A History of Knowledge
Oldest Knowledge What the Jews knew What the Sumerians knew What the Christians knew What the Babylonians knew Tang & Sung China What the Hittites knew What the Japanese knew What the Persians knew What the Muslims knew What the Egyptians knew The Middle Ages What the Indians knew Ming & Manchu China What the Chinese knew The Renaissance What the Greeks knew The Industrial Age What the Phoenicians knew The Victorian Age What the Romans knew The Modern World
What the Barbarians knew 1 What the Victorian Age knew Piero Scaruffi Copyright 2018 http://www.scaruffi.com/know
I think it would be a good idea. (Mahatma Gandhi, when asked what he thought of Western civilization)
"The Capitalists will sell us the rope with which we will hang them” (Vladimir Lenin) God is dead - Nietzsche. Nietzsche is dead - God. (Graffiti on Nietzsche’s tomb)
“As an older friend I must advise you against it for in the first place you will not succeed, and even if you succeed no one will believe you” 2 (Planck to Einstein in 1913). What the Victorian Age knew • Bibliography – Gregory Freeze: Russia (1997) – Jonathan Spence: “The Search for Modern China” (1990) – Paul Kennedy: Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (1987) – Peter Hall: Cities in Civilization (1998) – David Fromkin: "Europe's Last Summer” (2004) – Mary Beth Norton: A People And A Nation (1986) – John Steele Gordon: “An Empire Of Wealth” (2004) – Daniel Yergin: “The Prize” (1991) – Lawrence James: Rise and Fall of the British Empire (1994) – Piers Brendon: The Decline and Fall of the British Empire (2008) – Robert Jones Shafer: “A History of Latin America” (1978) – Orlando Figes: “Natasha's Dance - A Cultural History of Russia” (2003) – Bruce Cumings: "Dominion from Sea to Sea" (2009) – Henry William Brands: “American Colossus” (2010) 3 What the Victorian Age knew
• Bibliography – Jacques Barzun: "From Dawn to Decadence" (2001) – Peter Watson: The Modern Mind (2000) – Roger Penrose:The Emperor's New Mind (1989) – David Young: The Discovery of Evolution (1992) – Peter Bowler: Evolution - History of an Idea (1983) – Peter Selz: Art In Our Times (1981) – Frederick Hartt: Art – Marilyn Stokstad: Art History Vol 2 – Hugh Honour & John Fleming: The Visual Arts – Sam Hunter & John Jacobus: Modern Art – Philip Meggs: A History of Graphic Design (1983) – Hal Foster et al: Art Since 1900 (2005) – Erkki Huhtamo: Illusions in Motion (2005)
4 The Victorian Age
The Age of Electricity
5 The Victorian Age 1862: the Mogul dynasty ends and India becomes a British colony 1868: the feudal system of Japan is dismantled and the emperor is restored 1876: general Custer and his troops are massacred by the Sioux 1884: France expands in Indochina after defeating China 1884: an international "meridian" conference decides to divide the Earth in 24 time zones, starting with Greenwich's meridian 1885: an international conference at Berlin divides Africa among the European powers 1885: William Le Baron Jenney builds a ten-story building in Chicago 1900: 2,300 automobiles are registered in the USA, of which 1,170 are steam-powered, 800 are electric, and 400 are gasoline-powered
6 The World in 1845
B R I T A I N RUSSIA AUSTRIA USA CHINA OTTOMAN MEXICO
HOLLAND
7 Europe 1900
8 Kennedy: Rise and Fall of Great Powers Europe 1919
9 Kennedy: Rise and Fall of Great Powers The Victorian Age
1900: Life expectancy in the US is 47.3 1904: Japanese-Russian war 1905: Russia’s liberal revolution 1908: Turkey’s liberal revolution 1910: Mexican revolution 1911: Collapse of the Qing dynasty and the Republic of China is born 1912-13: Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece form a coalition and drive the Ottoman empire almost completely out of Europe (“Balkan war”) 1914-1918: World War I 1915: the Ottoman empire slaughters 1.2 million Armenians 1917: Russia’s communist revolution
10 The Victorian Age First age of democracy (1870-1914) – Right: Church, army, peasants, nostalgics (aristocracy) – Left: Students, workers, intellectuals/artists – Public opinion – Nationalism – Industrialization • Catching up with Britain • Competition of agricultural goods from USA, Russia and Australia (thanks to railways and steamships) – Shift from (political) imperialism towards economics (and economic imperialism) – Consequence: unstable national policies – But all committed to peace 11 The Victorian Age
First age of democracy (1870-1914) – Britain: more interested in the rest of the world than in continental Europe – France: no longer the danger to peace that had been under the two Napoleons – Germany and Italy: busy cementing their young nation-states
12 The Victorian Age
First age of democracy (1870-1914) – Crisis of the multi-ethnic empires • Austria • Ottomans • Russia – They border on the Balkans – USA: first empire in history that is multi-ethnic from birth (not by conquest)
13 The Victorian Age
First age of democracy (1870-1914) – An explosive mix: industrialism + nationalism
14 The Multi-national European Wars
• 1870-71: Prussia wins against France • 1877-78: Russia defeats the Ottomans • 1904-05 Japanese-Russian war: Japan wins against Russia • 1914-18: Serbia, Russia, France, Britain, Japan, Italy, China, USA win against Austria, Germany and Turkey • 1939-45: Britain, USA, Russia win against Germany, Italy and Japan
15 The Multi-national European Wars
• Unification of Germany (1871)
16 Russo-Turkish Wars
• Reasons: Black Sea, Caucasus, Balkans, Bosphorus, Orthodoxes – 1736-39: Russia & Austria defeat the Ottomans – 1768-74: Russia defeats the Ottomans and annexes Crimea – 1787-92: Russia & Austria defeat the Ottomans – 1806-12: Russia defeats the Ottomans and annexes Bessarabia – 1828-29: Russia, France and England defeat the Ottomans, and Greece becomes independent – 1853-56: The Ottomans, England and France defeat Russia – 1877-78: Russia defeats the Ottomans, and Serbia 17 and Montenegro gain independence Europe 1914
18 What the Victorian Age knew
Age of European Imperialism • Islamic world – See logos2
19 What the Victorian Age knew Age of European Imperialism • Territory is annexed for reasons of prestige not for economic reasons • Race by European powers to annex still free nations in Africa, Far East, Oceania
20 What the Victorian Age knew Age of European Imperialism Partition of Africa (1885) – Congo to Belgium, – Mozambique and Angola to Portugal, – Namibia and Tanzania to Germany, – Somalia to Italy, – Western Africa and Madagascar to France, – Egypt, Sudan, Nigeria, Uganda, Kenya, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana to Britain
21 What the Victorian Age knew
Africa in 1914
22 What the Victorian Age knew
• The North Atlantic transatlantic liners – 1819: "Savannah", first transatlantic steamboat (18 days) – 1850-1897 British ships dominate the market1898: Germany's "Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse” (first German ship establishs new record for the fastest Atlantic crossing), "Deutschland" and "Kronprinz Wilhelm" – 1907-29: Britain's "Lusitania" and "Mauretania", new record holders
23 What the Victorian Age knew • Liners
USA liner of 1888 German liner of 1914, largest ship in (Museum of the world till 1935 Science, Chicago) Museum of Science, Chicago) 24 What the Victorian Age knew
• Freighters
Japanese freighter of 1904 (Museum of Science, Chicago)
German freighter of 1905 (Museum of Science, Chicago)
25 What the Victorian Age knew
• Decline of riverboats – Peak year of riverboats: 1870
Mississippi riverboat (1886) 26 (Museum of Science, Chicago) What the Victorian Age knew
• Shipwrecks – 1854: City of Glasgow, Atlantic ocean (500 dead) – 1859: Royal Charter, England (400 dead) – 1865: Sultana, Mississippi river (1547 dead) – 1873: Atlantic, Nova Scotia (Canada) (500 dead) – 1890: Quetta, Australia (360 dead) – 1904: Norge, Atlantic ocean (550 dead) – 1912: Titanic, Atlantic ocean (1512 dead) – 1914: Empress of Ireland, St Lawrence river (Canada) (1014 dead) – 1915: Lusitania, Ireland (torpedoed by a German submarine) (1198 dead) – 1920: Afrique, Bay of Biscay (400 dead) – 1927: Principessa Mafalda, Italy (303 dead) – 1994: Estonia, Baltic Sea (900 dead) 27 What the Victorian Age knew
• Population explosion (1880-1910): – Russia +50% – Germany +43% – Austria-Hungary +35% – Britain +26% • Emigration – 1820-1930: 50 million Europeans emigrate to the Americas and Australia – 1880-1910: 26 million Europeans emigrate to the Americas – 1880-1913: 5 million Russians move to Siberia – 1880-1910: 2 million Europeans settle in Arab
countries 28 What the Victorian Age knew
• Population explosion (1880-1910): – Causes • New crops from the Americas (potatoes, corn) • The Americas add a lot of a space to a crowded small continent • Better governments
29 What the Victorian Age knew
• Emigration from Europe to America & Australia • Causes: – Population growth • 1750-1800: 34% • 1800-1850: 42% • 1850-1914: 76% – Industrialization – Revolution in transportation – Abolition of slavery – Pogroms – Famine
30 1850 population German states: 41 million in 1871 France: 36 million Britain: 22 million + Ireland: 8.5 million Italian states: 23 million Europe: 270 million USA: 23 million
1900 population Germany: 56 million Austria: 46 million France: 39 million Britain/Ireland: 41 million Italy: 32 million Russia: 135 million Europe: 400 million USA: 76 million 31 What the Victorian Age knew • 19th century Emigration – 1800 - 1940: 50 Million people left Europe – 50% went to United States, rest to Latin America and Australia – UK 1800 - 1940: 17 million left Britain+Ireland – Germany 1800 - 1940: 6 million – France 1800 - 1940: 500.000 – Scandinavia 1800 - 1940: 2 million – Austria-Hungary 1800 - 1940: 5 million – Iberia 1800 - 1940: 6.5 million – Russia 1800 - 1940: 2.5 million – Italy 1800 - 1940: 10 million • 1876-1976: 13,5 million Italian migrants went to European countries, 6 million went to North America 32 – Eastern European Jews 1882 -1913: 2 million What the Victorian Age knew • Contribution of the Americas – New crops (corn, potatoes) – Space – Non-alcoholic hot drinks spark new ways for people to socialize – Intricate ceremonies spring up around the drinking of • Tea • Chocolate • Coffee
33 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – After the French revolution, nationalism becomes the main factor of war – National aspirations by the people who don’t have a country – Nationalism is fed by mass education (history, geography, literature) – Exaltation of the past
34 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Germany • 1854: 215,000 Germans emigrate to the USA • 1866: Prussia wins against Austria for supremacy in the German speaking lands • 1870-71: Prussia wins the war against France • 1871: The German federation is created • 1882: 250000 Germans emigrate to the USA • 1880s: Gottingen becomes the world’s leading center for Mathematics
35 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Germany • 1862: Bismarck becomes foreign minister of Prussia and gives the “blood and iron” speech on how to achieve German unification • 1866: Prussia defeats Austria and annexes Schleswig, Holstein, Frankfurt, Hanover, Hesse- Kassel, and Nassau • 1871: Prussia defeats France and annexes Alsace and half of Lorraine, and the German states unite in the first Reich (“empire”) under Wilhelm I of Prussia with Bismarck as first chancellor of the Reich • A federal state dominated by Prussia (30 million
people) 36 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Germany
37 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Germany • Bismarck fearful of British-style parliamentary system • Bismarck fearful of the Catholic church (anti- Catholic “Kulturkampf” of 1871) • Bismarck fearful of the Poles of eastern Prussia • Bismarck fearful of socialism (Anti-Socialist Laws of 1878)
38 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Germany • Preserving peace in central and eastern Europe (League of the Three Emperors of 1873-78: Prussia, Russia, Austria-Hungary; Triple Alliance of 1882-1914: Prussia, Austria-Hungary, Italy) • Anti-French policies indirectly help Italy’s unification (Venezia/Venice 1866; Roma/Rome 1870) • 1884–85: German colonial empire (New Guinea; Togoland; Kamerun; Rwanda/Burundi/Tanzania; South-West Africa/Namibia) 39 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Germany • 1881: Bismarck’s “practical Christianity” and “sozialstaat” (social state), the first welfare state: sickness insurance (1883), accident insurance (1884), disability insurance (1889), retirement pension (1889) • 1888: Wilhelm II ascends to the throne with an expansionist foreign policy • 1890: Bismarck resigns
40 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Germany • Long economic boom makes Germany the second industrial power of Europe • Fear of being surrounded by a coalition of envious enemies (France, Russia, Britain) • Fear of imminent decline • Schlieffen Plan (1899) for preemptive attack on France
41 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Germany • Ambition to become a world power – 1884: Carl Peters begins to colonize Tanganyika – 1884: Cameroon a German protectorate – 1885: Namibia assigned to Germany – 1890: Rwanda and Burundi – 1894: Togo – 1897: Port of Kiaochow in China – Berlin-Baghdad railway (begun in 1889) – By 1914 its navy has become second only to Britain 42 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Germany • Jews – 1871: Jews own 40% of German banks – Jewish bankers blamed for financial crash of 1874 – Jewish immigration from the East after Russian pogroms of 1881
43 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Germany • Nationalism and racism – 1892: Max Nordau’s “Degenerates” (degenerates are not only criminals but also some artists, writers, etc) – Vogue of athletic clubs and backpacking in the mountains/forests – 1897: Karl Fischer’s Youth Movement (fuhrer, heil) – 1885: Rudolf Virchow’s study of German craniology – 1890: Julius Langbehn’s “Rembrandt as Teacher” (cultural pessimism and antimodernity) – 1895: Alfred Ploetz’s “The Efficiency of Our Race” (eugenetics) – Paul de Lagarde (folkish Northern European culture as an alternative to the classical Graeco-Roman culture + antisemitism) 44 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – France • A centralized state (vs Germany’s federal state) • Mostly agricultural • Static society since 1800 (vs Germany’s dynamic society) • Socialist activism (street politics) vs Germany’s socialist reformism (parliamentary politics) • Obsessed with limiting the power of the Catholic Church • Alliance with Russia (1894)
• Friendship treaty with Britain (1904) 45 What the Victorian Age knew • Nations/ France – 1832: Charles Philipon starts the satirical illustrated magazine Le Charivari, specializing in caricatures (Honore Daumier)
46 What the Victorian Age knew • Nations/ France – 1847: Gustave Doré’s cartoon “Les Travaux d'Hercule”
47 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations/France – Georges-Eugène Haussmann redesigns Paris (1853- 70) • Application of industrial geometry to urban design • Medieval chaos replaced with symmetry • Division of the city into arrondissements • Eugene Belgrand’s sewer system • A corp of architects to provide a homogeneous look • Austere neoclassical five-story apartment buildings • Charles Garnier’s opera house (1861) • Neoclassical train stations
48 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations/France – La Boheme • Henri Murget: “Scenes de la vie de Boheme” (1848) • Club des Hydropathes (1878) shifts the center of mass towards the village of Montmartre • Le Chat Noir (1881)
49 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Italy • Unification extends Piedmont’s parliamentary system to the whole of Italy • Catholic Church boycotts the democratic system • 1861: 75% of the population is illiterate • Mostly agricultural (100% in the South) • Northwest regions (Torino, Milano, Genova) account for almost all industralization • Landless peasants of the South • The Catholic Church becomes the defender of the poor 50 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Italy • Massive emigration (280K/year in the 1890s, 873K in 1913) of which 4 million to the USA and 1.5 each to Argentina and Brazil (1927) • Three independence wars to regain occupied lands from Austria and the Pope • 1912: Libya and islands from Ottoman Empire
51 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Britain • London
“An Aeronautical View of London Drawn & Engraved” 52 by Robert Havell. 1831 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Britain • Dominions (self-governed by white people): Canada (1867), New Zealand (1876), Australia (1901), South Africa (1909) • Different status of colonies (India, Malaysia, Africa, Caribbeans) • Friendship with France (1904) • Friendship with the USA (1910s) • Main rival for Asian domination: Russia • Main economic rival: Germany • Alliance with Japan (1902)
• Naval race with Germany (1908) 53 • Irish question What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Britain • The British Empire is the largest multi-ethnic multi-religious empire in history: the largest Muslim country in the world and the largest Hindu country in the world, plus Buddhists (Burma, Sri Lanka) and Christians (Britain, Canada, Oceania, Africa)
54 What the Victorian Age knew • British Empire – 1842: China cedes the island of Hong Kong to Britain – 1849: Britain annexes the Sikh kingdom of Punjab – 1857: Persia surrenders to Britain all rights over Afghanistan – 1858: Power on the Indian colony is transferred to the British government – 1867: British North America becomes the Dominion of Canada – 1880: Borneo becomes a British protectorate – 1882: British troops invade Egypt – 1885: Britain captures Myanmar/Burma – 1894: Uganda becomes a protectorate – 1898: Britain conquers Sudan – 1901: the British colonies of Australia become the Federated Commonwealth of Australia – 1901: Nigeria becomes a British protectorate – 1910: Transvaal, Orage Free State, Natal and Cape unite in the55 Union of South Africa What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Britain • Boer war (1899) – British motivations » Gold » Strategic outpost on most vital trade route – Innovations » Guerrilla warfare (Boers) » Defensive war based on trenches and long- distance rifles » Concentration camps (British) » Apartheid – Britain's last major war of imperial expansion 56 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Britain/ Birth of Human Rights • 1787: The Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade is founded in Britain by Quakers • 1787: Britain founds Sierra Leone as a colony for freed slaves ("krios") • 1792: British prime minister William Pitt calls for the end of the slave trade • 1807: Britain outlaws the slave trade throughout the empire (but not slavery itself) 1815: The 8 victorious powers of the Congress of Vienna declare their opposition to slavery • 1834: British abolishes slavery throughout the empire 57 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Britain/ Birth of Human Rights • 1876: A report by Eugene Schuyler (US consul in Istanbul) and articles by US journalist Januarius MacGahan reveal the Turkish massacre of Christians in Bulgaria • 1878: The Treaty of Berlin (Britain, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, Ottoman Empire) protects religious minorities • 1880: British opposition leader William Gladstone wins the elections because of Benjamin Disraeli’s support of Turkey
58 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Britain/ Birth of Human Rights • 1915: First use of the expression "crimes against humanity" (Russian ambassador telegram) • 1916: James Bryce's "Blue Book" reveals the Armenian genocide to the British public • 1919: The Treaty of Versailles calls for the trial of the Kaiser and of the Ottomans for "crimes against humanity"
59 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Britain • Most industrialized country in the world
Rotherham's watch making factory (Coventry, 1910) 60 What the Victorian Age knew
