MEASURING URBAN SUSTAINABILITY

Analysis of the European Green Capital Award 2010 & 2011 application round

1

The authors of the European Green Capital Award 2010 & 2011 report are: Maria Berrini and Lorenzo Bono, Ambiente Italia (www.ambienteitalia.it)

The report has been reviewed by the following members of the European Green Capital Award 2010 & 2011 Evaluation Panel: o Birgit Georgi European Environment Agency Indicator area(s): Sustainable land use and availability of public open areas o Matthias Ketzel Danish National Environmental Research Institute Indicator area(s): Quality of local ambient air o J. Luis Bento Coelho Instituto Superior Técnico (TU Lisbon) Indicator area(s): Noise pollution o P.J. Rudden Irish consultancy RPS Group Indicator area(s): Waste production & management o Beate Werner European Environment Agency Indicator area(s): Water consumption & Waste water management o Henrik Gudmundsson Technical University of Denmark Indicator area(s): Local mobility and passenger transportation

Full responsibility for the content of the report lies with Ambiente Italia (research and consultancy, Italy).

May, 2010

2

Table of Contents

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 4 2. LOCAL CONTRIBUTION TO GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE ...... 7 3. LOCAL MOBILITY AND PASSENGER TRANSPORTATION ...... 12 4. SUSTAINABLE LAND USE AND AVAILABILITY OF LOCAL PUBLIC OPEN AREAS .. 17 5. QUALITY OF LOCAL AMBIENT AIR ...... 22 6. NOISE POLLUTION ...... 27 7. WASTE PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT ...... 30 8. WATER CONSUMPTION AND WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT ...... 34 9. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT OF THE LOCAL AUTHORITY ...... 39

3 Theoretical framework for the Award 1. INTRODUCTION The title rewards a number of different elements of environmental achievements in a city. The evaluation criteria are based on the The European Green Capital Award, following 3 aspects: background and objectives 1. The 'greenest' city The European Green Capital Award (EGCA) is The Award rewards the 'greenest' city in the result of an initiative taken by 15 European Europe based on the city's state of the cities and the Association of Estonian cities in environment as defined by the performance May 2006 in Tallinn. The 15 cities were Tallinn levels relative to each of the proposed itself, Helsinki, Riga, Vilnius, Berlin, Warsaw, indicators. Madrid, Ljubljana, Prague, Vienna, Kiel, Kotka, 2. Implementation of efficient and innovative Dartford, Tartu and Glasgow. The initiative was measures & future commitment turned into a joint Memorandum submitted to The Award rewards the city that has the European Commission in which they implemented the most innovative and efficient proposed the establishment of an award environmental measures and which has shown rewarding cities that are leading the way in that it is committed to do the same in the environmentally friendly urban living. future.

The aim of the award is to promote urban 3. Communication and networking sustainability and the sharing of best practices The Award rewards a city which can act as a between cities. role model and inspire other cities to boost their

efforts towards a greener urban environment The Award's objectives are threefold, namely by sharing experiences and promoting best to: a) reward cities that have a well-established practice among European cities and beyond. record of achieving high environmental objectives, The indicator areas Evaluation of the cities' efforts is based upon b) encourage cities to commit to ambitious the following 10 environmental indicator areas: goals for further environmental improvement - Local contribution to global climate and sustainable development, and change c) provide a role model to inspire other cities - Local mobility and passenger and promote best practices and experiences in transportation all other European cities. - Availability of local public open areas

- Quality of local ambient air All cities from EU Member States, Candidate - Noise pollution Countries and European Economic Area - Waste production and management countries which have more than 200,000 - Water consumption inhabitants can apply for the award. - Waste water management

- Environmental management of the local Read more at: www.europeangreencapital.eu. authority

- Sustainable land use. 4

The 35 applicant cities for 2010 & 2011 Evaluation of the 2010 & 2011 applications Applicant cities 2010 and 2011 awards In 2009, the first evaluation round took place in order to select Europe's Green capitals for 2010 and 2011.  Amsterdam, Netherlands • Bordeaux, France Thirty-five cities, covering 17 European • Bremen, Germany countries, applied for the 2010 and 2011 • Bristol, United Kingdom European Green Capital Awards. • Cluj-Napoca, Romania The applicant cities sent applications • Copenhagen, Denmark describing results achieved, measures taken • Dublin, Ireland and short and long term commitments for each • Espoo, Finland indicator area, as well as their proposed • Freiburg, Germany programs of actions and events to disseminate • Hamburg, Germany experiences and best practices. • Hannover, Germany • Helsinki, Finland The eight finalist cities • Kaunas, Lithuania The data produced by the 35 applicant cities • Lisbon, Portugal was assessed by the Evaluation Panel with the specific purpose of selecting eight finalist cities.  Łódź, Poland Various methods of evaluation (quantitative • Magdeburg, Germany and qualitative, objective comparisons or • Malmø, Sweden individual expert assessments, final cross • Munich, Germany check evaluations, etc.) were applied by the • Murcia, Spain Evaluation Panel to analyze the data. • Münster, Germany

• Oslo, Norway The eight finalists were: • Pamplona, Spain  Amsterdam • Prague, Czech Republic  Bristol • Riga, Latvia  Copenhagen • Rotterdam, Netherlands  Freiburg • Sabadell, Spain  Hamburg • Stockholm, Sweden  Muenster • Tampere, Finland  Oslo • Toruń, Poland  Stockholm • Valencia, Spain

• Vienna, Austria On the basis of an additional transparent • Montpellier, France evaluation process, the European Green • Vilnius, Lithuania Capital Award Jury made their final decision • Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain and announced the City of Stockholm as the • Zaragoza, Spain 2010 European Green Capital, and the City of

Hamburg as the Award winner for 2011.

5 The aim of this report “benchmarking” approach has been avoided. The aim of this report is to make the data from The reporting activity was structured towards the finalists' applications available to other producing as much useful information as cities in a systematic manner in order to inspire possible with the available data. and provide them with ambitious benchmarks.

This has been done by: - In depth analysis and reporting on the eight finalists' achievements, goals and practices in a useful manner; - Providing evidence on the best results and highlighting the best practices, in order to promote positive competition aiming to achieve the most ambitious goals possible; - Reporting the available quantitative data in a clear manner, with tables and graphs and, where possible, with appropriate comparisons; - Integrating quantitative data with qualitative descriptions of good practices, in a manner that inspires other cities.

Structure and approach of this report The report is organized in eight Chapters (eight and not ten), because the analysis of four indicator areas, Local public open areas / Sustainable land Use and Water consumption / Waste water management have been integrated into two chapters).

Policies are described with qualitative information, and a selection of local, best practices developed by the eight cities are highlighted.

The report elaborates on the data which was presented by cities in accordance with the Award application forms and on additional documentation provided during the evaluation rounds. In a few cases, where data provided by cities was not comparable, (e.g. different years or units of measure, only qualitative answers available, etc.), other data sources (e.g. EEA or Eurostat) have been used, or the

6 Oslo is the city which shows the lowest CO2 2. LOCAL CONTRIBUTION per capita emission (2.4 t/inh). This data may TO GLOBAL CLIMATE be explained by the widespread use of CHANGE electricity based on hydropower, a district heating system based to a large degree on heat derived from waste incineration, and a

well developed, rail-based public transport Introduction Climate change is at the top of the World global system. Agenda. EU has set ambitious targets (20-20- Oslo is followed by Stockholm where the per 20 climate and energy package1) and cities are capita emissions of 5.4 t registered in 1990 to play an important role in meeting these decreased to 4.0 t/inh in 2005. Part of this targets. improvement can be related to the transport sector, where the emissions decreased from Local policies aiming to reduce CO2 emissions and increase energy efficiency and renewable 1.6 to 1.3 tonnes per capita between 1990 and uses, generally part of city strategy, are already 2005. This is again thanks to the low car share in place in the form of activities to reduce and of the modal split (this is further explained in avoid air pollution, reduce car congestion, the next chapter on local mobility and improve water and waste management and passenger transport) and to the fact that increase green areas. 70,000 vehicles in Stockholm (9%) are ethanol, In their applications the cities were asked to biogas, hybrid-electric or ultra-low emission provide information on the baseline as well as vehicles. All inner city buses operate on biogas the policies and targets in relation to the or ethanol and 50 % of the waste-lorries and 40 following indicators: % of the taxis are bio fuelled or Hybrid. 75% of fuel stations offer ethanol or biogas and all - CO2 per capita and trends (1990 – 2005) - Carbon content in electricity petrol sold in the city contains 5 % ethanol. - District heating Like Stockholm, Copenhagen scores a 26% - Greenhouse gas reduction target CO2 per capita reduction in the period 1990- 2005, reaching 4.9 t/inh. A significant causative factor in this reduction is the full expansion of CO2 per capita and trends CO2 calculation methods, when applied at local the district heating network and cleaner fuels in level, often differ greatly so comparison data CHP stations (CO2 emissions from CPH must be evaluated carefully. stations has halved since 1984). None the less, interesting information emerges when studying the information from the eight CO2 EMISSIONS finalists. % from City t/inh transport 1990-2005 Amsterdam 6.6 33% 12% 1 The 20-20-20 „climate and energy package‟ was agreed Bristol 5.4 na na by the European Parliament and Council in December Copenhagen 4.9 20% -26% 2008 and came into force in June 2009. The three main Freiburg 9.3 22% -13% targets of the package are: Hamburg 8.8 41% -25%  a reduction in EU greenhouse gas emissions of at Muenster 6.3 32% -22% least 20% below 1990 levels; Oslo 2.4 58% -8%  20% of EU energy consumption to come from Stockholm 4 33% -26% renewable resources;  a 20% reduction in primary energy use compared with projected levels, to be achieved by improving energy efficiency. 7 The German cities, Freiburg and Hamburg in and the percentage of nuclear energy has also particular, show the highest per capita been reduced below 25%. Approximately 4% of emissions: respectively, 9.3 t/inh and 8.8 t/inh. electricity is currently generated from At the same time, Hamburg is the city that has renewable energy sources: 1.5% wind energy, experienced the highest emissions decrease 1.6% biomass, 0.85% solar panels and 0.2% (in absolute value), being able to cut the per hydropower. Freiburg has 9.8 MW of solar PV capita emissions by 2.87 t (-25%). Main factors panels and 13,000 m2 of solar thermal panels were: A decrease in energy consumption from installed. housing and a decrease of the electricity Amsterdam is the only city where the per capita consumption of households and small emissions increased from 5.9 in 1990 to 6.6 in businesses. Since 2004, emissions from 2006, despite a rather good diffusion of transport have been falling in accordance with renewable energy, particularly wind power. the national emissions, due to higher fuel Today 80 megawatts of wind energy is prices. Since 1997, Hamburg is subsidising produced within the city limits, including the solar thermal plants and, as of today, more port area. The port wishes to expand this to than 36,000 m² of solar collectors have been 100 megawatts. installed. The same programme subsidised bio- No available data for Bristol. energy plants, with a total power capacity of 14.5 MW. The municipally owned housing Carbon content in electricity associations have also improved the energetic Although data on electricity consumption performance of some 65,000 residential units derived from Renewable Energy Sources in the past 10 years. This has made it possible (RES) are difficult to compare, the available data on the carbon content of electricity are to avoid 75,000 t of CO2 per year, which represents a 22% reduction in emissions. analysed as follows.

