DOCSLIB.ORG

The Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory Distortion

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory Distortion View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Elsevier - Publisher Connector Neuron, Vol. 44, 149–160, September 30, 2004, Copyright 2004 by Cell Press The Cognitive Neuroscience Review of Memory Distortion Daniel L. Schacter* and Scott D. Slotnick distortions: misattribution, suggestibility, and bias. Mis- Department of Psychology attribution occurs when retrieved information is as- Harvard University signed to the wrong source (e.g., mistaking a previously Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138 imagined event for a real one); suggestibility refers to the incorporation of inaccurate information from external sources, such as misleading questions, into one’s own Memory distortion occurs in the laboratory and in ev- memories; and bias involves the distorting influences of eryday life. This article focuses on false recognition, present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings on recollection a common type of memory distortion in which individu- of previous experience. als incorrectly claim to have encountered a novel ob- Cognitive psychologists have long been interested in ject or event. By considering evidence from neuropsy- each of the distortion-related sins and have produced chology, neuroimaging, and electrophysiology, we much research concerning their properties and impli- address three questions. (1) Are there patterns of neu- cations (for reviews, see Johnson et al., 1993; Koriat ral activity that can distinguish between true and false and Goldsmith, 1996; Roediger and McDermott, 2000; recognition? (2) Which brain regions contribute to false Schacter, 2001; Schacter et al., 1998a). Such distortions recognition? (3) Which brain regions play a role in mon- have interested psychologists because they can provide itoring or reducing false recognition? Neuroimaging insight into the constructive nature of memory, revealing and electrophysiological studies suggest that sensory how bits of information are patched together to form activity is greater for true recognition compared to memories with varying degrees of accuracy. Cognitive false recognition. Neuropsychological and neuro- neuroscientists have, until recently, shown little interest imaging results indicate that the hippocampus and in examining memory distortions. During the past de- several cortical regions contribute to false recogni- cade, however, there has been steadily increasing re- tion. Evidence from neuropsychology, neuroimaging, search on the topic, and a cognitive neuroscience of and electrophysiology implicates the prefrontal cortex memory distortion is beginning to emerge. Much of this in retrieval monitoring that can limit the rate of false work has focused on the misattribution error called false recognition. recognition, which occurs when subjects incorrectly claim that a novel item has been encountered earlier in Introduction an experiment. False recognition is typically inferred The scientific analysis of memory would not be possible from “old” responses to novel items that are conceptu- if memory were perfect. Experimental and theoretical ally or perceptually related to previously studied items— analyses of memory typically depend on variations in that is, false alarms above and beyond the “baseline” the proportions of items or responses recalled, recog- level of false alarms to unrelated novel items (cf. Roe- nized, or otherwise produced across different condi- diger and McDermott, 1995; Underwood, 1965). tions. Such variations, which provide the basis for draw- Cognitive neuroscience research during the past de- ing inferences about the processes that support memory cade has used three different approaches to analyze function, necessarily involve some degree of forgetting. false recognition and related forms of memory distor- tion: neuroimaging, electrophysiology, and neuropsy- Beyond this ubiquitous sense in which imperfect reten- chology. Several studies have used functional neuro- tion is necessary to study memory, observations con- imaging techniques—positron emission tomography (PET) cerning the nature of forgetting have been conceptually and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)—in central to the cognitive neuroscience of memory. For an attempt to identify specific brain regions associated example, observations of pathological forgetting after with true and false recognition. Electrophysiological ac- damage to the medial temporal lobe (MTL) in human tivity associated with true and false recognition has been amnesic patients have greatly influenced our current examined using event-related potentials (ERPs), which understanding of the role of the MTL in various aspects measure changes in voltage topography on the scalp of memory (Squire and Schacter, 2002). over time. Neuropsychological analyses have focused Memory’s imperfections, however, are not restricted on brain-damaged patients with lesions to MTL and pre- to forgetting. Distortions and illusions of memory also frontal regions that have been implicated previously in occur—that is, there are instances in which