• The decline of the British aristocracy – 1869: First transcontinental railroad in the USA connects the prairies with the Atlantic ports – 1870s: Cheap wheat from the USA invades the British market – 1880s: Land values in Britain collapse, and the power of the (land-owning) aristocracy is challenged by financiers and entrepreneurs – 1906: the Liberal party, representing financiers and entrepreneurs, comes into power – 1909: Lloyd George’s reforms tax land to pay for sickness, invalidity and unemployment insurance – 1924: First Labour government
61 What the Victorian Age knew
• Sanitary Revolution in London – Joseph Bramah's mass-market toilet (1778) and Thomas Crapper's bathroom fixtures (1860s) increase the amount of sewage flushed into the Thames – Cholera epidemics in London (1831-32 and 1848-49) – "Broad Street" cholera outbreak (1854) – John Snow discovers that cholera is spread by contaminated water – "The Great Stink" (1858), a by-product of the industrial revolution and of the urban population boom – Joseph Bazalgette's 132 km underground network of sewers (1865)
62 What the Victorian Age knew
• Britain/ communication – 1837: Richard Bentley’s Bentley Miscellany (that published Dickens’ “Oliver Twist”) – 1841: Ebenezer Landells’ illustrated satirical magazine Punch – 1841: Thomas Cook founds a travel agency – 1851: The first keyboard is exhibited at London’s Great Exhibition
63 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – USA • 1898: War against Spain (Philippines, Puerto Rico, Cuba) – Philippines war won by the Asiatic Squadron deployed from Nagasaki – The war is won easily but followed by 3 years of insurgency in the Philippines (220,000 civilians killed by the USA) – The Philippines become the first European- style colony of the USA • 1898: annexation of Hawaii – 1893: A coup by US nationals overthrows the monarchy of Hawaii 64 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – USA • 1907: the USA sends the navy around the world • 1913: The Lincoln Highway, the first transcontinental highway (New York to San Francisco) • 1914: The Panama Canal shortens the trip from San Francisco to New York by 12,000 kms
65 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Exception: Austrian empire • Multi-ethnic 50-million people empire (Germans, Hungarians, Czechs, Poles, Ukrainians, Italians, Slovaks, Romanians, Croatians, Serbs, Slovenes) • Franz Joseph’s reign from 1848 to 1916 provides stability
66 What the Victorian Age knew • Vienna in 1913
67 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Exception: Ottoman empire • Multi-ethnic 24- million people empire (Turks, Arabs, Hungarians, Armenians, Kurds, Lebanese, Greeks, Bulgarians, Romanians) – Exception: Russian empire • Multi-ethnic (Russians, Caucasian peoples, Central Asian peoples, Poles, Lithuanians, Latvians, Estonians, Finns, Ukrainians, Jews) • Russians are a majority
68 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Decline of Ottoman empire • Progressive independence of Egypt • Wahbabism in Saudi Arabia • National Arab movements • European colonialism
69 What the Victorian Age knew
• Ottoman Empire – Westernization • 1838: Trade treaty with Britain • 1841: The Straits Convention with Russia, Britain, France, Austria, Prussia, Ottomans • 1839: "Tanzimat" movement of Westernization reforms • 1848: Refugees from Poland and Hungary settle in Istanbul, turning Christians into a majority • 1853: Crimean war (the first major war in which Christian countries side with a Muslim country) • 1856: Treaty of Paris: Ottoman protectorate over Romania and Serbia 70 What the Victorian Age knew
• Ottoman Empire – Loss of the Balkans • 1876-78: Russia defeats the Ottomans - Montenegro, Serbia, and Romania independent • 1889: Committee of Union and Progress (the "Young Turks", mostly from European Turkey) • 1908: Bulgaria independent and Austria annexes Bosnia • 1912-13: a Balkan League of Montenegro, Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece drives the Ottomans almost entirely out of Europe • 1913: Coup of the Young Turks • 1914: The Ottoman Empire sides with Germany and Austria in World War I 71 What the Victorian Age knew
• Ottoman Empire
72 What the Victorian Age knew
• Istanbul 1900
73 What the Victorian Age knew
• Ottoman massacres of Christians and Jews – 1821: Greeks massacre Turks and Jews in the Peloponnese and Turks massacre Greeks in Istanbul, Macedonia, Cyprus, Crete and other islands – 1822: Massacre of tens of thousands of Greeks on the island of Chios by Ottoman troops – 1828: Massacre of Jews in Baghdad – 1869: 18 Jews are killed in Tunis
74 What the Victorian Age knew
• Ottoman massacres of Christians and Jews – 1876: Massacre of 4,000 Christians in Bulgaria by Ottoman irregular troops – 1894–6: Massacre of 250,000 Armenian Christians and 25,000 Assyrian Christians in eastern Turkey by regular and irregular Ottoman troops – 1909: Massacre of 20,000 Armenian Christians in Adana province by Muslim mobs – 1915: Massacre of 1.2 million Armenian Christians throughout Turkey and Syria by regular and irregular Ottoman troops
75 What the Victorian Age knew
• Ottoman Empire – 1885: Jews from central and eastern Europe emigrate to Ottoman Palestine – 1897: First Zionist Congress
76 What the Victorian Age knew • Russia expansion in Asia – 1552: Ivan the Terrible conquers the Mongol khanate of Kazan – 1556: Ivan the Terrible conquers the Mongol khanate of Astrakhan – 1581: Cossacks begin colonizing Siberia – 1639: the Cossacks reach the Pacific Ocean – 1718: Russia defeats the Khazak horde – 1741: the Russian explorer Vitus Bering "discovers" Alaska – 1801: Russia annexes Georgia – 1808: Russia establishes the colony of Noviiy Rossiya in California – 1828: Russia captures Armenia and Azerbaijan from Iran – 1854: Russia annexes Khazakstan – 1868: Russia invades Tajikstan and Uzbekistan – 1862-1864: ethnic cleansing of Circassians
– 1881: Iran loses Turkmenistan to Russia 77 – 1904: The Trans-Siberian Railroad is completed What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Russia • The largest country in the world, comprising – Finland (since 1809), – Poland (since 1815), – Ukraine (since 1654), – Armenia (since 1828), – Georgia (since 1813), – Azerbaijan – Central Asia
78 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Russia
79 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Russia • Dozens of ethnic/linguistic groups (Russians, Caucasian peoples, Central Asian peoples, Poles, Lithuanians, Latvians, Estonians, Finns, Ukrainians, Jews) • Mostly Slavic (Russia, Poland, Ukraine, Belarus) • Mainly Orthodox Christian but also Catholic (Poland) and Islamic (Central Asia) • 1897: 124 million people
80 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Russia • Bound by Carpathians, Caucasus, Pamir, Altai • Bound by Baltic Sea, Arctic Ocean, Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Pacific Ocean • Great rivers: Volga, Dnieper, Don, Ob, Enisei, Lena • Tundra (frozen wasteland), taiga (forests) and steppes (great plains), deserts
81 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Russia
82 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Russia • Very centralized • Absolutist rule of the tsar • Power of the tsar justified by the Orthodox Church • Peasants respect the tsar and the church but not the Huge bureaucracy • Education is controlled by the church • Huge wealth gap between the landowning aristocracy (Western manners) and the peasants (Russian traditions)
83 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Russia • Vastly agricultural and illiterate • Ukraine the breadbasket of Russia • Little impact of the industrial revolution • Mineral resources are far from urban centers • Only 18% of the population lives in cities (1897) • Agriculture is mostly grain • Literacy: 21% (1897) • 1891: famine (500,000 dead) • 1892: cholera (267,890 dead) 84 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Russia • Hostility of the peasant masses and of the intellectuals against industrialists and merchants • Virtually no “middle class” • Little private capital and no tradition of private investment • Industrialization driven by the tsars, not by the middle class, and funded by foreign loans • Textile industry in Moscow, Vladimir, St Petersburg 85 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Russia • 1880s: The state funds industrialization (state capitalism) • 1890s: Rapid industrial growth, especially in Poland, Ukraine and St Petersburg • 1891-1904: The state funds the Trans-Siberian Railroad, which creates demand for steel (St Petersburg), which creates demand for coke (Donets region, Ukraine) and for iron (Krivoi Rog, Ukraine) • Industrialization creates an urban class of workers, mainly in St Petersburg
86 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Russia • 1885-1913: Steel output rises from 0.183m tons to 4.9m tons, railway grows from 3,800 kms to 80,000 kms
87 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Russia • Intelligentsia: mostly aristocrats but also bureaucrats • Westernizers vs Slavophiles (who idealize the Russian commune) • 1860s: Alexander II’s reforms lead to a boom of book publishing and magazines • First revolutionaries: Nikolai Chernyshevski (“What is to be done”, 1863), Dmitry Karakozov (failed attempt to assassinate the tsar, 1866) • Failed Polish rebellion (1863)
88 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Russia • 1872: Marx’s “Capital” translated into Russian • 1883: first Marxist organization in Russia • Marxism preaches a classless, egalitarian society • 1903: The Social Democratic Labour Party splits into Bolsheviks (led by Vladimir Ulyanov "Lenin") and Mensheviks (led by Julius Martov) • Ideological split between Mensheviks (Marxism that requires first a bourgeois-democratic revolution) and Bolsheviks (Marxism that skips the bourgeois-democratic society and aims for the dictatorship of the proletariat) 89 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Russia • 1881: Treaty with Iran that cedes Central Asia to Russia • 1898: Expansion in northern China • 1904-5: War against Japan • 1907: Treaty with Britain dividing Iran, Tibet, Central Asia and Afghanistan into respective spheres of influence
90 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Russia • 1901-3: Low grain prices cause peasant uprisings • 1904-5: Costly lost war against Japan • 1904-9: Economic depression • 1905: Massacre of protesters in St Petersburg, a general strike, Trotsky’s soviet • 1906-7: Escalation of terrorist attacks and state repression (thousands of people die) • 1910: Tolstoy’s funeral becomes a mass protest • 1911: Prime minister Stolypin is assassinated 91 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Russia • 1914: World War I - Pro-Serbian pan-Slavic sentiment • Millions of peasants are drafted into the army • Millions of peasants are moved into the cities to work into the factories • 1915: Germany invades Poland and Lithuania and kills one million Russian soldiers • Mutinies by soldiers • Intellectuals, aristocrats and military officers dislike the government’s incompetence • 1916: Grigori Rasputin is murdered by a prince 92 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Russia 1917: • February: Protests by women, workers and soldiers caused by food shortages • March: The tsar abdicates • Two centers of power: the soviets of the workers and soldiers; the Duma (middle-class politicians and intellectuals, Bolsheviks + Mensheviks + Socialist Revolutionaries) • March-September: widespread land expropriation by peasants • June: Non-Russian peoples revolt for autonomy (Ukraine, June 1917) 93 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Russia 1917 • October: Bolsheviks overthrow the government and install Lenin as new leader, Trotsky as foreign minister and Stalin in charge of nationalities
Lenin: son of a civil servant Stalin: son of a shoemaker 94 Trotsky: son of a farmer What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Russia: • Rapid industrialization and the war helped radicalize illiterate masses that had always respected the authority of the tsar and of the church • The literate westernizing aristocracy marginalized by the intelligentsia and by the soviets • Lenin unifies the two centers of the power: the soviets and the intelligentsia
95 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Russia: • Causes of the tsarist collapse – Poverty of the lower classes – Feudal system that keeps agricultural land in the hands of the aristocracy – Failed foreign policy after centuries of expansion – Ethnic instability in the conquered lands
96 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Russia • November 1917: The Communists lose the first democratic elections • Lenin’s ideology: dictatorship (Jan 1918) and terror (Sep 1918) are necessary to guide backwards Russia towards socialism • Lenin’s bluff: the communists are a minority that pretends to be the vanguard of the working class, which is itself a minority in an overwhelmingly peasant country
97 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Communist Russia • A class-less society (all social, political, economic privileges are abrogated) • Grass-roots democracy • Self-management of workers and peasants • Equality for women • Equality for all ethnic and religious groups • Right to independence for all Soviet republics • Separation of state and church • The state takes over education • Expropriation of private property • Nationalization of large firms 98 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Communist Russia • The first “socialist” government ever: nobody knows how to create a socialist economy • The Soviet economy in theory is run according to Marx but in practice it is run by trial and error • A backwards society had facilitated the coup but the backwards society made it harder to invent socialism
99 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Communist Russia • Lenin tries to apply Fred Winslow Taylor’s scientific management to the nationalized industries • Lenin tries to replicate Ford’s mass production methods • Goal is to train the worker of the future • Lenin’s NEP (1922) inspired by Germany’s wartime economy • Bukharin's state capitalism and "socialism in one country" (1923-26) 100 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Communist Russia • The Reds win because – Better disciplined – Better propaganda – Terror was on both sides (Red terror and White terror) – The Whites never united the various anti- Bolshevik forces (tsarists, democrats, moderate socialists, nationalists) – Mensheviks hold Jews responsible for communism (100,000 Jews killed in 1919) 101 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Communist Russia • 1917: Estonia and Finland declare independence • 1918: The Transcaucasian Federation (Georgia, Armenia, Azerbajan) declares independence • 1918: Peace treaty with Germany leaves Ukraine, Poland and Lithuania independent • The Baltic states supported by Germany • 1918-20: Germany, Britain, USA, Japan, Turkey, Romania occupy parts of Russia • 180,000 “allied” troops on Soviet territory (British, French, USA, Japanese, …) 102 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Communist Russia • The first anti-imperialist anti-colonial European country at a time when Europe controlled most of Africa and half of Asia • The Bolsheviks support the independence of Poland, Finland, Ukraine, etc • The Soviet Union support the Chinese revolution against European and Japanese occupation • The Comintern (or "Third International") to spread the revolution all over the world (1919)
103 What the Victorian Age knew
• Nations – Communist Russia • Rapid transition to dictatorship – May 1918: Other parties banned from government – July 1918 constitution: Only workers, peasants and soldiers can vote for the soviets: propertied classes, tsarists, nationalists, priests banned from politics – March 1922: Suppression of dissent even within the Community Party itself – Centralized government (instead of the grass- roots democracy of the soviets) – Bureaucratic state (instead of self-management by workers and peasants) 104 What the Victorian Age knew
• A European world – National societies (in Europe) – Settler societies (Canada, USA, Australia, South Africa): Europeans displace the natives – Mixed-race societies (Latin America) – Subject societies (India, Africa): few Europeans rule over huge masses of natives – Small countries (Britain, France) control continents – Fewer and shorter Intra-European wars but many wars of conquest elsewhere – Europeans control 35% of the planet in 1800, 67% in 1878, 84% in 1914 105 What the Victorian Age knew
• European colonies – Initially: reservoirs of resources to be plundered – After the industrial revolution: reservoirs of cheap labor and of consumers – Western nations can profit from the development of the colonies – An increase in the world’s standard of living can result in an increase of international trade that can benefit the main trading nations – The USA launches the greatest “foreign aids” program in history – End of political colonialism and beginning of economic imperialism 106 What the Victorian Age knew
• European colonies – Effect on India: massive de-industrialization – Effect on China: collapse of central power and trade deficit
107 What the Victorian Age knew
• European colonies before World War I
108 What the Victorian Age knew
• European colonies before World War I
Humboldt University 109 What the Victorian Age knew
• India – “If we lose it we shall drop straight away to a third rate power” (Lord Curzon, 1901) – India essential to Britain’s status as an economic and military superpower – Suez Canal vital to British trade with India (2,250 out of 2,727 that cross the canal in 1881 are British): Britain annexes Egypt (1882) The Cape vital to British naval supremacy in the Indian Ocean: Boer war (1899) – Thin red line: less than 100,000 British control 250 million Indians – 1857: The Indian army consists of 45,000 white and
232,000 Indian soldiers 110 What the Victorian Age knew
• India – India is a laboratory for British theories of politics (liberalism), religion (evangelism) and science (social Darwinism) – Program of modernization: railways, telegraph, roads, colleges, hospitals – Growing elite of educated Indians (engineers, doctors) who speak English – Dissolution of the East India Company (1858) – Indians also sent to other parts of the empire as cheap labor (Kenya, 1903)
111 What the Victorian Age knew
• India: – Wealth created by the opium trade – In 1840 India produces 20 times more opium than it did in 1783 – East India’s opium is controlled by the East Indian Company (Britain), West India’s opium is mainly controlled by the local kingdoms
112 • Chinese dynasties
The Chinese empire through the centuries What the Victorian Age knew
• India:
“The Hongs at Canton” (Thomas Daniell, 1830)
114 W.S.Sherwill: “Patna opium factory” (1850) What the Victorian Age knew
• China
115 What the Victorian Age knew
• China – 1759-1839: all non-Russian foreigners trading with China confined to a “factory” at Canton (Guangzhou), and only a small guild of licensed Chinese merchants can deal with them – 1820: Soaring tea imports are increasingly balanced with opium from British India (controlled by the East India Company) – 1834: British parliament ends the monopoly of the East India Company in Canton – 1839: At the peak of the opium epidemics, China appoints Lin Zexu to confiscate opium – Shift in British attitudes toward China: admiration
in 1759, hostility by 1839 116
What the Victorian Age knew
• China Qing: a new trading empire – 1839: The "Opium War“ with Britain – 1842: The British seize Shanghai – 1842: Hong Kong to Britain – 1844: The Treaty of Wangxia opens five ports to the USA – 1860: The treaty of Tientsin that opens more ports to Europeans, and turns Shanghai into a center of international commerce – 1865: British investors form the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank – 1869: The Suez canal halves the distance to Europe 117 What the Victorian Age knew
• China – White Lotus Rebellion (1796–1805) – Opium War (1839–1842) – Taiping Rebellion (1851–1864) – 20 million dead – Nian Rebellion (1853–1868) – Guizhou Miao Rebellion (1854–1873) – Panthay Rebellion (1855–1873) – Northwest Muslim Rebellion (1862–1877) – Total: 50 million dead
