rupo-palabdhi-betuh samyogalj I.44 etayai-va savicara nirvicara ca suksma-vi?ya vy&khyata II.24 tasya hetur-avidya I.45 sflksma-visayatvam ca-linga-paryyavasanam II.25 tad-abbavat samyoga-bhavo hanam tad-dfse^ kaivalyam I.46 ta eva sabljalj samadhilj II.26 viveka-khyatir-aviplava hano-payalj. I.47 nirvicara-vai^Sradye'dhya tma-prasadah II.27 tasya saptadha pranta-bhumilj prajiia I.48 rtaipbhara tatra prajfia II.28 yoga-nga-nusthanad-asuddhi-k?aye j nana-di ptir-avivcka- I.49 ^ruta-numSna-prajiiabhyama-nyavisaya vi^esa-rthatvat khyatelj I.50 taj-jalj samskaro'nya-samskara-pratibandhl II. 29 yama-niyama-sana-pranayama-pratyahara-dharana-dhyana- I.51 tasya-pi nirodhe sarva-nirodhan-nirbijab samadhilj samadhayo'sta-vangani II.30 ahimsa-satya-steya-brahmacarya-parigraha yamalj 235 Second Quarter It'-31 jati-desa-kala-samaya-navacchinnSh. satvabhauma mabavratam ll.32 sauca-samtosa-tapa^-svadhyaye-svara-prani dhanani niyamak Sadhanapadali II..33 vitarka-badhane pratipaksa-bhavanam II. 1 tapab-svSdhyaye-svara-prani dhanani kriya-yogab II.34 vitarka himsadaya^ kpta-karita-numodita lobha-krodha-moha- II. 2 sa samadhi-bbavana-rthalj kle§a-tanukarana-rthas-ca purvaka mrdu-madhya-dhimatra duljkhajnana-nantaphala iti II. 3 avidya-smita-raga-dvesa-bhinivesak panca-klesa]j pratipaksa-bhavanam II. 4 avidya ksetramu-ttaresam prasupta-tanu-yicchino-daranam II.35 ahiipsa-pratisthayam kriya-phala-Srayatvam II. 5 anitya-suci-dubkha-natmasu nitya-suci-sukha-tma-khyatir II.36 satya-pratisthayam kriya-phala-srayatvatn avidya II.37 asteya pratisthayam sarva-ratno-pasthanam II. 38 brahmacarya-pratisthayam virya-labhalj III. 12 tatafc punab santo-ditau tulya-pratyayau cittasyai-kagrata- II. 39 aparigraha-sthairye janma-kathamta-sambodhalj parinamab II. 40 saucat sva-nga-jugupsa parair-asamsargalj III. 13 etena bhute-ndriye?u dharma-lak§ana-vastha-parinatna II. 41 sattvaSuddhi-sautnanasyai-kagrye-ndriyajaya-tma-darsana- vyakhy&tati yogyatvani ca III. 14 santo-dita-vyapadesya-dharma-nupati dharml II. 42 samtosad-anuttamalj sukba-labhal?.. III. 15 krama-nyatvam parinama-nyatve hetub II. 43 kaye-ndriya-siddhir-asuddhiksayat-tapasab III. 16 parinama-traya-samyamad-atita-nagata-jna"nam II. 44 svadhyayad-ista-devatS-samprayogalj III. 17 ^abda-rtha-pratyayanatni-tare-tara-dhyasat samskaras-tat- II. 45 . samadhi-siddhir-lsvara-pranidhanat pravibhaga-samyamat sarvabhuta-ruta-jnanam II. 46 sthira-sukhama-sanam ' III. 18 sanaskara-saksat-karanat purva-jati-jnanam II. 47 prayatna-saithilya-nanta-samapattibhyam III. 19 pratyasya para-citta-jnanatn II. 48 tato dvandva-nabhighata]} III. 20 na ca tat salambanam tasya-visayl-bhutatvat II. 49 tasmin sati Svasa-prasvasayor-gati-vicchedalj pranayatnalj III. 21 kayarupa-samyamat tad-grahya-sakti-stambhe caksu^-prakaSa- II. 50 bahya-bhyantara-stambha-vrttir-desa-kala-samkhyabhib samprayoge 'ntardhanam paridrsto dirgha-suksmelj III. 22 sopakramam nirupakramam-ca karma tat-samyamad-aparanta- II. 51 bahya-bhyantara-vi§ayaksepi caturthalj jnanama-ristebbyo va III. 23 II. 52 tatalj ksiyate prakaSa-varanam maitry-adisu balani III. 24 II. 53 dharanasu ca yogyata manasalj balesu basti-bala-dini III. 25 II. 54 sva-visaya-samprayoge cittasya svarupa-nukara ivendriyanam pravftty-aloka-nyasat suksma-vyavahita viprakrsta-jnaaam III. 26 pratyaharalj bhuvana-jnanam sfirye samyamat III. 27 II. 55 tatalj parama vaSyate-ndriyanSm candre tara-vyuha-jfiSnam III. 28 dhruve tad-gati-jnanam III. 29 nabhi-cakre kaya-vyuha-jnanam 136 Third Quarter III. 30 kanthakupe ksut-pipasa-nivrttilj Bibhiitipadalj III. 31 kflrma-nadyaip sthairyam III. 1 desa-bandhaS-cittasya dharana III. 32 murdha-jyotisi siddha-dar^anam III. 2 tatra pratyayai-katanata dhyanam III. 33 pratibhad-va sarvam IIF. 3 tad-eva-rtha-matra-nirbhasam svarupa-sunyami-va samadhilj III. 34 hrdaye citta-samvit III. 4 trayame-katra samyamab III. 35 sativa-puru?ayor-atyonta-samkirnayolj pratyaya-vi§e?o-bhogab III. 5 taj-jayat prajna-lokalj para-rthatvat svartha-samyamat puru?a-jfianam III. 36 III. 6 tasya bhumi§u viniyogaiij tatab ptatibha-sravana-vedanS-dar^a-svaida-varta jayante III. 37 III. 7 trayama-ntarangam purvebhyah te samadha-vupasarga vyutthane siddhayalj III. 38 III. 8 tad-api bahirangam nirbijasya bandha-karana-Saithilyat prac&ra-samvedanacca cittasya para- ^arlra-vesab III. 9 vyutthana-nirodha-samskarayor-abhibhava-pradurbhavau III. 39 nirodha-ksaija-citta-nvayo-nirodha-parinamalj udana-jayaj-jala-panka-kantaka-disv-asanga : utkrSntis-ca III. 40 samana-jayaj-jvalanam III. 10 tysya prasanta-vahita saipskarat III. 41 srotra-kasayob sambandha-samyamad-divyaip srotram III. 11 sarvarthatai-kagratayolj ksayo-dayau cittasya samadhi- 42 III. kay5-kasayob sambandha-samyamal-laghu-tula-samapattes-ca- parinamalj kaia-gamanam 163 III." 43 bahir-akalpita vlttir-mahavideha tatak prak&sa-varanaksa-yah IV. 12 atita-nagatam svarupato sty-adhva-bhedad-dharma'nam III. 44 sthula-svarupa-siikstna-nvaya-rthavattva-saipyamad-bhuta- IV. 13 te vyakta-suksma guna-tmanab IV. 14 parinamai-katvad vastu-tattvam HI. 45 tato1 nimS-di pradurbhavafe kaya-saippat taddharma-nabhi- IV. 15 : vastu-samye citta-bhedat-tayor-vibhaktab panthab ghatas-ca • " IV. 16 na cai-kacitta-tantram vastu tad-apramanakam tada kim syat III. 46 rupa-Iavanya-bala-vajra-samhananatvani kaya-sampat IV. 17 tad-uparaga-peksitvac-cittasya vastu jnatS-jiiatarn III. 47 grahana-svarupa-smita-nvaya-rthavattva-saipyamad-indriya- IV. 18 sada jfifttas-citta-vrttayas-tat-prabhoti puruSasya-parinamitvat jayalj IV. 19 na tat sva-bhasam dfsyatvat III. 48 tato manojavitvam vikarna-bhavalj pradhana-jayas-ca IV. 20 eka-samaye co-bhaya-navadharanam . . 49 sattva-purusS-nyata-khyati-matrasya sarva-bb.ava-dhisth.atr- III. IV. 21 citta-ntara-d?sye buddhi-buddher-atiprasangah-smrti- tvaip sarvajnatptvain-ca samskaras-ea III. 50 tad-vairagyad-api doSa-blja-k§aye kaivalyam IV. 22 citer-apratisamkramayas-tad-akarapattau svabuddhi- III. 51 stbany-upanimantrane sanga-smaya-karanam punar-anisia- saipvedanam prasangat IV.23 drastr-drsyo-paraktaip cittam sarva-rtham III. 52 ksana-tat-kramayoh samyaraad-vivekajam jiianam IV.24 tad-asamkhyeya-vasanabhis-citrama-pi para-rtham samhatya- III. 53 jati-laksana-de§air-anyata-navacchedat tulyoyos-tatalj prati- karitvat pattilj IV.25 vise?a-dar^ina atma-bhava-bbavana-vinivrttib III. 54 tSrakain sarva-vi?ayam sarvatha visayama-kramara-ce-ti IV.26 tada viveka-nimnam kaivalya-pragbharam cittam 27 vivekajam jiianam ,n IV. tac-chidre§u pratyaya-ntarani saipskarebhyali III. 55 sattva-puru§ayob suddhi-samye kaivalyami-ti IV.28 haname-sam klesavad-uktam IV.29 prasamkhyane 'py-akusldasya sarvatha viveka-khyater-dharma- 137 Fourth Quarter meghab samadhiJi IV.30 Kaivalyapadah tatak kleSa-karma-nivrttih IV.31 tada sarva-varana-mala-petasya jfianasya-nantyaj-jneyama- IV. 1 janmau-sadhi-mantra-tapa^-samadhijalj siddhayalj lpam jaty-antara-parinamalj prakPcy-apurat IV. 2 IV.32 tatak krta-rthanarn parinama-krama-samaptir-gunanam nimittama-prayojakaip prakytinatn varana-bhedas-tutatab IV. 3 IV.33 ksana-pratiyogl parinama-parSnta-nirgrahyah kramab ksetrikavat IV.34 purusa-rtha-sunyanam gunanaip pratiprasavab kaivalyam IV. 4 nirmSna-cittany-sasmita-matrat svarupa-pratistha va citi-saktir-iti IV. 5 pravrtti-bhede prayojakani cittame-kama-nekeSatn IV. 6 tatra dhyanajama-na§ayam IV. 7 karma sukla krsijam yoginas-trividhami-taresam IV. 8 tatas-tad-vipaka-nugunaname-va-bhivyaktir-vasananam IV. 9 jati-deSa-kala-vyavahitanama-py-anataryam smfti- - saipskarayor-ekarupatvat IV.10 tSsama-naditvam-ca SiSo nityatvat : IV.11 hetu-phala-sraya-lambanaib samg?hitatvSd-e?Itna-bhave tad-abha"vah uwiivxw 165