Electricity carbon content CO2 per capita emission 700 12,0 1990 600 10,0 2005-2006 500 8,0 400

ton/inh 6,0 300 g CO2/kWh g 4,0 200 100 2,0 0

0,0

Oslo

Bristol

Oslo

Freiburg

Bristol

Muenster Hamburg

Stockholm

Freiburg

Hamburg Muenster

Amsterdam

Stockholm Copenhagen

Amsterdam Copenhagen

Regarding the carbon content of electricity, the In Freiburg, the drop in CO2 emissions (-13%) cities tend to report a value related to the was achieved by active local policies which national energy mix, not being able to account have led to decreased energy consumption by for the local electricity production‟s ratio. industry, households and businesses, as well For example, Amsterdam (where 37% of as in transport. Today 50% of Freiburg‟s households use electricity from RES) considers electricity is generated within the city, largely the composition of the Dutch fuel mix largely through combined heat and power generation

8 representative for the fuel mix of the city (1 electricity and/or industrial production, energy kWh of electricity produces 616 g CO2). from waste incineration plants and bio fuels Hamburg imports “only” 80% of its electricity and other renewable energy sources. from the national grid but reports the emission factors of the national energy production (584 g Inhabitants connected to district heating

CO2/kWh). The city declares a 12% of 100% electricity produced from RES. 90% 80% Freiburg does not use the German factors and 70% 60% the value reported - based on the GEMIS 50% 40% methodology - is higher than Hamburg's (683 g 30% 20% per kWh). A record of the CO2 intensity of the 10% overall energy consumption of the city 0%

(kgCO2/kWh) has not been kept in Freiburg Oslo

Bristol

Freiburg

Hamburg Muenster

(they declare a 4% of electricity produced from Stockholm Amsterdam Copenhagen RES).

In Oslo most of the electricity supply comes In Stockholm almost 70% of the population has from renewable hydropower. During limited access to district heating. The share of periods the electricity supply may contain a renewable energies used for the energy fraction of fossil derived energy imported from production is about 70% (including waste overseas; however this is more than recovery). The emissions of greenhouse gases compensated by exports of hydropower out of have dropped with 593,000 t since 1990 as a Norway at other times. Even if precise figures result of conversion from oil to district heating. for the size of this fossil fraction are not Furthermore, a new district cooling system available, they consider the CO content equal 2 contributes to an annual environmental gain of to zero. approx. 60,000 t CO2. Also in Stockholm the carbon intensity is very The other cities, with the exception of Bristol, low (103 grams of CO per kWh in 2005), 2 show a percentage of connected inhabitants thanks to the widespread use of renewable ranging from 10% to 20%. energy (as national average the data provided In Amsterdam not only household, but also 500 is 61% and 70% is used for the district large companies are connected to the network. heating). About 70% of the municipal A lot of the heat is produced by the Waste and administrations use electricity from renewable Energy Company which converts biomass from resources (hydro and wind). There are also waste and biogas from the sewer. 12% of households buying electricity ecolabelled as from RES. Long Term Energy Storage (LTES) in the

eastern port area of Amsterdam District heating

Scandinavian cities have a long tradition in the On the Oosterdoks island, a long term energy development of district heating technology and storage (LTES) will be realised in order to supply show the highest percentages of connected energy to 180,000 m2 of commercial and industrial inhabitants. Today, 97% of Copenhagen is buildings (offices, other facilities). connected to a district heating system. District The LTES system has a heat and cold distribution heating is mainly a product of surplus heat from network from where all the required cold and heat for the buildings is supplied at the right

9 temperature. Heat is generated centrally with reversible heat pumps, supplemented by bio-fuel Stockholm City Council has adopted a target to powered central heating boilers at peak demands. reduce the greenhouse gas emissions to 3.0 The cold is also generated with reversible heat tonnes CO2 per capita by 2015. The City pumps. The pumps utilise the stored heat and Council has also set a long-term target to cold from the ground water to provide the necessary heating and cooling. All buildings have continue to reduce emissions of greenhouse separately metered connections, so that users gases at the same rate as between 1990 and can be charged for their own usage. 2005. This is a step towards Stockholm Compared to traditional installations (gas-fired becoming a fossil fuel free city by 2050. boilers and air-cooled compression cooling In 2007 the city council of Copenhagen machines) it is forecast an annual amount of adopted “The Metropolitan Milieu” with the aim approximately 3,200 tonnes in terms of CO2 of reducing carbon dioxide emissions by 20% emissions that will be cut. This corresponds to the from 2005 levels by 2015. The plan will amount of CO avoided that could be provided by 2 consider possible ways of achieving a climate- means of approximately 8,050 solar panels a neutral Copenhagen within 20 years. year. In a comprehensive “Strategy for Climate Protection” published in late 2007 and updated annually, Hamburg committed itself to reduce

CO2 emissions by 2 million tonnes until 2012 – about 20% less than the 1990 figure,

representing a per capita reduction of approximately 25%. The city aims to reduce Greenhouse gas reduction targets and CO2 emissions by 40 % until 2020, and strategies endorses the joint European target to reduce All the cities have in recent years adopted CO2 emissions by 80% until 2050. specific strategies to cut their greenhouse gas The City of Oslo adopted a strategy for emissions. Some of them, like Copenhagen, reducing climate gas emissions in 2003. This Hamburg and Stockholm, identified both short laid the foundations for Oslo‟s climate and period targets (to be reached by 2015) and energy action plan which was adopted by the targets related to a longer period (20-30 years City Council in 2005 and stated that by the year and also 50 years long). Copenhagen and 2030, Oslo‟s climate gas emissions will be Stockholm committed themselves to become reduced by 50% compared to 1990. The Oslo carbon neutral cities. region‟s public transport company has decided that by the year 2020, use of fossil fuels for its CO2 EMISSION TARGET (BASE 1990) buses will be phased out. Heating oil will be Short period Medium period Long period phased out in municipal buildings by the end of City (2015) (2020-2030) (2050) 2011 and fossil energy for heating will be Amsterdam -40% phased out entirely by 2020. Bristol -80% -20% The Freiburg municipal set the City's new Copenhagen carbon neutral (base 2005) objective for climate protection in 2007: a 40% Freiburg -40% Hamburg -20% -40% -80% CO2 reduction by 2030. Short period targets Muenster -40% have been set to obtain 10% of electricity from Oslo -50% renewable energy sources by 2010. 1.2% of Stockholm -25% carbon neutral

10 the city‟s electricity should come from solar panels. In 2007, the Municipality of Amsterdam approved the New Amsterdam Climate, a strategy that aims to achieve a 40% CO2 emission reduction by the year 2025 for the entire city (compared to the level in 1990). In addition, the municipality itself aims to set a good example becoming climate neutral by 2015. Buildings, public lighting and the municipal transport facilities must consume less energy and must make as much use as possible of sustainable energy. For functions where fossil fuels are still unavoidable, possibilities for carbon setoffs will be investigated. The first target adopted by the city of Muenster aimed at cutting down one quarter of the CO2 emissions from 1990 to 2005. The communal climate protection balance for the year 2005 showed a factual saving of 21%. Due to these encouraging results a new target has been set by the city council in March 2008: to cut CO2 emissions by the year 2020, by at least 40% (reference year 1990). Furthermore, the renewable energies are supposed to obtain a 20% share in communal energy supply. In 2004, the city of Bristol adopted the Bristol Climate Protection & Sustainable Energy

Strategy and set the target to reduce CO2 emissions by 60% by 2050, from 2000 baseline. This is 1.2% per annum. Between 2005 and 2006, the first years of quality assured, comparable data, emissions were reduced by 2%. In 2008 a new Green Capital Action Plan was adopted and the previous reduction target is currently being reviewed as part of a research project with Bristol University which will set 5-yearly voluntary targets.

11 capita availability is 0.67 m/inh, while 3. LOCAL MOBILITY AND considering the “enlarged cycling network” the PASSENGER value rises up to 1.87 m/inh.

TRANSPORTATION CYCLING INFRASTRUCTURES Street City Separate Signed Routes, easy to Introduction d tracks with lanes pathways bike Mobility patterns and policies are of paramount km km km km importance for the urban environment and Amsterdam 400 100 na 900 quality of life. A strong dependency by cars and Bristol 39 32 95 na the quality of public transport affect parameters Copenh. 309 40 39 na such as air quality, noise, street accidents, city Freiburg 120 20 149 130 livability and children safety, health depending Hamburg 1,500 200 630 1,755 on mobility lifestyles, fossil energy consumption Muenster 293 3 210 na Oslo 201 30 14 6 and production of CO2. Stockholm 760 na na The Data analyzed in this report concerns the eight EGCA finalists' efforts in reducing car In Hamburg, as well as an extensive cycle lane dependency and shifting modal split towards network of 1,700 km, there are an additional means which are more sustainable. 630 km of cycle routes and pathways along The indicators include: green areas and 1,755 km of streets with a - Availability of cycling infrastructures, with a maximum speed of 30 km/h. special focus on cycle tracks and lanes Due to the fact that this type of data is not (km, km/inh, km/m2) available for all eight cities, the following - Public transport (population leaving <300 m analysis has only reported on cycle tracks and from PT stop; low emission PT) lanes. - Private car ownership (n/inh)

- Modal share (%), with a focus on trips not CYCLE TRACKS AND LANES longer than 5 km. City km m/inh km/km2 Amsterdam 500 0.67 2.28 Availability of cycling infrastructures Bristol 71 0.17 0.65 Cycling infrastructures contribute to promoting Copenhagen 349 0.69 3.95 cycling by making it faster, safer and more Freiburg 140 0.64 0.91 Hamburg 1,700 0.97 2.25 comfortable to cycle, even if it is clearly not the Muenster 296 1.06 0.98 only factor of importance. The infrastructure Oslo 231 0.42 0.51 offered by the finalist cities varies significantly. Stockholm 760 0.96 3.64 For example, Amsterdam has more than 500 km of cycle tracks and lanes, but there are also With regard to the availability of cycle tracks 900 km of roads (60% of the total amount) with and cycle lanes, Muenster, Hamburg and speed ramps and a maximum speed of 30 Stockholm have the highest per capita values km/h, a traffic management solution that could (about 1m/inh). be considered very bicycle friendly. It really makes the difference because if we consider only cycle tracks and lanes, the Amsterdam per

12 Availability of cycle paths and lanes network gladly and frequently is helped by three factors: 4,0 m/inh . the bicyclist-friendly topography of the city; 3,5 km/km2 3,0 . the installation of 304 km of separate bicycle 2,5 lanes along all main artery roads; 2,0 . the car-free promenade of 4.5 km all around 1,5 1,0 the old town which is reserved for cyclists and 0,5 pedestrians and fulfils important functions (up

0,0 to 1,500 cyclists per hour, at peak times, Oslo

Bristol make use of this “bicycle highway”).

