UC Merced The Journal of California Anthropology
Title The Datura Cult Among the Chumash
Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/37r1g44r
Journal The Journal of California Anthropology, 2(1)
Author Applegate, Richard B
Publication Date 1975-07-01
Peer reviewed
eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California The Datura Cult Among the Chumash
RICHARD B. APPLEGATE
N their quest for visions and for super ever possible). I am also indebted to Santa I natural power, the Chumash of the Santa Barbara historian Russell Ruiz for lore about Barbara region were one of many tribes Datura which he heard from old people no throughout North and South America that longer living. resorted to the use of hallucinogenic plants. Datura was one of the most widely known of SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA BACKGROUND these hallucinogens (cf. Schultes 1972; La The Datura cult among the Chumash Barre 1972; Bean and Saubel 1972); Indians of incorporated a number of features which had an area from Chile to the American Southwest a broad distribution in southern California. made ritual use of several species of Datura. Even the word for Datura appeared in much In her dissertation on Datura in aboriginal the same form in a number of unrelated but America, Anna Gayton (1928) suggests that geographically contiguous languages (Gamble its use may have diffused from a single point n.d.). According to Gayton (1928:27-28), of origin, since local adaptations of the. Datura common features of southern California Da cult all show the common themes of divination tura use were "that it was not taken before and contact with the spirits of the dead. At puberty, that it was usually administered to a one extreme Umit of this area, the peoples of group, and that a supernatural helper was southern California used Datura meteloides A. sought." This supernatural helper was the DC—more commonly known as Jimsonweed individual's life-long guardian spirit or dream or toloache (the Spanish rendering of Aztec helper. Beyond these common features, Gay toloatzin). They elaborated the Datura cult ton noted three major differentiations in and integrated it thoroughly into their vision ceremonial usage. quest and their ceremonial hfe. First, on the South Coast among the Until recently, references io Datura in the Gabrielino, Luiseno, and others, youths took literature on the Chumash have been brief and Datura as part of a puberty ritual integrated largely conjectural. Now contemporary work into a much broader ceremonial complex, the ers are synthesizing the unpublished manu Chingichnich cult. The initiates underwent scripts of John P. Harrington's ethnographic ordeals and received esoteric instruction. work among the Chumash between 1912 and Women never took it; men took it only once, 1922. In particular, Thomas Blackburn in groups, primarily to make contact with a (1974) has done a cultural analysis of Chu dream helper. There were no seasonal re mash narrative texts in which Datura figures strictions on its use (Gayton 1928:28). Al prominently (I refer to myths and stories most exactly this same pattern prevailed in Blackburn's dissertation by number when among the Salinans, on the coast north of THE JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY the Chumash (Harrington 1942:39; Mason mash-not only about the Datura cult but 1912:162). about any facet of Chumash Hfe--comes from Second, further north among the south the Ventureiio, Barbareiio, and Ineseiio Chu ern Yokuts and Western Mono, a Datura mash; we know much less about other Chu drinking ritual was held every spring. It was mash groups. Fernando Librado of Ventura optional, with no initiatory aspect, and it furnished Harrington with the most detailed did not change a participant's social status. account of Datura use, while Maria Solares of Both men and women could take Datura, Santa Ynez knew the mythological aspects of repeating the experience if they chose (Gay Datura best. The available details of the ton 1928:31). Barbareno and Ineseno usage agree in nearly Third, in the east among the Mohave, all respects with the Venturefio data reported Yuma, and Desert Cahuilla, there was no well- by Fernando Librado. developed Datura ceremony. Datura was taken REASONS FOR TAKING DATURA by individuals, at any season, as often as they chose. These eastern groups relied on dreams The most important reason for taking for supernatural power; they usually took Da Datura was to establish contact with a super tura for other reasons, such as luck in gambling natural guardian: the "^atiswin or dream (Gayton 1928:37; Drucker 1937:34-36). helper. The Chumash believed that the dream The Chumash version of the Datura cult helper came only to a person who had drunk agrees most closely with the Yokuts pattern Datura; this was always the purpose of an discussed second by Gayton. As with the individual's first Datura experience. One Yokuts, both men and women took Datura, might take Datura later to strengthen one's any time after puberty, and it was not bond with the dream helper, or to meet yet incorporated into any initiation