I. 5 vfttayalj pancatayyafe kli?ta-klistaJi YOGASUTRAM The functional modifications of the citta are of five kinds ; The Yoga-sutras of Patarijali they can be further classified into two classes as (1) leading to pain, i.e., leading to action resulting in bondage in the shape of rebirth and (2) not leading to pain, i.e., where Samadhipadah there is true realization or awareness of the situation only 138 The Section on Engrossment without any tendency towards action and consequently no bondage. The Yoga-sutras are divided into four padas or quarters. I. 6 pramana-viparyaya-vikalpa-nidra-smytayalj The first quarter of the book deals with samadhi or engrossment. The cittavrttis or the functional modifications of the citta I. 1 atha yoga-nusasanam are concerned in the acquirement of (i) pramana or Now begins the instruction in yoga. correct knowledge, i.e., knowledge that is not upset by I. 2 yogas-citta-vrtti-nirodhab any subsequent experience of anybody ; of (ii) viparyaya Yoga is the suspension of the functional modifications of or false perceptual knowledge, i.e., knowledge that is upset the citta. by other experiences ; of (iii) vikalpa or fanciful conceptual By the term citta is meant both citta and buddhi, i, e., both knowledge of objects not existing in reality ; of (iv) nidra the receptive and the acting or deciding functions of the or knowledge of non-existence as realized in one's own mind. The citta together with the ahamkara, the indtiyas knowledge of sleep ; and of (v) smpti or knowledge depen- and the tanmatras go to from the 'mind' of the western ding on past experience and brought up by the exercise of memory. psychologists minus the element of consciousness. The citfca becomes self-conscious when it is united with the ahatpkara and The principle underlying the five-fold classification of reflects the consciousness of the puru§a. In explaining the the cittavfttis lays stress only on what may be called sutras I have often used the word mind in place of citta the receptive functions of the mind and neglects alto- gether its executive or deciding activities, i.e., the buddhi for the sake of simplicity. aspect of the mental apparatus. The reason lies in the I. 3 tada drastub svarupe' vasth&nam supposition that action is secondary and is dependent Then, i. e., when yoga is attained, the experiencing agent on knowledge of some sort. Reflex actions and acts exists in its own unmodified and pure form. executed during sleep or unconscious states are to be The experiencing agent in its own form is identical •with explained as the results of stimuli perceived by the recei- pure consciousness, not consciousness of this ot that but ving mental apparatus activating past samsk&ras which consciousness pure and simple. Consciousness according to include memory impressions. Unconscious receptive acti- this view may be compared to light the function of which vities have been admitted in the Yoga-sutras as in the is to show up things. postulation of knowledge of one's own sleep, even when I. 4 vrtti-sarflpyami-taratra there are no dreams and also in the concept of latent On other occasions the experiencing agent*1 or consciousness sainskara. Vacaspati Misra says in his commentary on sutra takes the form of the functional modification that the citta 1.1, that citta includes buddhi, i.e., the executive menraj undergoes, i. e., of the mental content, or in other words apparatus. it assumes the form of consciousness of this or that. 4 16/

I. 13 tatra sthitau yatno' bhyasah I. 7 pratyak§a-numana-gamal} pramanSni The different forms of pramana or correct knowledge are The effort to bring about their, i.e., of the functional derived from perception, inference and reliable verbal in- modifications, static condition is called abhyasa or practice. formation. I. 14 sa tu dirgha-kala-nairantarya-satkarS-sevito drdha-bhumilj Verbal information includes written information and That practice attains firm ground only when it is served for a information conveyed by gesture.- long time uninterruptedly with due devotion. I. 8 viparyayo mithya-jfianama-tadrupa-pratistham I. 15 drsta-nusravika-vi?aya-vitrsnanasya vasikara-samjiia vairagyam Viparyaya or illusion is false knowledge resting on percep- tion that does not correspond to reality. One who has no thirst for objects that are perceived by the Viparyaya is contradicted by subsequent correct percep- senses or for those about which one hears from others, e.g., tion either of the person who experiences it or of other scriptures, posssesses the vairagya or non-attraction that is normal people. It is identical with the 'illusion' of the called vaslkara, i.e., under control. psychiatrists. I. 16 tat param purusa-khyater-guna-vaitrsnyam I. 9 sabda-jfiana-nupatl vastu-sunyo vikalpah It, i.e., the non-attraction, attains the highest stage when as a Vikalpa or fanciful concept is derived from the knowledge result of the manifestation of the puTusa, i.e., the self or pure of a combination of words representing an object which cousciousness, there is cessation of thirst for the gunas. is non-existent in reality. I. 17 vitarka-vicara-nanda-smita-rupS-nugamat samprajnatah The concept of a three legged snake is an illustration When attended with the forms of vitarka or argumentation, of vikalpa. vicara or deliberation, ananda or joyousness and asmita or I. 10 abbava-pratyaya-lambana vittir-nidra ego-feeling the samadhi is called samprajiiata, i.e., cognizant. Nidra or 'sleep' is that modification of the citta that has for its object the perception of non-existence. The meaning aspect of objective perception is described as As sleep is the state in which the knowledge of non- vitarka because it can be discussed in terms of the object existence is best realized, this paiticular modification of itself and in terms of the corresponding idea. the citta has been named sleep ; c.f., principle of naming Vicara refers to the meaning of the subjective perception of the mahabhutas and the indriyas. which can be considered only by the experiencer himself in I. 11 anubhuta-visaya-sampramosalj smytil} terms of localization in place and cause ; see 1.42 ; III. 17. Smyti or memory is not losing the subject matter of a cognition. Ananda refers to the pure sensory aspect of the perception The vyas-bhasya translates the £iitra as follows : Sm?ti or without any meaning attached to it. When the attention is memory is not losing an