Freiburg

Hamburg Muenster Stockholm

Amsterdam Copenhagen

Public transport Hamburg, also due to its dimension, has the The density and service level of the public most extensive cycle network, with a total transport network plays a very important role in length of 1,700 km. It consists of tracks running the sustainable mobility of a city. In Hamburg, parallel to roads for motor vehicles as well as Amsterdam and Copenhagen the share of of independently routed cycle paths, and has population living within a 300 metre radius of been in existence for over 30 years. local public transport stops (hourly or more However, if we consider the length of the cycle frequent) is very close to 100%. In network compared to the extent of the Copenhagen, 98% of the population lives municipal area, Copenhagen scores the within 350 metres to the high frequency lines. maximum “cycle network density” value, With the exception of Bristol, all the cities score accounting 3.95 km of cycle tracks and lanes 2 very high, around 90% to 100%. for each km . The Stockholm area is well 2 covered too (3.64 km/km ) followed by Hamburg and Amsterdam (about 2.3 km/km2). Population living <300m from a public transport stop 100% 90% Copenhagen and Muenster: priority to the bike 80% 70% 60% Copenhagen has set the objective of becoming 50% 40% the world‟s best cycling city. Today 36% of the 30% 20% capital‟s inhabitants use a bicycle to go to work or 10% study. The municipality wants to increase this 0%

share to 50% by 2015. It is therefore investing in Oslo

Bristol

Freiburg

Hamburg Muenster

new cycle tracks, trails, parks and safety projects. Stockholm Amsterdam The Green Wave is the sequenced traffic lights for Copenhagen commuters put on several of the city‟s main arteries which have been set so that cyclists do Data about low emission public fleets is rather not have to stop for red lights. In the municipality„s difficult to compare because each city provides road projects, very high value is given to cycle different interpretations of the technical tracks, often over cars or parking needs. features required for a public means of In Muenster, bicycle transport is also a top priority. transport to be considered “low emission” The entire municipal area is crossed by a network (buses with emissions which are 50% or more of safe bicycle trails. The fact that the citizens of below EURO IV standards as regards NOX or Muenster make use of the area-wide bicycle lane particulate matter). Nevertheless, Stockholm

13 and Amsterdam seem to be the cities which Registered cars have invested most resources in reducing the 500 emissions related to their public transport fleet. 450 400 In Stockholm County 65% of the public 350 300 transport (based on person-km) is classified as 250 200 low emission, including rail traffic. All rail traffic inh cars/1000 150 operates with certified renewable electricity. All 100 50 buses operating in the inner city run on 0

renewables. Some 50 buses run on biogas and Oslo

Bristol

Freiburg Hamburg

the number will be doubled the coming years. Stockholm Amsterdam Copenhagen Stockholm Transport also uses some 400 ethanol buses and a few ethanol hybrid buses. Modal share In 2008 25% of the bus fleet in the whole Even if some differences could be due to region ran on renewables, and the target for different morphological conditions, innovative 2011 is 50%. policies and mobility lifestyles have a great In Amsterdam only 20% of all public transport influence in the modal share, especially journeys is by bus. The other 80% of journeys referring to short distances (less than 5 km, by public transport is by emission free trams, that generally are the high majority of urban metro or trains with no local emissions. 98% of trips). buses are equipped with a CRT filter:

(Continuously Regenerating Trap) that reduces MODAL SHARE (TRIPS < 5km) fine particles more than twice as low as the EURO IV norm. Although, NOx emissions do Public City not reach a similar level. 15% of the buses of Foot Bicycle transport Car+moto Other the transport company meets the - stricter - Amsterdam 61% 25% 14% Bristol 26% 6% 15% 52% EEV NOx norm, but does not achieve the Copenhagen 29% 26% 17% 28% required 50% NOx of the euro IV norm. Freiburg 26% 31% 18% 25% Hamburg 40% 16% 11% 34% Muenster 23% 46% 8% 23% Private car ownership Oslo 50% 7% 10% 32% The car‟s ownership rate (Source: Eurostat) is Stockholm 68% 25% 8% very low in the eight cities (except for Bristol) if compared with the EU15 national average All the cities – with the exception of Bristol – (around 500 cars every 1,000 inhabitants). aim to contain the car use. Stockholm has Amsterdam and Hamburg show very low reached definitely the best results, with only values, under 300 cars/1,000inh. 8% of short trips made by car, while the other cities‟ values are between 20% and 30%. In particular, policies aiming to increase the “soft” mobility have been successful: in Amsterdam, Muenster and Stockholm more than 60% of short trips are done walking or by bicycle. Also other cities record a value which is higher than 50%.

14 Modal share (trips <5km) hour 78% of all trips to the inner city are by public transport. 100% 90% car+moto 80% 70% other The congestion charge in Stockholm 60% 50% public transport 40% After a seven month testing period, from August 30% bicycle 20% 2007 the congestion charge in Stockholm city centre 10% foot 0% is permanent. The fee is imposed on Swedish

registered vehicles driving into and out of the

Oslo

Bristol

Freiburg Hamburg

Muenster Stockholm inner city zone on weekdays between

Stockholm Amsterdam Copenhagen 6.30 a.m. and 6.29 p.m. Vehicles are automatically registered at “control points”. Traffic and emissions in the city centre decreased by at least 10-15 percent. In Amsterdam 38% of all journeys are currently The emission reduction due to the congestion fee made by bicycle and in the city centre this has been calculated to be equivalent of 30,000 increases to 57%. Amsterdam residents now tonnes of CO2 for the year of 2006. use a bicycle on average more frequently than a car. Before the introduction of the congestion scheme there were a majority opposing it, but once people Amsterdam: low-traffic city centre and saw the benefits many citizens changed their minds. widespread car sharing system At the referendum in September 2006 the majority voted for the continuation. It was re-launched on 1 Amsterdam residents decided on a low-traffic city August 2007 and the opinion polls now show a centre in a referendum in 1992. The number of car majority in favour of the scheme. journeys from and to the city centre has dropped strongly from 58,900 in 1995 to 40,100 in 2007: a fall In recent years Freiburg has been successful in of 32% (whereas the population remained stable). introducing sustainable mobility measures in its This drop in car traffic seems to have no negative long term planning documents. The Land economic effects, in view of the increase in price per Development Plan (LDP), approved in 2006, square metre for offices and housing in the city requires that all new residential and centre over the same period. commercial areas would be assessed in terms The centre of Amsterdam has the highest car of their potential ramifications on the transport sharing use of the Netherlands, with 200 car sharing system. The latest version of the „markets and spots. Since 1995, the municipality makes fixed commercial centres concept‟, approved in parking spaces available to car sharing providers. 2008, has the aim to prevent commercial Amsterdam as a whole city has 740 car sharing centres from appearing in the “open spots. 90% of all housing in Amsterdam is within 400 countryside” This is to ensure that local metres of a car sharing spot and in the Ring, where populations continue to be supplied with 60% of all housing is concentrated, 80% has a car everyday necessities avoiding unnecessarily sharing spot within less than 100 metres (96% within long journeys. less than 250 metres).

In Stockholm 68% of all trips in the inner city

(usually not longer than 5 km) is done walking or by bike and 25% by public transport. The car use has been limited only at 8%. During peak 15 Freiburg: new car free district

Two new districts have been created in Freiburg during the past 10 years: the „Rieselfeld‟ district (11,000 inhabitants) and the „Vauban‟ district, (5,000 inhabitants). For both of these districts a major objective was to provide them with an environmentally friendly traffic scheme.

As the Rieselfeld district was developed it was simultaneously connected to the tram network. The tram runs right through the heart of the district, in such a way that no housing or workplaces are more than 500 m away from the nearest stop. The tram was in operation right from the beginning of the development, so that new residents could get used to basing their travel choices on local public transport.

Connection to the tram network was an issue of central importance also for the Vauban district. Here however, even more ambitious objectives in terms of environmental policy were pursued: a large section of the residential area is car-free, or more precisely „parking space-free‟, i.e. residents may bring goods to their front doors using their vehicles but must park the vehicles themselves in collective garages outside the area. Residents can declare themselves „car- free‟, in which case they do not have to purchase a parking space. This project is by far the largest car- free project in Germany and has attracted much attention worldwide.

16 and residential areas, and 10% consists of 4. SUSTAINABLE LAND roads)2. USE AND AVAILABILITY Roads or buildings take up only 1/3 of Oslo‟s and Muenster‟s municipal area. OF LOCAL PUBLIC OPEN AREAS Built up area 70%

60%

50% Introduction 40% The land use pattern, as part of the urban 30% 20% design, lays out the conditions under which 10% cities can function. Compact cities with high 0%

densities of people and jobs per built up area Oslo

Hamburg Muenster

and brownfield re-developments enable cities Stockholm Amsterdam to reduce their ecological footprint by reducing the urban land take and soil sealing, the energy The Oslo strategy of preventing urban sprawl demand for heating and cooling, and the transport demand per capita. Furthermore The population of Oslo has grown with 50,000 compact cities patterns could help in enabling new inhabitants the last 10 years (10% of total more walking, cycling and more efficient public population). Virtually all new housing in Oslo has transport. been built within the existing building zone, and Nevertheless, compact development needs to not on virgin land outside the building zone. The be balanced with sufficient green urban areas densification takes place in most parts of the city as a prerequisite for a liveable city. Cities are built up area, mainly in the more central parts of the city. human habitats; thus, good access to green The overall strategy of preventing urban sprawl urban areas, their high quality and multiple has been Oslo‟s policy for many years. This usability are even more important than their strategy primarily includes densification around absolute share of the municipal's area. collective transport networks and nodes as well as Data analyzed in this report shows the eight improvement of the public transport system. In EGCA finalists' efforts in these directions. addition, building in the green belt around the city Indicators used are: is strictly prohibited. The policy for coordinated - Built up area urban land use and transport was adopted in the - Population density Urban Ecology programme 2002 and the City - Building on brownfield master plan in 2004. The goal is to develop favourable conditions for - Availability of public green areas being able to live in the city without owning a car. - Population living <300m from a public open The main strategy to obtain this goal is to improve area the public transport system. Nine nodes in the public transport system were designated as Built up area prioritized areas for urban development and In Hamburg the land used for housing and densification. An important pre-requisite for this traffic purposes accounts for a 60% share of the total area. In Amsterdam this share is about 2 No available data submitted in the applications of 50% and in Stockholm 45% (35% are business Copenhagen, Freiburg and Bristol. 17 strategy is a development with low car parking (dwellings, office, space, retail, leisure etc), are coverage. characterised by a very high density: 350-400 The municipal master plan adopted in June 2008 inhabitants per Ha, three times more than assumes an increase of 60,000 households by the Stockholm (112 inh/Ha) and Bristol (140 year 2025, with 2/3 to be built within or close to inh/Ha). the inner city. If this prediction is realized, the

density of inhabitants in the inner city is expected to increase by more than 25 %, while the density DENSITY of the outer city will see a more moderate Density increase of up to 15%. The development of the City built up Density new new Fjord city (redevelopment of harbour Density areas developments

brownfields), with a total area of 226 ha is inh/km2 inh/ km2 inh/Ha expected to absorb a significant amount of Amsterdam 3,412 6,856 100 projected growth in the inner city. Bristol 3,732 Na 140* Copenhagen 5,708 Na 350-400 Freiburg 1,434 na 120 Hamburg 2,331 3,918 200 Population density Muenster 925 2,983 100 Oslo 1,211 3,595 38 Copenhagen is the most compact city, with a Stockholm 4,141 8,032 112 population density of 5,708 inhabitants for each km2, followed by Stockholm (4,141 inh/km2) Hamburg‟s urban planning has identified and Bristol (3,732 inh/km2). The lowest significant areas (30%) within the inner city densities (about 1,000 inh/km2) are the ones of consolidation that will be progressively realised Oslo and Muenster. through the development of vacant sites and by If we consider the density of built up areas adding floors. HafenCity is a new development (data available only for 5 cities), Stockholm and project for reuse and requalification of part of Amsterdam show values (respectively 8,000 the harbour area, with a very high population and 7,000 inh/km2) that are, more or less, twice density: one third of the area (60 ha) is being than the average densities of Hamburg or Oslo. used to build 5,500 residential homes for Muenster has the lowest density, also referring 12,000 new inhabitants, equating to a to built up areas (3,000 inh/km2). population density of 690 inh/Ha. At the same time, Hamburg‟s residential building policy also Population density provides for new terraced and detached

9.000 housing of a considerably lower population density 8.000 density in the peripheral urban regions, such as 7.000 density - 6.000 built up the new city district of Neu-Allermöhe (12 land 5.000 inh/Ha). inh/km2 inh/km2 4.000 3.000 In Freiburg, during the 1990s, the construction 2.000 of two new large districts that now host nearly 1.000 0 7% of total population began: Rieselfeld

Oslo (11,000 residents) and the former military site

Bristol

Freiburg

Muenster Hamburg

Stockholm of the Vauban (5,000 residents). Both districts‟ Amsterdam Copenhagen proximity to the city centre and good local

transport connections enable and demand high The new development schemes in but manageable population densities about 120 Copenhagen, mainly consisting of mixed uses inhabitants per Ha. 18 Amsterdam's development within city limits is percentages have been recorded in Muenster, aimed at creating municipal environments in where approximately 25% of the residential high densities. High offices around the building areas (1,825 dwelling units) were Amstelpark and in the Zuidas new district are provided in derelict or reorganisation areas the trend even if the highest numbers of during the period from 1997 to 2004. This residents and employees can still be found in share rose to more than 38% from 2005 to the centre (>250 residents + employees per 2007. hectare). About ten sites have been transformed into residential-work areas, with a BUILT LAND joint share of approximately 25 % residential.