rite. Many another helper, or for supernatural power in took Datura only once, but those with a general. A person might also take it for some stronger affinity for the supernatural took it more specific purpose. SimpUcio Pico of several times. Unlike their immediate neigh Ventura said: bors, the Chumash drank Datura individually When a person took toloache and he had rather than in groups, and right in the village visions, he prayed in his visions to the rather than at a special camp. Like the toloache and it would say to him, "What do Yokuts, the Chumash may once have had you want?" The person would answer, "I seasonal restrictions on Datura use, since the want to have power in games," or "1 want to Ventureno Chumash called January "the be a good horseman," or some such request. month of Datura.'' But the Chumash took And he would get good luck from the toloache. Datura as medicine any time of the year, and there is no mention of seasonal restrictions A person might take Datura to communi when it was taken for visions. So the year- cate with the spirits of the dead; those who round use of Datura by the Chumash agrees still missed some loved one, particularly a with the Gabrielino and Salinan patterns. dead child, sometimes took Datura for this It is not at all clear how uniform the reason. The drinker might want to see his or Datura cult was from one Chumash group her future hfe; one young woman saw herself to another. Certainly among the various Yo rich in her vision and later she married a chief. kuts groups minor and even major differ When a person was unhappy, or not doing ences appeared (cf. Gayton 1948; Driver well in life, he might take Datura. Datura 1937:98-99). Most information on the Chu- could show a man his true name, ignorant THE DATURA CULT 9 of which he could never hope to prosper in cause they had not taken Datura (Gayton this world. 1928:36-37). So evidently £>an
The preparation of Datura required great article he owned. The Chumash also believed skill. Datura is dangerous. It is not only that when a rattlesnake had decided in ad hallucinogenic, but also highly poisonous. A vance to kill someone (rather than just strik dosage large enough to induce hallucinations ing in self-defense), it sank its fangs into a has very toxic effects on the body; the Datura root and sucked in the poison before effective dose is only a little less than the biting the person. Death was certain, and the lethal dose. The Datura giver had to calculate victim died immediately. the dose according to what sort of soil the Many aspects of the Datura cult, from the plant had grown in, the age of the plant Datura giver's circumspection in gathering {Datura is a perennial), the size of the roots, roots to the drinker's rigorous observance of and the concentration of the finished brew. the preliminary tabus, reflect a profound The Yokuts and the Kitanemuk drank Datura desire not to offend the Datura spirit. Gayton only during the winter and early spring; later (1928:40) suggests that the propitiation of in the year they thought it too strong. The the Datura spirit was due to feair of its lethal Chumash and the Shoshonean groups to the potential as well as to veneration of its south drank it at any season, compounding hallucinogenic properties. Among the Wak- their risk: here the Datura giver also had to sachi Mono, the man giving the'drink first take the time of year into account in measur prayed to the Datura spirit "not to hurt these ing the dosage. people who are going to drink you" (Gayton Deaths from Datura were not unknown 1928:40 fn.). among the Chumash, despite their long famil iarity with the plant. Responsibility for a TKKmG DATURA \ death fell on the drinker rather than the The first Datura experience was the most Datura giver, according to Russell Ruiz (per important, and it was apparently the most sonal communication). The Chumash beheved closely controlled. When adolescents had ar that the Datura drinker who died had vio rived at an age when they were considered lated one of the tabus against sex or meat strong enough to stand the treatment, they and hence aroused the animosity of the were given Datura. This was probably a few Datura spirit, or else he simply did not re years after puberty, but before marriage and turn from the spirit world. He might have before sexual experience. The age fifteen is "lost the trail" (as the idiom went) and mentioned, though not as a fixed point. The not found his way back to this world, or adolescent observed the dietary tabus for he might have been so caught up in what twenty-one days before drinking Z)a/wra. Both he saw that he chose not to return. The Ineseno and Ventureiio informants said that choice not to return was supposed to be most occasionally more than one girl might be likely when a person had taken Datura in given Datura at a time, but the Ventureiio order to see the dead. specifically denied that boys were ever given But the Chumash were well aware of the Datura in pairs or groups. lethal aspects of Datura, as bits of lore about Among the Inesefio, the young man or the plant indicate. It was a common ingredi woman