object or situation that has been riveted upon the manifestations of the sense organ only there cognized. is also modification of consciousness without any meaning Anubhutavisaya means the object or the subject matter element. Manifestation pure and simple is sattva and it is of a cognition and not the object or situation that has been described as a pleasant experience. cognized. Asmita refers to the situation in which the attention is I. 12 abhyasa-vairagyabhyam tan-nirodhak directed to the perceiver and not to the pure sensation The suspension of these functional modifications of the mind without meaning, neither to the subjective nor to the objective is attained through practice and absence of desire for worldly aspect of the perception. things. Vol. 11, No. 3 J THE YOGA SUTRAS 169 I. 18 virama-pratyaya-bhyasa-purva]} saipsakara-seso'nyah the difference that it is a temporary one and after the That caused by the suspension of all cittavfttis including expiry of a definite period the disembodied personalities argumentation, deliberation, etc., and attained through practice are born again as corporeal beings. The sutra says that . and having only the latent impressions as residuum is the bhava or avidya it-self leads those who have attained other form of samadhi that is called asamprajiiata or non- videba or prakriti laya to asamprajnata samadhi. cognizant, i.e., without the cognitive factor. I. 20 sraddha-vlrya-smrti-samadhi-prajna-purvaka itarefam See 1.50 For the others asamprajnata samadhi has to be preceded by Viramapratyaya means caused by virama or suspension, due devotion, strength, proper course of action, engrossment c.f., bhavapratyaya in the next sutra, also upayapratyaya in and correct knowledge of things. the Vyas-bhasya of 1.20. Viramapratyaya stands for the The expression samadhi prajna in this sutra may mean cause of virama according to Vacaspati Misra samprajfiata samadhi. According to this interpretation I. 19 bhava-pratyayo videha-prakrti-layanam asamprajnata samadhi has to be preceded by samprajnata In the case of those who have been resolved into the bodily samadhi. elements or into the subtler prakritic elements the asamprajnata SmTti means here proper course of action as laid down in samadhi has bhava, i.e., the force creating the worldly sastras, c.f., Bhagavadglta, smrtivibhramalj in 2.63. Accord- manifestations or avidya as its cause. ing to Vacaspati Misra smyti means dhySna or concen- When samadhi is attained the yogi may be said to resolve tration. into the object of his samadhi and become engrossed by I. 21 tivra-samvegSnamS-sannah or merged in it. This is laya, prakriti as distinguished from In the case of those with powerful drive samadhi is attained purusa has different modifications ; they can be broadly early. classified under two heads, viz, gross and subtle. The five Samvega means drive. According to Vacaspati Misra mahabhutas and the eleven iodriyas may be called the gross samvega means vairagya or non-attraction. According to modifications while the 5 tanmatras, the ahamk&ra, the Bhojadeva and Vijnana Bhik?u samvega is energetic mahat and the avyakta may be called the finer manifesta- exertion. tions. The gross modifications may also be described as I. 22 mfdu-madhya-dhimatratvat tato' pi vise§ah ' bodily elements since they go to make up the body. Samadhi obtained by concentration on any of these gross bodily In judging the time required for the attainment of samadhi elements may be said to be identical with the resolution a further distinction is to be made according as the power- into these elements. This is videhalaya. Samadhi in the ful drive is comparatively mild or medium or extraordinarily subtler or finer prakritic elements is prakrtilaya. Both great. these forms of samadhi having prakriti or avidya as their I. 23 Ii3vara-pranidhanad-va root cannot give final salvation which can only be attained Early samadhi is also attained by devotional contemplation by samadhi in the puru?a. of isvara or God. According to the current explanations of 1.19 videhalaya I. 24 klesa-karma-vipaka-savair-aparamrstak purusa-visesa Isvarai. and prakrtilaya mean disembodied personalities that continue Isvara is that special puru?a (soul or being) who is un- to exist even after death; these are celestial beings touched by the painful bondage of avidya, actions and their enjoying a state very much similar to salvation with results and corresponding innate desires. Vol. 11, No. 3 ] THE YOGA SUTRAS 171 I. 25 tatra niratisayam sarvajna-bljam Disease, incapacity for mental functioning, doubt, want In him is to be found in the most perfect form the past- of interest, laziness, want of abstention from sensory present-future-knowing seed or faculty. enjoyment, false notions, failure to maintain a yogic state The usual explanation is as follows : In him is to be even when it is reached are the distractions of the mind found in its absoluteness or the highest extent the seed that are called obstacles to samadhi. of the omniscience. I. 31 duhkha-daurmanasya-jayatva-svasa-prasvasa vik§epa-sahabh- Sarvajna-bijam means the past-present-future-knowing seed uvaJ? or faculty. Sarvajfia cannot refer to omniscience as These distractions are accompanied by pain, mental disturbance, there cannot be degrees of omniscience. Satvajna is trembling and movements of parts of the body and irregulari- the agent that has knowledge of sensible and super- ties of inspiration and expiration. sensible objects existing in all the three states, viz., past, I. 32 tat-pratisedha-rthame-katattva-bhyasalj present and future. There can be gradations in such knowledge and hence different degrees of .. capacity of To prevent these distractions one must practise concentration knowing the past, present and future. I .should therefore on a single principle, entity or element. like to translate sarvajna-bljam as the seed or the I 33 maitri-karuna-mudito-peksanam sukha-duhkha-punya-visayanam latent faculty of knowing the past present and future bhavanatas-citta-prasadanam. that is present in every individual to some extent. Mental calm can be attained by developing the attitudes of This latent faculty is capable of being developed hence friendliness, compassion, complacency and indifference respec- it is called a seed. tively towards persons placed in situations of pleasure, pain, Sarvajfia is identical with trikalajiia i.e., one who knows virtue and vice. the past, the present and the future. For the method of attainment of mental as well as physical I. 26 pucvesama-pi guruh kalena-navacchedat calm see 1.47. He is even the revered of all the old or early ones, i.e., I. 34 pracchardana-vidharanabhyam va pranasya of the first instructors of yoga, because of his being unconditioned by time. Or by the proper regulation of expiration and retention I. 27 tasya vacakaft pranavab. of breath. His designation is the pranava or the word 'om'. I. 35 visayavatl va pravfttir-utpanna manasah sthiti-nibandhanl I. 28 taj-japas-tad-artha-bhavanam