some form accurate remembering. of memory is present, but incorrect. Memory distortions We consider evidence from each of these approaches can be considered in the context of the proposal that in an attempt to address three main issues that have memory’s imperfections can be divided into seven basic emerged in the literature during the past decade. First, categories, or “sins.” (Schacter, 1999, 2001). Three of we examine the evidence that brain activity can distin- the sins involve different types of forgetting (called tran- guish between true and false memories. From the sub- sience, absent-mindedness, and blocking), and one re- jective standpoint of an individual engaged in the act of fers to intrusive, unwanted memories of arousing or trau- remembering, true and false recognition are associated matic events (persistence). Most relevant to the topic with an identical mnemonic outcome: in both cases, of the present paper, three of the sins concern memory people believe they are remembering an event that oc- curred in their past. Therefore, it has been of consider- *Correspondence: [email protected] able interest to determine whether, and in what sense, Neuron 150 brain activity differs during true and false recognition. Neuroimaging of True and False Recognition We focus in particular on the hypothesis, tested by sev- In the first neuroimaging study to compare true and false eral investigators, that true memory, more than false recognition, PET scans were carried out while subjects memory, is preferentially associated with the reactiva- performed a recognition test that followed study of vari- tion of sensory/perceptual processing that occurred ous DRM associate lists (Schacter et al., 1996a). After during encoding. Second, we examine evidence that auditory presentation of lists containing 20 words that addresses the issue of what kind of brain activity is were associates of nonpresented theme words, subjects associated with, or responsible for, the generation of were scanned during separate test blocks in which they false memories. A number of studies have been particu- responded separately to true targets (words that had larly concerned with the role of MTL structures in the been studied previously), false targets (nonstudied se- generation of false memories, but recent research has mantic associates of previously studied items), or target also begun to examine the role of other regions as well. controls (nonpresented words that were unrelated to Third, we will consider research that has examined what previously studied words). Compared to a common brain regions are involved in monitoring or reducing sus- baseline fixation condition, both true and false recogni- ceptibility to false memories. Much of this research has tion were associated with blood flow increases in vari- focused on the analysis of regions within prefrontal ous regions that are commonly activated by episodic cortex. retrieval tasks, including dorsolateral/anterior prefron- tal, medial parietal, and medial temporal regions. Direct Distinguishing between True and False Memories: comparisons indicated greater activation during true The Sensory Reactivation Hypothesis than false recognition in a left temporoparietal region Although subjective responses are comparable during previously associated with auditory processing and re- true and false recognition, cognitive studies have pro- tention. Because subjects had heard true targets—but vided some evidence for differences in the nature of the not false targets—during the auditory study phase of representations that support the two forms of memory. the experiment, this finding supports the possibility that In particular, several behavioral studies indicate that true recognition is preferentially associated with an audi- true memories are accompanied by retrieval of greater tory sensory signature that reflects memory for auditory/ sensory/perceptual details than are false memories phonological aspects of previously studied words. (e.g., Mather et al., 1997; Norman and Schacter, 1997; In a related study, Schacter et al. (1997a) performed a similar experiment using the then newly developed Schooler et al., 1986). Such findings make intuitive sense event-related fMRI, which allows stimuli from different because true memories engage perceptual encoding conditions to be mixed together (as opposed to pre- processes that are presumably not involved in the cre- sented in separate test blocks according to condition, ation of false memories.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • All in the Mind Psychology for the Curious
    All in the Mind Psychology for the Curious Third Edition Adrian Furnham and Dimitrios Tsivrikos www.ebook3000.com This third edition first published 2017 © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Edition history: Whurr Publishers Ltd (1e, 1996); Whurr Publishers Ltd (2e, 2001) Registered Office John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial Offices 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148‐5020, USA 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley‐blackwell. The right of Adrian Furnham and Dimitrios Tsivrikos to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners.