who was going to drink Datura ent in the poisons made by sorcerers. The went in the evening to the house of the intended victim did not have to ingest such Datura giver, accompanied by parents and a poison or even come in contact with it; perhaps by other relatives. Further south he would sicken and die if the sorcerer among the Ventureno, the five Datura givers merely painted the Datura poison on some assembled and went to the house of the 12 THE JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY drinker. There is no mention of any cere THE DATURA VISION mony or invocation at this point, as among some neighboring tribes. Soon after drink The Chumash believed that if the drinker ing the Datura decoction, the drinker be had prepared himself in advance by observing gan to experience dizziness and trembling. all of the restrictions on diet and sex, and if As he began to lose consciousness of the he approached the experience with a calm external world, the Datura giver told him mind, then Datura put him in contact with to go to sleep and pay careful attention the supernatural. "Toloache teaches you all to his dreams. The parents and relatives all things," one Chumash said. It enabled a man went out, leaving the drinker alone with the to see beyond surface appearances into the Datura giver. Among the Ventureiio, at least true nature of things, to see "the other one of the five Datura givers was in constant world" beyond "this world," as the Chumash attendance. put it. But if a man had not prepared himself, Eighteen to twenty-four hours later the then he perceived only illusion—exaggerated drinker revived. One who was strong of spirit reflections of his own fears and weaknesses revived at noon the next day, while those of (Russell Ruiz, personal communication). weaker spirit would revive that night or even When one took Datura for the first time, the following day. Larger doses might result the most coveted vision was that of the in an even longer period of unconsciousness. ^atiswin or dream helper—usually an animal When he first awoke, the Datura drinker was spirit hke Hawk or Coyote. The helper of still hallucinating, but gradually he became fered the novitiate life-long protection and more and more clearly conscious of the guidance, conferred on him some specific external world. The behavior of a person just boon—like prowess in hunting or skill in recovering from Datura was erratic and unpre curing, and left him with a talisman, also dictable. A linguistic reflection of this is the called "^atiswin. Not everyone succeeded in verbal derivative momoyic, 'to be affected by this first Datura experience; there were those momoy—Datura,' which had a connotation of who saw nothing. They usually tried again. A aberrant behavior in the sense of 'to be or act good many people, especially women, took crazy.' In post-contact times, after the intro Datura only once. Some individuals never did duction of alcohol, momoyic also came to gain the favor of a dream helper. mean 'to be drunk.' Harrington's informants The Datura drinker might see many other frequently referred to those intoxicated with things besides a dream helper. Gayton Datura as 'drunk.' (1928:40-41) points out two beliefs common The drinker just emerging from the effects to all of the tribes which used Datura: under of Datura was sometimes taken out of the the influence of Datura one could contact the house, perhaps down to the beach or some spirits of the dead, and one could detect lost where away from the village. One of the or stolen articles. Datura givers among the Venturefio special The Datura drinker could see the spirits of ized in singing to the drinker at this point, but the dead, and he might speak with them. Cer there is no hint what the songs were about. tain spots were particularly auspicious for con Among the Wukchumni Yokuts (Gayton tacting the dead in a Datura trance; the best 1948:119), such songs were simply repeti known of these was ka^aqtawaq 'north wind,' tions of hnes such as, "You drankDatura;you north of Ventura, an ancient sycamore tree in should wake up," and "Get up and drink whose rusthng leaves the Datura drinker could more Datura." hear the voices of the dead. Datura also en- THE DATURA CULT 13 abled a person to see the supernatural crea J AKmG DATURA tures thought to inhabit various places. For TO AVERT MISFORTUNE example, a person who took Datura at a cer tain shrine-hill just south of the Santa Ynez The Chumash often took Datura to avert River might see the huge serpent which Uved the misfortune foretold by some ill omen. in a cave in the bluff below the shrine. Thus, an owl or coyote calling out near a The Datura drinker could see lost or house, especially at night, announced that stolen articles, even far away. His visions some member of the household was soon to compressed time and space, so that he could die. Similarly, for a bird to fly into a house see distant places and events there; he could foretold death or misfortune, just as it did for see into the past and future. Any prediction a a bird to fall fluttering at one's feet. It was a person made under the influence of