118 What the Victorian Age knew
• China – 1860: Opium war grants Britain political control of China – 1895: Britain controls 2/3rd of China’s foreign trade – 1895: Japan defeats China and ends Britain’s control of China – Britain fearful of Russia expansionism (the Transiberian railway is a potential alternative to British ships for European trade with China) – Britain allies with Japan against Russia (1902) and Japan defeats Russia
119 What the Victorian Age knew
• China: decline and fall of Qing empire
120 What the Victorian Age knew
• China: decline and fall of Qing empire
121 What the Victorian Age knew
• Latin America – Boom of exports (coffee from Brazil, Guatemala and Costa Rica, bananas from Honduras, sugar from Cuba, minerals from Peru, Chile and Bolivia, meat from Argentina, etc) – Little or no industrialization (except for Argentina) – Massive foreign investment (mainly from Britain) – European immigration into Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and Cuba – Increase in nationalism and decrease in racial identification (you are not an indio, a mestizo or a black but just a Mexican or a Brazilian) – High literacy in Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, Costa Rica 122 What the Victorian Age knew
• Latin America – Argentina’s miracle • Exporting more grains than meat • Conservative laissez-fair governments (1892-1912) • Unremarkable presidents • Widespread political corruption • Massive Italian and Spanish immigration • “Pure” European blood because no black slaves, very few indios, diluted mestizos • Nationalism • Financed with British capital
123 What the Victorian Age knew
• Latin America – Argentina’s miracle • High literacy • Urban population exceeds rural population • University Reform Movement of 1918 spreads to all Latin America • Universal male suffrage in 1912 • GDP growth exceeds USA’s between 1870- 1914 • Radicals in power in 1916
124 What the Victorian Age knew
• Latin America – Brazil • Federalism and republic • Economic boom and population boom in the state of Sao Paulo • Population boom due to high birth-rate rather than immigration • Still a rural country (except for Sao Paulo and Rio) controlled by great estates (fazendas) • The great landowners of Sao Paulo and Minas Gerais control the government • Immigration mostly from Italy and Portugal and mostly to Sao Paulo 125 What the Victorian Age knew
• Latin America – Brazil • Exports dominated by coffee (71% in 1933) • Growth of textile exports during World War I • Sao Paulo’s industrial expansion: textiles and food manufacturing (often run by immigrants or sons of immigrants) • 1930: End of the republic and beginning of fascist dictatorship
126 What the Victorian Age knew
• Latin America – Chile • High literacy • Unstable governments (120 governments in 1892- 1925) – Uruguay
127 What the Victorian Age knew
• Latin America – Mexico/ Porfirio Diaz’s dictatorship (1876-1910) • Stability and economic growth • Government run by cientificos (technocrats) • The only beneficiaries of the economic growth are haciendas and entrepreneurs • Economy dependent on foreign capital • USA becomes main importer of Mexican goods (82% of Mexican exports in 1891) • Main exports: gold/silver (50%) and minerals (mostly operated by foreigners, e.g. oil) • Still a rural society
• Very little immigration 128 • Mostly illiterate What the Victorian Age knew
• First sexual Revolution – 1897: Havelock Ellis: Studies in the Psychology of Sex (1897- 1936) – 1863: Karl Heinrich Ulrichs defends the rights of homosexuals in Germany – 1892: Clelia Mosher's survey of 45 women in the USA proves that women can have orgasms – 1897: "La Fronde" feminist newspaper debuts in France – 1903: first nudist colony opens in Gemany – 1903: the suffragette movement (Women's Social and Political Union) is founded in Britain by Emmeline Pankhurst – 1916: Margaret Sanger opens the first birth control clinic and founds Planned Parenthood
129 Gold • Gold – 1492: total gold of Europe is about 20 tons • Spain's gold trade • Gold of the natives • Mexico (9% of total world production) – 1850: total gold of Europe and former colonies is 4,665 tons – 1848: gold is discovered in California, USA – 1851: gold is discovered in Australia – 1886: gold is discovered in South Africa – 1896: gold is discovered in Alaska, USA – 1900: the USA is world's main producer of gold, about 119
tons annually (second is Canada at 42) 130 Gold • Gold – 1896: gold is discovered in Alaska, USA
131 What the Victorian Age knew
• The automobile – 1886: Karl Benz builds a gasoline-powered car – 1893: Wilhelm Maybach invents the carburetor
Benz of 1896 (Museum of Science, Chicago)
132 What the Victorian Age knew
Rambler 1897 • The automobile
1901
George Lewis Dos-a-Dos 1895 133 What the Victorian Age knew
• The automobile
General, 1902 (Blackhawk Museum) Rolls Royce, 1905 (Blackhawk Museum)
134 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA
(From “A People And A Nation”, Houghton Mifflin, 135 1998) What the Victorian Age knew
• USA
136 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA
137 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA 1850
138 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – A populist democracy – Strong anti-aristocratic bias – Social vacuum created by the absence of feudalism is filled by a new and varied middle class – Education, technology and initiative matter more than family heritage – Relentless industrialization – Relentless expansion – Utopian/biblical overtones
139 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA Civil War (1861-65)
140 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA Civil War (1861-65) – USA until 1830 • Industrialization of the Northeast is fueled by Southern plantations • The specialized Southern economy needs to import food from the Northeast and the West • The Southern economy needs to import manufactured goods from the Northeast • Mississippi steamboat trade increases dependence of the South on trade with the Northeast and West • Alliance between Northeast industry and Southern plantations 141 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA Civil War (1861-65) – The Union becomes a sophisticated industrial economy • Massive industrialization of the North (no manufacturer was listed on Wall Street before 1865) • Industrial empires • 1860: 50,000 kms of railroad (largest network in the world) – 1883: Cleveland Abbe's four standard time zones to help railroads schedule trains – 1900: 300,000 kms of railroads 142 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA Civil War (1861-65) – USA in the 1850s – Three nations in one • Cotton-growing slave plantations of the South • Food-producing family farms/ranches of the West • Industrialized Northeast
143 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA Civil War (1861-65) – USA after 1830s • Booming industrial Northeast requires more food • The prices of Western food increase creating a bonanza • Waves of Western immigration in search of easy money (1816-18, 1832-36, 1846-47, 1850-56) • The West trades more with the booming Northeast than with the South • The transportation revolution increases trade between West and Northeast
144 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA Civil War (1861-65) – USA after 1830s • Western family farmers perceive the Southern slave plantations as potential competitors • Conflict between Western farming system and Southern plantation system • Alliance between Northeast industry and Western farmers
145 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA Civil War (1861-65) – The Union wins • Firearms production in 1861: 32 times more in the Union than in the Confederacy
146 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA Civil War (1861-65) – The Union becomes a sophisticated financial system • Union bonds to pay for the war change the way people “save” (bonds instead of money under the mattress) • First income tax in the Union • The Union prints paper money (“greenback”) although taxes still collected in gold • Boom of Wall Street (war as an investment into a number of industries) that becomes the second largest securities market after London 147 What the Victorian Age knew • USA Civil War (1861-65) – Boom of steel • 1856: In England, Henry Bessemer invents the Bessemer converter for mass-producing steel • 1872: Andrew Carnegie adopts the Bessemer converter in Pittsburgh, coal capital of the USA – Constant innovation to lower production costs – 1897: The USA produces seven million tons of steel, more than Britain and Germany combined – 1901: John Pierpont Morgan absorbs Carnegie and founds U.S. Steel, the largest corporation in the world – Steel enables a new generation of buildings (e.g.,
skyscrapers) 148 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA Civil War (1861-65) – Age of steel • Melting point of copper: 1083 C • Melting point of iron: 1535 C • Importance of charcoal: about 100 kg charcoal are needed to smelt 5 kg of copper • In the 17th c charcoal replaced with coal and coke
149 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA Civil War (1861-65) – Age of steel • Pig iron: iron ore + coke + limestone (high carbon content, very brittle) – Wrought iron (low carbon content, labor intensive, expensive, malleable, strong): beams, bridges, ships, rails – Cast iron (high carbon content, melting point of 1130 C, cheap, brittle): columns, cannons, decoration – Steel (narrow range of carbon content) » Used in ancient times for swords 150 » Demise of wrought iron What the Victorian Age knew
• USA Civil War (1861-65) – Boom of oil • 1862: John Rockefeller’s Standard Oil to refine oil – Mission: low-cost producer of oil (Samuel Andrews’s process for the refinement of crude petroleum) • Boom of gold – 1896: Klondike (Alaska)
151 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA Civil War (1861-65) • Collapse of imports (USA manufacturers produce higher % of consumed goods) – 1865: manufactured goods account for 22.78% of USA exports – 1900: 31.65% – Transforms trade with Europe: instead of exporting raw materials and importing finished goods, the USA exports both • Southern economy based on agriculture, northern economy based on manufacturing and services 152 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA Civil War (1861-65) – The South as a third-world country • Freed slaves have no land, capital or skills, thus migrate North as cheap labor: they become the South’s main export • Southern landowners compete with Northern manufacturers for black labor • Racial tensions in the South discourages Northern investment (until the 1990s)
153 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA Civil War (1861-65) – Second navy in the world after Britain
154 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Civil War (1861-65) • Industrialized north vs agricultural south • Weapons of mass destruction • William Sherman’s "scorched earth" tactic
155 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Until 1890: a nation not just of immigrants but of settlers – After 1890: a nation of immigrants (with less and less settler heritage)
156 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Immigration
157 Paul Taylor: “The Next America” (2014) What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – A bicoastal economy • East-West trade • Atlantic trade • Pacific trade – Self-sufficient – Free trade within a continent that belongs to the same nation (no borders, no tarrifs) – An empty continent – State-funded expansion
158 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Extermination of Native Americans, mostly by epidemics (7 million in 1492, 1 million in 1600) – Homestead Bill (1863): granting 0.6 square kms of public land to anyone willing to develop it for five years – Alaska (1867), ends of the continental expansion
159 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Most literate country in the world – 440,000 patents for new inventions between 1860 and 1890 – 1860s: USA universities abandon the British system and adopt the German system (emphasis on research, PhD, etc) – Consumer-oriented economy (“Get the prices down to the buying power”, Henry Ford) – 1872: First mail-order catalog (1887: Sears’ catalog)
160 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Ordinary person at the center of society, economy, etc – Technological innovation for the ordinary person, not the aristocracy – Death of the aristocracy – Motivation for humans can come from • discipline and order enforced by dictator • exploiting human nature (Darwinian competition) – Freedom is more efficient than order
161 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Just like in Britain, the inventor is mostly an everyman (not an academic or noble) – Northern USA: Mechanization of agriculture, food processing and transportation (dearth of skilled workers) – 1860s: invention is a normal state of mind (everyone can invent anywhere anyhow) – The USA is not the most industrialized country in the world (123,000 power looms vs Britain's 750,000) but it has the highest ration of inventions per capita – The USA is largely a rural population (85%)
162 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Adapting to the environment • 1836: The hamlet of Houston is founded in Texas as the temporary capital • 1836: The port of Galveston is founded in Texas on an island – First post office in Texas (1836) – First law firm west of the Mississippi (1846) – First railroad (1852), telegraph (1854), bank (1854), telephone (1878), electric light (1883) in Texas • Galveston: largest cotton port in the USA • Houston: commercial and railroad hub for overland 163 shipment of cotton What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Adapting to the environment • 1900: Galveston's hurricane • 1908: The Ship Channel to Houston (inland city) • 1998: USA ports in tonnage: South Louisiana, Houston, New York, New Orleans • 2000: Houston is the seventh largest metropolitan area in the USA (5.2 million people)
164 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – The industrial revolution in the USA • 1810: More than 80% of US labor force is employed in agriculture • 1840: more than 60% of US labor force is employed in agriculture • Industrial revolution driven by need to maximize the amount of land that can be cultivated by a single household
165 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – The industrial revolution in the USA • Food is cheaper in the USA than in Europe throughout the century • Middle-class rural household can spend money on consumer goods instead of food • But that household typically is interested in goods that last a long time and are easy to repair, not in fashionable ones • The rural household drives the industry towards standardized, low-priced goods made of interchangeable parts (instead of Europe's high- quality craftmanship) • Industry evolves towards specialized high-speed machine tools for manufacturing standardized 166 components What the Victorian Age knew • USA – The industrial revolution in the USA • Crystal Palace Exhibition in London (1851): "the American system of manufacturing" • Use of specialized machines • Highly standardized • Interchangeable components • 1853: First major export sale of US machine tools (Enfield Arsenacl contract awarded by the British governmenint to Vermont-based Robbins & Lawrence) • 1900: Most machine tools used in Europe are made in the USA
167 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Natural resources drive industrialization • Lots of wood – Britain: by 1800 all blast furnaces use coke (better than charcoal) – USA: in 1840 almost all blast furnaces use charcoal (i.e., wood) • Lots of water – Britain: the steam engine spreads rapidly in the 19th century – 1849: James Francis' water turbine (that improves water power) – USA: in 1879 the waterwheel (water power) is still the most common source of power in New England (the USA's main industrial 168 area) What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Not a coal economy • Lots of wood and water • Europe: the industrial revolution is fueled by coal mines • USA: in 1850 coal's contribution is still negligible • 1850s: industry spreads beyond New England in regions with less water power • 1840: George and Seldon Scranton's begin mining anthracite coal in Pennsylvania for their blast furnace
169 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – A coal economy 1885-1935 • 1870s: Coal used to make coke for steel • 1883: West Virginia's "coal rush" after railroads reach the region • 1884: Charles Parsons' steam turbine (that will open the age of cheap electricity and fast sea travel) • 1900: coal has become the #1 source of energy in the USA • 1900: The electric motor is still a rarity in the US industry
170 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – A coal economy 1885-1935 • 1900s: First large steam turbines • 1920s: Electric motors widely adopted in manufacturing • Coal's age in the USA lasts only between 1885 and 1935 (but later coal used to fuel electrical power plants)
171 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – The boom of cattle • Cattle raised in public land, especially in Texas • 1867: The Kansas Pacific Railroad reaches Abilene • 1867: Joseph McCoy founds a cattle market in Abilene for Texan ranchers to ship cattle east • 1880s: Cattle boom • 1886: Beef prices collapse
172 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – The boom of cattle • 1872: Northern Pacific Railroad reaches the Red River in North Dakota • European and Eastern investors fund large wheat farms ("Bonanza farms") • Massive mechanization of the Bonanza farms • Scientific management of agriculture to rival the industrial
173 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – The Great Plains • 1880s: Nebraska's prairies parceled out to Old World homesteaders (German, Czech, Danish, Swedish pioneers) • The primary concern of the nation is to grow food for its population and carry it over long distances
174 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – The Great Plains • Growing population of the East Coast and railroads increase demand for Texas cattle • Cowboys drive cattle to the main railroad hubs (Abilene, Dodge City, Cheyenne) • Trains take it to the meat industry of Chicago and St Louis • Cattle population of the Great Plains increases to reduce the long trek to the railway • Beef becomes a staple of the USA diet
175 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – The Great Plains • Growing urban population doubles the demand for farming products • Machines allow families to farm large areas • Farmers settle in the Great Plains (six million farms by 1910) • European farmer: a member of a community (village) • USA farmer: isolated in the Great Plains • Mail-order houses and national postal system bring the products of the industrialized society to the isolated farmer 176 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Mechanization of agriculture • 1850s: reapers and harvesters spread in the Midwest • 1880: John Appleby’s twine binder (Wisconsin) • 1892: John Froelich’s gasoline- powered agricultural engine, a proto- tractor (Iowa) • 1903: Charles Hart’s and Charles Parr’s name their gasoline-powered vehicle “tractor” (Iowa)
177 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Exploration • 1867-72: Clarence King's 40th Parallel Survey • 1869: John Wesley Powell's three-month expedition down the Green and Colorado rivers (Powell becomes a national hero) • 1872-79: George Wheeler's survey west of the 100th meridian (including Death Valley)