    [Show full text]
  • Memory & Cognition
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Syracuse University Research Facility and Collaborative Environment Syracuse University SURFACE Syracuse University Honors Program Capstone Syracuse University Honors Program Capstone Projects Projects Spring 5-1-2006 Memory & Cognition: What difference does gender make? Donna J. Bridge Follow this and additional works at: https://surface.syr.edu/honors_capstone Part of the Cognition and Perception Commons, Cognitive Psychology Commons, and the Other Psychology Commons Recommended Citation Bridge, Donna J., "Memory & Cognition: What difference does gender make?" (2006). Syracuse University Honors Program Capstone Projects. 655. https://surface.syr.edu/honors_capstone/655 This Honors Capstone Project is brought to you for free and open access by the Syracuse University Honors Program Capstone Projects at SURFACE. It has been accepted for inclusion in Syracuse University Honors Program Capstone Projects by an authorized administrator of SURFACE. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Memory & Cognition: What difference does gender make? Donna J. Bridge Department of Psychology Syracuse University Abstract Small but significant gender differences, typically favoring women, have pre- viously been observed in experiments measuring human episodic memory performance. In three studies measuring episodic memory, we compared performance levels for men and women. Secondary analysis from a paired- associate learning task revealed a superior ability for women to learn single function pairs (i.e. words that are represented in only one pair), but per- formance levels for double function pairs (i.e. pairs that contain words that are also used in one other pair) were similar for men and women.
    [Show full text]
  • Reversible Verbal and Visual Memory Deficits After Left Retrosplenial Infarction
    Journal of Clinical Neurology / Volume 3 / March, 2007 Case Report Reversible Verbal and Visual Memory Deficits after Left Retrosplenial Infarction Jong Hun Kim, M.D.*, Kwang-Yeol Park, M.D.†, Sang Won Seo, M.D.*, Duk L. Na, M.D.*, Chin-Sang Chung, M.D.*, Kwang Ho Lee, M.D.*, Gyeong-Moon Kim, M.D.* *Department of Neurology, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea †Department of Neurology, Chung-Ang University Medical Center, Chung-Ang University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea The retrosplenial cortex is a cytoarchitecturally distinct brain structure located in the posterior cingulate gyrus and bordering the splenium, precuneus, and calcarine fissure. Functional imaging suggests that the retrosplenium is involved in memory, visuospatial processing, proprioception, and emotion. We report on a patient who developed reversible verbal and visual memory deficits following a stroke. Neuro- psychological testing revealed both anterograde and retrograde memory deficits in verbal and visual modalities. Brain diffusion-weighted and T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) demonstrated an acute infarction of the left retrosplenium. J Clin Neurol 3(1):62-66, 2007 Key Words : Retrosplenium, Memory, Amnesia We report on a patient who developed both verbal INTRODUCTION and visual memory deficits after an acute infarction of the retrosplenial cortex. The main structures related to human memory are the Papez circuit, the basolateral limbic circuit, and the basal forebrain, which communicate with each other through white-matter tracts. Damage to these structures (in- cluding the communication tracts) from hemorrhages, infarctions, and tumors can result in memory dis- turbances.1,2 In addition to these structures, Valenstein et al.
    [Show full text]
  • Memory Performance and Adaptive Strategies in Younger and Older Adults During Single and Dual Task Conditions
    MEMORY PERFORMANCE AND ADAPTIVE STRATEGIES IN YOUNGER AND OLDER ADULTS DURING SINGLE AND DUAL TASK CONDITIONS VICTORIA GRACE COLLIN A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of Greenwich for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy June 2015 DECLARATION “I certify that this work has not been accepted in substance for any degree, and is not currently being submitted for any degree other than that of Doctor of Philosophy being studied at the University of Greenwich. I also declare that this work is the result of my own investigations except where otherwise identified by references and that I have not plagiarised the work of others.” Student Victoria G Collin Date First Supervisor Dr Sandhiran Patchay Date ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . Firstly I would like to thank my supervisors, Dr Sandhi Patchay, Dr Trevor Thompson and Professor Pam Maras for all of your support and guidance over the years. It’s been a long and sometimes difficult journey, and I really appreciate all of your patience and understanding. I would also like to thank Dr Mitchell Longstaff who encouraged me to embark on this journey, and for all of his help early on as my supervisor. Thanks also to all my colleagues in the department for their advice and encouragement over the years. In particular I would like to thank Dr Claire Monks who was very helpful in her role as Programme Leader- sorry for all of the annoying questions! I would like to thank all of the participants, who offered their precious time to take part in my research.