Datura particularly bad omen to be seen as the victim was supposed to come true. Since the Datura of a misfortune in someone's Datura visions. drinker could see beyond surface appearances, When Datura was taken to avert misfortune, he could tell who his true friends and enemies there may have been a stereotyped vision in were, and he could perceive any attempt to which the agent responsible for the omen trick him. appeared to the dreamer and reassured him. When the Datura drinker was fully con In one story (Blackburn 1974: text 98), the scious again, the old Datura givers gathered words used were "Don't be sad; I will do and asked him about what he had seen in his nothing to harm you." visions. They interpreted the visions for him. Drinking Datura could prevent soul loss. There was no formal instruction at this point The spirit of a person soon to die often left the (as in the Gabrielino and Luisefio initiation), body while the person slept; the spirit might but the elders took advantage of the oppor appear to others either in its human form or as tunity for a little moralizing. Fernando Li a ball of light. A coyote or some supernatural brado recalled some of these interpretations. creature might also assume the form of a living If in the dream a bear attacks, it is a sign that person and appear to others. A person whose the dreamer must respect every creature in spirit was seen straying or who was imperson the world. If the dreamer kills the bear, then ated by a coyote was in grave danger; he might he will always be a victor. If one dreams of a be able to avert death by taking Datura. To a knife, it is a bad sign, and he must never use a lesser degree, the person who saw these appari knife. If he dreams that he has given the knife tions was also in danger, and might well take to someone, it is a sign that this same person Datura himself. Datura countered the ill ef will kill him with a knife. The dream of an fects of breaking some tabu. In one story eagle or a hawk is good luck. Any being one (Blackburn 1974:text 62), a boy out hunting sees—no matter how dangerous—will do no trespasses on a sacred place and encounters a harm as long as it is not molested, and this gigantic serpent. When the boy returns home, too is a good sign. his parents know that he has met with misfor If the dream was unfavorable, the old men tune, and they give him Datura. advised the dreamer what to guard against in In all of these cases, the individual took time of danger. One young woman dreamed Datura on an emergency basis. The strict of the ocean. She was told, "The ocean is a observances which usually preceded Datura dream, but don't you ever enter it. And if you drinking were relaxed or omitted altogether. come across a man with a quiet heart, never But drinkers were careful to fast and observe disturb him." the tabu on sex for a while afterward. 14 THE JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY
DATURA AS MEDICINE hallucinogens above all other plants are found to be closely connected with magic Datut-a^ was commonly taken as a medi and sorcery in the treatment of disease and the struggle against death . . . [1972:5]. cine for ^sgrious injuries and illnesses. For broken boi^es and wounds. Datura was an SHAMANISTIC USES OF DATURA anesthetic aS well as a charm. Some Yokuts groups thought Datura caused broken bones An individual who wanted shamanistic to set by themselves (Driver 1937:99). For power took Datura many times in order to such purppses. Datura might also be applied become "a knower of spirits." He was likely externally as a poultice. In one story, a to acquire a number of dream helpers. The desperately wounded man asks his friends to shaman had ready access to the supernatural roast Datura roots for him. He eats them "hke through repeated experiences with Datura and roast potatoes" and then lies as if dead for habitual observance of the restrictions on sex three days'.'He is well on his way to recovery and diet necessary to gain the Datura spirit's when he comes to. Recovery was supposed to favor. He exploited the powers of Datura be complete and rapid after a dose of Datura; more fully than did the layman. In trying to complications were blamed on the interven effect a difficult cure, the shaman might use tion of an,evil shaman. Datura. The Datura spirit would reveal to him The Chumash might resort to Datura to the cause of the illness and the cure to follow. cure a lingering illness. In this case, the The shaman saw in his visions by the inner patient took Datura after all lesser treatments glow of a plant whether it was wholesome had failed; a shaman sometimes gave a patient or poisonous as a medicine. Shamans may Datura when the shaman had not been able to have taken Datura before important ceremo discover the cure by taking it himself. When a nies, such as the snake dance, which the rattle gravely ill patient recovered, the shaman snake shaman conducted every spring when might give him Datura to counter the ill the snakes came out of hibernation, to pro effects of his narrow escape from death. After tect participants from snakebite during the her cure, a Barbareiio