The development of a pure objective mental functioning Its repetition and the contemplation of its meaning has is also conducive to static fixity of the mind, i e., when to be practised. the mind takes the form of an object in being fully engrossed in it there develops the capacity for mental steadiness. I. 29 tatah pratyak-cetana-dhigamo'py-antaraya-bhavas-ca Through this one has access to the inner self or con- This refers to samadhi with reference to the raja aspect sciousness that is apprehended by the inward turning of of the mind. In the next sutra samadhi with regard to the sense organs, and also through this results the the sattva aspect is indicated. disappearance of obstacles. I. 36 vi^oka va jyotilmati I. 30 vyadhi-styana-saipsaya-pramada-1 asyS-virati-bhrantidarsana- The development of the sorrowless effulgent mental func- labdhabhumikatva-navasthitatvani citta-vik?epas-te'ntarayah tioning also leads to steadiness, i.e., when the mind functions 172 GIRINDRASEKHAR BOSE [ SAM1KS A Vol. 11, No. 3 ] THE YOGA SUTRAS 173 only in its sattvic aspect which is the pure revealing aspect, or the word it is called savitarka samapatti or argumentative and hence called effulgent, mental steadiness is achieved. identity of mental form. The effulgent function is free from all action attitudes See note on I. 17. is devoid of pain and pleasure ; therefore it is also called I. 43. smfti-parisuddhau svarupa-^unye-va-rthamatra-nirbhasa nir- sorrowless. The mental condtion is one of perfect peace vitarka. or ananda. • When the samapatti or identity of mental form appears I. 37 vltaraga-visyani va cittam only as the object itself free, from all memory images Mental steadiness may also be gained by concentrating on and when it seems, so to say, bereft of its own identity, it is called nirvitarka or non-argumentative. the mind of a person free from all attractions for objects I. 44 etayai-va savicara nirvicara, ca suksma-vi§aya vyakhyata or worldly things. Savicara and nirvicara i.e. deliberative and non-deliberative I. 38 svapna-nidra-jfiana-lambanam va identities of mental form pertaining to subtle objects are Or by having as the object of concentration the perceptual also explained by these, i.e., by argumentative identities experience of dreams or deep sleep. described in the previous sutra. , Deep sleep gives us the perceptual knowledge of negation, When the object is gross it can be perceived by several see 1.10. people at the same time and thus can be discussed with other. I. 39 yatha-bhimata-dhyanad-va With subtle objects, e.g., the subjective aspect of a perception Or by concentration on any desired object. of tanmatra or ego-feeling every one has his own special I. 40 paramanu-parama-mahattva-nto'sya vaslkarah perception ; its features therefore can only be deliberated By these means one attains mastery of static fixity of the upon, they cannot be discussed with others. mind on objects ranging from the minutest particle, to the I. 45 suk§ma-visayatvam ca-linga-paryyavasanam biggest material element. And subtle objectivity attains its limit in the alirtga or the one without any characteristic mark, i.e., the . undifferentiated I. 41 ksina-vrtter-abhijatasye-va maner-grahitf-grahana-grahyesu prakriti. tatstha-tadanjanata satnapattib See note on I. 19 • When its ordinary functions are attenuated the mind, like I, 46 ta eva sabijak samadhilj a pure crystal, reflects or assumes the form respectively All these four types of samapatti constitute sabija samadhi, i.e. of the apprehender or the means of apprehending or the engrossment with a core. thing apprehended according as it rests on one or other of Distinctions are to be drawn between nirodha, samadhi and these ; the assumption by the mind of the form of the -"• samapatti. Samapatti refers only to the forms of sabija object on which it rests is known as samapatti or identity samadhi.. Suspension of any particular cittav?tti may be of mental form called its nirodha. See summary of First Quarter and the Samapatti is equivalent to exclusive 'tadakarakarita' or table attached to the end of: that chapter. 'assumption of that form'. I. 47 nirvicara-vai^aradye 'dhyatma-prasaialj I. 42 tatra sabdartha-jnana-vikalpai^ samkirSa savitarka samapattilj The clearness and purity of tie non-deliberative identity of When the samapatti is characterized by admixture of the mental form leads to bodily and mental calm. elements consisting of the word, the perception of the object :: See 1. 33 denoted by the word and the idea conveyed by the perception 5 ' - w ^ J 174 S YOGA SUTRAS ITS I. 48 rtambhara tatra prajna II. 3 avidya-smita-raga-dve?a-bhinivesajj pafica-klesak The knowledge that is gained in this stage is truth-bearing. Avidya, ego-feeling, attraction, repulsion and the innate desire I. 49 sruta-numana-prajnabhyama-nyavisaya vi§e§a-rthatvat to live are the five bondages leading to pain. This knowledge, because it deals with the concrete, has for For the definition of avidya, etc., mentioned in this sutra its object something different from the objects with which the see the sutras following. knowledge derived from reliable information and that derived II. 4 avidya ksetramu-ttare§am prasupta-tanu-vicchino-daraijam from inference are concerned. Avidya is the field of origin of these four bondages mentioned I. 50 taj-ja]> samskaro'nya-samskara-pratibandhi after it whether they remain in a dormant, attenuated* The latent residual impression or samskara derived out of this interrupted or in a manifest form. is contradictory to the impression otherwise. Avidya is the source from which ego-feeling, attraction, I. 51 tasya-pi nirodhe sarva-nirodhan-nirbljalj samadhilj repulsion and the desire for life spring. Avidya is that With the suspension of this also, all mental functioning being which produces a sort of attachment between the pure, suspended, there is nirblja samadhi, i.e., engrossment without eternal puru§a or consciousness on the one hand and any core. matter on the other. The ego-feeling as expressed by the According to some control over the indriyas means lack of words T,'my''mine', etc., the attraction for pleasurable attraction for sound, vision and other sensory objects; objects and the repulsion for painful ones as also the according to others sensory experience without feelings of desire for life arise out of avidya and are referred to the pleasure and pain and without any accompanying attraction self which thus loses its immaculate character for the time and repulsion constitutes control over indriyas ; others hold being. 