    [Show full text]
  • Verbal Mediation of Visual Memory on the Continuous Visual Memory Test
    University of Montana ScholarWorks at University of Montana Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers Graduate School 1999 Verbal mediation of visual memory on the Continuous Visual Memory Test Sean P. Whalen The University of Montana Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd Let us know how access to this document benefits ou.y Recommended Citation Whalen, Sean P., "Verbal mediation of visual memory on the Continuous Visual Memory Test" (1999). Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers. 5782. https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd/5782 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at ScholarWorks at University of Montana. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at University of Montana. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Maureen and Mike MANSFIELD LIBRARY The University ofIVIONTANA Permission is granted by the author to reproduce this material in its entirety, provided that this material is used for scholarly purposes and is properly cited in published works and reports. ** Please check "Yes" or "No" and provide signature ** Yes, I grant permission No, I do not grant permission Author's Signature D ate 7 *7_______________________ Any copying for commercial purposes or financial gain may be undertaken only with the author's explicit consent. Verbal Mediation of the CVMT Verbal Mediation of Visual Memory on the Continuous Visual Memory Test By Sean P. Whalen B. S., Psychology, Pacific Lutheran University Presented as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts University of Montana 1999 Approved by Committee Chair Dean of the Graduate School Date UMI Number: EP41249 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted.
    [Show full text]
  • Elaborative Encoding, the Ancient Art of Memory, and the Hippocampus
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN SCIENCES (2013) 36, 589–659 provided by RERO DOC Digital Library doi:10.1017/S0140525X12003135 Such stuff as dreams are made on? Elaborative encoding, the ancient art of memory, and the hippocampus Sue Llewellyn Faculty of Humanities, University of Manchester, Manchester M15 6PB, United Kingdom http://www.humanities.manchester.ac.uk [email protected] Abstract: This article argues that rapid eye movement (REM) dreaming is elaborative encoding for episodic memories. Elaborative encoding in REM can, at least partially, be understood through ancient art of memory (AAOM) principles: visualization, bizarre association, organization, narration, embodiment, and location. These principles render recent memories more distinctive through novel and meaningful association with emotionally salient, remote memories. The AAOM optimizes memory performance, suggesting that its principles may predict aspects of how episodic memory is configured in the brain. Integration and segregation are fundamental organizing principles in the cerebral cortex. Episodic memory networks interconnect profusely within the cortex, creating omnidirectional “landmark” junctions. Memories may be integrated at junctions but segregated along connecting network paths that meet at junctions. Episodic junctions may be instantiated during non–rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep after hippocampal associational function during REM dreams. Hippocampal association involves relating, binding, and integrating episodic memories into a mnemonic compositional whole. This often bizarre, composite image has not been present to the senses; it is not “real” because it hyperassociates several memories. During REM sleep, on the phenomenological level, this composite image is experienced as a dream scene.
    [Show full text]
  • Behavioural and Neural Correlates of Individual Differences in Episodic
    Behavioural and Neural Correlates of Individual Differences in Episodic Memory by Daniela Jesseca Palombo A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Psychology University of Toronto © Copyright by Daniela Jesseca Palombo, 2013 Behavioural and Neural Correlates of Individual Differences in Episodic Memory Daniela Jesseca Palombo Doctor of Philosophy Department of Psychology University of Toronto 2013 Abstract Episodic autobiographical memory (AM) refers to the real-life recollection of personal events that are contextually-bound to a particular time and place. Anecdotally, individuals differ widely in their ability to remember these types of experiences, yet little cognitive neuroscience research exists to support this idea. By contrast, there is a growing body of literature demonstrating that individual differences in episodic memory for laboratory experiences, intended to serve as a proxy for real life, are associated with brain-biomarkers. The present studies provide a starting point for exploring individual differences in the real-life expression of memory; which is more complex, multifaceted and has longer retention intervals, than laboratory memory (LM), thus allowing for the assessment of remote memory. While there are many factors that contribute to individual differences in episodic AM, the focus of this dissertation is on genetic influences. In particular, the KIBRA gene has been associated with episodic LM in a replicated genome- wide association study; T-carriers showing enhanced performance relative to individuals who lack this allele. The present series of studies explored the association of KIBRA with ii episodic AM. An ancillary goal was to clarify the association between KIBRA and episodic LM.