woman quoted the coming year. shaman as saying, "You were going to die and A malevolent shaman might also use now got well, and so it is good that I give you Datura to cause illness and even death to toloache soon. When you are a little stronger, others. In his visions he might divine a man's I will give you toloache." But Datura was not true name to use in an incantation; he might necessarily a medicine just for serious illness; find out a man's secret weaknesses and work Datura and seawater were supposed to be the on these. Even drought, famine, and other two best tonics for freshening the blood. natural disasters were attributed to evil sha The .Chumash credited this dangerous and mans. According to Russell Ruiz, repeated use powerful drug with supreme curative virtues. of Datura brought on pronounced changes in Schultes sheds some hght on how they made character; the user became more and more such a connection: antisocial. Those with great shamanistic power acquired through years of Datura In almost all primitive cultures, sickness and drinking frequently lived apart from other death are beheved to be due to interference people (cf. Blackburn 1974:text 78), and from supernatural spheres. For this reason, the psychic effects of drugs are often far they often had reputations for capricious more important in primitive medical practice malevolence. than the purely physical ones. Consequently, Datura and shamanism are mentioned in THE DATURA CULT 15 connection with charmstones—also called It is possible that the rock paintings found "plummet stones" or "sinkers" in the litera at remote and rugged sites in Chumash terri ture (cf. Henshaw 1885; Yates 1889). Charm- tory are of shamanistic origin, and inspired by stones were highly prized as magical aids in Datura (cf. Grant 1965). Originally in bril- curing illness, bringing rain, putting out fires Uant color, these paintings show non-represen in the mountains, finding lost objects, or tational patterns as well as figures of beings calling up fish in the streams. In battle, a that are often quite fantastic. These might charmstone worn around the neck rendered a well depict the contents of a Datura vision. man invisible to his enemies and invulner Thomas Blackburn (personal communication) able to arrows. The account of charmstones points out that at least a third of the given by Yates differs from that of Fernando Chumash motifs are common phosphenes: the Librado in the Harrington manuscript. Ac visual patterns seen behind closed eyes, which cording to Yates (1889:304), the shaman's hallucinogens intensify greatly (Oster 1970). standard equipment included a set of either Kroeber (1925:938) notes that the distri 12 or 20 charmstones. The shaman handled bution of rock paintings in California coin the charmstones only after fasting for a cides fairly closely with the area in which the month and taking Datura. He took part in a Datura cult was strongest. The Chumash dance on awaking; at his approach, a charm- paintings may have been executed by or for stone would elevate itself on one end off the youths taking Datura for the first time, just as dancing ground for him to pick up. The the Luiseiio initiation used sand paintings. Harrington manuscript's references to charm But the remoteness of the sites and the stones and the shaman do not indicate that generally non-initiatory aspect of what we the shaman necessarily took Datura before know of the Chumash Datura cult makes this using them. seem unUkely. It is more hkely that shamans Fernando Librado gave a detailed account made the paintings in the course of working of a layman's quest for the vision of a magic, perhaps in connection with Datura. charmstone. To see a charmstone, a man had The Harrington manuscript refers to a power to abstain from sex for six months, and for ful shaman painting on a rock as part of his the last month he avoided meat, grease, and sorcery in causing a drought; Maria Solares of salt as well. For the last three days, both he Santa Ynez mentioned two old men who and his family fasted completely. Friends and retired into the mountains at the time of the relatives gathered at his house on the eve of winter solstice to make paintings. Among the the drinking with gifts of food and money; Yokuts, too, petroglyphs were popularly as they sang all night and kept the man from sociated with shamanism (Gayton 1948:113). sleeping. Datura was usually drunk in the evening, but here the man drank it at dawn. DATURA IN CHUMASH MYTHOLOGY He hoped to see a charmstone in his visions, The Chumash integrated Datura thorough and he would pray for the particular power ly into their mythology. Datura's mythical which the charmstone should confer on him. importance to the Chumash, according to For the ordinary man, the preliminary auster Blackburn (1974:100), is all the more striking ities and Datura were indispensible in raising because its role among neighboring California him to the proper state of power to handle a tribes was peripheral. The neighbors of the charmstone. A charmstone acquired in such a Chumash sometimes personified Datura as a way was usually