'Dormant'refers to that state in which the urge that control is identical with no appreciation of sensory for expression is absent; 'attenuated' refers to that state objects resulting from the direction of mind to a single in which the bondages are weakened as a result of practi- point. . sing yogic rites or performances; in the 'interrupted' state one particular form of bondage remains over powered by a contrary one, e.g., non-emexgence of anger during Sadhanapadafr the state of love; in the 'manifest' form bondages are The Section on Means in actual operation. It. 1 tapalj-svadhyaye-svara-pranidhanani kriya-yogalj II. 5 anitya-suci-dubkha-natmasu-nitya-suci-sukha-tma-khyatir- avidya. Voluntary austerities, repetition to oneself or recitation of sacred texts and devotional contemplation of God constitute Avidya is that which causes what is really .impermanent, what is called kriya yoga or yogic performances. impure, painful and not belonging to the self to be looked upon The performances mentioned above lead to the attainment as permanent, pure, pleasurable and pertaining to the self. of the yogic state ; hence they have been called yogic II. 6 d?g-darsana-saktyor-eka-tmate-va-smita performances. Ego-feeling is the apparent identity of the agent that ex- II. 2 sa samadhi-bhSvana-rthalj klesa-tanukarana-rthaS-ca periences and the means of experiencing. It, i.e., the yogic performance is meant for promoting engross- The experiencing agent is the puru§a while the means or ment and also for attenuation of pain, i.e., of the bondages instrument of experience is the citta or mind minus its of actions that lead to pain. consciousness. 176 GIRINDRASEKHAR BUSJi 1// II. 7 sukhs-nusayi ragalj resultant effects, the attendant afflictions and the latent Attraction is that which follows as a consequence of pleasure. karmic impressions they leave behind and also because of II. 8 dufrkha-nusayi dve§alj the innate opposition that exists among the fluctuations Repulsion is that which follows as a consequence of pain. produced by the gunas. II. 9 sva-rasa-vahi vidu?o'pi tatha-rudho' bhinivesafe II. 16 heyam du&khama-nagatam The innate flow of desire for maintaining life that is present The pain that is not come yet is to be avoided. in the lowliest of beings and that is known to exist even in Pain that occurred in the past has already been experi- the wise as well is called abhinivesa, enced so there is no question of avoiding it, the pain II. 10 te pratiprasava-heyajj suksmajj that is being experienced at present is already there These attenuation bondages disappear by regressing to their so effective measures can only be taken against pain original state. not yet come. Tbe five bondages mentioned before are attenuated by II. 17 drastr-drsyayolj samyogo-heya-hetulj yogic performance ; see II. 2. After attenuation they The union of the expeiencer and the experienced is the are destroyed, i.e., they disappear by regression to their cause of that which is to be avoided. original state ; when the functional modifications of the The expression 'that which is to be avoided' refers to. mind are suspended the klesas or bondages suffer extinc- pain mentioned in the preceding sutra. tion. The means by which the bondages in their II. 18 prakasa-kriya-sthiti-Silam bhute-ndriya-tmakam bhoga-pavarga- attenuated state can be made to disappear is discussed rtham dr^yam. in the next sutra. That which is characterized by the capacity of being manifest, II. 11 dhyana-heyas-tad^vTattayab by activity and by inertia. i.e., that which comes within These functional modifications of the mind are to be dis- the purview of the three gunas, sattva, raja and tama and carded by dhya"na or concentration. which has for its constituents the bhutas or the five primary II. 12 kle^a-mulab karma-sayo-drsta-janma-vedaniyaij elements and the indriyas and which has for its purpose The latent mental deposit of merit or demerit resulting the worldly experience and emancipation of beings is called from previous acts has its root in klesa or bondage and has dfsya or the object of experience. to be experienced or actually lived through when it ripens II. 19 visesa-visesa-lingamatra-lingani guna-parvani in a birth seen or unseen, i.e., either in the present birth The concrete, i.e., the five mahabhutas and the eleven or in a future one. indriyas, the subtle, i.e., the five tanmatras and ahamk&ra, II. 13 sati mule tad-vipftko-jaty-ayur-bhogah that with the differentiated mark, viz, the mahat, and So long as the root exists it will mature and lead to that with no differentiation of mark or character, i.e., the fructification in the shape of birth, life and experience. prakriti are the segmental divisions of the gunas. II. 14 te hlada-paritapa-phalah punya-punya-hetutvat II. 20 dra?j;§ drsi-matralj suddho' pi pratyaya-nupasyaJj They, i.e., birth, life and experience yield pleasure and The expetiencer is nothing bat the power of experiencing pain according as they spring from merit and demerit. and although pure and immutable it apprehends things in II. 15 parinama-tapa-samskara-duljkhair-guna-vrtti-virodhac-ca the wake of pratyaya or intellect. duhkhame-va sarvam vivekinafr II. 21 tad-artha eva d»%asya-tma But to the discerning person all these, including the pleasurable The very nature of the object of experience is meant only for states resulting from merit, are really pain because of their his, Le., the experienced sake. Vol. 11, No. 3 ] THE YOGA SUTRAS 179 II. 22 kftarthaip prati na§tama-py-anasfam tad-anya-sadharanatvat Although it i.e., the object of experience, ceases to exist for These four ensure the freedom of knowledge. The follow- ing three ensure freedom of mind. him that has achieved his end it does not cease to be: because it is comon to others. (5) The function and office of the intellect are fullfilled. II. 23 sva-svami-saktyoh sva-riipo-palabdhi-hetuh samyogah (6) The gunas merge in their cause and attain their disso- Union is the cause of realization of the true nature of its lution and do not rise again for want of any necessity. (of the object) own power and that of its master's i.e., the (7) In this stage the puru?a is beyond the contact of the experiencer's. gunas and appears in its own true form and is un- When union betwaen the experiencer and the experienced defiled, effulgent and isolated. leads to the realization of objects bhoga or experience The person experiencing the sevenfold highest stage results and when such union leads to the realization of of knowledge is called an adept. Even if the mind, the experiencer apavarga or emancipation results. It is only regresses the person is freed and become an for this reason that in sutra II. 18 it has been said that adept because he goes beyond the range of the gunas. the object serves the purpose of both wordly experience IL 28 yoga-nga-nusthanad-asuddhi-k?aye jiiana-diptir-aviveka- and emancipation. - khyateh. II, 24 tasya hetur-avidya When the impurities are attenuated as a result of the practice Its (of the union) cause is avidya. of the expedients to yoga knowledge brightens up till it be- comes discriminative knowledge. II. 25 tad-abhavat samyoga-bhavo hanam tad-drseb kaivalym From its absence results the absence of union ; with the The expedients are described in the next sutra. avoidence of union there is isolation of the experiencer which II. 29 yama-niyama-sana-pranayama-pratyahara-dharana-dhyana- becomes