178 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Transportation • 1828: First railroad (Baltimore-Ohio) – 1840: 4,500 kms of railroad track – 1860: 49,000 kms of railroad track (mostly in the North) – 1890: 320,000 kms – 1910: the USA has one third of all railroads in the world – Capital intensive (private investors) • 1865: George Pullman builds a luxurious sleeping car (“Pioneer”) for railway travel • 1869: The Union and Central Pacific railroads create the first transcontinental railroad 179 – Capital intensive (USA government) What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Transportation • Railroads create a new economy – Steel (steel rails replace iron rails from the 1880s) – Coal – Engineering (tunnels, bridges, grading) – Telegraph – Stations, depots, entire towns – Time replaces space (the distance “is” the time that the train takes to cover it) – 1883: Railroad companies standardize time (the four time zones of the USA) 180 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Transportation • Railroads create a new economy – European railroads mostly used to connect existing cities over existing routes – USA railroads created new cities or turned villages into regional centers (Kansas City, Los Angeles, Atlanta, Nashville, Seattle) and created new routes – The railroad in Europe transported passengers and goods – The railroad in the USA also opened new lands for exploration and exploitation
181 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Transportation • Railroads pioneer corporate management – Run by professional managers, not engineers – Coordination of complex operations – First large corporations to be publicly traded (because of high capital demand) – Railroads trigger a boom in financial markets (Wall Street)
182 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Transportation • 1827: the Concord stagecoach • Stagecoaches become less popular on the East Coast after the boom of steamships (1830s) • Stagecoaches still essential to travel west • Robberies: Reelfoot Williams (Illinoistown, 1852), Tom Bell (California, 1856), etc • "Indians": Apache attack in New Mexico (1861) • 1869: Transcontinental railroad
183 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Mail to the Pacific coast • Predominantly by sea until 1858: steamship to Panama, land carriage over the Isthmus of Panama, steamship to San Francisco • 1852: Henry Wells & William Fargo form Wells Fargo in New York to do business in California • James Birch's San Antonio-San Diego line 1857-58 • 1858: government-sanctioned overland stage route for mail and parcels • Butterfield Overland Mail from Missouri to San Francisco 1858-60 (22-day trip), taken over by Wells Fargo
• Pony Express from Missouri to Sacramento 1860-184 61 (10-day trip) What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Transportation • 1891-96: Otto Lilienthal, legendary glider in Germany • 1901: Alberto Santos-Dumont flies a dirigible (steerable balloon) around the Tour Eiffel • 1903: Orville Wright, son of an Ohio itinerant preacher and owner of a bicycle business, flies a plane for 260 meters • 1908: Wilbur Wright demonstrates the Wright flying machine in France • 1909: 15 factories in Paris are building Wright airplanes 185 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Transportation • New York in 1900
186 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – National parks • Largely sponsored by the western railroads to boost tourism – Northern Pacific Railroad sponsors Yellowstone – Southern Pacific Railroad sponsors Yosemite and Sequoia – Santa Fe Railroad: Grand Canyon – Great Northern Railroad: Glacier
187 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Periodicals • 1841: Horace Greeley’s New-York Tribune • 1851: The New York Times (also a penny paper) • 1852: Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (illustrated with wood engravings, not photographs) • 1857: Harper & Bros’ Harper’s Weekly (also with wood engravings)
188 Harper’s Weekly, 1874 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Communication • 1844: Samuel Morse demonstrates his telegraph – Simpler than the Cooke-Wheatstone telegraph (that requires five wires instead of one) – Uses electricity to broadcast information – Morse code (actually developed by Alfred Vail): a binary code, short and long bursts of electricity – Enabling tech: battery and electromagnet – Shared the route of the railroads 189 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Communication • 1844: Samuel Morse’s telegraph – Cut the time to send a message from months to minutes – Made Wall Street “the” stock market of the nation (no more need for others) – Capital intensive (USA government)
190 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Communication • 1846: First commercial telegraph line in the USA (Philadelphia-New York, but the telegram has to be physically carried across the Hudson river by ferry) • 1846: The telegraph sends news of the Mexican war in real time (it used to take weeks to get news by ship: Britain learned of the revolution in the USA more than a month after it had started) • 1846: The first female telegrapher (Sarah Bagley) 191 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Communication • Dec 1848: President James Polk’s announcement that gold has been found in California generates an instant “gold rush” throughout the country and in the world • Note: only telegraph operators can communicate with each other, the individual doesn’t have a “personal telegraph” • 1850: 20,000 kms of telegraph lines operated by 20 companies • The telegraph introduces a faster pace of life
192 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Communication • Richard Hoe’s rotary cylinder press (USA, 1843): thousands of newspapers per hour • 1847: Philadelphia’s “Public Ledger” installs Richard Hoe’s rotary cylinder printing press
193 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Communication • 1843: The USA has 1634 newspapers • 1846: Five daily newspapers in New York City organize the Associated Press to share the costs of collecting and broadcasting news • 1870: Reuters (the British empire), Havas (the French empire), Wolff (Germany)
194 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Communication • 1851: Hiram Sibley founds the New York and Mississippi Valley Printing Telegraph Company in Rochester • 1854: The state of Maine creates the Atlantic and Pacific Telegraph Company (A&P) to build a telegraph system extending from the East Coast to the West Coast • 1855: Sibley's company merges with Ezra Cornell's New York & Western Union Telegraph Company and becomes Western Union
195 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Communication • 1861: Western Union opens the first transcontinental telegraph line, Washington to California, replacing the 10-day journey by horse of the Pony Express • 1866: Paper magnate Cyrus Field’s Atlantic Telegraph Company completes the transatlantic telegraph line between Newfoundland and Ireland (80 times faster than the first 1858 cable), thereby reducing the communication time between America and Europe from days to minutes – Capital intensive (private investors) • 1869: A&P leases telegraph lines from the Union Pacific Railroad and the Central Pacific Railroad196 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Communication • 1870: Western Union introduces a standardized time service • 1871: Western Union introduces a money transfer service • 1873: Western Union acquires the International Ocean Telegraph Company • 1875: Jay Gould takes control of the Atlantic and Pacific Telegraph Company • 1881: Jay Gould takes control of Western Union
197 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Communication • 1900: Western Union operates more than 1.5 million kms of telegraph lines and two international undersea cables • 1914: Western Union introduces the first charge card for its customers • 1921: The first wirephoto (predecessor of the telefax) is sent by Western Union • 1923: Western Union deploys teletypewriters in its branches
198 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Communication • Proliferation of newspapers – Cheaper paper – Steam-powered printing presses – 1871: Richard Hoe’s “web press” that can print on both sides for the New York Tribune (18,000 newspapers per hour) – 1886: Ottmar Mergenthaler invents the linotype for the New York Tribune – 1887: Tolbert Lanston’s monotype – Faster transportation – Small-town post offices – Subsidized printed matter 199 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Newspapers • 1851: Henry Raymond founds the New York Daily Times • 1878: Joseph Pulitzer creates the St. Louis Post • 1883: Joseph Pulitzer takes over the New York World • 1887: William Randolph Hearst takes control of his father's San Francisco Examiner • 1889: Pulitzer sends reporter Elizabeth Cochrane, disguised under the name Nellie Bly, around the world in less than 80 days • 1895: Hearst purchases the New York Journal
200 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Newspapers • Rise of media groups that own multiple newspapers (Hearst, Pulitzer, Northcliffe in Britain) – Hearst ammasses 30 newspapers • Rising political influence of newspaper’s owners • Boom of sensational fake news (Hearst’s papers invent the premise to the war against Spain and incites violence against president McKinley who is assassinated in 1901)
201 What the Industrial Age knew
• The Press – Godefroy Engelmann invents color lithography (1837, France) and economical color printing spreads – 1841: Volney Palmer in Philadelphia opens the first advertising agency – 1840s: Rapid expansion of reading public + lower production costs due to steam-powered press + rising revenues from advertising = boom of magazines and newspapers
202 What the Industrial Age knew
• The Press – 1850: Harper Brothers in New York (founded 1817) is the largest publishing house in the world – 1850: Harper New Monthly Magazine is the first major pictorial magazine – 1867: Harper's Bazar for women
203 What the Industrial Age knew
• The Press – 1871: Thomas Nast's political cartoons in Harper's Weekly kill the political career of William Marcy Tweedy in New York (voters cannot read but they can see the pictures) – 1877: “The Nickel Library” (vogue of the nickel novel, mostly about the Civil War and the Far West) – 1881: Century Magazine – 1887: Scribner's Monthly – 1890: Charles Dana Gibson's posters create an ideal of female beauty ("Gisbon girls")
204 What the Victorian Age knew
• The industrialization of printing – New York newspapers offer a rich reward for mechanizing the composition process (1880) – Ottmar Mergenthaler (German clockmaker): the linotype machine to compose type in Baltimore (1887), i.e. the first "keyboard"
205 What the Victorian Age knew
• The industrialization of printing – Louis Prang (German printer in Boston): mass- market color lithography (adverts, Christmas cards, artistic cards to collect in “scrap” albums, etc)
The Christmas card in 1873
206 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Communication • Mass literacy due to the lower prices of printing due to the steam-powered printing press • Literacy also for women, first step in women’s liberation
207 What the Victorian Age knew
• Gold Rush (1849) – 1848: James Marshall's discovery of gold – 1848: The USA acquites California, New Mexico, Nevada, Arizona, Utah from Mexico (almost half of Mexico) – The opening of California is contemporary with the openings of China (Treaty of Wangxia, 1844) and Japan (Commodore Perry expedition, 1854) – 1849: After the president's speech, thousands of people rush to California looking for gold – Easy cheap technology of gold panning, potential of high returns – A multi-ethnic phenomenon, especially Chinese 208 What the Victorian Age knew
• Gold Rush (1849) – Beneficiaries: mining suppliers and gold brokers – Henry Wells and William Fargo: express freight (1851) – Levi Strauss (German immigrant): durable trousers for miners (1853), blue jeans (1873) – John Studebaker: wheelbarrows for miners (1853) – Railroad barons
209 What the Victorian Age knew
• Gold Rush (1849) – 1850: California's population has increased from 15,000 (1840) to 165,000 – 1851: San Francisco's population has increased from 459 (1847) to 35,000 – 1853: Extreme clippers shorten the trip from New York to San Francisco to 106 days – 1850s: San Francisco becomes an important trading post along the route to China – San Francisco is the first city to be born racially and ethnically diverse – California is the first state to be first urbanized then farmed 210 What the Victorian Age knew
• Gold Rush (1849) – Extreme clipper
211 What the Victorian Age knew
• Gold Rush (1849) – The boom creates the myth of easy riches – 1859: Comstock silver – Unlike gold, silver requires large capital – 1861: California largely immune to the Civil War – 1862: Lincoln signs the bill for the transcontinental railroad to keep California in the Union – As many as 100,000 Native Americans murdered by miners – "That a war of extermination will continue to be waged between the two races until the Indian race becomes extinct must be expected." California governor Peter Burnett (1849-1851) 212 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of gold • The USA annexes California in the Mexican– American War (1846-47) • 1848: James Marshall’s discovery of gold in California • USA gold production increases from 1.2 tons in 1847 to 55 tons in 1849 • Not capital intensive at all: anyone with a pan can search for gold • Mass migrations west • Mostly male population (92% of California’s population in 1850, when it belatedly becomes a state) 213 • Gold moves the center of mass of the USA west What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of gold • Three ways to reach California from New York » Six months by horse carriage » Six months by sailship around Cape Horn » Through Panama • 1852: Wells Fargo transcontinental express service • 1860: Pony Express (ten days from Missouri to Sacramento, 3000 kms): lasted only one year • 1861: Telegraph link with California (Pacific Telegraphy Co) • 1869: Transcontinental railway 214 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of gold • China is twice closer to California than New York • Taiping rebellion (1850-64) causes Chinese to leave China • Thousands of Chinese men take sailing ships to California, nicknamed “Gum Saan” (“gold mountain”) • Contract labor (not much better than slave labor) • Contract laborer = “coolie” • California becomes the most cosmopolitan
state in the Union 215
What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of mining and lumbering • Boom towns of the West • 1880: Men outnumber women by more than 2 to 1 in Colorado, Nevada and Arizona
216 What the Victorian Age knew • USA revolution – Immigration
217 (From “A People And A Nation”, Houghton Mifflin, 1998) What the Victorian Age knew • USA revolution – Immigration • The USA depends on immigration to fuel both industrialization and expansion • Germans: traditionally the second largest group of immigrants (4.5 million out of 15 million in 1820-90)
218 What the Victorian Age knew • USA revolution – Immigration • Irish potato famine 1840s: coal miners in Pennsylvania, railroad workers for the transcontinental railroad (on the eastern side), maids in Eastern cities (women are the majority of Irish immigrants) • 1850s: immigration is 12.1% of the 1850 population • 1863: Riots between Irish immigrants and blacks in New York • 1861-65: The Civil War drafts most able men • 1864: The USA passes the “Acts to Encourage Immigration” 219 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Immigration • 1848: First Chinese immigrants (Gold Rush in California) • Taiping rebellion (1850-64) kills millions • Chinese workers in California for the gold rush, agriculture and the transcontinental railroad (on the western side) • Chinese immigrants do not integrate in the mostly Christian European society • Chinese immigrants view themselves as temporary laborers not immigrants • Strong anti-Chinese sentiments (massacres of
Chinese immigrants in 1871 in Los Angeles) 220
What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Immigration • Chinese immigrants develop agriculture in Central Valley of California (dykes, irrigation canals, intensive farming) • 1880: about one third of all farm laborers in California are Chinese • 1880: 100,000 male Chinese and only 3,000 female Chinese living in the western USA • The naturalization law of 1790 bars Asians from citizenship, not being “free white persons” • San Francisco’s Chinatown is a veritable ghetto
221 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Immigration • 1882-1943: The USA bans immigration from China • Massacres of Chinese by both Caucasians and Native Americans (28 Chinese miners killed in Rock Springs, Wyoming, in 1885; 34 Chinese gold miners killed by the Snake River, Oregon, in 1887) • 1909: about 40% of all farm laborers in California are Japanese
222 What the Victorian Age knew • USA revolution – Immigration • Russian pogroms of 1881: Jews leave Russia • 1882: peak of immigration (789,000 immigrants in one year • 1880s: immigration is 10.5% of the 1880 population (5.3 million out of 50 million) • 1890: Cheaper steamship tickets and national railroads allow Italians and Russians to emigrate, shifting immigration from northern Europe to southern and eastern Europe • Irish and Italians are not Protestant • Chinese and Jews are not Christian • Italians and Russians have no experience with 223 democracy What the Victorian Age knew • USA revolution
224 Frédéric Bartholdi's "Statue of Liberty" (1886) What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Railroads • The government subsidizes the industry in order to expand the nation • 80 companies receive over 170 million acres of public land
225 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Railroads • Foster boom in coal and steel • Foster formation of stock-holder corporation • Cornelius Vanderbilt invests in the NY Central Railroad in 1867 • Promote settlement on the Great Plains • Cement the nation by linking east and west • Create a global market for goods by linking the Atlantic to the Pacific • Essentially trigger the second industrial revolution
226 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – The Transcontinental Railroad • To link California with the Union during the Civil War • Union Pacific (Thomas Durant) between Utah and the Missouri River across the Great Plains, using war veterans and Irish immigrants • Central Pacific (Leland Stanford) between Sacramento and Utah over the mountains, using 6,000 Chinese • Western Pacific between Oakland and Sacramento • Completion at Promontory Pont Utah in 1869
227 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – The Transcontinental Railroad • Bribes win government approval • Subsidized by the government in 1862 in the middle of the civil war (1861-65) • The government absorbs most of the risk • Work begins in 1863 • It shortens to ten days the journey from New York to San Francisco • William Sherman’s trip to California during the Mexican war (1846) had taken 196 days
228 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – The Transcontinental Railroad • Central Pacific: engineering problems (mountains) solved with newly invented nitroglycerin (perfected by Alfred Nobel in 1863), but plenty of manpower (Chinese coolies of the gold rush) and plenty of material/food along the route • Union Pacific: logistical problems (food, materials, fuel have to be transported from very far), limited manpower (men are at war), “Indians” (Sioux and Cheyenne, 1867)
229 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – The Transcontinental Railroad • In California it creates the wealth of the “big four” robber barons: Leland Stanford (California governor in 1861), Collis Potter Huntington, Mark Hopkins, Charles Crocker • Funded by: the big four, the city of Sacramento, the city of Los Angeles, the state of California • Built by cheap Chinese labor in California (and by cheap Irish labor in the east) • The Big Four’s Southern Pacific eventually dominate transport west of the Colorado • In 1877 the Southern Pacific begins exporting California produce to St Louis