    [Show full text]
  • An Overview of the Neuro-Cognitive Processes Involved in the Encoding, Consolidation, and Retrieval of True and False Memories Benjamin Straube*
    Straube Behavioral and Brain Functions 2012, 8:35 http://www.behavioralandbrainfunctions.com/content/8/1/35 REVIEW Open Access An overview of the neuro-cognitive processes involved in the encoding, consolidation, and retrieval of true and false memories Benjamin Straube* Abstract Perception and memory are imperfect reconstructions of reality. These reconstructions are prone to be influenced by several factors, which may result in false memories. A false memory is the recollection of an event, or details of an episode, that did not actually occur. Memory formation comprises at least three different sub-processes: encoding, consolidation and the retrieval of the learned material. All of these sub-processes are vulnerable for specific errors and consequently may result in false memories. Whereas, processes like imagery, self-referential encoding or spreading activation can lead to the formation of false memories at encoding, semantic generalization during sleep and updating processes due to misleading post event information, in particular, are relevant at the consolidation stage. Finally at the retrieval stage, monitoring processes, which are assumed to be essential to reject false memories, are of specific importance. Different neuro-cognitive processes have been linked to the formation of true and false memories. Most consistently the medial temporal lobe and the medial and lateral prefrontal cortex have been reported with regard to the formation of true and false memories. Despite the fact that all phases entailing memory formation, consolidation of stored information and retrieval processes, are relevant for the forming of false memories, most studies focused on either memory encoding or retrieval. Thus, future studies should try to integrate data from all phases to give a more comprehensive view on systematic memory distortions.
    [Show full text]
  • Cognitive Predictors of Verbal Memory in a Mixed Clinical Pediatric Sample
    Behav. Sci. 2013, 3, 522–535; doi:10.3390/bs3030522 OPEN ACCESS behavioral sciences ISSN 2076-328X www.mdpi.com/journal/behavsci/ Article Cognitive Predictors of Verbal Memory in a Mixed Clinical Pediatric Sample Lizabeth L. Jordan *, Callie E. Tyner and Shelley C. Heaton Department of Clinical & Health Psychology, University of Florida Health Science Center, PO Box 100165, Gainesville, FL 32610-0165, USA; E-Mails: [email protected] (C.E.T.); [email protected] (S.C.H.) * Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-352-273-5281; Fax: +1-352-273-6156. Received: 22 July 2013; in revised form: 13 August 2013 / Accepted: 15 August 2013 / Published: 26 August 2013 Abstract: Verbal memory problems, along with other cognitive difficulties, are common in children diagnosed with neurological and/or psychological disorders. Historically, these “memory problems” have been poorly characterized and often present with a heterogeneous pattern of performance across memory processes, even within a specific diagnostic group. The current study examined archival neuropsychological data from a large mixed clinical pediatric sample in order to understand whether functioning in other cognitive areas (i.e., verbal knowledge, attention, working memory, executive functioning) may explain some of the performance variability seen across verbal memory tasks of the Children’s Memory Scale (CMS). Multivariate analyses revealed that among the cognitive functions examined, only verbal knowledge explained a significant amount of variance in overall verbal memory performance. Further univariate analyses examining the component processes of verbal memory indicated that verbal knowledge is specifically related to encoding, but not the retention or retrieval stages.