Over the next decades this may well grow to City 50%. In most cases the population density in Built land Building on browfields these new projects amounts to 100 residents % % per hectare or more. Amsterdam 50% na 45%(industrial) - 93% (houses) na Bristol (1997-2007) Building on brownfield Copenhagen na 80% (2001-2007) Freiburg na na Not all cities adopt a harmonized definition of Hamburg 60% na the “brownfield” concept so the following data 38% (2005-2007) 25% (1997- 31% Muenster 2004) should be taken with some care. Oslo 34% 80% (2002-2006) Bristol, Oslo and Copenhagen show the best Stockholm 45% 30% (2000-2007) capacity in containing the urban sprawl, avoiding new developments on virgin and Freiburg is a continually growing city with a undeveloped land. current total of almost 220,000 inhabitants. In Bristol all new offices and light industries and Space-saving housing developments became most residential developments have been built the chief aim of the new Land Development on brownfield areas (since 1997, 93% of Plan (LDP) 2020 (effective in law since Dec 16,000 new homes). The percentage is lower 2006). The Plan is based on a realistic demand for industrial and warehouse developments forecast incorporating the potential for central (nearly 45%). urban development, which is to be exploited as Building on previously undeveloped land plots a priority. In terms of results, the LDP 2020 has in Oslo was limited during the period 2002 to taken the decision to reduce by 34 hectares the 2006 to 20% of new buildings over 100 m2, land available for housing than its predecessor while 80% were built on previously developed of 1980. or brownfield sites. From 2001 to 2007 a total of 14,400 new Availability of public green areas dwellings were built in Copenhagen. Stockholm is the city with the highest Approximately 80% was on brownfield sites availability of public green spaces3, 6,8704 Ha, either as densification in existing 36% of all land area. This means that there are neighbourhoods or in relation to major redevelopment schemes. 3 Not all cities adopt a harmonized definition of the “green In the same period, 25,000 new apartments areas” concept so the following data should be taken with were built in Stockholm; more than 1/3 were some care. 4 Only the total amount has been given, without specifying built in larger brownfield areas. Similar the different kind of green areas (parks, allotments, recreational areas, sport facilities, etc….) 19 86 square meters of green areas for each as well as for recreation (lakes for bathing, inhabitant. Within the city of Stockholm eight rivers and lakes for fishing, marked cross- areas of natural and cultural reserves are country skiing trails…). protected to secure biodiversity and Hamburg and Bristol have just less than 40 accessibility for the citizens. The green areas m2/inh of public green areas, while the other of Stockholm are still of a coherent structure in four cities record values around 30 m2/inh. many parts of the city, the so called ecological infrastructure, which is also of great importance Availabity of public green areas for the flora and fauna in the community. 100 90 80 Stockholm’s Ekoparken 70 60

m2/inh m2/inh 50 Nationalstadsparken also called Ekoparken, is 40 30 unique in the world. In 1994 a large piece of land 20 10 and water area in a big city area was set apart 0

and protected by a special law in order to

Oslo Bristol

preserve its nature and culture in our time and for Freiburg

Hamburg Muenster

Stockholm Amsterdam future generations. Nationalstadsparken is a Copenhagen unique experiment in cohabitation of city and nature, a method for keeping a heritage in culture PUBLIC GREEN AREAS and nature alive in a world of change. pop living < 300 m City Public open areas from public open area m2/inh Amsterdam 33 71% Bristol 38 na Copenhagen 28 79% Freiburg 32 100% Hamburg 39 89% Muenster 32 95% Oslo 52 94% Stockholm 86 90%

Accessibility of public open areas The accessibility of public open areas is very high in all the cities. Amsterdam shows the lowest rate of population living less than 300 m 5 The other city showing a very high value of per from a public green area (70% ), followed by 6 capita public green areas is Oslo, with 52 Copenhagen (80%). All the other cities m2/inh. The central third of the municipality of evaluated that more than 90% of their citizens Oslo consists of built-up area, whilst the outer comply with this standard of accessibility to two thirds are protected forested areas known public open areas. as "Marka". The Oslo City Council has decided to protect the Marka because of its importance for the city‟s visual character and environment, 5 96% including waters 6 No available data for Bristol 20 In 2007 a citizen poll in Stockholm showed that appropriate distance of residential areas, the 8 out of 10 citizens estimated that they visited landscape axes and green rings are close situated parks and green areas regularly complemented with a compact open area every week. 9 out of 10 were satisfied with the structure comprising individual spaces such as possibilities of access to public green areas. parks, playgrounds, sports fields and In Freiburg the green areas are distributed allotments. These individual areas are relatively evenly throughout the city and can interlinked with each other as well as with the therefore be reached on foot within a matter of landscapes axes and green rings via a network minutes. On average, citizens of Freiburg are a of green corridors and paths. Thanks to this maximum of 150-300 metres away from their network, approximately 90% of Hamburg‟s nearest free time and leisure area. This is the population, live within a maximum distance of results of urban development policies aiming at 300 metres from a public open area. increasing the amount of green spaces, but also their closeness to the new settlements. The green ordinary Muenster In 1965, Muenster was one of the first cities in

Population living <300 m from a public open area Germany to establish a green structures policy: A comprehensive conception for the development 100% 90% of open spaces that has a decisive bearing on the 80% urban development. It was advanced constantly - 70% 60% and still is until the present day. When it comes to 50% 40% making decisions as regards the development and 30% utilisation of green areas and free spaces, the 20% 10% green ordinary of Muenster constitutes a reliable 0% basis for politics and administration. It provides for

Oslo the development of green, leisure, and

Freiburg

Muenster Hamburg Stockholm

Amsterdam recreational areas as well as the area-wide supply Copenhagen of playgrounds, allotments, and cemeteries. It guarantees the city‟s ecological and climatic The presence of a networked system of open qualities to persist and even be expanded in the spaces is an important prerequisite in order to future. Furthermore, it is a substantial contribution guarantee to the citizens the highest to the land utilisation plan, thus establishing accessibility to green areas. In Hamburg it has principles to base decisions on as to which open been considered also a fundamental spaces have to persist at any rate, due to their prerequisite for ecological and social significance for the city, and which ones are to be development of the city as well as for developed further. maintenance the structural qualities in terms of In 2004, the council of the municipality of natural landscape. Radial landscape axes and Muenster decided to introduce the integrated city the two tangential green rings form the marketing and urban development concept, aiming at cultivating Muenster into a city with both principal structural elements of the open space maximum quality of life and of experience. In network. This basis is supplemented by terms of this purpose, Muenster is perpetually recreational hubs serving half-day and all-day evolving also as regards both size and quality of recreation: district parks, regional parks and its green spaces. In this context, the surface of local recreation areas. In order to sufficiently public green spaces and playgrounds has been provide the population with green and open increasing, within the past decade, by a total of areas for leisure, sport and recreation within an 23%.

21 (Amsterdam, Copenhagen and Muenster) only 5. QUALITY OF LOCAL one traffic or background monitoring station AMBIENT AIR has been reported. The indicators used are:

- Fine Particulate Matter (PM10)

- Nitrogen dioxide (NO ) Introduction 2 - Ozone (O ) Air pollution in European cities is still a critical 3 issue, due to the impacts that pollutants Fine particulate matter (PM10) concentrations have on citizen health, With regard to fine particulate matter (PM10) particularly severe for elders and children. concentrations: the annual means‟ average Most of the EU cities have still not achieved the values are all under the 2010 limit value of 40 goals established by the EU Air Directives. µg/m3 (Directive 2008/50/EC), both for Data analyzed in this report show the eight background and traffic stations. The limit value EGCA finalist cities' efforts in reducing related to the maximum number of days (35) pollutants concentrations and people's per year with a daily mean over 50µg/m3, has exposition to them. been exceeded only in Copenhagen and Air quality data from cities‟ applications Stockholm. Copenhagen‟s value is related only (provided to the European Green Capital to a single traffic station, while in Stockholm the Award) are not completely homogeneous. In 59 days reported are the average value coming order to fill the gap, the authors of this report from three traffic stations (the maximum value have used the European air quality database recorded is 75 days)9. All the urban (managed by European Topic Centre on Air and Climate Change) to cover the missing data background stations show pollution levels 7 respecting the limit values. and make the comparisons more reliable .

Data showed for each city (year 2007) could be PM10 ANNUAL CONCENTRATIONS (AVERAGE VALUES) represented as:

. the average value of all the values Days > Days > limit Annual limit Annual mean registered by the monitoring stations City value mean value (background) (background) (traffic) . the maximum value registered by the worst (traffic)

monitoring station . number number µg/m3 µg/m3 Values are referred to air monitoring stations Amsterdam 22 3 32 26 installed within the urban area, divided into Bristol Na 15 22 20 Copenhagen traffic and background stations8. In some cases 60 na 34 24 Freiburg 22 na 33 Na Hamburg 22 13 29 23 Muenster 31 9 32 23 7 In cases where the data reported by the city in their Oslo 21 15 27 22 application has differed from data reported in the Air Stockholm 59 5 36 17 Quality Database, the data from the application has been chosen. 8 Traffic station: monitoring station located where the pollution level is determined predominantly by the emissions from nearby traffic (roads, motorways, highways). Background station: monitoring station located where the by all upwind source areas (cities, industrial areas) in a pollution level is not influenced significantly by any single rural area). source or street, but rather by the integrated contribution 9 Almost all the exceedances occur in the winter period from all sources upwind of the station (e.g. by all traffic, November to April mainly due to the use of studded winter combustion sources etc. upwind of the station in a city, or tyres in Sweden. 22 PM10: annual mean PM10 ANNUAL CONCENTRATIONS (MAXIMUM VALUES) (AVERAGE VALUE) 50 Days limit value Days > limit Annual 40 > limit Annual mean City value mean value (background) (background) (traffic) 30

(traffic) ug/m3 ug/m3 3 3 20 number number µg/m µg/m urban traffic Amsterdam 22 3 32 26 10 Bristol urban na 15 22 20 background Copenhagen 60 na 38 24 0

Freiburg 22 na 38 na Oslo Hamburg Bristol

27 23 31 26 Freiburg

Hamburg Muenster Stockholm

Muenster Amsterdam 31 9 32 23 Copenhagen Oslo 31 19 28 22 Stockholm 75 5 42 17 PM10: annual mean (MAXIMUM VALUE) 50

PM10: yearly number of days > limit value 40 limit value (AVERAGE VALUE) 70 30

60 ug/m3 20 urban traffic 50 10 40 urban limit value background

ug/m3 ug/m3 30 0

20 urban traffic

Oslo Bristol

10 Freiburg Muenster

urban Hamburg Stockholm

background Amsterdam 0 Copenhagen

Oslo

Bristol

Freiburg Muenster

Hamburg However, the two cities are in a favourable

Stockholm Amsterdam Copenhagen position for achieving a definitive improvement as described in the following. In Copenhagen, PM10 remained at the same PM10: yearly number of days > limit value (MAXIMUM VALUE) general level between 2002 and 2007. Levels 80 varied only slightly during this period, largely 70 60 due to meteorological conditions. The 50 municipality had declared the objective of 40 limit value ug/m3 ug/m3 achieving 10 concrete initiatives in 2010 which 30 20 urban traffic will result in fewer Copenhageners being 10 urban background affected by traffic pollution: the PM10 0

concentrations are predicted to fall by 10% in

Oslo Bristol

Freiburg relation to the 2007 level.