considered the property of pair of brothers or sisters. Among the Chunut the chief, and a man had to pay for its use. Yokuts, Datura was two beautiful girls decked 16 THE JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY with flowers who danced over the plains in herself was a widow and had no partner. the spring, and to the Western Mono, Datura Momoy ate only tobacco, and the Datura was two brothers who started out as grass in drinker had to fast completely or at least the pre-human era (Gayton 1928:37). The avoid meat and grease, but even on a total fast Chumash saw Datura as the powerful old the Chumash still might take tobacco. \^Oman Momoy; momoy is, of course, also the Momoy knew what happened in distant Chumash word for the plant Datura. Momoy places, and she could see into the future, just turned into the plant Datura after the flood as the Datura drinker could. She shared this which marked the transition between mythi power with others by giving them water in cal times "when the animals were still people" which she had washed her hands. The dangers (as myths often begin) and the advent of the of too much Datura are explicit in a myth world order famihar to the Chumash. (Blackburn 1974:myth 19) in which Afomoj^ The old woman Momoy was a rich widow washes first just her hands and then up to her who hved apart from other people, perhaps elbows; these doses put her grandson to sleep, with a daughter or a grandchild. In one myth but he has no visions. He begs her to bathe (Blackburn 1974:myth 18), Momoy's grand and give him the water, but she answers, "If I son turned into a fly; in another (Blackburn took a bath, you'd turn into a devil or die." 1974:myth 15), her granddaughter married Momoy lived apart from other people, just as Thunder and gave birth to the twin Thunders the person who drank Datura was believed to who make thunder in the world today. Mo transcend the ordinary world, and just as the moy was very wise; those who drank water in shaman who drank Datura repeatedly stood which she had washed her hands could share apart from ordinary individuals—respected for her wisdom to some degree. Like many other his power, but also feared and suspected. supernatural beings, Momoy ate nothing but Datura is mentioned in another mytholog tobacco. According to one version of the crea ical context. There was a long pole, alter tion myth, Momoy made man from the hairs nately rising and falling, which was the bridge and grime which she removed from her comb. from this world to similaqsa, the land of the From her sweat Coyote came into existence. dead in the west. The souls of those who had Coyote was a trickster, but he was also a wise drunk Datura passed safely across the pole old man very adept at sorcery. In many myths because they were strong of spirit. Those who (Blackburn 1974:myths 15-20), he treatedvWo- had not drunk Datura, and who had no dream moy as an aunt, and he was the Datura giver helpers, fell into the sea to become fish or in the old days. snakes or turtles. Tehing of this (Blackburn The old woman Momoy was the spirit of 1974:myth 12), Maria Solares added with Datura, and much of the lore about her conviction that those people lived in igno reflects specific details of the Chumash Da rance who did not know the old Indian tura cult. The Chumash addressed her as religion and who did not drink Datura. "Grandmother" when they dug Datura roots. CONCLUSION Momoy was old and wise, and when one approached Datura properly, the Chumash The Datura cult was an essential part of said, it would "teach you all things." Momoy Chumash culture, although it surely did not was rich, and in his visions a person might originate among the Chumash. It appeared in pray to her for wealth, luck, or power. One much the same basic form over much of had to abstain from sex for some time before southern California, but its diffusion through and after drinking Datura, just as Momoy this area must have been long enough ago that THE DATURA CULT 17 neighboring groups had time to differentiate American Culture. Ph.D. Dissertation, Uni details of the cult. versity of California, Berkeley. Of all of the peoples of southern Califor 1948 Yokuts and Western Mono Ethnography. nia, perhaps the Chumash accorded Datura University of California Anthropological the highest place. They relied entirely on Records 10(1,2). Datura in the quest for a dream helper; they Grant, C. regarded it as the source of all supernatural 1965 The Rock Paintings of the Chumash. power. As a medicine, they attributed to Berkeley: University of California Press. Datura curative powers both physical and Harrington, J. P. psychic. In consonance with the many virtues 1912- Unpublished manuscript materials, on file they saw in it as well as the very real dangers, 1922 at the Smithsonian Institution, Washing the Chumash wove around Datura a mythol ton, D.C. ogy unique in southern California. 1942 Cuhure Element Distributions: XIX, Cen California State University tral California Coast. University of Califor San Jose nia Anthropological Records 7(1). Henshaw, H. W. 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