established in its own nature. samadhayo 'sta-vangani 11.26 viveka-khyatir-aviplava hano-payah. Restraint, rite, posture, regulation of the breath, withdrawal Unwavering discriminative knowledge is the means of avoiding of the senses, fixation of attention, concentration and engross- union. ment form the eight expedients. II. 30 ahimsa-satya-steya-brahmacarya-parigraha yamalj II. 27 tasya saptadha. pranta-bhumilj. prajiia Restraint of the tendency to do any injury to any being, For him, i.e., for one who has unwavering discrimination truthfulness or restraint of the tendency to false behaviour, knowledge reaching to highest stage is sevenfold. restraint of the tendency to get other people's property by any The Vyasa-bhasya explains the sevenfold knowledge as means not sanctioned by the sastras, restraint of the sexual follows ; — organ and restraint of the desire for possession constitute (1) That which is avoidable is known and there is nothing the different forms of yama. more to be known. Injury to another may be done by thought word or deed. (2) The causes of that which are to be avoided are atte- Truthfulness consists in imparting correct information to nuted and there is nothing more requiring attenuation. another in a way so that there may be no misunderstanding (3) The avoidance is directly perceived by engrossment and no harm to the person to whom the information is leading to suspension of mental functions communicated. That which corresponds to a fact but is (4) The means of avoidance in the shape of discriminative harmful to the welfare of any person is no truth. It is knowledge is mastered. sin. Brahmacharya originally means the rules of life of Vol. 11, No. 3 ] THE YOGA SUTRAS 181 an unmarried religious student; here it means sex judgement and also whether they are mild, moderate or abstinence. intense they eternally bear fruit in the shape of pain and II. 31 jati-desa-kala-samaya-navacchinnah sarvabhauma mahavratam ignorance. This is how the other side is to be thought of, When these restraints are practised under all conditions i.e. by such way of thinking the questionable mental functions uninterrupted by any proviso regarding particular class, place, are controlled. time or convention, they constitute what is called 'mahavrata' II. 35 ahimsa-pratisthSyam tat-sannidhau vaira-tyaga^ or the great code of life. . - - When the steadfastness of the restraint of the tendency II. 32 sauca-satntosa-tapaH-svadhyaye-^vara-pranidhanani niyamah do injury to^ others is attained by any person there is Cleanliness, contentment, voluntary austerity, repetition to cessation of hostility on the part of all beings in his oneself or recitation of sacred texts and devotional contempla- presence. tion of God constitute the rites. In the presence of the yogi who is establised in Cleanliness refers to both bodily and mental cleanliness. non-violence the aggressive feelings of all living beings In sutra II, 1, voluntary austerity, recitation of sacred disappear; even the natural hostility existing between texts and devotional contemplation of God have been certain animals, e.g., the snake and the mongoose, is called kriyayoga. suspended. In Vyasa-bhSsya tapa has been explained as austerity II. 36 satya-pratisjhayam kriya-phala-srayatvam practised to develop the power of enduring situations that When the truthfulness attains steadfastness in any person occur in pairs, e.g, heat and cold, hunger and thirst etc. the capacity to act as the repository of the fruits of all II. 33 vitarka-badhane pratipaksa-bhavanam action comes to him. When during the practice of restraints and rites obstructions Ordinarily coveted things are obtained only by following arise from vitarkah or the questionables, i.e., from those certain definite courses of action but the person who is mental functions against which the restraints and rites are established in truthfulness can by his mere word make directed, the other side of the question should be thought possible for anybody to get anything the latter wants of and developed. without his having to strive for it. For instance, in the case of a wish arising in the mind II. 37 asteya-pratisjhayam sarva-ratno-pasthanam to do injury to one's enemy one should think of the When the restraint of the desire to get other people's property desirability of maintaining non-violence under all condi- by unlawful means attains steadfastness in any person all tions for the attainment of yoga and also of the undesira- riches approach him. bility and harmfulness of violence and so on. II. 34 vitarka himsadayah kTta-karita-numodita lobha-krodha-moha- II. 38 brahmacarya-pratisthayam virya-Iabhalj. purvaka mTdu-madhya-dhimatra duhkha-jn&na-nantaphala iti When the restraint of the sexual organ attains steadfastness pratipa ksa-bhavanam in any person there is acquisition of strength. By the expression vitarkah or questionables is meant the II. 39 aparigraha-sthairye janma-kathamta-sambodhah tendency to do injury to others and the rest referred to in When the restraint of the desire for possession attains sutras II. 30 and II. 32, i.e., those mental functions against steadfastness there is perfect knowledge of all problems : which the restraints and the rites, are directed ; whether regarding the why and the wherefore of birth. those are indulged in or caused to be indulged in or approved and further whether they arise from greed, anger or biased II. 40 saucat-sva-nga-jugupsa parair-asaipsargah From cleanlines, i.e., when cleanliness attains steadfastness, 6 Vol. il. No. 3 ] THE YOGA SUTRAS 183 there is disgust at one's own body and cessation of inter- one may learn to maintain the yogic posture without course with others. any conscious effort. II. 41 sattva§uddhi-saumanasyai-kagrye»ndriyajaya-tma-darsana- Samapatti is engrossment with a core. yogyatvani ca Ananta or sesanaga is believed to suppoit the earth on There result also purification of the sattva guna, clear his hood. The popular idea is that when Ananta moves understanding, capacity to direct the mind to a single point, his head earthquake results, so Ananta has to be subjugation of the senses and fitness for the realization exceptionally careful in maintaining the steadiness of his of the self. posture. Engrossment in the steadiness of Ananta leads II. 42 samtosad-anuttamab sukha-labhalj to the steadiness of posture in the aspirant. From contentment results the attainment of the pleasure II. 48 tato dvandva-nabhighatah of the highest degree, From that, i.e., as a result of achievement of asana one II. 43 kaye-ndriya-siddhir-asuddhiksayat-tapasab remains unassailed by situations that occur in pairs, i.e., • From voluntary austerity results special powers of the body by heat andcold, hunger and thirst etc. and of the indriyas through attenuation of impurities. II. 49 tasmin sati syasa-prasvasayor-gati vicchedah pranayamah According to Vyasa-bhasya the special powers consist Pranayama consists in interrupting the natural course of in the