Hamburg Muenster

Stockholm Amsterdam Copenhagen In Stockholm, the trend for PM10 has remained unchanged over the past five to ten years in urban background, while in traffic hotspots a slight downward trend has been monitored. 3 The annual mean limit value of 40 µg/m has The public transport system has been a crucial been respected in all monitoring stations, with factor to improve air quality: the share of trips the exception of Stockholm, which has a to Stockholm city centre taken by public 3 maximum value of 42 µg/m . transport increased from 57% to 64% the last

23 ten years. In the morning peak hour the share increased from 72% to 77%.This trend is Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) expected to continue due to relevant political As regards the annual mean for nitrogen initiatives. dioxide (NO2), the EU limit value is in the 3 Directive 2008/50/EC set to 46 µg/m . 10 Use of charges and subsidies to reduce PM10 In Hamburg, Freiburg, Amsterdam and Bristol concentration in Oslo the average values registered by traffic stations exceeded this limit. Both in Hamburg and The air quality action plan of Oslo has resulted in a Freiburg the concentrations monitored in steady improvement in the figures for the number of background stations are about 1/3 of the exceedances of the daily mean value for PM : in 10 concentrations monitored in traffic stations. 2007 - for the first time - none of Oslo‟s measuring stations recorded more than 35 exceedances. NO2 AND O3 ANNUAL CONCENTRATIONS A combination of several measures, including (AVERAGE VALUES) charges and subsidies, has been effective in Annual Annual mean reducing PM concentrations. In particular: mean NO2 NO2 Days ozone 10 City (traffic) (background) > limit value . The introduction of a charge on the use of µg/m3 µg/m3 number studded tyres has increased the share of stud- Amsterdam 53 31 2 free tyres from 50% to more than 80% and Bristol 47 30 3 reduced dust created by road wear. (see Figure) Copenhagen 45 19 3 The measure is self-financing and any profit Freiburg 58 20 33 Hamburg 65 25 7 made is invested in improved winter road Muenster 48 23 18 maintenance. Oslo 44 na 4 . In order to reduce congestions and to finance the Stockholm 44 13 0 necessary investments in the public transport system, Oslo City, Oslo Region and the Ministry NO2 AND O3 ANNUAL CONCENTRATIONS (MAXIMUM VALUES) of Transport agreed on the introduction of a toll Annual Annual mean ring taxing car traffic entering the central part of mean NO2 NO2 Days ozone City the city. 20% of the toll income went to (traffic) (background) > limit value investments in public transport, and the rest to µg/m3 µg/m3 number build tunnels under the city to save the built up Amsterdam 53 31 2 area from pollution, traffic accidents and barrier Bristol 56 34 3 effects, and to improve car traffic flow on the Copenhagen 52 19 3 main road network. Freiburg 68 20 33 . Reduce particle emissions from wood burning Hamburg 72 40 11 stoves. There are around 63,000 wood burning Muenster 64 23 18 stoves in Oslo. In order to increase the share of Oslo 47 na 4 clean burning stoves, citizens can apply for a Stockholm 50 13 0 grant from the City of Oslo‟s Energy Efficiency Fund. In the period 1998-2008, a total of NOK If we consider the 2010 target value of 40 3 12.3 million has been granted for the µg/m , all the cities, with the exception of replacement of ca. 4,400 stoves with new and Muenster, have not still reached the target at more efficient ones. This is estimated to have the street stations, and the maximum values reduced the annual particle emissions in Oslo by registered were all above the limit of 46 µg/m3 35.2 tonnes. expected for 2007. The three German cities

10 Only one monitoring station has been reported. 24 show the highest maximum values, more than building a tunnel within the city; and improving 40% higher than the limit value. Considering local public transport), the Clean Air Plan also the average levels, Oslo, Stockholm and prescribes traffic bans in the Freiburg low Copenhagen are rather close to the 2010 emission zone affecting Euro 1 and older cars target (only about 10% above), while other from 2010 onwards and Euro 2 and older cars cities like Amsterdam, Freiburg and Hamburg from 2012 onwards. are still far from it (from 32% to 63% above). All The City of Hamburg presented a clean air plan the background annual means, with the in October 2004 and an air quality exception of the Hamburg‟s maximum value, management action plan in December 2005 3 are below 40 µg/m . aiming to improve air quality and reduce NO2 concentration. Hamburg‟s municipal and public

NO2: annual mean enterprises have strongly committed to (AVERAGE VALUE) 70 increase the use of vehicles fuelled by natural 60 gas, including an incentive system for the 50 introduction of 1,000 new "Green Taxis" with target value 40 gas-fuelled engines. As of today, 20 natural ug/m3 ug/m3 30 urban traffic gas fuelling stations exist in the Greater 20

10 urban Hamburg area, to supply and service public background

0 and private natural gas vehicles. Oslo

Bristol

Freiburg

Hamburg Muenster

Stockholm Amsterdam Copenhagen Ozone (O3) Ozone is a pollutant which strongly depends on

NO2: annual mean meteorological conditions characterised by (MAXIMUM VALUE) solar intensity and high temperatures. 80 70 Therefore northern cities perform in general 60 better than the southern ones. 50 target value

40 Freiburg, having higher NO2 concentrations ug/m3 ug/m3 30 urban traffic (one of the most important ozone precursors) 20 urban and a higher solar intensity, is the only city that 10 background 0 exceeds the number of days per year on which 3

Oslo the ozone value was above 120µg/m (8h

Bristol

Freiburg Muenster

Hamburg 11 Stockholm

Amsterdam mean) . Copenhagen O3: yearly number of days > limit value (MAXIMUM VALUE) Almost all cities have introduced good 40 35 measures and future plans with the aim of 30 limit value reducing NO2 concentrations. 25 20

In 2006, the Freiburg Regional Council ug/m3 15 together with the City of Freiburg approved the 10 Freiburg Clean Air Plan with the aim to reduce 5 0

the NO2 levels. The Plan contains a technical

Oslo

Bristol

Freiburg Muenster

programme with the objective to comply with Hamburg

Stockholm Amsterdam the EU standard for NO2 by 2010. In addition to Copenhagen numerous measures (e.g. planning and 11 Limit value identified in the Directive 2008/50/EC 25 Bristol is participating in the European project In 2007 there were 33 days, 8 more than the CITEAIR. Bristol has, in particular, been involved 25 allowed. In Freiburg electronic display in the development of a Common Operational screens are provided in various locations Website (COW) which enables participating cities across Europe to compare air quality data in throughout the city to indicate air pollution close-to real time using a Common Air Quality levels. The population and visitors are thus Indicator (CAQI). A CAQI for background and kept constantly informed of air quality. In roadside pollution is shown on the COW. summer, the City of Freiburg additionally runs an ozone hotline that gives the current ozone Bristol uploads a data file to values measured and also issues „ozone (www.airqualitynow.eu) on an hourly basis and warnings‟ in the event of excessive ozone the web site displays current and recent air quality levels (180 μg/m³ per day) including behaviour classifications for roadside and background indications (the first city in Germany to do so, locations. The site has been running with high introduced in the 1980s). reliability for about three years.

Public Information on Air Quality in Bristol A number of methods are used to communicate air quality matters to the public, ranging from surveys and consultations on specific schemes to bespoken web sites for public issues. A bi-annual newsletter is published and distributed to residents and partner organisations to notify customers of developments in air quality.

Bristol‟s web site on Air quality was set up to deliver close to real time air quality and meteorological data to the public and researchers (http://www.bristol.airqualitydata.com). Data from ten monitoring stations are available via the site. The web site was further developed to provide a “kiosk” type product, which can be viewed by the public in council building foyers etc.

26 These data differ quite a lot from the data 6. NOISE POLLUTION reported in the applications submitted by cities 12 for the European Green Capital Award . Regarding people exposed to Lden > 55dB(A), only for Stockholm and Hamburg data reported Introduction in the application are similar to the EEA Noise affects urban quality of life, both during database13. the day and at night and stems from numerous Comparisons cannot easily be made as data in sources such as public works and loud music. the applications are not consistent. However, traffic is the main and more For example, Muenster reports very recent continuous source. Most EU cities have data (2008), but related only to areas subjected difficulty in achieving the goals set by the Noise to major exposure (main roads traffic) and Directive, either because they do not respect older data (2000) with a higher coverage. noise value limit and/or are late in adopting the Copenhagen, on the other hand, reports the correct noise measurements and plans. values of people exposed to road noise with Data analyzed in this report show the eight Lden at over 58 dB(A), which is the national EGCA finalist cities' efforts within this field. guidance limit for new buildings, instead of 55 The quantitative indicator used is the number dB(A). of people exposed to road noise. Information is Hamburg's values about the percentage of completed by a review of the main policies people exposed are clearly divided into adopted by cities. different source of noise: road, rail, air, industry

and commerce. In other cities this difference is

not so clear. People exposed to noise

The Noise Observation and Information Service for Europe (NOISE) database of the People exposed to road noise

100% European Environment Agency provides a Lden >55 dB(A) 90% Lnight >50 dB(A) picture of the numbers of people exposed to 80% 70% noise generated by air, rail and road traffic in 60% 102 large urban agglomerations. EEA data 50% 40% about the % of people exposed to road traffic 30% 20% are available only for Amsterdam, Bristol, 10% 0%