230 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – The Transcontinental Railroad • By 1900 four other transcontinental railroads are completed – The Southern Pacific: connected New Orleans with Los Angeles (1883: second transcontinental railroad) – The Atchison, Topeka, & Santa Fe: Kansas City to Los Angeles (1882) – The Northern Pacific: St Paul to Seattle (1883) – The Minneapolis & St Cloud Railroad Company (renamed Great Northern Railroad): St. Paul to Seattle (1893), the only one with no federal subsidies (mostly by James Jerome Hill’s acquisitions) 231 – Canada: Ottawa to British Columbia (1885) What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – The Transcontinental Railroad • Railroads in Britain and the USA are largely private ventures, whereas in continental Europe and Japan are government ventures • But the USA provides subsidies, protects the railroads with the cavalry and absorbs most of the risks • Railroads in Europe displace the old economy (barge owners, artisans, horse-drawn vehicles) but the transcontinental railroads simply settle a new world and create a new market (bigger than the whole of Europe) • North-American railroad technology (steel rails, locomotives, comfortable rail cars) becomes the best in the world 232 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – The boom of railroads • Railroads require huge investments, extend over thousands of kms, require a sophisticated system of planning and managing, need cost analysis to determine rates • Railroads pioneer managerial, financial and labor practices of large corporations as well as labor relations • Railroads provide the means to reach the urban markets that sustain the growth of large corporations • 1849: New York-based Winslow, Lanier & Co funds railroads, thus pioneering investment banking 233 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – The boom of railroads • 1850: The rail network is about 15,000 kms • 1860: The rail network is about 48,000 kms vs 5,000 kms of canals • 1860: All the major cities are linked by railroad • 1860s: Granger Laws sponsored by farmers to regulate rising fare prices • 1890: The rail network is about 264,000 kms whereas canals have not expanded
234 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – The boom of railroads • The telegraph and the railroads shrink time and space – In 1775 it had taken more than a month for Britain to learn that a revolution had started in Boston – In 1829 it had taken a month for newly elected president Andrew Jackson to travel by horse from Nashville to Washington • The railroad introduce a uniform time schedule – 1883: four time zones instead of the chaotic system of the Midwest
235 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – The boom of railroads • The railroads provide the industrial urban Northwest with access to ample supplies of minerals (iron, goal, copper, gold) and food (wheat, citrus and soon cattle)
236 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – The boom of railroads • 1893: Financial Panic forces many railroad companies into bankruptcy and bankers like JP Morgan consolidate them into larger companies, greatly reducing competition in the railroad industry • 1920: The Transportation Act de facto turns the railroads into a government-regulated industry
237 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – The boom of iron • 1839: Dunlap's Creek Bridge proves the feasibility of iron bridges • 1840: More than 200 charcoal furnaces in Pennsylvania alone • 1845: The nation's first iron railroad bridge (Maryland) • Adoption of the advanced British technology: furnaces fired with bituminous coke, capable of producing wrought-iron products faster and cheaper • Replacing charcoal as the principal fuel with anthracite coal and then bituminous coal and coke
238 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – The boom of iron • Rapid decline of the land- and labor-intensive practices of the “iron plantation” • 1850: Industry dominated by anthracite-coal and bituminous-coke furnaces and large rolling mills • 1862: Iron workers win concessions after an eight-month strike in Pittsburgh • Gogebic Range (Michigan and Wisconsin) in 1884, Mesabi Range (Minnesota) in 1892
239 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – The boom of iron • 1892: The iron industry violently defeats the "Homestead strike" of iron workers • 1898: Frederick Taylor’s “high-speed” steel (Pennsylvania) • 1900: Coke furnaces produce 70% of Pennsylvania's iron • Iron industry transplanted to the Midwest, eg 1903: US Steel's colossal integrated steel mill, Gary Works (Indiana)
240 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – The boom of steel • The Bessemer converter (1856) jumpstarts the boom of steel (first installed at Wyandotte, Michigan, in 1864) • The Great Lakes region has abundant coal and iron and becomes the nations’ capital of steel • Andrew Carnegie: steel manufacturing in Pittsburgh (1870s) • Vertical integration: a company controls every stage of the industrial process, from mining to distribution • 1900: JP Morgan’s US Steel Corporation buys Carnegie and becomes the largest company in the world (3/5th of the nation’s steel business) 241 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – The boom of steel “Two pounds of iron-stone purchased on the shores of lake Superior and transported to Pittsburgh; two pounds of coal mined in Connellsville and manufactured into coke and brought to Pittsburgh; one half pound of limestone mined east of the Alleghenies and brought to Pittsburgh; a little manganese ore, mined in Virginia and brought to Pittsburgh. And these four and one half pounds of material manufactured into one pound of solid steel and sold for one cent. That’s all that need be said about the steel business.” (Andrew Carnegie)
242 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – The boom of steel • Machine tools made of iron and steel replace machine tools made of wood (greater longevity, precision and complexity) • Steel alloys revolutionize the industry of guns and cannons • The internal combustion engine (with its long- term airtight pistons and valves at high termperature and strong pressure) becomes feasible after Bessemer's invention
243 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Chemical Industry • 1802: Eleuthère du Pont founds the water-driven gunpowder mill DuPont in Delaware • 1847: Ascanio Sobrero invents nitroglycerin (Italy) • 1861: DuPont supplies half the gunpowder used by the Union during the Civil War • 1867: Alfred Nobel invents dynamite (Sweden) • 1881: dynamite used by anarchists to assassinate the czar • 1885: Russell Penniman invents "ammonium dynamite" which triggers the boom of dynamite • 1905: 165 million kgs of explosives produced in the USA 244 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Chemical Industry • 19th century: Most pharmaceuticals in the USA come from Germany • 19th century: Main pharmaceutical companies in New York founded by German immigrants (Charles Pfizer, 1849; George Merck, 1891) • 1869: John Hyatt commercializes celluloid, the first industrial plastic • 1907: Leo Baekeland invents "bakelite", the first entirely synthetic plastic (USA) • 1912: The government breaks up DuPont, with the main company refocusing on chemical engineering
• The USA‘s chemical industry focuses on 245 synthetic products based on petroleum What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Lighting • 1796: Philadelphia pioneers gaslight – 1830s: Street lighting in all major eastern cities – 1840s: Gaslight common in homes – 1840s: Central heating common in homes – People can stay up till late and read – Boom of books, magazines and newspapers • Lighting is essential for factories, that cannot depend on sunlight the way farmers used to
246 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Lighting • Population boom and industrialization increase demand for artificial illumination • Best fuel for lamps: whale oil • Decimation of whale schools and spike in the price of whale oil • Scarcity of whale oil for illumination drives search for alternatives
247 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Lighting • 1846: Abraham Gesner invents kerosene, based on coal • 1851: Sam Kier develops kerosene from crude oil • 1854: North American Gas Light Company in New York begins selling Gesner’s kerosene for lighting
248 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of oil • 1859: First oil well in the world (Edwin Drake, Pennsylvania) • Oil is used to make kerosene, gasoline is discarded • Lighting drives the great demand for oil until gasoline-powered cars • Technology of drilling for salt (Chinese invented) • Boom of oil also driven by the need to lubricate machines
• Capital intensive (private investors) 249 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of oil • Main refining centers to make kerosene and other products: Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Cleveland • 1861: The Civil War increases demand for Pennsylvania's oil (cheaper lubricant than whale and coal oils) • 1861: The first oil tanker leaves Philadelphia • Kerosene used in lamps is a significant fire risk • 1865: the first oil pipeline (Samuel Van Syckel in Pennsylvania), cheaper than the railway 250 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of Oil • 1862: John Rockefeller founds a company to refine oil in Cleveland, the urban gateway to oil fields (refining oil is less risky than producing it; e.g. prices plunge in the 1860s because of overproduction) • 1871: The first oil well is drilled in Baku, Caucasus, Russia • 1882: John Rockefeller's Standard Oil pioneers the "trust" to control multiple companies (later the "holding company"), moving its headquarters to New York • 1890: Rockefeller has a virtual monopoly on the oil industry 251 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of Oil • Horizontal integration: former competitors are brought under a single corporate umbrella • Standard Oil becomes the model for “trusts” (monopolies) in other industries • 1890: The Sherman Anti-Trust Act • 1911: The government dissolves Rockefeller's Standard Oil
252 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of Oil • Caucasus oil is difficult to distribute (Caspian Sea + Volga river + railway to reach northern and western destinations) • 1876: Nikolaus Otto invents the internal combustion engine • 1878: Ludwig Nobel introduces the first oil tanker in the Caucasus • The Nobel family builds an integrated industry of wells, pipelines, refineries, tankers, depots, railroads • 1879: Edison's light bulb changes the dynamics of lighting • Oil is sold to make kerosene, heat and power 253 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of Oil • 1883: The Netherlands begins to drill for oil in Sumatra, Indonesia • 1886: Alphonse Rothschild, a French Jew, forms the Black Sea Petroleum Company • 1890: The Royal Dutch Company is founded in the Netherlands for oil exploration • 1891: USA oil accounts for 78% of illuminating oil exports vs 29% of Russia • 1892: Edward Doheny strikes oil in Los Angeles • 1892: Marcus Samuel, a British Jew, introduces an oil tanker that can sail through the Suez canal to Bangkok 254 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of Oil • 1892: Edward Doheny strikes oil in Los Angeles • 1897: Marcus Samuel founds the Shell Transport and Trading Company • 1900: California is the main producer of oil in the world • 1900: 2,300 automobiles are registered in the USA, of which 1,170 are steam-powered, 800 are electric, and 400 are gasoline- powered
255 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of oil • Texas – Sparsely populated because too hot – Comanches and lawless settlers – 1835: Texas Rangers, the oldest state law enforcement body in the USA – 1845-60: Cotton slave plantations dominate the economy and the politics – 1860: 430,000 white residents and 182,000 black slaves
256 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of oil • Texas – 1880-1900: Cattle ranches dominate the economy and the politics – Railroads to ship cattle to Missouri and Kansas (and then to meat production centers in Chicago) – 1904: Texas has more kms of railroads than any other state – 1900: The largest city in Texas is San Antonio with a population of 53,000
257 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of oil • Texas – 1901: A huge oil field is discovered in Beaumont (Spindletop oil field) – Pennsylvania oil is top quality, Texas oil is of poor quality (not suitable for kerosene) – Texas oil marketed to railways and steamships (locomotion, not lighting) – 1901: Andrew Mellon founds the Gulf Oil Company in Texas – 1901: Joseph Cullinan founds the Texas Fuel Company (later Texaco) – 1905: the Glenn Pool oil field (Tulsa, Oklahoma), oil of Pennsylvania quality in 258 Texas quantities What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of oil • 1902: a female journalist, Ida-Minerva Tarbell, exposes Standard Oil's dubious practices • 1903: Wilbur and Orville Wright fly the first airplane, powered by gasoline • 1909: The USA forces the dissolution of Standard Oil, which creates Chevron, Mobil, Amoco, Socal, etc • 1910: California produces 22% of the world's oil (more than any country in the world except the USA) • 1911: Sales of gasoline exceed sales of kerosene 259 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of oil • Texas – A state of boom towns – 1917: the “Roaring Ranger” oil field (Eastland County, Texas) – 1928: Texas passes California in oil production – 1930s: air conditioning becomes available for homes – 2013: 8 of the 15 fastest-growing cities of the USA are in Texas
260 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of oil • Geopolitics – 1901: Edward Doheny strikes oil in Mexico – 1904: The Trans-Siberian Railroad is inaugurated, using Shell’s oil – Since Russia has to import coal from Britain, the Russian government encourages a switch from coal to oil – 1907: Royal Dutch and Shell merge, creating a company that controls more than 50% of shipments to Russia and Far East
261 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of oil • Geopolitics – 1908: British company Anglo-Persian discovers oil in Iran, the first oil well in the Middle East – 1910: Weetman Pearson discovers huge oil field that trigger Mexico’s oil boom – 1911: Churchill switches Britain's navy from coal to oil to counter the German build-up
262 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of oil • Geopolitics – 1912: Armenian-born Calouste Gulbenkian and Anglo-Persian form the Turkish Petroleum Company (TPC) to dig oil in Iraq – 1912: Royal Dutch Shell acquires Rothschild’s Russian oil organization – 1914: The British government purchases part of Anglo-Persian, only the second time the British government has purchased a private company – 1921: Mexico is the second oil producer in the world
263 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of electricity • Thomas Edison – 1876: first industrial (non-university) research laboratory to industrialize innovation – 1877: phonograph – 1879: light bulb – 1880: first power plant (New York): direct current at low voltage – 1882: first lighting in an office building (New York) – Edison also invented a system to distribute electricity 264 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of electricity • 1889: Thomas Edison's business empire is consolidated in the Edison General Electrical Company • 1892: Thomas Edison's Edison General Electrical Company merges with Thompson-Houston and becomes General Electric • General Electric: to make electricity affordable for the masses (by using turbines for generators) • General Electric trains its own sales force to explain how electrical products work and trains its own support engineers to design customized solutions
265 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of electricity • 1885: George Westinghouse builds the first practical transformer • 1886: George Westinghouse founds the Westinghouse Electric Company • 1888: Nikola Tesla invents the alternating- current motor (USA) • George Westinghouse uses alternating current at high voltage and transformers to reduce the cost of electricity distribution over long-distance
266 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of electricity • 1860s: Horatio Livermore's Natoma Water and Mining Company builds an extensive network of dams, ditches, and reservoirs to supply water to mines on the American River • 1880s: Hydraulic mines in Sierra experiment with hydroelectric power (electric power created by water turbines)
267 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of electricity • Jul 1895: The Livermore company opens a 35 km hydroelectric power line to bring electricity from Folsom to Sacramento, with water powering four colossal electrical generators (dynamos), the first time that high-voltage alternating current had been successfully conducted over a long distance
Sep 1895: Grand Electrical Carnival 268 in Sacramento What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of electricity • Electricity in California is mainly for domestic and public use (lighting, streetcars) • 1890s: Machines can be equipped with an electric motor connected by a wire to an electrical outlet • Steam engines used to produce electricity (electric generator) • 1896: Nikola Tesla and George Westinghouse build a hydro-electric power plant to bring electricity from Niagara Falls to Buffalo • Power stations begin to distribute electricty 269 to customers What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of electricity • The main advantage of electrical power is that the layout of the factory becomes more flexible (wires can be bent, extended, shortened...) • Electrical motors make very large factories easier to design • 1902: the USA produces 6,000,000,000 Kwatt-hours • Massive productivity increase • Appliances replace servants
270 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of aluminum • 1825: Aluminum isolated by Hans-Christian Orsted but the process is very complicated • 1855: Aluminum exhibited at the Universal Exposition of Paris as an expensive novelty (almost as expensive as gold) • 1888: Charles Hall's electrolytic process enables large-scale low-cost production of aluminium (Pittsburgh Reduction Company, later Alcoa) • 1898: Union Carbide (Virginia) for ferroalloys • Manufacturing aluminum requires a lot of electricity • Aluminum lighter than steel, ideal for transportation • 100% recyclable 271 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of banking • 1904: Amadeo Giannini’s Bank of Italy (Bank of America) for the middle-class, not only the wealthy class • Financial panic: 1873, 1893, 1929 • 1913: Federal Bank founded to prevent market crashes
272 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Food/ California • 1841: First orange grove in southern California (near Los Angeles) • Extensive wheat cultivation • California is a blank slate for agriculture • Cheap labor force, mostly Chinese farm workers from the end of the Gold Rush to 1900, then mostly Japanese, then (1924) Mexicans • 1855: California's wheat output exceeds local consumption and wheat can easily be exported (does not require refrigeration)
273 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Food/ California • 1869: Transcontinental Railroad (near San Francisco) • 1875: Luther Burbank settles in California and develops hundreds of new varieties of fruits • 1876: First major oil well (near Los Angeles) • 1877: First shipment of California produce to the east • 1879: Wheat and barley are grown on over 75% of the state’s cropland 274 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Food/ California • 1880s: Rapid mechanization: California pioneers the adoption of new machines (gang plows, large headers, combined harvesters) not invented here (eg Hiram Moore’s combine invented Michigan in 1835) but built here (mostly in Stockton) • 1880: Gustavus Swift's refrigerating car • 1887: The Santa Fe railway reaches Los Angeles • 1887: First electric trolley in Los Angeles • 1889: First cooled shipment of fruit from California to the east
