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9.13 Geomorphic Controls on Hyporheic Exchange Across Scales - Watersheds to Particles 2 3 Steven M

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9.13 Geomorphic Controls on Hyporheic Exchange Across Scales - Watersheds to Particles 2 3 Steven M Wondzell and Gooseff: Treatise in Fluvial Geomorpholgy – Geomorphic Controls on Hyporheic Exchange 1 9.13 Geomorphic Controls on Hyporheic Exchange Across Scales - Watersheds to Particles 2 3 Steven M. Wondzell 4 U.S. Forest Service, 5 Pacific Northwest Research Station, 6 Olympia Forest Sciences Laboratory, 7 Olympia, WA 98512 USA. 8 Phone: 360-753-7691 9 E-mail: [email protected] 10 11 Michael N. Gooseff 12 Civil & Environmental Engineering Department, 13 Pennsylvania State University, 14 University Park, PA 16802 USA 15 Phone: 814- 867-0044 16 E-mail: [email protected] 1 Wondzell and Gooseff: Treatise in Fluvial Geomorpholgy – Geomorphic Controls on Hyporheic Exchange 17 Abstract 18 19 We examined the relationship between fluvial geomorphology and hyporheic exchange flows. 20 We use geomorphology as a framework to understand hyporheic process and how these 21 processes change with location within a stream network, and over time in response to changes in 22 stream discharge and catchment wetness. We focus primarily on hydostatic and hydrodynamic 23 processes – the processes where linkages to fluvial geomorphology are most direct. Hydrostatic 24 processes result from morphologic features that create elevational head gradients whereas 25 hydrodynamic processes result from the interaction between stream flow and channel 26 morphologic features. We provide examples of the specific morphologic features that drive or 27 enable hyporheic exchange and we examine how these processes interact in real stream networks 28 to create complex subsurface flow nets through the hyporheic zone. 29 30 31 Key words 32 33 Hyporheic, step-pool sequence, pool-riffle sequence, meander bends, back channels, floodplain 34 spring brooks, mid-channel islands, stream bedforms, pumping exchange, saturated hydraulic 35 conductivity. 2 Wondzell and Gooseff: Treatise in Fluvial Geomorpholgy – Geomorphic Controls on Hyporheic Exchange 36 9.13.1. Introduction 37 38 Hyporheic exchange flow (HEF) is the movement of stream water from the surface channel into 39 the subsurface and back to the stream (Figure 1). Stream water in hyporheic flow paths may mix 40 with groundwater so that the relative proportion of stream-source water in the hyporheic zone is 41 highly variable, ranging from 100% stream water to nearly 100% groundwater. Also the 42 residence time distribution of stream water in the hyporheic zone tends to be highly skewed, with 43 most of the stream water moving along short flow paths and thus having short residence times 44 (hours), but some water either moving on long flow paths or encountering relatively immobile 45 regions having very extended residence times (weeks to months, or longer). The boundaries of 46 the hyporheic zone are arbitrary, usually defined by the amount of stream-source water present in 47 the subsurface. Triska et al. (1989) set a threshold of 10% stream-source water to define the 48 limits of the hyporheic zone so that regions with <10% stream-source water were defined as 49 groundwater. Alternatively, the extent of the hyporheic zone can be delimited by water residence 50 time, for example, the subsurface zone delineated by hyporheic exchange flows with residence 51 times less than 24 hours (the 24-h hyporheic zone; Gooseff, in press). 52 53 The objective of this chapter is to examine the relation between geomorphology and hyporheic 54 processes. The two primary controls on hyporheic exchange are the gradients in total head 55 established along and across streambeds and the hydraulic conductivity of the streambed and 56 adjacent aquifer, both of which are significantly influenced by geomorphology. Total head (also 57 known as potential) is the sum of pressure head, elevation head, and velocity head. Pressure head 58 represents height of a column of fluid to produce pressure. Velocity head represents the vertical 59 distance needed for the fluid to fall freely (neglecting friction) to reach a particular velocity from 60 rest. Elevation head represents the potential energy of a fluid particle in terms of its height from 61 reference datum. Hydrostatic head is referred to as the sum of elevation and pressure head. 62 Groundwater tables in unconfined aquifers represent the spatial gradients in hydrostatic head. A 63 number of processes either drive or enable HEF, several of which are based on changes in head 64 gradients. We follow the organizational structure presented by Käser et al. (2009), who divided 65 these processes into five distinct classes: 66 3 Wondzell and Gooseff: Treatise in Fluvial Geomorpholgy – Geomorphic Controls on Hyporheic Exchange 67 1. Transient exchange – the temporary movement of stream water into stream banks due to 68 short-term increases in stream stage (i.e., bank storage processes due to changes in 69 hydrostatic head gradients between stream and lateral riparian aquifer; Lewandowski et al. 70 2009; Sawyer et al. 2009a). 