Copenhagen, Hamburg and Stockholm. Bristol

Hamburg

Stockholm Amsterdam PEOPLE EXPOSED TO ROAD NOISE Copenhagen People People exposed to exposed to Lden >55 Lnight >50 Considering only the EEA database, Bristol is Amsterdam 35% 20% the city with the highest noise values. Nearly all Bristol 95% 78% the population (95%) is exposed to Lden higher Copenhagen 36% 32% Hamburg 18% 13% Stockholm 35% 20% 12 Data reported for Amsterdam, Freiburg, Muenster and Oslo refers to overall noise and not to road noise. 13 Regarding people exposed to Lnight, the EEA database reports 50-55 dB(A) as the lowest band, so it is not possible to calculate the percentage of people exposed to Lnight >45 dB(A), as required in the application. 27 than 55 dB(A) and 78% to Lnight higher than spaces should not have noise levels above 58 50 dB(A). The situation is better in the other dB(A). Indoor noise levels should not exceed cities, especially in Hamburg where only 20% 33 dB(A). The municipality of Copenhagen has of people are exposed to Lden > 55 dB(A) and for the last 10 years taken part in tests using Lnight > 50 dB(A). noise-reducing asphalt for maintenance and About 1/3 of the inhabitants of Amsterdam, new construction of roads which carry more Stockholm and Copenhagen are exposed to than 2 000 cars per day and where the speed Lden > 55 dB(A), while the percentage of limit is over 40 km/h. people exposed to Lnight values > 50 dB(A) In Amsterdam, the concentration policy to ranges from 20% (Stockholm and Amsterdam) manage the control of car traffic - introduced in to 32% (Copenhagen). 1994 - has resulted in a main car network: motorways, provincial roads and local main Stockholm’s noise abatement policies routes with a high traffic volume. The high The city of Stockholm has assessed noise since the concentration of traffic on these main roads early 1970s. Since 2002 the whole Stockholm area has caused significant localised air and noise has been mapped to fulfil the European noise pollution, while other roads and residential directive. Today the noise map is very detailed (2 x districts have been spared (especially 30 km/h 2 m grid). Ten years ago two continuous monitoring zones). In comparison with a greater spread in stations, where the noise level is measured on an traffic control, the concentration policy ensures ongoing basis 24 hours a day were installed. Since the beginning of 1970 until now, about 50 km that fewer people are exposed to higher (noise) of noise barriers have been built and about 46,000 pollution from traffic. The most important windows in more than 15,000 dwellings along 110 measures identified by the municipality to km roads has received reduced noise as a result of restrict the nuisance for these residents are: protective actions. Environmental zones for heavy  Housing construction projects subjected goods traffic have been introduced and vehicles older than eight years are prohibited to go to the to high noise levels should receive inner city of Stockholm. The trial with congestion compensation, e.g. extra conservatories charges were introduced in 2006 and have been or closable balconies. studied with respect to noise. The results of these  Houses must have a quiet side: a wall noise abatement policies are significant. In 1970 that is not directly exposed to noise 220,000 people in Stockholm were exposed to levels above the threshold value. levels above 35 dB(A) inside their homes, and  When work is being carried out on the today this number is reduced to 20,000. roads in the main network, noise-

reducing asphalt is used as a rule for all

new road surfaces. Policies against noise pollution

Denmark has imposed traffic noise Some of the cities‟ efforts to reduce exposure requirements for new residences since 1984. In of the populations to noise (especially from Copenhagen, new constructions must meet road) have been concentrated in improving or requirements for acceptable noise levels with preserving the acoustical environment in regard to traffic. Noise on the most heavily particular “quite areas” where the noise level is affected side of the building may not exceed 68 lower than the average level of the urban area. dB(A) and there must be one façade where the Measures or provisions to implement or noise level is lower than 58 dB(A). Outdoor

28 increase quiet areas were especially includes the introduction of a traffic highlighted by Oslo. management system ensuring fluent traffic at low speed levels along the major axes. Quite areas in Oslo Also in Freiburg speed restriction to 30 km/h, The Oslo‟s noise mapping has identified a number primarily in residential areas, has been one of of areas which may be suitable for designation as the main policies to reduce noise pollution. It quiet areas. Defining, establishing and protecting has been evaluated that 90% of Freiburg such areas through traffic management, noise inhabitants live on roads where the speed is screening and regulation of industrial activities will limited to 30 km/h. For new constructions or be an important part of noise management in Oslo. significant changes to transport infrastructure Quiet areas have been defined as “Areas which can offer recreation, outdoor experiences and/or measures, noise certificates are also drawn up cultural activities in surroundings sheltered from or as part of obtaining planning permission and distant from dominant noise sources”. Noise levels noise protection measures are set down. Over should preferably be below 50 dB (A) in at least the past 10 years, numerous active (grass part of the quiet areas. Projects involving the railway embankments, low-vibration rail placing of road traffic in tunnels, especially along support systems) and passive noise protection the seafront, will be an important part of city measures (noise protection for buildings) were planning activities, and is likely to greatly improve carried out as part of the construction of the conditions in a number of potential quiet areas. A new tramlines. For over 10 years now, the City number of small scale projects have also been of Freiburg has on a voluntary basis and with suggested, such as pilot projects for various types of acoustic design, noise barriers and means of the help of State subsidies promoted the access to quiet areas. Quiet road surfaces, a focus construction of noise protection windows in on cycle lanes and footpaths are also important heavily affected areas of the city. Around 2,500 measures within the city centre. residences have already been equipped in this way.

Hamburg airport’s take off and landing fees In 2001, Hamburg airport introduced take-off and landing fees that are incremented in line with noise levels. While an aircraft designated under noise class 1 (less than 72dB(A)) will be charged just 5.50 euro for each take-off and landing, an aircraft of noise class 7 (more than 87 dB(A)) will be required to pay 1.35 euro Over and above this, restrictions on nocturnal air traffic are also in place. Scheduled

take-offs and landings for regular charter and scheduled flights of passenger aircraft are Muenster‟s policies tackling the noise problem permissible between 6 a.m. and 11 p.m. Any traffic have been mainly concentrated in traffic between 12 midnight and 6 a.m. requires an calming measures. More than 150 municipal exemption certificate in each individual case. In residential areas were transformed into 30 addition, take-off and landing fees also increase after Km/h zones by the late 1990s. In addition, 10 p.m. (take-off) and 11 p.m. (landing). there are several areas that incorporate zones with traffic-calming devices. The measures package of the municipality of Muenster also

29 alone. Copenhagen and Amsterdam do not use 7. WASTE PRODUCTION the concept of “municipal waste” at all, AND MANAGEMENT because they have separate management and accountability systems for household waste

and for commercial and industrial waste. Introduction For this reason the data in the table below, Waste was chosen as one of the key under column “Municipal” should not be used evaluation parameters for the EGC award as it for comparison. is one of the most critical aspects of living and The focus, more appropriate for comparisons, environmental protection. It also impacts should be the production and the management significantly on other parameters including of the waste fraction strictly defined as saving of non renewable raw materials, climate “household waste”. change and protection of soil and water production sources. Waste production Data analyzed in this report show the eight The household waste production ranges from EGCA finalist cities' – and citizens' – efforts in 397 kg/inh to 490 kg/inh. Freiburg managed to reducing, collecting and managing waste as contain the household production under 400 sustainably as possible. Indicators used with kg/inh, while Stockholm, Bristol and Oslo have the aim of underlining good performance in a per capita production around 410 kg/inh. waste reduction and good practices in increasing waste recycling, energy recovery Household waste production and landfill use avoidance, are: 600

- Household waste production (kg/inh and 500 variations in the last 5 years), 400

- Waste management: household waste kg/inh 300 disposal (% of recycling, incineration with 200 energy recovery and landfill). 100 0

Waste definition Oslo

Bristol

Freiburg

Hamburg Muenster Stockholm

To analyse waste data it is important to Amsterdam Copenhagen highlight the definition of “municipal” waste:

“the total of household and commercial waste WASTE PRODUCTION collected together but excluding industrial waste”14. It must be noted this definition, Household City Household Municipal (variation last 5 deriving from EU law and policy, is not used in years) the same way across the eight cities. In kg/inh kg/inh % Hamburg, for instance, an extensive Amsterdam 436 na -4% interpretation of the definition has been used, Bristol 410 448 -18% Copenhagen 469 na 7% accounting for a big amount of commercial and Freiburg 397 na -1% industrial waste. On the other hand, in Bristol, Hamburg 479 865 -6% Oslo and Muenster municipal waste is about Muenster 490 549 -1% Oslo 413 467 1% only 10% higher than the household waste Stockholm 409 597 na

14 Directive 2006/12/EC 30 In Bristol the amount of household waste dispose of their second-hand goods at bulky generated per person in the last five years has waste collection sites and recycling plants. Any fallen from 500 kg/inh in 2002 to 410 kg/inh in furniture, household goods, books etc. received in 2007, a reduction of 18%. In Hamburg, for the good condition are then sold on a „commodities market‟ – at a small fee – to any takers. Extending same period, the fall has been 6% and in the lifespan of second-hand articles is an Amsterdam a reduction of 4% is seen. The excellent way to avoid waste. data demonstrates that a reduction in waste production is clearly possible thus decoupling waste generation from economic activity. Copenhagen appears to be the only city Household waste management showing a relevant increase of household The following table shows how the eight cities waste production (7%). manage their waste.

WASTE MANAGEMENT Household waste annual production: variation in the last 5 years 10% Incineration City Recycling with energy Landfill 5% recovery 0% % % % -5% Amsterdam 43% 57% 0% Bristol 37% 0% 63% -10% Copenhagen 25% 74% 2% -15% Freiburg 67% 33% 0% -20% Hamburg 28% 72% 0%

Oslo Munster 74% na na Bristol

Freiburg Oslo Muenster

Hamburg 30% 65% 5% Amsterdam Copenhagen Stockholm 27% 71% 2%

Freiburg: promotion of waste-preventing In Freiburg, a well functioning integrated waste behaviour management system enables very high performances in the recycling of materials The City of Freiburg applies waste fees as an (67%). The remaining amount of waste is incentive to avoid waste. The citizens can choose between residual waste bins with a capacity of 35, incinerated with energy recovery, therefore 60 or 140 litres, and a weekly or fortnightly resulting in zero landfill. Also Muenster shows collection. Several households in a single a very high recycling rate (over 60%) thanks to residence can join forces to form a single a waste management system that combines „disposal community‟ and use one or more household separate collections and Mechanical residual waste bins together. Many large Biological Treatment for residual waste (it must residences have waste chutes to enable residual be clarified that the Mechanical and Biological waste to be collected individually and charged for Treatment 'products or outputs' have to be according to the household generating it. The €8 further treated by landfill or by incineration). per year “compost discount” promotes home

composting. Parents also receive a financial subsidy if they use reusable cloth nappies for their Muenster: separated collection and recycling

babies and toddlers. Freiburg citizens thus profit In 1996, the largest portion of waste in Muenster was directly from their commitment to the cause. disposed in landfills. Based on its waste The „commodities market‟ is another measure management concept, the city intended to reduce designed to prevent waste. Freiburgers can this level of landfilling, also in order to comply with

31 the legal requirements. In 2006, landfilled waste was is equal to 16% of the household waste arising reduced by 83,000 tonnes compared with 1996 and is used for landfill capping or as a figures. In return, the utilisation ratio has increased construction material. from 50% to 84%. This is due to the development of a door-to-door system for the separate collection of waste and to a mechanical-biological treatment plant Household waste disposal for residual waste. 100% 90% landfill Four separate waste bins, each with its own colour 80% incineration are provided to households for residual waste, 70% recycling 60% biowaste, paper and plastic and aluminium and tin- 50% 40% plate. Glass can be put in containers provided in 30% residential areas. Ten recycling points accept all 20% 10% sorts of waste, large amounts of garden waste, 0%

batteries, metal etc. and ensure proper disposal of Oslo

Bristol

Freiburg

Hamburg Muenster*

these materials. Unwanted household goods as well Stockholm

Amsterdam Copenhagen as garden waste, larger electrical appliances and furniture are collected once a month directly from the citizens‟ homes. In Hamburg there are currently five incineration Furthermore, incentive systems for waste avoidance plants within the city limits, which treat based on bin size and type has been created. A “free municipal waste thermally for energy recovery of charge” paper bin has been introduced to by cogeneration of heat and power. In total, minimise residual waste, together with a very small these plants produce 1,270 GWh heat, and thus cheap bin for residual waste (35 litres). supplying the district heating network and Additionally, in order to reward waste separation, the 231,678 MWh electrical power (year 2006). bio-waste container is subsidised as opposed to the In Copenhagen the incineration plant is also residual waste bin. The mechanical-biological waste treatment (MBT) connected to the central heating system. In plant extracts further recyclable material from the total the waste generated by the Copenhagen residual waste, leaving the residual material to be municipality (household, commercial and landfilled. industrial waste) supplies 140,000 households with heating and electricity (829 GWh heating In Hamburg, Stockholm and Copenhagen the and 202 GWh electricity). household recycling rate is under 30%, but only a very small portion of waste goes to landfill. Stockholm: mechanical waste collection This is due to very high levels of incineration system

(+70%) with high levels of energy recovery. In the city district Hammarby Sjöstad – Stockholm‟s district heating uses the energy internationally known as an eco-profiled produced from household waste, about 60 residential and business area – mechanical and GWh heat is produced annually (9% of the total pneumatic systems for waste collection have been amount of heat), which supplies more than introduced. These systems require less manual 16,000 households. The incineration of collection resulting in a safer worker environment household waste with energy recovery and reduced environmental impact from waste collection and associated transportation of waste. generates ash which is landfilled. This is equal Mechanical waste collection system are: to 2.4% of the total amount of household waste . stationary and mobile vacuum suction collected in the City of Stockholm. The systems; incineration process also generates clinker; this . large compacting containers and large

32 containers partly under ground; . waste collection systems with waste grinders for food waste.

