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The Seven Sins of Memory: an Update Memory ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/pmem20 The seven sins of memory: an update Daniel L. Schacter To cite this article: Daniel L. Schacter (2021): The seven sins of memory: an update, Memory, DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2021.1873391 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2021.1873391 Published online: 17 Jan 2021. Submit your article to this journal View related articles View Crossmark data Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=pmem20 MEMORY https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2021.1873391 REVIEW ARTICLE The seven sins of memory: an update Daniel L. Schacter Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Memory serves critical functions in everyday life, but it is also vulnerable to error and illusion. Received 28 September 2020 Two decades ago, I proposed that memory errors could be classified into seven basic categories Accepted 3 January 2021 or “sins”: transience, absent-mindedness, blocking, misattribution, suggestibility, bias, and KEYWORDS persistence. I argued that each of the seven sins provides important insights concerning the Constructive memory; fundamentally constructive nature of human memory, while at the same time reflecting its fl memory errors; adaptive features. In this article I brie y summarise some key developments during the past misattribution; two decades that have increased our understanding of the nature, consequences, and suggestibility; adaptive adaptive functions of the memory sins. functions Psychologists have long known that memory is subject to edition of The Seven Sins of Memory that discusses note- various forms of error and illusion. These observations worthy new developments related to each sin (Schacter, played a key role in the emergence of the view that in press). In this article, I will briefly summarise a few of memory is fundamentally constructive rather than repro- these developments regarding the six forgetting and ductive (Bartlett, 1932; Neisser, 1967). But even by the distortion-related sins that speak most directly to the end of the twentieth century, there were few systematic reliability of human memory, and also consider attempts to organise or classify the ways in which the current status of an adaptive perspective on the memory can go awry. To fill the gap, I argued (Schacter, memory sins. 1999, 2001) that memory’s misdeeds could be classified into seven basic categories or “sins”. Three “sins of omis- sion” refer to different kinds of forgetting: transience The seven sins of memory: some new and (decreasing accessibility of information over time), noteworthy developments absent-mindedness (breakdown at the interface of atten- Transience tion and memory), and blocking (temporary inaccessibility of information that is stored in memory). Three “sins of The observation that memory performance typically commission” refer to different kinds of distortion: misattri- declines over time famously dates to the beginning of bution (attributing a memory or idea to the wrong source), the experimental investigation of memory pioneered by suggestibility (implanted memories that result from sug- Ebbinghaus (1885/1964). It is therefore perhaps ironic gestion or misinformation), and bias (retrospective distor- that one of the more intriguing observations concerning tions produced by current knowledge, beliefs, and transience during the past two decades concerns evidence feelings). The seventh sin, also one of commission, is per- for “anti-transience”: individual differences and exper- sistence (intrusive or pathological remembering of imental manipulations that selectively mitigate forgetting events). Although each of the sins can wreak havoc in over time. The individual differences evidence comes from everyday life, a key idea in the seven sins framework is observations of individuals identified in studies by that rather than reflecting fatal flaws in the architecture McGaugh and colleagues who have come to be known of memory, the sins are more usefully conceived as conse- by the term Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory quences of processes that contribute importantly to the (HSAM; LePort et al., 2012). Beginning with a case study adaptive functioning of memory in everyday life (Schacter, of a woman with a remarkable ability to recall her 2001, Chapter 8). specific past personal experiences (Parker et al., 2006), Two decades have now passed since the original propo- and extending to larger groups of similar individuals sal of the seven sins of memory, and during that time there (e.g., Patihis et al., 2013; Santangelo et al., 2018), research has been much progress in documenting their causes and concerning HSAM has begun to unravel some of the cog- consequences. I recently completed a revision of the 2001 nitive and neural features that characterise these CONTACT Daniel L. Schacter [email protected] Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, 02138, MA, USA © 2021 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group 2 D. L. SCHACTER individuals’ exceptional abilities to recall personal We now know that almost anyone can exhibit such for- experiences. getting, including many highly functional and responsible Most relevant to the present discussion, LePort et al. parents. Fortunately, in recent years a variety of external (2016) studied 30 HSAM individuals and found that they cuing systems have been developed that provide the did not recall any more details than non-HSAM controls missing retrieval cue that is crucial to avoiding such trage- about personal events that had occurred a day or a dies (e.g., Baldwin, 2019; for further discussion of hot car week earlier. By contrast, the HSAM group did recall sig- cases and cuing systems, see Schacter, in press). These nificantly more details about personal events that had horrific cases of cue-dependent absent-minded forgetting occurred a month, a year, and 10 years earlier, thus represent a costly vulnerability of human memory, and yet indicating reduced forgetting over time. In a separate they reflect the same principles previously demonstrated line of research, studies on the benefits of retrieval in the laboratory and in less consequential everyday practice (also known as the testing effect) have shown examples. a similar kind of anti-transience: In research on story Another important post-2001 development related to recall, Roediger and Karpicke (2006) showed that com- absent-minded forgetting concerns the phenomenon of pared with restudying, retrieval practice/testing did mind wandering: when attention drifts away from the not benefit recall after a 5-minute delay, but did signifi- task at hand, and focuses instead on task-unrelated cantly boost recall relative to re-study after delays of 2 thoughts (for conceptual discussion of varieties of mind days and 1 week. These observations concerning HSAM wandering, see Seli et al., 2018). Mind wandering, which and retrieval practice are probably not unrelated: HSAM emerged as a major topic of research in cognitive psychol- individuals are known to repeatedly retrieve their past ogy and neuroscience during the first decade of the personal experiences, and this self-initiated form of twenty-first century (e.g., Smallwood & Schooler, 2006), retrieval practice is likely part of the explanation for can operate as a source of divided attention that results their reduced transience at long delays. At the same in absent-minded forgetting of task-related information. time, these findings highlight the pervasiveness of tran- This consequence of mind wandering has been examined sience in normal forgetting that is not mitigated by an in relation to educational settings, where studies of class- unusual condition such as HSAM or a specific technique room and video-recorded lectures have demonstrated such as retrieval practice. that mind wandering occurs frequently, and that more fre- quent mind wandering is associated with poorer retention of lecture material (e.g., Lindquist & McLean, 2011; Risko Absent-mindedness et al., 2012; Szpunar, Khan, & Schacter, 2013; for review, A characteristic of absent-minded forgetting I emphasised see Schacter & Szpunar, 2015). Interpolating brief quizzes in the first edition of The Seven Sins of Memory (Schacter, regarding lecture content in video-recorded lectures can 2001) emerged from everyday examples and experimental reduce the frequency of mind wandering and enhance research showing that when a person’s task is to remem- retention of lecture content (Szpunar et al., 2013; see ber to carry out a specific action at a specific time in the Pan et al., 2020, for similar benefi ts from pretesting future, if retrieval cues are not available at the moment lecture content). the action needs to be carried out, and attention is not Despite the negative educational consequences of focused on the task goal, absent-minded forgetting can mind wandering during lectures, and the tragic costs of be severe (e.g., Vortac et al., 1995). forgetting young children in hot cars, it is encouraging However, neither the prospective memory research nor that simple interventions can reduce both forms of everyday examples I cited presaged a phenomenon that absent-minded memory lapses. was little known prior to 2001 but has become all too fam- iliar since: parents who forget that their infant is in a car Blocking seat in the back of a hot car, often resulting in the death of the child. Such cases regularly appear each summer,
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