capacity to assume minute forms, etc., and also inspiration and expiration in that situation, i.e., when Ssana in the capacity to hear and see things at a distance, • has been mastered. etc. The term siddhi is a technical term denoting svasa here means inspiration and prasyasa expiration. supernormal bodily capacities, see note to III, 45. In ordinary usage however svasa stands for both II. 44 svadhyayad-ista-devata-samprayogah inspiration and expiration; nisvasa has also the same From repetition to oneself or recitation of sacred texts meaning while prasvasa means expiration onlyr The results union with one's chosen deity. connotation of the term svasa in the Yoga-sutras does II. 45 samadhi-siddhit-lsvara-pranidhanat not conform to ordinary usage. From devotional contemplation of God results success in II. 50 bahya-bhyantara-stambha-vTttir-de^a-kala-saipkhySbhik pari- engrossment. drsto dirgha-suksmab II. 46 sthira-sukhama-sanam Pranayama is considered long or subtle according as its Asana or posture is that which is steady and confortable. external, internal and arrested "functional modifications are The word asana in the sutra is a technical term. In differently conditioned by space, time and number. practising yoga the body should be kept in a steady The functional modifications of pranayama is called and comfortable position. external when the course of respiration is stopped or interrupted after expiration ; it is called internal when II. 47 prayatna-saithilya-nanta-samapattibhyam the interruption is made after inspiration; it is called Asana is achieved when all active efforts to maintain it arrested when both inspiration and expiration are stopped. cease and by engrossment in Ananta, i.e., §e?anaga who Conditioned by space : the expired air may be felt a holds the earth steadily on his hood. longer or a shorter distance away from the nostrils. The So long as one has to make a conscious effort to keep inspired air or the arrested air is said to occupy greater the body in the yogic posture the mind remains dis- or less space according as it is subjectively felt to spread tracted and yoga becomes impossible. With practice over a larger or a smaller area inside the body. The GIRINDRASEKHAR BOSE SAMIKSA Vol. il, No. 3 ] THE YOGA SUTRAS 185 aspirant may feel a creeping sensation spreading over II. 53 dhsranasu ca yogyata manasab his limbs during inspiration. The question of space The mind also acquires the capacity of fixation of attention. occupied by the inspired or the arrested air is entirely a II. 54 Sva-visaya-samprayoge cittasya svarupa svarupa-nukara ive- matter of subjective experience. ndriyanam pratyaharah Conditioned by time : the different phase of pranayama The pratyahara of the indriyas consists in their detachment may take varying time to be completed. from their respective objects; this occurs as if in imitation Conditioned by number : the expiratory, inspiratory and ofthe citta when it assumes its own unmodified form during the stationary phases of respiration or the external, the nirpdha. internal and the arrested phases of pranayama may be See sutras 1, 2, and 1, 3. Pratyahaia may be translated related to one another in certain time ratios expressed as drawing back or withdrawal. by numbers, e.g., 1:2:4, i.e., if the expiration is completed The term indriya in the sutra apparently includes both in 2 seconds the inspiration has to be compled in 4 sensory and motor capacities of different order. seconds and breath is to be held for 8 seconds before II. tatah parama vaSyate-ndriyanam the cycle is repeated. From that, i.e., from pratyahara or withdrawal, results II. 51 bahya-bhyantara-visayaksepl caturthalj perfect control over the indriyas. The fourth functional modification of pranayama is that in According to some control over the indriyas means lack of which the limiting conditions of the external and the internal attraction for sound, vision, and other sensory objects ; forms are considered and transcended. according to others sensory experience without feeling of The meaning of this sutra is difficult to follow. pleasure and pain and without any accompanying attrac- Apparently it is advised that the aspirant should con tion and repulsion constitutes control over indriyas ; centrate his mind on the perceptions experienced during others hold that control is identical with non-appreciation the practice of the external and the internal modifica- of sensory objects resulting from the direction of the mind tions, i.e., dursng the phases of expiration and inspiration. to a single point. With practice these perceptual experiences gradually go out of mind, i.e., they are transcended and the kumbhaka that results is said to be the fourth form. This type of kumbhaka comes only with practice while the ordinary kumbhaka which is the third modification of pranayama (To be continued) can be executed at once by stopping the flow of respiration without paying any heed to the accompanying subjective perceptions and without having the necessity of transcending them. II. 52 tataJj kslyate prakasa-varanam As a result of the mastery of pranayama the obstructive covering ofthe revealing capacity or sattva aspect of the mind is attenuated. Sattva is identical with prakasa. The sattva guna of the mind is responsible for making things manifest. vol. U, No. 3] BOOK-REVIEW 187 us over three decades ago. Except for sporadic efforts here and there Aichhorn's tools have not been systematically applied on a vast enough scale to yield the fruits of his insights. BOOK-REVIEW It is indeed a paradox of our times that psychoanalytic and psychiatric research in delinquency has not made any significant gains Psychiatric Aspects of Juvenile Delinquency by Lucien Bovet, M. D. since the pioneering efforts of Aichhorn in the early thirties. Without World Health Organization, Geneva, 1951. Pp. 90 (Columbia patient gathering of data derived from actual work with offenders University Press, New York, N. Y.) there is little to be gained from armchair theorizing. Zilboorg Dr Bovet's monograph is the outcome of his "temporary once aptly called the present period of passionate internecine struggles contract to prepare a memorandum for UN on the psychiatric aspects in the psychoanalytical movement a "political decade" and contrasted of the aetiology, prevention, and treatment of juvenile deliquency." the late twenties and early thirties as the "erudite period." Small "Preparatory to this report consisted of a tour of several European wonder then, while we idolize and deify Freud and Aichhorn we are countries and America," during which he consulted over 150 specialists not willing to follow there, example and plant our feet firmly in of all kinds in juvenile delinquency and visited 60 institutes, of diverse clinical work. nature. The end product of this labour is an extraordinarily well The section of aetiology weaves through the complex fabric of documented, concisely and tersely written monograph that defies all probable