275 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Food/ California • Large-scale industrial agriculture • Fruit replaces wheat as the main produce of California • Citrus towns around Los Angeles: Pasadena (an Indiana colony), Anaheim (a German colony), Redlands (a Chicago colony), Riverside, Pomona • Shift from large-scale grain cultivation to small-scale intensive fruit cultivation • Experiments with genetically modified fruit • Christian fundamentalism rises among the citrus communities ("The Fundamentals", published 1910- 15 by the Bible Institute of Los Angeles) 276 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Food/ California • 1909: Los Angeles’ port of San Pedro • 1913: William Mulholland’s aqueduct from Owens Valley to Los Angeles • Water, electricity, land and climate attract white middle-class immigrants (many retirees, mostly from the Midwest) • Los Angeles expands rapidly • Irrigation creates new fertile lands
277 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Food/ California • 1914: Panama Canal shortens journey to California • 1919: California produces 57% of the oranges, 70% of the prunes/plums, over 80% of the grapes and figs, and virtually all of the apricots, almonds, walnuts, olives, and lemons grown in the USA • 1920: More than 10% of California farms have tractors compared with 3.6% for the nation as a whole • 1920s: Los Angeles passes San Francisco as the busiest port of the West Coast
278 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Food/ Bananas • 1890: Minor Keith completes a railway in Costarica to link the capital with the sea and begins shipping bananas to the USA • 1899: Minor Keith's Tropical Trading and Transport Company and Andrew Preston's Boston Fruit Company merge to become United Fruit in Boston with its own network linking plantations and sales
279 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Plantation Agriculture • Sugar – 1887: 18 sugar refiners form American Sugar Refining • Tobacco – 1880: James Bonsack invents the cigarette- rolling machine in Virginia – 1885: James Duke starts selling cigarette- making machine in North Carolina – 1890: James Duke and his four major competitors in the business of cigarettes form the American Tobacco Company, a New York- based trust modeled after Standard Oil – 1911: The government breaks up the American280 Tobacco Company What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Detroit • Great Lakes region • Close to centers of coal, iron, and copper mining • Easily accessible by water and by land • 1820s: Detroit's main export is flour • Mill machinery and shipyards • Detroit shipyards among the first in the world to build steam ships • 1860s: Engine manufacturers and parts/tools makers are the main exporters • 1860-80: Detroit's biggest export is copper
• 1880: All copper deposits run out 281 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Detroit • Migrations cause a boom of coaches and carriages – Detroit has iron, wood and leather – 1849: Gold Rush in California – Studebaker (1852) – Largest carriage manufacturing plant in the world (Studebaker, 1875) – William Durant son of a lumber baron and founder of a carriage company (1886) • The internal combustion engine is first developed for boats
282 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of the automobile • 1890s: bicycle craze (testbed for many technologies that will be used by the automobile industry) • 1897: First manufacturer of passenger cars (Ransom Olds’ Oldsmobile) • 1900: 4,000 cars are manufactured in the USA • 1903: Henry Ford’s Ford: permanent drive to lower manufacturing costs • 1905: First gas station (St Louis) • 1908: Ford Model T, a car for the masses • 1908: William Durant’s General Motors: Olds, Pontiac, Cadillac, Buick and later Chevrolet 283 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Cars • 1908: Ford introduces the 4-cylinder 20-horsepower open-top one-color Model T for $825 (compared with an average of over $2,000), the first mass vehicle (15 million sold in the next 20 years) • 1913: Ford installs the first moving assembly line (at Highland Park), inspired by meat-packing factories, bringing down the time to build a car from a record 12 hour to an average 1.5 hour, with the capability of producing 1000 cars a day, and removing skills from the process • 1913: The Lincoln Highway, the first transcontinental highway (New York to San Francisco) • High turnover because workers alienated 284 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Cars
Easter 1900 285 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of the automobile • In 2005 four of the ten largest companies are oil companies (BP, Shell, Exxon, Total) and four are car makers (General Motors, Toyota, DaimlerChrysler) and only two are consumer products (Wallmart and General Electics) • Ford’s Model T (the first mass manufactured gasoline-powered vehicle) made oil a necessity and weakened the West by making it dependent on oil producers (Gulf countries)
286 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of California • 1895: Hydroelectric power from Folsom to Sacramento • Electricity in California is mainly for domestic and public use (lighting, streetcars) • 1900: California is the main producer of oil in the world • 1901: Henry Huntington founds the Pacific Electric Railroad to create a network of electrical trolley cars and a network of new suburbs around Los Angeles (and becomes one of the richest men in the USA thanks to land speculation) • 1902: Thomas Tally opens a movie theater (the Electric Theater), in Los Angeles
287 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of California • 1904: Bank of Italy (Bank of America) for the middle- class, not only the wealthy class • 1905: Los Angeles has more cars than any other city • Cars and electricity project the myth of clean, safe, spatious, high-tech living • The car restores the personal freedom that had been lost in the age of the railroad • 1907: John Bullock opens a department store in Los Angeles (1929: Bullock's Wilshire luxury branch) • 1910: The first film is shot in Hollywood • 1911: The Pacific Electric serves 56 communities within a 160 km radius, thereby creating Los Angeles suburbia 288 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of California • 1910-30: San Francisco’s population triples and Los Angeles’ population increases 727% to 2.3 million (with most immigrants now coming by personal car) • 1913: The Lincoln Highway, the first transcontinental highway (New York to San Francisco) • 1920: The USA has one car for every 13 people and Los Angeles has one car for every 5 people (Britain: 1 for every 228, Germany 1 for every 1017) • 1921: The “All Weather Club” is formed to advertise Southern California tourism to the East 289 Coast
What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of California • 1929: Cinema has become the USA's fifth largest industry by revenue, and most films are made in Hollywood • Citrus farming, cinema and the aircraft industry requires land, thereby increasing the need to expand outside the center • 1930: The port of Los Angeles is second after New York in tonnage • 1930: Only 20% of Los Angeles’ inhabitants were born in California • 1930: Population density in Los Angeles is 1768 per sq km, almost 1/9th of New York’s 290 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of California • Los Angeles’ establishment is mostly made of uneducated men from poor families who made a fortune in oil, real estate, cinema, etc • Los Angeles is a white city (very small ethnic minorities: 70,000 Jews, 45,000 Hispanics, 30,000 Asians and 30,000 blacks in 1930 out of more than one million people), most immigrants come from other WASP cities/towns of the USA • 1933: Los Angeles county is #1 in the USA in food, cinema, oil, aerospace • 1936: The Hoover Dam delivers water and power mainly to California, and creates the fortunes of contractors Warren Bechtel’s sons and Henry Kaiser 291 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of California
Los Angeles In 1882
292 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Few countries in history created so many giant companies in such a short time • Main sectors: railroads, manufacturing, banking
293 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Before 1861: – Most manufacturing businesses are small, family-owned, die with the owner – The cost of entering a business is very small – Operate locally (insularity) except for maritime merchants – High degree of specialization – Only one kind of product – The only bureaucracy required is bookkeeping
294 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Before 1861: – A clear owner of the business who makes decisions for workers and customers – The worker knows exactly his/her role in the organization – Distribution of economic power around the country – Still a rural world
295 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Before 1861: – “What most astonishes me in the United States is not so much the marvelous grandeur of some undertakings as the innumerable multitudes of small ones” (Tocqueville) – Giant corporations only in the textile industry
296 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Civil War (1861-65): – John Pierpont Morgan (son of a banker, educated at European universities, an exception) speculates in commodities and weapons – Jay Cooke (bank clerk) speculates in Union war bonds (first major investment banker) – Andrew Carnegie (telegraph messenger boy) speculates in oil and railroads – John Rockefeller (bookkeeper) speculates in oil (cheap lubricant for machines) – Leland Stanford (lawyer and shopkeeper,
governor of California in 1861) speculates in 297 railroads What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Civil War: – Legal Tender Act: The Union mandates that debtors must accept its currency (painted green, i.e. the "greenback") – National Bank Act: The Union bans banknotes issued by state banks – Internal Revenue Act: The Union imposes an income tax on all citizens of all states – Market fluctuations of the value of the greenback compared with the gold dollar – Wall Street speculation
298 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Wall Street: – 1800: Manhattan is mostly farmland and Broadway is a cattle trail 1825: The opening of the Erie Canal boosts New York's economy – 1833: Andrew Jackson defeats Philadelphia's Bank of the United States ("Bank War") and financial power shifts to New York – European investors invest in the USA (railroads and telegraphs), a more stable place than Latin America (civil wars), Europe (1848 revolutions) or Asia (Indian insurencies)
299 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Wall Street: – 1850s: Samuel Morse’s telegraph makes Wall Street “the” stock market of the nation – 1850s: Several railroads become publicly traded companies and trigger a boom in Wall Street – 1861: The Civil War increases Wall Street's financial power – 1866: The transatlantic telegraph line facilitates European investment in Wall Street
300 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • The great capitalists: – Cornelius Vanderbilt (ferryman) speculates in railroads (Harlem 1863, Hudson River 1864, New York Central 1867) – Daniel Drew (cowboy) speculates in railroads – Jay Gould (tanner) speculates in railroads (Erie 1868) and gold (1869) – James Fisk (peddler) speculates in railroads (Erie 1868)
301 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • The great capitalists: – No education in economics (just like inventors had no education in science) – Little or no knowledge of why things are the way they are (eg the geological reason for oil wells being where they are) – Widespread bribery of politicians – European capitalists invest anywhere in the world, US capitalists invest only in the USA
302 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • The great capitalists: – Gould causes the 1869 stock market crash (“Black Friday”) – Cooke goes bankrupt and causes another stock market crash (1873) – Drew dies poor after bankruptcy
303 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Limits of traditional model: – Wholesale merchants form the distribution channels, providing credit and transportation – Wholesale merchants fail to deal with perishable goods (beef, bananas) and technologically complex goods (electrical)
304 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Transformational factors: – Transportation revolution (due to canals and railroads replacing coach and wagon travel) allows corporations to expand operations – Communication revolution (due to the telegraph replacing mail) allows corporations to manage remote operations
305 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Vertical integration: a corporation expands towards both raw materials and retail stores to avoid the limitations of wholesale merchants • Horizontal integration: a corporation expands by merging with competitors
306 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • The new corporation: – Requires a lot of capital – Several owners (shareholders) – Separation of ownership and management – Immortal institution – Operate on a large territory (globalization) both in terms of factories and in terms of retailing – Vertical integration instead of specialization (different economic functions within the same organization) – Range of products (diversification)
307 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • The new corporation: – Bureaucracy: huge administrative network – An impersonal management that makes decisions for workers and customers – The worker does not understand his/her role in the organization – Concentration of economic power in the hands of very few individuals – Urbanization and industrialization
308 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Financial revolution – Technology brings about "economies of scale" in many fields (e.g. Bessemer in steel, petroleum refining, sugar refining, cigarette- making machines) – 1866-1890: Falling consumer prices caused by economies of scale and fierce competition – Cooperation makes more sense than competition – The only widely traded stocks and bonds are those of railroads, very few invest in industrial stocks
309 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Financial revolution – 1870-1900: Boom of foreign investment in the USA – 1870-80: Boom of saving in the USA – Railroad expansion slows down, lots of capital (both domestic and international) available for investment in something else: capital begins flowing towards industrial stocks – 1873: JP Morgan and Rockefeller buy companies after the stock crash
310 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Financial revolution – A financier, JP Morgan, restructures the railway industry (1885-) – Rockefeller’s Standard Oil starts drilling oil, not just refining it (the Lima- Indiana, the first giant oil and gas field, 1884) – 1890: Sherman Antitrust Act breaks up several of the largest monopolies but does little to slow down business consolidation – 1895: Standard Oil has become the USA’s largest producer of oil and the largest corporation in the world
311 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Financial revolution – Stock exchanges mostly traded railroad shares – 1891: New Jersey legalizes the the trust certificates issued by trusts since the 1880s – 1892: Carnegie Steel incorporated – 1893: The depression of 1893 affects railroad stocks more than industrials, and sentiment turns towards investing in industrials, e.g. financing mergers – 1895: Morgan saves the US government by ending the run on gold
312 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Financial revolution – 1897: 270 industrial stocks traded in stock exchanges – 1898: JP Morgan (a railroad investment banker) underwrites an industrial stock, Federal Steel – 1895-1904: Wave of mergers changes the industrial landscape, with horizontal integration becoming more frequent than vertical integration – 1901: Morgan merges Federal Steel with Carnegie Steel, Rockefeller’s iron mines, etc to create US Steel, the largest 313 corporation in the world What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Financial revolution/ Antitrust cases – 1901: Teddy Roosevelt becomes president and launches an antitrust campaign – 1904: The Supreme Court orders the dissolution of Northern Securities (Morgan’s railroad trust) – 1911: The Supreme Court orders the dissolution of Rockefeller’s Standard Oil – 1913: The USA creates a Federal Reserve that takes away power from Morgan’s “money trust” 314 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Recessions – 1819 – 1837-43 – 1857-61 (first international market crash caused by the USA market crash) – 1873-79 – 1893
315 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Oil: Standard Oil, Texaco • Rubber: Uniroyal, Goodyear • Metals: US Steel, Bethlehem Steel, American Smelting, Jones & Laughlin, Anaconda Copper, Phelps-Dodge, International Nickel, National Lead • Electrical: General Electric, Westinghouse • Food: American Sugar, Nabisco, United Fruit, Swift, Armour, American Tobacco • Chemical: DuPont • Photography: Eastman Kodak
316 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Richest man in the USA – 1870s: Cornelius Vanderbilt – 1900s: Andrew Carnegie – 1910s: John Rockefeller – 1920s: Henry Ford
317 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Panic of 1893: Depression caused by a chain reaction of bankruptcies because the economy has become a network of interdependent businesses • 1893-97: Economic depression (GDP per person won't return to the 1892 level until 1899) • 1900: 1% of USA corporations account for 33% of all manufacturing • 1913: 2% of USA citizens control 60% of the national product (Morgan and Rockefeller alone control 20%) • 1914: The majority of big industrial 318 companies are publicly held corporations What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Industrial research labs – 1884: Standard Oil manages to remove the smell of the Lima-Indiana oil field thanks to chemists – Carnegie hires chemists to improve steel – 1912 George Eastman's lab in Rochester • "The greatest invention of the 19th century was the invention of the method of invention" (AN Whitehead) • Industrial research pioneered by German chemical industry in the 1870s 319 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Consolidation of information empires • Within a few decades of their invention: – the telegraph is dominated by Western Union, – the telephone is dominated by Bell (AT&T), – the radio by NBC and CBS, – cinema by the Hollywood studios
320 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Big corporations coexist with small companies: small companies actually increase in number between 1895 and 1913 by more than 30% • But small businesses operate according to the rules… • …big businesses can change the rules (political influence)
321 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Science and technology had progressed independently in Britain, and so they did in the USA • Until the 1870s technological progress was mainly due to non-scientists, mostly artisans and engineers • Science has explained electrical and chemical phenomena but those explanations are not useful to "invent" • Artisans and engineers know what society needs, scientists know how nature works 322 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Industrial research laboratories begin to bridge the gap between science and the economy • Many inventors cannot even explain why their invention works • Independent scientific laboratories for teaching and consulting – Charles Jackson: analytical chemistry laboratory for geological applications (Boston 1836) – James Booth: chemistry laboratory (Philadelphia 1836) – Thomas Edison: electricity laboratory (New 323 Jersey 1876) What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Rise of Giant Corporations/ 1861-1899 • Chemical labs in chemical companies (Germany 1890s) • Chemistry is the first branch of science with widespread applications in the industry • Science contributes explanation, quality, optimization • Science does not invent or invents by accident
324 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Government-assisted expansionism • Homestead Acts (1862-1916) grant lands to farmers west of the Mississippi by Congress • Homesteading: a new concept of private property