    [Show full text]
  • The Role of Verbal Working Memory in Second Language Reading Fluency and Comprehension: a Comparison of English and Korean
    International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 2011, 4(1), 47-65. The role of verbal working memory in second language reading fluency and comprehension: A comparison of English and Korean Hye K. PAE ∗∗∗ University of Cincinnati, United States Rose A. SEVCIK Georgia State University, United States Abstract This study examined the respective contribution of verbal working memory, which was operationalized as immediate digit and sentence recall, to bilingual children’s reading fluency and comprehension in the first language (L1) and second language (L2). Fifty children from two international sites took part in this study: One group was English-Korean bilinguals in the U.S., while the other was Korean-English bilinguals in Korea. The manifestation of the prediction model varied across the learning contexts or learner groups. L1 forward and backward digit spans accounted for the significant variances in L2 reading fluency and comprehension for the English-speaking children in the U.S., whereas L1 forward digit span was more predictive of L2 reading fluency and comprehension than backward digit span and sentence recall for the Korean-speaking counterparts in Korea. The results were interpreted with respect to the orthographic depth, linguistic differences, and cognitive demands. Implications and future directions are discussed. Keywords: Reading fluency and comprehension; English-Korean bilinguals; Korean-English bilinguals; verbal memory Introduction Since Baddeley and Hitch’s publication (1974) on the construct of working memory, researchers have investigated not only the nature, structure, and function of working memory but also its relation to children’s language and reading acquisition (Daneman & Carpenter, 1980; Gathercole & Baddeley, 1993; Windfuhr & Snowling, 2001).
    [Show full text]
  • Okami Study Guide: Chapter 8 1
    Okami Study Guide: Chapter 8 1 Chapter in Review 1. Memory may be defined as a group of mechanisms and systems that encode, store, and retrieve information. The modal model of memory describes three stages and stores in the memory process: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long- term memory (LTM). 2. Sensory memory very briefly stores fleeing sensory impressions for further processing in STM and LTM. Sensory memory is divided into two categories: iconic store, which stores fleeting visual impressions; and echoic store, which stores fleeting auditory impressions. In addition to storing sensory impressions for further processing, sensory memory allows us to perceive the world as a continuous stream of events instead of a series of “snapshots.” 3. When you consciously or unconsciously decide to pay attention to specific pieces of information in sensory memory, the information is transferred into short-term memory. The duration and capacity of STM are limited. In general, information can remain in STM for no longer than 20 seconds unless maintenance rehearsal takes place, and no more than 4 single items or chunks of information can be held in STM at any one time. A chunk is any grouping of items that are strongly associated with one another. 4. Long-term memory (LTM) is theoretically limitless and relatively permanent. Information moves from STM to LTM when it is encoded in one of three ways: through sound (acoustic encoding), imagery (visual encoding), or meaning (semantic encoding). Encoding in STM tends to be primarily acoustic, secondarily visual, and much less often semantic. However, encoding in LTM is most effective if it is semantic.
    [Show full text]
  • The Seven Sins of Memory
    The seven sins of memory 1: Transience What is it? Gradual loss of memory. Memory is lost/diminishes over time. Both in STM and LTM. Why is it a sin? It’s is a by-product of an adaptive system property: It’s often useful to forget old and outdated information that is not relevant any more (to be able to act appropriately). It can also be useful to be able to forget unwanted thoughts that were memorized involuntarily. The sin is, that we either lose too much information or things that we might need later. Which is, when we realize the transience of memory. What’s the empirical evidence? Empirical evidence dates back to Ebbinghaus (1885) who showed that forgetting is a (power)-function of time. The rate of forgetting slows down with the passage of time. To date, it’s unclear, what causes this sin, probably a mixture of decay, interference and overwriting, with an emphasis on the latter two. The causes of transience seem to be different for STM as opposed to LTM. Structures in the medial temporal lobe seem to be the basis of LTM, while structures in left parietal and left inferior prefrontal cortex seem to be the seat of working memory (STM). What’s an example? There are many possible examples. Being unable to remember information that one encoded a couple of years ago, forgetting a phone number that one just looked up, etc. 2: Absent-mindedness What is it? This refers to a failure of attention, either at the encoding stage or at the retrieval stage.
    [Show full text]