Another innovative project is food waste disposers connected to tanks. A food waste disposer grinds the food waste which is then transported to a tank by water flushing or vacuum action. This solution presents a number of advantages when compared to the conventional one. The personnel in the kitchens don‟t need to walk with bags to the garbage room. Collection from these tanks is by sludge vehicles. Furthermore, the food waste now doesn‟t need to be pre-treated and can be used to produce biogas for vehicle fuel at the waste water treatment plant using Anaerobic Digestion.

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8. WATER CONSUMPTION Households subject to individual water metering

AND WASTE WATER 100% 90% MANAGEMENT 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% Introduction 20% 10% Water is the basic resource for human life. Its 0%

quality and uses impact significantly on citizen Oslo

Bristol

Freiburg Hamburg

health, soil and nature quality, urban life. Muenster

Amsterdam Copenhagen Climate change will affect water availability and increase risks related to bad land and water management. A good water management The installation of apartment water meters is could contribute to minimize energy prescribed also under the Hamburg Building consumption and related climate gas Regulation. These regulations have applied to emissions. new buildings since 1987, and since 1994 it Data analyzed in this report show the eight has been prescribed that all old buildings must EGCA finalist cities' – and citizens' – efforts in be retrospectively fitted with apartment water reducing water pollution and consumption. meters by 2004. Hamburg is the only federal Indicators, used with the aim to underline good state in Germany to have implemented the performance and good practices are: retrospective obligation to install apartment - Households subject to individual water water meters in old buildings. The Senate has metering given financial subsidies for the retrofitting of - Per capita household water consumption apartment water meters. - Water losses in pipelines In Stockholm, all water sold is metered but only - Separated rain water management detached houses have individual metering. For - Phosphorus and nitrogen‟s abatement rate flats in apartment houses, there is generally a meter for each property and the residents pay Water metering a standard rate. The proportion of urban water supply subject to individual water metering is about 100% in WATER CONSUMPTION

Muenster (included all municipal buildings) and Househol Household d having 90% in Copenhagen and Hamburg. Oslo and Household consumption Pipeline water consumpt. (10 years losses meters Bristol show the lowest percentages, ranging variation) installed from 20% to 30%.

In Copenhagen, since 1999 the law has l/inh day % % % Amsterdam 146 -6% 3,0% 52% demanded that water meters be installed for all Bristol 153 2% 18,7% 26% properties connected to the general water Copenhagen 117 -12% 8,0% 92% supply. For properties consisting of several Freiburg 97 -13% 11,0% 54% Hamburg 110 -12% 4,2% 90% apartments, only one water meter for common Muenster 132 -7*% 3,9% 100% invoicing is provided, but it is possible to have Oslo 176 -18**% 20,0% 33% voluntary agreements for apartment-based Stockholm 200 na 17,0% na * related to the period 2001-2007 water invoicing using individual water meters. ** related to total consumption

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Water consumption Water losses in pipelines Water consumption data related to the Amsterdam, Muenster and Hamburg show the business sector is generally limited and not lowest rates of pipeline losses (less than 5%). comparable, therefore, only the domestic Amsterdam‟s water network has a very low consumption will be analysed, being fully percentage of leakage losses, about 3%, and aware that this represents only a part of the in two neighbourhoods this percentage total consumption. But local policies can decrease to 1,6%. achieve important results in this field as already Muenster have managed to minimise the water demonstrated. Cities differ from each other in leakages (3,9%) thanks to acoustical leak relation to water availability, so water saving detection and continuous piping network policies can assume a different priority level in review. In Hamburg, approximately 1/5 of total local agendas. pipelines water network is inspected every year. The introduction of an active leak

Household water consumption monitoring system allowed Freiburg to reduce

250 leakages from 15% to 11% over the past 6 1997 2007 200 years. Total water losses in the pipeline network, in 150 general, have been calculated as difference 100

between the amount of pure water supplied litres/inh day litres/inh 50 and the total water consumption, including

0 unmeasured usages or measuring differences. Oslo

Bristol In Hamburg, for example, the conveyance

Freiburg

Muenster Hamburg

Stockholm Amsterdam Copenhagen losses in the pipeline network excluding measuring differences represent 75% of the In Freiburg water consumption fell from 111 overall water loss. Copenhagen, on the other litres per inhabitant per day in 1997 to 97 litres hand, reports that water loss in the mains per inhabitant per day in 2007 (-13%), the network is approximately 5% whereas true lowest value of the eight cities. A similar unmeasured usage is approximately 3%. decrease has been monitored in Hamburg, where per capita daily consumption has Water losses in pipelines reached 110 l/inh (-12%). Both cities are 25% significantly below the national German 20% average for water consumption (126 litres per 15% inhabitant). Copenhagen is the third most 10% performing city, with an average household 5% consumption of 117 l/inh and the political 0%

commitment to reduce this value to 110 litres

Oslo

Bristol

Freiburg Hamburg

per person by 2010 and 100 litres per person Muenster

Stockholm Amsterdam by 2012. Copenhagen The highest consumption has been monitored in Oslo 176 (l/inh) and Stockholm (200 l/inh).

35 placing excessive loads on the water system‟s natural ability to clean itself. Proactive Leakage Management of Copenhagen’s network WASTE WATER TREATMENT KE Water has sought to keep leakage at a low level by systematically conducting leakage surveys, Connectivi ty to Rain water Removal of rehabilitation and management of the pipeline waste separated substances from all network. water manageme treated waste water treatment nt The pipeline network has been systematically

investigated since 2001. The investigations are done % % P % N by area, with the loss in an area being recorded and Amsterdam 99,6% 75% 91% 87% Bristol 100% 0% na na possible leakages found with the help of electronic Copenhagen 100% na 90% 84% equipment. During the first investigation in 2000- Freiburg 100% 50% 92% 80% 2004 an average of 35 leakages were found each Hamburg 100% 0% na 78% Muenster 99,8% na 97% 94% year, amounting to a water loss of 500 000 m3 (1% of Oslo 99,6% 0% 93% 69% the total water volume supplied in 2004). Stockholm 100% 50% 98% 70% In 2001 it was decided to rehabilitate the network on the basis that the entire mains would be rehabilitated In Stockholm about 50% of the storm water over a 100 year period. This means that 1% has to (urban run-off) is transported along with the be renovated per year, approximately 9 km. Pipeline waste water to treatment plants. The rest is renewal is carried out according to rehabilitation transported to minor lakes. Stockholm has plans which are adjusted on an ongoing basis. The many lakes and water sheds which are highly speed of rehabilitation has been determined using an estimate of what is needed to assure a high security valued for recreational purposes. These lakes of supply through continual rehabilitation of the and water sheds have been classified with pipeline network. Focus has been on the respect to recreational and environmental rehabilitation of supply lines in inner Copenhagen value and the impact of storm water has been and of main supply lines made of cast iron in areas taken into consideration on each one of them. subject to heavy traffic. In order to reduce the load on central treatment plants, the new Waste Water Treatment Plan of Copenhagen undertakes to perform rain water drainage of new city developments and of Rain water management larger renovation projects according to SUDS In Amsterdam, 75% of the sewage system (Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems) operates with separated rain water principles. The new Ørestad district which was management; in 25 % of the area, water is founded in 1996 and today covers 150 collected by a combined sewer system. hectares was equipped with a tripartite system. Approximately half of the municipality area of This sends black water to treatment plants, roof Freiburg uses separate channels for sewage water runoff to recreational channels and road and rainwater. Over 90% of the organic runoff to be purified before being discharged pollution load transported in Freiburg via into recreational channels. channels in the form of domestic sewage or In Copenhagen the discharge of waste water to rainwater is directed to the central treatment receiving waters has also been reduced by facility. Combined waste water overspills and establishing draining basins. The frequency of discharge points for rainwater channels are annual overflows has been reduced from 20-70 fitted with treatment facilities so as to prevent per year to 2-6 per year. The volume of water 36 discharged to the harbour has thus been Waste water treatment reduced from 1.6 million m3 waste water per The waste water treatment plants of year to less than 300,000 m3 per year. Stockholm, Muenster and Oslo are able to remove more than 90 % of phosphorus (P). In Stockholm’s storm water strategy Muenster the nitrogen‟s (N) abatement rate is Stockholm City has adopted a strategy which over 90% too, while in Stockholm and Oslo it is defines the need to treat different kinds of storm only 70%. water entering different receiving waters. The

strategy focuses on 4 principles; source control, detention and infiltration, a scheme for treatment Removal of substances from treated waste water

and cost effectiveness. Stockholm Water Co. has a 100% Phosporus 90% special storm water charge which encourages Nitrogen 80% property and estate owners to treat storm water 70% 60% locally. Several storm water treatment facilities 50% have been built in Stockholm in recent years. 40% 30% Lake Älta, purification of storm water from roads. 20% 10% Surface water runoff from a nearby road is received 0%

in Kasby bay in Lake Älta. To prevent dispersal of

Oslo

Freiburg Muenster

the pollutants, a shield, an artificial basin consisting Hamburg

Stockholm Amsterdam of rafts with textile-screens below water level, has Copenhagen been built in the inner part of the bay area. The rafts are also used as a pedestrian link between the Very high percentage of removal, both for P opposite shores in the bay. The main aim is to and N, are related to the treatment plants of reduce heavy metals and organic compounds. Amsterdam, Copenhagen and Freiburg (all ranging from 80% to 90%).

Separation of yellow waters in Hamburg Sustainable waste water management has been a top priority in Hamburg for more than a decade. In addition to the urban concept for public toilets in Hamburg, which are all equipped with energy and water saving technologies, urinals have been installed in critical and overly polluted locations. The urinals operate without Purification of storm water flowing to Årsta bay water, and the urine is separately collected and Årsta bay-area, a part of Lake Mälaren, receives transported to reduce waste water volume. large amounts of storm water from buildings, Urine makes up only around 1% of the volume of industries and roads. More than half of the total waste water, but is responsible for the majority of inflow of storm water arrives through two tunnels. nutrients contained in it. Furthermore, specific These tunnels have been rebuilt to handle pharmaceuticals are introduced into waste water purification of storm water. Large sedimentation- via urine. Without treatment, such undesired tanks that clarify the water have been constructed residue medication ends up in lakes and close to the mouths (completed in 2007). A waterways. The separate collection of urine is pumping plant, aiming to remove sediment from a also significant because nutrients and lower part of the Årsta tunnel, will be constructed phosphorus can be removed (85% of nitrogen during the next few years as well a process for and over 90% of phosphates), separated by removing oil from the storm water. pharmaceutical and – as recyclable materials –

37 used for alternative purposes, such as fertilisers. On the basis of these positive results, Hamburg is endeavouring to develop the separate collection of urine on a larger scale.