71 72 2. Turn-over exchange – the trapping of stream water in the streambed during times of 73 significant bed mobility (Elliot and Brooks, 1997b; Packman and Brooks 2001). 74 75 3. Turbulent diffusion – exchange driven by slip velocity that is created at the surface of the 76 porous medium of the bed where streamwise velocity vectors continue to propagate into the 77 surface layers of the bed (Packman and Bencala, 2000). 78 79 4. Hydrostatic-driven exchange – exchange driven by static hydraulic gradients which are 80 determined by changes in water surface elevation (Harvey and Bencala, 1993), spatial 81 heterogeneity in saturated hydraulic conductivity, or changes in the saturated cross-sectional 82 area of floodplain alluvium through which hyporheic flow occurs. 83 84 5. Hydrodynamic-driven exchange – exchange driven by the velocity head component of the 85 total head gradient on the bed surface (i.e., pumping exchange; Elliott and Brooks, 1997a,b) 86 and exchange induced by momentum gradients across beds and banks. 87 88 These classes of HEF processes are coupled to geomorphic processes in many ways. This is most 89 obvious for hydrostatic effects, which are directly dependent on channel and valley-floor 90 morphology and the depositional environment that controls spatial heterogeneity in saturated 91 hydraulic conductivity (K). However, turnover of streambed sediment is also related to fluvial 92 geomorphic processes. Similarly, hydrodynamic effects result from the interaction of flow over 93 stream bedforms. Geomorphic processes build stream bedforms and determine channel 94 morphology, especially longitudinal gradient, bed roughness, and water depth all of which 95 influence flow velocity. The relationship between geomorphology and the other classes of 96 processes is less direct, but still plays a role in controlling these processes through channel form 97 and the size distribution of sediment that makes up the streambed. This chapter focuses primarily 4 Wondzell and Gooseff: Treatise in Fluvial Geomorpholgy – Geomorphic Controls on Hyporheic Exchange 98 on the hydostatic and hydrodynamic processes where linkages to geomorphic processes are most 99 direct. 100 101 We organize our discussion of the interactions between geomorphology and HEF using a 102 hierarchical scaling framework developed for river networks (Frissell et al. 1986; Bisson and 103 Montgomery, 1996), starting at the whole network, through the stream segment, to the stream 104 reach, to the channel unit, and down to the sub-channel unit scale. We recognize that describing 105 any given process or related flow path at a single “scale” is somewhat arbitrary because of the 106 nested structure of the hyporheic flow net and dispersion among HEF flow paths. Despite that, 107 the concept of scale is an important heuristic tool to organize our understanding of hyporheic 108 processes. In many senses, the reach scale is the most informative scale at which to consider 109 HEF. A single reach, by definition, has characteristic channel morphology so that the factors 110 driving HEF within the reach are relatively consistent. However, only a few of the geomorphic 111 factors driving HEF actually operate at this scale. Most of the drivers work at the channel unit or 112 smaller scales. And to understand the importance of HEF in stream ecosystem processes, the 113 cumulative effects of HEF must be evaluated at scales much larger than a single reach. 114 115 9.13.2. The effect of geomorphology on hyporheic exchange flows 116 117 9.13.2.1. The whole network to segment scale 118 119 The geologic setting of the stream network is an important factor determining the likely 120 occurrence of HEF, but there have been few attempts to study HEF at this broad scale. Rather, 121 our expectations are pieced together by drawing comparisons among HZ studies that have been 122 conducted in widely varying geologic settings, at different locations in the stream network, or 123 under widely varying flow conditions. We expect that geomorphic-hyporheic relationships will 124 differ substantially among different geologic settings. 125 126 Fluvial geomorphic studies have examined the factors that determine the types of channel 127 morphologies present within stream networks (Montgomery and Buffington, 1997; Wohl and 128 Merritt, 2005; Brardinoni and Hassan, 2007). Montgomery and Buffington (1997) presented one 5 Wondzell and Gooseff: Treatise in Fluvial Geomorpholgy – Geomorphic Controls on Hyporheic Exchange 129 such description of the distribution of channel morphologies typical of many mountainous 130 landscapes. They showed that catchment
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