325 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Government-assisted capitalism • Transcontinental railroad (1869) subsidized by Congress • Roosevelt Dam in Phoenix (1911) funded by Congress • Owens Valley aqueduct to Los Angeles (1913) funded by Los Angeles • Panama Canal (1914) funded by Congress
326 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – The proletariat • Mass production subdivides manufacturing into unskilled tasks • The worker is just a number • Mass production creates a new social class: “blue collar” workers • The working class consists of employees, not independent artisans, who are paid a salary • The salary is not proportional to the value of the goods that are produced • The goal of the employer is to maximize productivity, efficiency and, ultimately, profit 327 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – The proletariat • It is not the worker who decides when to work and for how long, when to start and when to end the work day • It is not the worker who decides what to make, how to make it and when to make it
328 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – The proletariat • Mechanization creates light unskilled tasks in the factory • Light unskilled tasks open the work force to women (2.6 million to 8.6 million between 1880 and 1900) and children (e.g., textile industry) • The structure of corporations and the advent of office machines (typewriter, cash register, telephone) create a new category of jobs: office clerical (“white-collar”) jobs (book-keeping, typist, secretary, receptionist) • White-collar jobs create more opportunities for women ( 4% of white-collar workers are women in 1880, almost 50% in 1900 329 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – The proletariat • 1880: The Pullman Palace Car Company builds its own town, Pullman, on a 16 square-km area near Chicago, providing housing, stores, churches and night clubs for the 6,000 company employees and their dependents • 1913: First moving assembly line at Ford
330 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – The proletariat • 1867: Farms organize in “Granges” • 1869: Knights of Labor founded in Philadelphia • 1869: Avondale mine disaster (110 miners die) • 1873: Stock market crash force rate cuts and then wage cuts by the railroads • 1877: Nation-wide strikes by railroad workers (in West Virginia and Maryland against the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, in Pennsylvania against the Pennsylvania Railroad)
331 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – The proletariat • 1886: Nation-wide strikes called by Knights of Labor (and “Haymarket riots” in Chicago) • 1886: American Federation of Labor founded in Columbus • 1890s: Economic depression • 1892: Strike and riots at Carnegie’s Homestead Steel Works in Pittsburgh
332 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – The proletariat • 1893: The American Railway Union (ARU) is founded in Chicago • 1894: Strike at Pullman Palace Car Company near Chicago that spreads nationwide against the main railroads • 1894: Jacob Coxey leads a march of unemployed men from Ohio via Pittsburgh to Washington • 1914: Gunmen hired by Rockefeller’s Standard Oil kill 20 people at a coal strike in Colorado (“Ludlow Massacre”)
333 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Standardization • Scarcity of labor leads to standard sizes • From carpentry (custom-made sizes) to millwork (standard sizes) • Standardization optimizes labor • Standardization creates goods that are not particularly beautiful but cheap and functional • For the first time in history, ordinary families can afford clocks, bicycles, domestic machines (and eventually telephones, radios, cars) that traditionally only the rich could afford • Standardization enables mass production
334 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of the city • 1832: Philadelphia’s water and sewer system • 1842: New York’s water system – Popularity of the shower
Philadelphia circa 1832 335 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – The Far West
Billy the Kid (second from left) and Pat Garrett (far right) 336 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Urbanization of the West/ Chicago • 5000 people in 1840, 100 thousand in 1860, second city of the USA by 1882 • 1848: The first railway reaches Chicago • 1848: The Illinois and Michigan Canal opens, linking the Great Lakes with the Mississippi River • 1853: New York-Chicago railway • Access to the food production of the prairies
337 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Urbanization of the West/ Chicago • 1871: New York's Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company (A&P), the first "chain“ • 1871: A fire destroys 17,000 buildings and kills 300 people • 1872: Montgomery Ward's mail-order catalog • 1873: William Hale perfects the hydraulic elevator • 1883: The Montauk Building, designed by John Root and Daniel Burnham, is the first to be called a “skyscraper”
338 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Urbanization of the West/ Chicago • Chicago is the railway hub for the distribution of livestock from the Great Plains to the Eastern cities • 1880: Gustavus Swift's refrigerating car replace the need to ship live cattle to slaughterhouses in the cities • Swift's Chicago plants adopt industrial methods for meat-packing, pioneering assembly-line production techniques
339 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Urbanization of the West/ Chicago • 1892: The 22-story Masonic Temple Building is the world’s tallest building • 1893: Richard Warren Sears and Alvah Curtis Roebuck's mail-order catalog • 1893: Columbian Exposition • 1894: 26 railway lines converge on Chicago • 1895: John Root’s Reliance Building for William Hale • 1896: Louis Sullivan proclaims that "form follows function" • 1903: US Steel's colossal integrated steel mill, Gary Works 340 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of the city • 1863: London opens the world's first underground railway (subway) • 1868: Charles Harvey builds New York's first elevated railroad • 1870: Alfred Beach inaugurates a short underground railway, the Beach Pneumatic Transit, in New York • 1888: Frank Sprague installs the first major electric street railway system in Richmond, Virginia
341 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of the city • 1890: The first electrical subway (London) • 1892: Chicago opens the South Side Rapid Transit Railroad (the "L") • 1894: New Jersey inaugurates the world's first funicular railway • 1897: Boston opens the first subway of the USA • 1904: The New York subway opens
342 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of the city • Mechanization of mass transit – Cable-cars in Chicago, San Francisco, etc (1880s) – Electric powered street cars (1890s) • Urban dwellers can move to the outskirts of the city – Safer, quieter, cheaper, more space • Downtown becomes the financial district (offices, factories, warehouses) • Commuter traffic vs city traffic • Price of a six-room house in 1900: $3,000 343 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of the city • Tall buildings – 1854: Elisha Otis in New York invents the elevator with a safety break – 1857: The first steam-driven elevator with a safety break is installed by Otis in New York – 1865: Trinity Church is the tallest building in New York – 1867: New York mandates fire escapes, ventilation and toilets in all tenements – 1869: The first apartment home in New York is the Stuyvesant, designed by Richard Morris Hunt 344 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of the city • Tall buildings – 1870: The nine-story Equitable Building, with a steam-driven elevator, is the tallest building in New York – 1870: Cyurs Baldwin in Boston invents the hydraulic elevator – 1873: William Hale in Chicago perfects the hydraulic elevator – 1875: The nine-story Western Union Telegraph Building in New York – 1878: Siemens builds the first electric elevator in Mannheim, faster than hydraulic or steam elevators 345 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of the city • Tall buildings – 1883: Chicago's Montauk Building, designed by John Root and Daniel Burnham, is the first to be called a “skyscraper” – 1883: New York opens the Brooklyn Bridge, designed by John Roebling – 1885: Chicago's Home Insurance Building, designed by William Le Baron Jenney, is the world's first tall steel-frame building – 1889: The Eiffel Tower features five steam- driven hydraulic elevators – 1889: Otis in New York installs the first alternate-current elevator 346 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of the city • Tall buildings – 1892: Frank Sprague founds the Sprague Electric Elevator Company in New York – 1893: The first moving walkway is presented at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago – 1896: Jesse Reno in New York installs the world's first escalator
347 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of the city • Population growth – The population of the USA grows 25% between 1880 and 1890 reaching 63 million of which 9 million are foreign-born – New York: 1.5 million – Chicago: 1.1 million – Philadelphia: 1 million – Brooklyn: 800,000
348 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of the city • New York in 1898 after annexing nearby cities: 3.5 million people, second largest city after London
Manhattan skyline in 1898 (Munsey's Magazine, Fifth Avenue in 1898 March 1898)
349 Orchard St in 1898 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of the city • Most of the urban population consists of foreign immigrants (87% in Chicago, 84% in London, 80% in New York)
350 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of the city • Population turnover: movement (from one city to another) means improvement (in the rest of the world movement is rare and usually caused not by opportunity but by catastrophe)
351 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of the city • City bosses – Power vacuum created by chaotic growth of cities – Easy domination by politicians of large immigrant communities – Political corruption – William Tweed in New York 1860s/1870s – George Cox in Cincinnati – Thomas Pendergast in Kansas City
352 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of the city • The press – Thomas Nast draws anti-Tweed cartoons for Harper’s Weekly – Edwin Godkin’s The Nation charges Grant's administration with rife corruption (1869) – The St Louis Democrat causes the downfall of White House aide Orville Babcock and the Whiskey Ring (1875) – Rockefeller, Carnegie, Morgan, Gould, Fisk, Stanford routinely corrupt officials but the press 353 hardly notices What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of the middle class • Family income increases because women and children are added to the workforce – Clerical salary increases 36% between 1890 and 1910 to $1,156, same as inflation – Worker’s salary increases about 30% to $630 – Work hour reduced from 60 hours to 51 hours
354 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of the middle class • Luxuries for every family – Water closet (1880s) and private bathrooms – Mass-produced and mass-distributed food » Tin cans allow to preserve food » Ice boxes allow to preserve meat » Railroad refrigerators allow to distribute food around the country » Condensed milk » Diversified diet year-round (first time in the history of the world)
355 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of the middle class • Luxuries for every family – Sewing machine enables mass-produced garments – The tailor turns to repairs not manufacturing – Style is no longer just for the rich – Boom of the fashion industry – Boom of department stores – First chain-store system: Great Atlantic Tea Company (1859) – Credit and deliveries to facilitate shopping – Anyone can enter a department store just to browse without buying 356 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of the middle class • Luxuries for every family – The washing machine (James King, 1851) – The carpet sweeper (1859) – The dishwasher (Josephine Cochrane, 1886) – All of them hand-powered – The electric kitchen (first presented at the Columbia Exhibition of 1893)
357 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Automation of the household • Linus Yale's door padlock (1865) and dial combination lock • 1910s: Automation of the household (fans, irons, toasters, vacuum cleaners enter the mail-order catalogs)
358 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Boom of the middle class • Luxuries for every family – Advertising: not serving a need but creating a need
359 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of the middle class • Causes of death – Vastly reduce danger of typhoid, diphtheria, influenza, tuberculosis, syphilis – New diseases: heart attack, cancer, diabetes – New causes of death: car accidents, murder
360 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Consumerism • 1840s: Immigration lowers the price of servants – 1850s: Middle-class family employs cook, waiter and maid • 1846: The “Marble Palace”, New York (first department store where customers can browse at leisure) – Sets the standard for middle-class lifestyle (furniture, carpeting, china, decoration) – Change the meaning of “necessity” – Turns Christmas into the main engine of retail business
361 What the Victorian Age knew • USA revolution – Consumerism • 1851: Isaac Singer (New York)’s sewing machine – A tool to save on buying/fixing clothes and a tool to make money by making/fixing clothes – The price for ready-made clothes plunges and makes them affordable for the masses • 1816: Frederic Tudor (Boston)’s ice box (insulated with sawdust) – USA exports ice to Brazil, India, China and Indonesia 362 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Consumerism • 1871: New York's Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company (A&P), the first "chain" • 1872: Montgomery Ward's mail-order catalog • 1886: John Pemberton’s Coca-Cola fountain soda (1916 the contour Coca Cola bottle) • 1893: Richard Warren Sears and Alvah Curtis Roebuck's mail-order catalog • 1899: 2 billion cigarettes sold • 1916: Clarence Saunders’ Piggly Wiggly store (Memphis, Tennessee), the first self-service shop • 1920: A & P has 372 stores • 1921: 43 billion cigarettes sold 363 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – The woman as a service worker • Servant jobs are taken up by former slaves and soon replaced by appliances • The machine age creates a new class of factory and office jobs for women: light, unskilled tasks • Shift from domestic service (50% of female workers in the USA in 1870) to white-collar jobs (38% in 1920) • White-collar jobs appeal also to middle-class urban women, not only country or poor urban girls • White-collar jobs create a new class of single women (most USA female college graduates between 1870 and 1900 lived single lives for several years) 364 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – The woman as a consumer • The new mode of production creates a division between producer and consumer, and relegates the woman to the role of the consumer • In the new mode of production life was easier and safer, but confined to the domestic sphere • Eventually women are just a market segment (kitchenware, furniture, cosmetics, appliances) • Men invent them, make them and sell them. Women buy them.
365 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of organized entertainment • Mechanization creates spare time (e.g., weekends and Friday evenings) • Entertainment for the masses, not only for the higher classes: sport, theater, music • Mass entertainment is the equivalent of mass production
366 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of organized entertainment • Sport – Baseball (1845) – USA football (1869) • Circus – Traveling circus thanks to railroads – Freaks, acrobats, clowns, tamers • Theater – Musical comedy – Drama – Vaudeville/ variety show (magic, juggling, comedy, singing, dancing) 367 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of organized entertainment • Organized entertainment provides economic opportunities for blacks, immigrants and women • Organized entertainment helps unify the ethnic groups and geographic zones of the country • Organized entertainment breaks the monopoly of the social elite on sport, theater, music, etc • Organized entertainment creates a new form of big business
368 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of organized entertainment • Cinema and recording make it possible to experience the performance without the need for the performer • Technology makes the performance not unique but replicable in many places at the same time • Technology further helps unify the ethnic groups and geographic zones of the country
369 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of organized entertainment • The newspaper for the masses becomes a form of entertainment – Joseph Pulitzer (New York World, 1893): sensationalist reportage about crime, corruption, sex scandal, disaster, plus comics, sports and women’s section – William-Randolph Hearst (New York Journal, 1895) – Addiction to the news
370 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Boom of immigration from 1890 to 1920 changes the religious nature of the USA, from Protestant to a mixture of Protestant, Catholic and Jewish – Immigration also makes the USA population very young: the median age in 1880 is 21
371 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Indian Wars • 17th c: “Indians”, originally a pedestrian nation, adopt the horse • The horse expands the territory of the western Sioux (Lakotas) and Cheyennes • Wars with other tribes for control of pasture • First trade with whites: beaver skins (main trade until 1790s), then buffalo robes and meat • Wars with other tribes for control of buffalo hunting grounds • Sioux expand because of ruthless wars and less vulnerable to European diseases 372 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Indian Wars • 19th c: Lakotas and Cheyennes adopt the gun • Gold rush of 1849 does not affect the Sioux and Cheyennes because white people transit, do not settle • Gold rush of 1858 in Colorado (and the creation of the Territory of Colorado in 1861) affects the Indians because now gold diggers settle on Indian land • Discovery of gold in Montana in 1862 (home of the Sioux, their last hunting ground)
• Indian nations have no central authority 373 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Indian Wars • Effects of the civil war – The Civil War protects not only the union of north and south but also access by the east to the west (New Orleans’ port and the big rivers) – Railroads open the West to hunters, miners, farmers – A highly efficient cavalry and artillery – Rogue militias (John Chivington’s Colorado volunteers, Sand Creek massacre of 1864) – William Sherman’s "scorched earth" tactic applied to the Indian tribes 374 What the Victorian Age knew • USA – Indian Wars • 1865: Cheyennes and Sioux massacre whites in Julesburg in Colorado to avenge the Sand Creek massacre • 1866: William Fetterman's troops are annihilated by Sioux and Cheyennes in Montana • 1868: Crazy Horse’s Lakotas reject the Lakota big chief Fort Laramie peace treaty, that assigns Red Cloud Dakota to the Lakotas Phil Sheridan, Sherman’s William Sherman, general commander of general in Missouri (1867): “The the territory between the Mississippi only good Indians I ever saw River and the Rocky Mountains (1867): were dead Indians” “their extermination… men, women, children” 375 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Indian Wars • 1873: Stock market crash increases pressure on the USA to open the Black Hills of Dakota to gold prospectors • 1874: Media frenzy (about gold found by general George Custer’s expedition) generates an illegal gold rush to the Black Hills • 1876: George Custer’s troops are annihilated by Crazy Horse’s Lakotas • 1877: Crazy Horse surrenders False photo of • 1890: The army massacres the Lakotas Crazy Horse in South Dakota ("Wounded Knee Massacre") 376 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Indian Wars • Decline of the buffalo trade – 1820s: Steamboats open the West to trade with the American Fur Company – 1850s: The railroads increase trade in buffalo robes, meat and hides – 1870s: Special rifles and cartridges to hunt buffalos (Sharps Rifle Manufacturing Co) – 1880s: Buffalos exterminated