In Amsterdam the purification sludge that is released during the purification process is transported to the Waste and Energy Company in two flows: biogas (methane) and sludge. Both flows are power sources for the Waste and Energy Company (as well as solid domestic waste). 94% of the potential energy of the residual flows is recovered in this way. The heat and electricity released in the Waste and Energy Company is returned. All waste water treatment plants, sewer pumps and other installations or buildings obtain electricity from the waste and energy centre. The heat is used for the digestion process and the electricity for the purification process.

38 Environmental Management Systems (EMS) 9. ENVIRONMENTAL Amsterdam MANAGEMENT OF THE Three ISO 14001: Waternet, the organization LOCAL AUTHORITY responsible for supplying drinking water and purifying the waste water; Waste & Energy Company; and District Osdorp, one of the districts of Amsterdam with a population of 50,000. Introduction In 2007, the Port of Amsterdam was awarded Integrated approaches and new management the PERS-certificate (Port Environmental tools are very useful to deal with the amount of Review System). different environmental aspects the cities have to tackle. Bristol A vision, a strategy, an action plan should be The City Council has been developing and set. Moreover Environmental Systems or implementing environmental management Agenda 21 cycles provide, by means of target systems since 2000. Currently six out of the setting, monitoring procedures, audits, public seven council departments (approximately 80% participation, a structured way to support this of total council employees) are registered comprehensive approach. EMAS and ISO 14001. The one remaining To strengthen local government credibility, all department is to be completed during 2009. commitments assumed in local Action Plans The Council‟s Direct Service Organization should be first of all applied to the local (Contract Services), which provides transport, administration itself, so giving the good catering, cleaning, grounds maintenance, and example in managing properly “its own house”. joinery services, has a certified environmental A rationale and innovative energy management management system (EMAS). of the public buildings and a green public procurement policy could positively influence Freiburg the local market and citizen behaviors. Environmental management activities are This chapter reports how the eight EGCA rather common in the public administration‟s finalist cities perform in relation to the following work but there are no offices or services criteria: certified EMAS or ISO 14001. - Environmental Management Systems (EMS); - Green Public Procurement (GPP); Copenhagen - Energy efficiency and management in public The number of employees working at buildings. institutions with a certified environmental Available information from the cities varies management system has more than doubled significantly rendering quantitative comparison from 3,800 to 7,700 in 2007. Furthermore, quite hard. Consequently, the cities' approximately 12,000 employees are working information has been analyzed in a more in institutions which are in the process of qualitative way, in an effort to showcase best introducing environmental management. In this practices and a source of inspiration for other way, there is an important and necessary cities. progress in relation to the goal to introduce environmental management in all institutions.

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Hamburg Hamburg Municipal Sanitation Department and Management System covers factors such as Hamburg Water Company are EMAS certified. environment, quality, and public procurement Eleven municipal bodies have participated in Three housing companies and the water the Ecoprofit project with the aim of company are certified ISO 14001. systematically implementing cost-saving environmental measures. Additionally environmental management procedures have Green Public Procurement (GPP) been adopted and can be used as the basis for % OF ECO-LABELLED, ORGANIC, ENERGY-EFFICIENT the future adoption of certified environmental PRODUCTS management systems such as ISO 14001. green paper food vehicles electricity Amsterdam 40% Muenster Bristol 61% 14%* In Muenster, quality and environmental Copenhagen 50% Freiburg 72% 70% managements have been introduced Hamburg 30% 100% throughout the Civil Engineering Office. Muenster 100% The forest cemetery, a public administration Oslo 97% Stockholm 12% 55% 70% building (hosting 300 workers) and the public * 14% municipal buildings and schools; 100% street lighting utility company have been certified according to the EMAS scheme. Amsterdam Sustainability is standard in Amsterdam's Oslo municipality wide framework contracts, not only There are 291 municipal units with certified giving priority to environment aspects, but also environmental management systems. 13 are to social aspects (e.g. social return and certified according to ISO 14001, this includes compliance with ILO standards). large agencies and enterprises such as Agency Sustainable procurement is standard in: for Waste Management, Agency for Urban - public lighting Renewal, Oslo Port Authority and Oslo Metro - cleaning services Operations. The rest are certified according to - work clothing the national standard Eco Lighthouse (smaller - public space furnishing agencies and offices, urban district - pew buildings (sharp EPC requirements, administrations, schools, day care facilities FSC quality label, CO2 neutral (since 2008) etc.). - renovations of old buildings The purchase amount cannot be indicated yet, Stockholm but a cautious estimate is that the total amount In the City of Stockholm, an Integrated of framework contracts amounts to approx. Management System (IMS) is used by all 20% of the purchase volume. departments and municipal companies. Amsterdam is targeting 100% sustainable Environmental aspects are integrated into the procurement in 2010. This is the case for all Integrated Management System and all central framework contracts. organizational decision-making. The Integrated

40 Bristol Printing and photocopying is now The percentage consumption of eco-labelled, predominantly done on recycled paper (72% in organic and energy-efficient products as share administrations and schools). of the total consumption is not measured Municipal canteens now use exclusively Fair directly. However, energy efficient and other Trade coffee, tea and cocoa. sustainable products are considered in Under a decision from the municipal Council, corporate procurement arrangements. For the municipal vehicle fleet is to be upgraded as example: soon and as extensively as possible to vehicles . the latest fleet of pool cars consume less powered by natural gas or biogenic fuels.

than 120 g/ km CO2; Accordingly, more than 2/3 of current leased . use of FSC/ CSA certified sustainable company cars run on natural gas (35 vehicles). timber in the municipal joinery (53%); . 54% of stationery is recycled, or from Hamburg suppliers with ISO14001/ EMAS Including the share of renewable energy registration; contained in the national production mix . 61% of paper purchased is from recycled or (approximately 13% in 2007), 100% of the FSC sources; electricity used for public buildings in the years . 45% of soil compost used in nursery 2008 – 2010 can be attributed to renewable gardens is peat-free; energy sources. . 14% of green electricity purchased for municipal buildings and schools; 100% of Muenster electricity purchased for street lighting is Since the early 1990s, 90% of the recycling from renewable sources. paper has been procured with the “Blue Angel”. An increase of the portion to 100% by 2010 is Copenhagen envisaged due to the high quality of new By the end of 2009, 60% of food served in the recycling papers. The procurement of copiers municipal kitchens and canteens should be with the "Blue Angel" has also been mandatory eco-labelled (75% by 2011). since 2004, with the portion amounting to almost 100% today. Computer and screens Freiburg have been required for many years to be In accordance with a decision of the municipal certified according to Energy Star 4.0 or an Council, construction products must meet the equivalent standard. The portion of this „Blue Angel'15 criteria in order to be permitted equipment is 100% by now. for use. Following this fundamental decision, The municipal canteens pay attention to the Blue Angel criteria are already used as a predominantly local products. Furthermore, basis for tenders by the municipal some products are procured from ecological administration in various sectors. All cultivation and/or fair trade: potatoes (100%), government agencies when procuring electrical vegetables (30%), coffee, tea, and cocoa equipment have to give priority to products (100%). meeting the Blue Angel criteria. Oslo The only available data is about office paper:

15 The Blue Angel was the first and one of the most well- 97% is eco-labelled (Nordic Swan label). The known eco-labels in Europe 41 municipality has 40 different binding procurement contracts including criteria to Good measures beyond good results promote sustainable products and services. Amsterdam The main categories are: working clothes, Since 2004 the municipality has applied the 'ten- small and medium sized cars, electricity, year-pay-back period measure': all (energy) computers and printers, soaps and detergents. measures that pay themselves back within ten years are compulsory for municipal buildings.

Thanks to this measure, in the new district office Stockholm Zuideramstel, for instance, completed in The city used approximately 532 GWh December 2008, 70 to 80% energy can be saved electricity in 2007 and two thirds (370 GWh) compared to an average office. was eco-labelled. This includes 25 out of 33 administrations in a joint agreement. In the Copenhagen coming purchases of electricity, the other eight Between 2002 and 2006, thanks to saving administrations will sign agreements for eco- measures, electricity consumption fell by 5% and labelled electricity when the present heating consumption by 7 %. agreements run out in 2010. Thus Stockholm Freiburg will have 100 % eco-labelled electricity in 2010. 7million€ are invested yearly for energy The objective for the city of Stockholm is to refurbishment in schools. apply the Purchasing Policy and Guidelines at 100 % of the city‟s purchases. Hamburg In 2008, a renovation programme started for 30 Energy efficiency and management in buildings saving energy of up to 40%. public buildings Data on energy performance in public buildings Muenster are quite difficult to compare. The table below Several communal administrative buildings have shows that good energy performance is been refurbished during recent years. 80% of all employees work in three of these buildings. Heat possible, as in Freiburg (117 kWh/m2, even if consumption in two of these administrative related to one single building) and in Muenster buildings adds up to 43 kwh/m² and 83 kwh/m². 2 (135 kWh/m ). Other cities score around 180 2 kWh/m (even if in Amsterdam and Oslo the cases relate only to schools). The target towards nearly zero emission ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN MUNICIPAL BUILDINGS public buildings energy energy energy City consumption consumption consumption The recast of the Energy Performance of (heating) (electricity) (total) Buildings Directive (November 2009) calls for kWh/m2 kWh/m2 kWh/m2 “nearly zero emission public buildings” by the Amsterdam 181 year 2018. The target could be reached also by Bristol using renewable energies and rational use of Copenhagen 150 50 200 energy, but buildings' standard target is the Freiburg* 97 20 117 Hamburg 141 42 183 most important action a local government could Munster 120 15 135 adopt. Oslo 181 Stockholm 181 *Consumption related to a single building 42 Amsterdam Muenster By 2015: city‟s own energy use must be CO2 At present: the construction of new municipal neutral; schools must reduce energy buildings must provide <50 kWh/m² (yearly consumption in new buildings to 105 kWh/m2 heat consumption). and in rehabilitated buildings to 120 kWh/m2 By 2015: existing buildings' average (current consumption is 181 kWh/m2). consumption are to be decreased, thanks to technical measures and a comprehensive Freiburg: campaign, to <100 kwh/m² within a period of At present: the construction of all new five years ((current consumption is 135 buildings, including municipal buildings must kwh/m²). provide <40 kWh/m² (yearly heat consumption). Oslo By 2011: the construction of all new buildings, Phase out 95% of all oil burners in municipal including municipal buildings, must provide the buildings to be replaced with district heating, passive house standard (<50 kWh/m², yearly biomass or geothermal heating/heat pumps. heat consumption). Stockholm Hamburg 2006-2011: the city‟s own energy use must be By 2012: renovation of all schools <200 decreased by 10%; the construction of new kWh/m² per year (in 60 schools CO2 savings municipal buildings must provide less than 30% will be more than 20%) consumption below the compulsory Swedish standard (80 kWh/ m² instead of 110 kWh/ m²).

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