causative factors in delinquency thus once again summarizing-a rare feat of achievement in psychiatric and psycho- warning us that there- is no one single panacea for our under- analytic writing, for the past decade has witnessed a plethora of standing and treatment of delinquent behaviour. "A large proportion books and journals in a language that has become increasingly esoteric of children and adolescents appearing before the courts have no and mystical. major physical or psychological abnormality. They are simply the Bovet quoting Rubin gives the legal definition of delinquency victims of adverse external circumstances, characterized by social as "juvenile delinquency is what the law says it is." Juvenile insecurity or a too low standard of living or a combination of delinquency, then, is "an artificial concept, legal and social in orgin. both. But for such social factors to cause delinquency, they must It involves a social 'disadaptation' but all socially maladjusted people set in motion a number of psychological processes." After a are not delinquents and all delinquents are not socially maladjusted." careful review of research on the physiology of the autonomic Nevertheless, to be brought before a juvenile court and to be nervous system, the increasingly refined techniques of the elcctro- subjected to various measures creates a number of psychological encephalograph, recent advances in the incompatibility of blood reactions which delinquents have in common and which give a factors, foetal infections, anatomical or physiological traumata at secondary psychological homogeneity to an otherwise heterogeneous birth, he concludes, "in general, organic disease is not of over- group. whelming importance in the aetiology of antisocial behaviour." Commenting on much of the 'conscientious and scientific' number- Bovet's use of psychoanalytic oncepts shows once again a juggling research he states : "The subject does not lend itself to remarkable mastery of the field and for probably the first time experimentation, and statistical procedures, such as the comparison incorporates into an integrated whole work of Freud and Piaget. between 'normal' and 'abnormal' groups, are full of pitfalls for the Ii cannot be overstressed that a mature sensitivity to variations unwary." A timely reminder for the workers in this complex field of of the psychology of 'normal' growing-up is very important to human endeavour so that we need not ape blindly the "scientific the proper utilization of presently available psychiatric tools in techniques" that serve the natural sciences so well. treatment of offenders. The dubiousness of applying psychothera- What we then need is a bold imaginative application of our peutic techniques, valuable as they are in the treatment of adult present available knowledge using the very tools that Aichhorn gave 183 BOOK-REVIEW SAMIKSA psychiatric patients to delinquents can be traced in part to the 1. Samihsa is published by the Indian Psycho-analytical Society profound resistance to consider the different economic structure four times a year. of psychic drives in an offender. The astounding frequency with 2. The subscription price per volume, payable in advance, is •which the delinquent group of disorders diagnosed as 'schizophrenic', Bupees Sixteen for inland subscribers and Bupees Eighteen for 'just psychotic', 'hyper-aggressive', 'feeble-ego' is both logically overseas subscribers. Special rates are allowed to students and ajid clinically untenable. The quote Bovet, "the diversity of the research workers. The prices of single numbers may be ascertained aetiolbgical factors leads to the classification of juvenile delinquency on application. Subscriptions should, be sent to Indian Psycho- as a bio-psychosocial phenomenon. analytical Society, 14 Parsibagan Lane, Calcutta 9, India. The multiplicity of factors causing delinquency and the N. B. Cheques should be made payable to "Indian Psycho-analytical Society consequet diversity of therapeutic methods in use make observation or Order". and examination of the juvenile delinquent an absolute necessity. 3. All editorial communications should be addressed to the Currently in vogue is the tendency to offer therapy, psychoanalytic Editor, 'Samiksa', Indian Psycho-analytical Society, 14 Parsibagan or otherwise without making a careful differential diagnosis, and as Lane, Calcutta 9, India. such the therapy fosters a pattern of symptomatology thereby 4. The Management regrets their inability to return the manu- clouding the true aetiology of delinquency. To describe this secondary scripts of unpublished articles. reinforcement of pathology, psychoanalysts have taken to inventing terms such as 'counter-delusional distortions', 'hypertrophic egos', 5. Articles once published in the Journal become the copyright 'ego Nutrition', etc., such a naivete cannot be condemned too of the Indian Psycho-analytical Society. Permission has to be obtained before translating or reprinting any contributed article. strongly. To sum up : Bovet's monograph is a work for those who are 6. The Editor reserves the right to accept or reject the whole working with offenders for in no other volume written in the last or portions of contributions and will not enter into correspondence decade has an author been able to portray without sham and empty in this matter. The Editor does not assume any responsibility for the opinions and statements expressed by contributors. verbiage the present knowledge about delinquency—an increasingly disrupting social phenomenon. It does not offer comfort to anyone 7. A contributor will obtain one copy of the particular issue to realize that despite our vast technological advances man and his of the Journal containing his article free of charge Reprints are children continue to present a challenge to all those willing to be not supplied free. Cost of reprints without cover for each hundred humble and accept the difficulties inherent in the field without copies or part of it is Rs. 10/- per forme or part of a forme. For wishing for the illusions of "inter-disciplinary" saving of humanity. reprints with cover the charge is Rs. 10/- extra for each hundred copies or part of it. Contributors should state the number of reprints C. V. Ramana required at the time.of submitting the manuscripts. 8. Contributors are requested to submit type-written manuscripts.

Membership of the Indian Psycho-analytical Society. Subscription rates are as follows : Membership—Rs. 56/- a year ; Associate Membership—Rs. 15/- a year. Samiksa is supplied to members and associate members free of charge. Vol. II, No. 3, 1957

CONTENTS

Page

"Nowhere to Hide"—The Problem of weak Identifications—E. Bergler ... 141 Some Notes on Freud's Personality—Heinrich Racker ...... 147 The Yoga Sutras—Girindrasekhar Bose ...... 157- Book-Review ...... 186

Printed at the Gupta Press, 37/7 Beniatola Lane, Calcutta 9 and published by Mr. A. Datta, Asst. Secretary, Indian Psycho-analytical Society