377 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Foreign policy: decolonization and self-determination, but also control of the Americas (“Monroe Doctrine”) – 1895: Crisis with Britain over Venezuela-Guyana – 1895: Support of Cuban rebellion against Spain – 1898: Liberation of the Philippines from Spain – 1900: Support of China against European and Japanese control – 1918: Support of Mensheviks in Russia – Only non-European country that dared defy the European powers
378 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – Scientific Management • Scientific organization of a factory to minimize time and resources • Discovering the fundamental principles of human skilled labor • Invented by self-taught non-scientists • 1906: Frederick Taylor (Philadelphia steel worker) • 1910s: Frank Gilbreth (Boston bricklayer)
379 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – World War I: economic opportunity • Record exports to Europe, both agricultural and manufacturing and military • Pierre DuPont’s fortune (arms and chemicals) • Dow Jones’ biggest percentage gain of all times: 1915 (86%) • USA goes from being the world’s largest debtor nation to being a net creditor to France and Britain • USA replaces Britain as the world’s financial power
380 What the Victorian Age knew
• USA – World War I: economic opportunity • Wartime mobilization creates job opportunities for women and blacks (mass emigration to the North)
381 GDP per capite 1900
382 http://www.nationmaster.com/graph-T/eco_gdp_per_cap_in_190/EUR What the Victorian Age knew
• Rise of Japan/ Meiji Restoration – MicrosoftMap Corporation
383 What the Victorian Age knew
• Rise of Japan/ Meiji Restoration – Foreign interference • 1854: USA and Britain • 1855: Russia • 1857: Holland • 1859: Yokohama becomes the main port for foreign trade • 1863: The domain of Choshu demands the expulsion of all foreigners • 1864: Britain, USA, Holland and France bomb Choshu
384 What the Victorian Age knew
• Rise of Japan/ Meiji Restoration – However Japan succeeds where China fails • No wars • No loss of territory • No crippling conditions • Commodore Perry: Japan is “the most moral and refined of all eastern nations”
385 What the Victorian Age knew
• Rise of Japan/ Meiji Restoration – However Japan succeeds where China fails • Samurais appreciate Western military superiority • Divided Japanese society is better at transformation than the united Chinese bureaucracy • Commodore Perry’s expedition indirectly reveals Western technology to the Japanese: the telegraph, the steam engine, the revolver, the daguerreotype
386 What the Victorian Age knew
• Rise of Japan/ Meiji Restoration – Emperor (Kyoto) vs shogunate (Tokyo/Edo) vs domains (Chochu, Satsuma, etc) – 1862: Satsuma urgers union – 1865: Samurais of humble origin (Kido Takayoshi) win the civil war in Choshu against the aristocratic army – 1868: Saigo Takamori of Satsuma and Kido Takayoshi of Choshu (both young men of humble samurai birth) form a secret alliance in Kyoto, depose the Tokugawa shogun and restore the emperor (“Meiji Restoration”)
387 What the Victorian Age knew
• Rise of Japan/ Meiji Restoration – Collapse of Tokugawa shogunate caused by contact with westerners and growing awareness of the technological gap – 1869: Westernizing economic reforms – 1871: The revolutionary government dismantles the feudal system of domains and samurais
388 What the Victorian Age knew
• Rise of Japan/ Meiji Restoration • Kido Takayoshi • Saigo Takamori • Yamagata Aritomo • Ōkuma Shigenobu
389 What the Victorian Age knew • Rise of Japan/ Meiji Restoration – Theoretically a nationalistic return to Japan’s ancient way of life – Practically, a program of rapid adoption of Western manners and technology (1870s-80s) • Fukuzawa Yukichi’s “Conditions in the West” (1869) launches the wave of Westernization • Students sent to the USA and Europe • Western teachers invited to Japan • Western educational system (the Confucian school of Edo becomes the Western-style “University of Tokyo” in 1869)
390 What the Victorian Age knew • Rise of Japan/ Meiji Restoration – Practically, a program of rapid adoption of Western manners and technology (1870s-80s) • Western religion (ban on Christianity revoked in 1873 and Christianity becomes influential among the intellectual elite) • Meat eating (previously considered un- Buddhist) • Anti-Buddhist sentiment
391 What the Victorian Age knew • Rise of Japan/ Meiji Restoration – Practically, a program of rapid adoption of Western manners and technology (1870s-80s) • Western law code (1896) • Western politics (first political party in 1874, first elections in 1879, parliamentary constitution in 1889) • Army trained by French and German experts
392 What the Victorian Age knew • Rise of Japan/ Meiji Restoration – Practically, a program of rapid adoption of Western manners and technology (1870s-80s) • Western architecture • Western band music • Western church music • Western dress for official ceremonies (1872) • Western hair style
393 What the Victorian Age knew • Rise of Japan/ Meiji Restoration – Practically, a program of rapid adoption of Western manners and technology (1870s-80s) • But not for women…
394 What the Victorian Age knew • Rise of Japan/ Meiji Restoration – Modernization • First newspaper (1870) • First railroad (1872) • First telegraph (1868) • First national bank (1873) • Steamship • Mail • Factories
395 What the Victorian Age knew
• Rise of Japan/ Meiji Restoration – New generation of businessmen (zaibatsu) • Old merchant families (Mitsui under the management of Minomura Rizaemon, Sumitomo) • Samurais (Mitsubishi founded by Iwasaki Yataro • Peasants (banker Yasuda Zenjiro, banker Shibusawa Eiichi that founds the First National Bank and the Osaka Spinning Mill in 1880 that spearheads the industrial boom)
What the Victorian Age knew
• Rise of Japan/ Meiji Restoration – Industrial boom • 1880: Shibusawa Eiichi founds the Osaka Spinning Mill • 1891: The government founds the Yawata Iron Works
What the Victorian Age knew • Rise of Japan/ Meiji Restoration – The West replaces China as Japan’s main role model – Only non-European civilization to “modernize” rapidly (to become a “nation”)
398 What the Victorian Age knew • Rise of Japan – Western-style democratic movement (1889: British- style parliamentary constitution) – Western-style invasion of China (1894) resulting in the annexation of Taiwan – Anglo-Japanese alliance (1902), first military pact between a Western power and a non-Western power – War against Russia (1904), first defeat of a Western power by a Far Eastern country, resulting in the annexation of Korea – Japanese naval supremacy in Asia – World War I (1914) on the side of the winners, resulting in the annexation of German colonies of the Pacific 399 What the Victorian Age knew
• Japanese-Russian war (1904-05) – Japanese naval supremacy in Asia – First time that a non-European nation defeats a European nation (decline of the prestige of colonial powers) – Limit of Russian expansion in the Far East – Financial bankruptcy for both – The USA mediates peace treaty (end of USA isolationism)
400 What the Victorian Age knew
• Rise of Japan – After exposure to Westerners, Japan followed the opposite course of China: adoption of Western manners and rise to international power, instead of decline – Little exaltation of Japanese past (there was nothing to exalt, as all Japanese culture was already foreign and Japan came from feudal nightmare) but a lot of assimilation of Western ideas
401 What the Victorian Age knew
• Rise of Japan – Matsukata Masayoshi Tokyo in 1905 – Shibusawa Eiichi
402 What the Victorian Age knew
• China/ Before WWI
403 The last empress What the Victorian Age knew • China/ Before WWI – Domestic crises • 1851-64: Taiping (Christian) rebellion in Nanjing – 30 million die – Economic crisis – Loss of control by the emperor over some of the provinces – De-facto British control over Shanghai – Defeated by general Zeng Guofan and his army • 1856-73: Hui (Muslim) rebellion in Yunnan (south) – One million die • 1855-68: Nien rebellion in the northwest – Defeated by general Li Hongzhang and his army • 1862-73: “New Teaching” Muslim rebellion in Gansu (north) – Defeated by general Zuo Zongtang and his army • 1865-77: Yakub Beg’s Muslim state in Xinjiang (west) – Defeated by general Zuo Zongtang and his army 404 • 1877-78: Famine (nine million die) What the Victorian Age knew • China/ Before WWI – Regional leaders • Zeng Guofan • Li Hongzhang • Zuo Zongtang and his army
405 What the Victorian Age knew
• China/ Before WWI – 1861: the new emperor, Tongzhi, is five years old (power in the hands of his mother Tsu His/ Ci Xi) – Politicians push for a “Tongzhi Restoration” similar to the “Meji Restoration” that allowed Japan to become a power – 1875: Tongzhi dies and is succeeded by his three- year old cousin Guangxu (power remains in the hands of Cixi)
406 What the Victorian Age knew
• China/ Before WWI – Empress Ci Xi
407 What the Victorian Age knew
• China/ Before WWI – International crises • 1856-60: Second opium war, occupation of Beijing and destruction of the Summer Palace (Beijing open to western delegations, more ports open to trade, Yangtze open to foreign ships, legalization of opium trade, protection of Christians) • 1860: Russia secures North Manchuria • 1868: Treaty with the USA (Chinese emigration to the USA) • 1875-76: Defeat against Japan for supremacy in Korea • 1884-85: Defeat against France for control of Annam (Vietnam becomes a French protectorate) • 1894-95: Defeat against Japan (loss of Taiwan + indemnity) • 1896: Russia obtains concession to build the Chinese Eastern Railway to Vladivostok • 1900: Boxer rebellion (fourth Chinese war against foreign powers) crushed by western troops (indemnity) 408 What the Victorian Age knew
• China/ Before WWI – International crises • China does not send emissaries abroad to learn of Western intentions and to spy on Western technology (no diplomatic mission till 1877)
409 What the Victorian Age knew
• China/ Before WWI – China de facto divided into spheres of influence (Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Japan)
410 What the Victorian Age knew
• China/ Before WWI – 1845: First newspaper (British) – 1865: Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank (by British) – 1871: First telegraph (by a Danish telegraph company) – 1876: First railway (British) – Most railways built by foreign powers: • Germany: lines to Shandong • Britain: Yang-tze valley • France: Hanoi to Kunming • Russia: Vladivostok to Lushun • Japan: Korea to Mukden • Opposition within China to Chinese railways: railways ruin the harmony with nature – 1896: National post (British, replacing the imperial post
that was only for government officials) 411 What the Victorian Age knew
• China/ Before WWI – Li Hongzhang’s economic experiment in Tianjin • 1870: Mixed program of modernization ("government supervision and merchant operation") • 1872: China Merchants Steam Navigation Company • 1876: Kaiping mines (first example of the application of foreign mining methods in China) • 1878: Shanghai Cotton Cloth Mill • 1881: Imperial Telegraph Administration
412 What the Victorian Age knew
• China/ Before WWI – “Tongzhi Restoration” of China vs “Meji Restoration” of Japan • "Unequal treaties" with foreign powers • Corrupt and incompetent central power of empress dowager (till 1908) • Popular uprisings quelled by generals who create regional militias • The victorious generals (Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang, Zuo Zongtang) are Confucian scholar-administrators • Political inertia
413 What the Victorian Age knew • China/ Before WWI – “Tongzhi Restoration” of China vs “Meji Restoration” of Japan • Western ideas (including Christianity) viewed with suspicion by both intellectuals and masses • Intellectual opposition to industrialization • Distrust for Chinese students who return from the USA • The cities that expand rapidly are the ones founded/controlled by foreign powers: Shanghai, Canton, Hong Kong • Most railways built by foreign powers (the Chinese are content with water transportation) • Banks and communications built by foreign powers
• War with Japan of 1894 414 What the Victorian Age knew • China/ Before WWI – Life in 1870s
415 What the Victorian Age knew • China/ Before WWI – Life in 1870s
416 What the Victorian Age knew
• China/ Before WWI – Peiyang University (1895), first Chinese university – Decline of Confucianism (1905 abolition of the examination system, introduction of science and technology in the curriculum) – The “mandate of heaven” is replaced by the “will of the people” (“People’s Army“, “People’s Party“, “People’s Principles”) – Writers abandon the literary language for the vernacular (1917) – Decline of Buddhism and Taoism – The revolution of 1911 is organized by young people (students), who replace the scholar class as political leaders 417 What the Victorian Age knew
• China/ Before WWI – For centuries Japan has been inspired by China, but after 1905 (Japan-Russia war) it is China that is inspired by Japan • Students enroll in Japanese universities • Revolutionaries exiled to Japan • Japan modernizes army and economy of China • Japan as the model for the late Qing ministers • Constitutional impulse in China after Japan’s constitutional monarchy defeats Russia’s czarist tyranny • The revolution of 1911 is largely organized in Japan
418 What the Victorian Age knew
• China/ Before WWI – 1895: Sun Yatsen (pron. Son Jon Shan) forms a secret society to overthrow the Manchu/Qing but has to flee to Japan, USA, Europe – 1898: Emperor Guangxu enacts reforms (westernization of government, university, army and economy) but is confined under palace detention by his aunt Cixi – 1905: Sun Yatsen (in exile) forms the Tongmeng Hui/ Revolutionary Alliance, funded by Chinese emigrants in Singapore and North America – 1908: Guangxu and Cixi die and are succeeded by another child emperor, Puyi
419 What the Victorian Age knew
• China/ Before WWI – Opposition to Manchu rule: • Provincial politicians/warlords • Overseas students (mostly in Japan) • Women (Liang Qichao, Qiu Jin) • Merchants • Urban workers • Army • Opium traders
420 What the Victorian Age knew
• China/ Before WWI – They get organized in • Nationalists (Sun Yatsen’s Revolutionary Alliance): overthrow the Qing regime, expel the foreigners • Constitutional monarchs (Kang Youwei): reform the Qing regime • Anarchists and Marxists (1906: first translation of Marx’s “Manifesto”)
421 What the Victorian Age knew
• China/ Before WWI – 1911: Wuhan revolutionaries launch an uprising (the 10/10 revolution) and Sun Yatsen returns to China – 1912: Sun Yatsen installs a republic in Nanjing and the Manchus abdicate – 1912: First elections won by Sun Yatsen’s Kuomintang (KMT) party – 1913: Yuan Shikai’s coup and Sun Yatsen’s exile – 1914: Foreign investment in China is $1.6 billion – 1915: Provinces secede and warlords rule the south – 1916: Yuan dies, succeeded by Duan Qirui – 1917: China joins WWI on the side of Britain/France, the
first time in history that Chinese soldiers are dispatched422 to another continent What the Victorian Age knew • China/ Before WWI – Westernization of China • Western and Japanese possessions • Foreign investment in China: $1.6 billion in 1914 – $600M Britain, $270M Russian, $263 Germany, $219 Japan, $171 France – Railways, mines, public utilities, cotton mills, sugar refineries, silk filatures, real estate • Chinese mission to Europe’s World War I • Boom of newspapers and magazines • Popularity of Ibsen’s plays (criticize bourgeoisie) • Christian missionary schools • YMCAs and YWCAs • Decline of Buddhism and Daoism 423 What the Victorian Age knew
• China/ Before WWI – Sun Yatsen/ Son Jon Shan (Japan, USA, Britain) • Principle of People's Rights: separation of quan and neng (de facto, one-party dictatorship) • Principle of People's Livelihood: restriction of capitalism and land-ownership • Principle of Nationalism: amalgamation of all ethnic groups into the Han to form a "great Chinese race" • Sun Yatsen’s legacy: China is even weaker and undemocratic than it was under the Manchus
424 What the Victorian Age knew
• China/ Before WWI – Japan • Nationalism leads to industrial and financial boom • Anti-imperialist sentiment yields capitalist sentiment, and eventually to own empire – China • Nationalism leads to intellectual debate, and eventually to Marxism • Anti-imperialist sentiment yields anti-capitalist sentiment, and eventually to civil war
425 What the Victorian Age knew
• Evolution of social classes – Transformation from agrarian society to industrial society – Social classes of the old agrarian society: • Landowners (rural) • Peasants (rural) • Bourgeoisie (urban) • Britain, USA, France: – Trade and manufacturing favor the urban bourgeoisie – Urban bourgeoisie creates an independent economy – Three different revolutions – Bourgeoisie tends towards capitalism and democracy 426 What the Victorian Age knew • Evolution of social struggle – Britain: • Peasant class destroyed by industrialization • Landowner class bankrupt (grain from USA after USA civil war) • Industrialization leads to democracy – USA: • No peasant class to start with • Landowner class destroyed by civil war • Industrialization leads to democracy – France: • Peasant class joins the revolution • Landowner class destroyed by the revolution • Delayed industrialization and delayed democracy 427 What the Victorian Age knew
• Evolution of social struggle – Russia: • Weak bourgeoisie does not stage a revolution • Industrialization from above and no democracy • The system tends towards communism
428 What the Victorian Age knew
• Evolution of social struggle – China: • Weak urban trading and manufacturing class • Confucian examination system drain brains from business towards state bureaucracy • Weak bourgeoisie does not stage a revolution • Businessmen represents a threat to the power of state bureaucrats (hence bureaucrats tax profits or create state monopolies, e.g. salt) • Most trade and manufacturing are run by foreigners
429 What the Victorian Age knew
• Evolution of social struggle – China: • Frequent peasant rebellions • The system tends towards communism • Peasantry prevails but becomes victim • Industrialization from above and no democracy • The system tends towards communism
430 What the Victorian Age knew
• Evolution of social classes – Germany and Japan: • Weak bourgeoisie does not stage a revolution • No peasant rebellions • Agricultural innovations and increase in productivity • Industrial revolution from above • The system tends towards fascism and capitalism
431 What the Victorian Age knew
• Evolution of social classes – Latin America: • Landowners • Slavery • No bourgeoisie • Very weak impulse towards industrialization from above or below • The system tends towards fascism and capitalism
432 What the Victorian Age knew
• Evolution of social classes – Islamic world: • Powerful bourgeoisie has no motivation to industrialize • Weak peasantry and no landowners • Very weak impulse towards industrialization from above or below
433 What the Victorian Age knew
• Evolution of social classes – India: • Powerful bourgeoisie has no motivation to industrialize but resents British manufacturers • Weak peasantry (primitive agriculture, exploitation by parasitic landowners) • The landowners ally with the British • No peasant rebellion (caste-based social order) • The bourgeois revolution takes place in the form of a (non-violent) alliance between bourgeoisie and peasantry to expel the British • Very weak impulse towards industrialization from above (Britain) or below • The system tends towards democracy 434 What the Victorian Age knew
• Australia and New Zealand – Volunteers from the colony of New South Wales embarking from Sydney for the Sudan on 3/3/1885 to fight Australia's first war
435 What the Victorian Age knew Piero Scaruffi Copyright 2018 http://www.scaruffi.com/know
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