The Emergence of a Male Global Gay Identity

The Emergence of a Male Global quite 'anthropologically incorrect' to Gay Identity: A Contentious and make such broad generalizations. Contemporary Movement However, despite all of the research and theory suggesting that gay sexuality around the world is diverse and divided, it is evident that there is an emerging international identity of Introduction the 'gay man'. Previous anthropological studies One of the most important have emphasized the extensive variation in factors in the development of a homosexual identity formation among universal gay identity is globalization. different cultures. However, Easier travel, expansive contemporary research and evidence communication networks, and better points to the emergence of a male global access to information have exposed gay identity that is bridging cou~tless various homosexual lifestyles and cultural barriers. I intend to argue III the ideologies to almost every culture on following article that the intensification of Earth. In order to better understand the essentialism versus constructionist whether a global gay identity is truly debate, the growth of mass media, and the emerging, it is important to explore development of international gay various aspects of globalization that movements, have each contributed to the contribute to, or impede, the solidification of a contentious male global construction of such a controversial gay identity. The examination of these international identity. The social and cultural factors reveals a essentialism versus constructionism significant trend for homosexual identity debate, which is defined in the formation intricately woven into the subsequent section, has factored complexity of globalization. significantly into the exploration ?f a All around the world vanous global gay identity. There are vanous cultures contain specific and unique patterns that suggest homosexuality is norms, values, and traditions regarding a universal phenomenon and others sexuality. From small villages to complex that indicate cultural specificity, and nation-states, every social unit produces this conflict is clear in the research of different relationships based on varying many gay communities around the sexualities. Although these sexual norms world (Altman 2001). The media has have evolved throughout human history, also emerged as one of the most recently homosexuality is emerging as an important features in the study of a arguably international sexual global gay identity. In many cases, the development. Anthropologists have spent onslaught of Western media has a lot of time and energy trying to precipitated identification with t.he categorize the varying homosexual global gay identity in many countnes relationships found in cultures based on (Boellstorff 2001). However, there gender, sexuality, and sex acts, among has also been mounting resistance to many other things. It is clear from recent the Western homosexual culture that anthropological works that it is far too has been so pervasive in the complex to label men around the ~orld international homosexual circuit who have sex with other men as SImply (Donham 1998). Finally, the gay or homosexual and it has become TOTEM vol 15 2006-2007 emergence of international gay that with the increase in homosexual organizations, communities, and exposure cross-culturally, the gay movements are important because they urges of the appositional indicate the level of 'brotherhood' among consciousness are reinforced and more gay men cross-culturally and the amount easily solidified into an identity in the of acceptance that exists for propositional consciousness. homosexuality on an international scale Identity formation at an (Adam et al. 1999). Despite the cultural individual level indicates the processes variance and intolerance of male that gay men experience in coming to homosexuality that exist around the world identify with the homosexual today, all of these factors contribute to community. However, contemporary slow the development of a global gay research recognizes the significance of identity. culture and socialization in the construction of identity, especially the The Global Gay Identity and the formation of a global identity (Altman Essentialism Versus Constructionism 1971). Dennis Altman (1971) has Debate produced a series of works exploring The emergence of a male global homosexual identity construction at a gay identity is controversial and believed national and international level. In one to be 'imagined' by many individuals and of his first books, Altman (1971: 15) communities cross-culturally (Schippers stated, "the very concept of 1989). The issue arises over the process in homosexuality is a social one, and one which a gay identity is formed. cannot understand the homosexual Essentialists believe that the homosexual experience without recognizing the identity develops universally from extent to which we have developed a intrinsic human characteristics and certain identity and behaviour derived behaviours, while constructionists argue from social norms". Altman that homosexuality is a cultural invention acknowledged the importance of, constructed to define sexual behaviour societies and the global community in (Schippers 1989: 139). Essentialism does particular, in forming homosexual not account for the cross-cultural identities around the world today. differences which have emerged in Altman (1971: 10) explained that homosexual behaviour, and conversely, "homosexuals have, for the first time the constructionist view fails to account in modem societies 'come out' in large for the 'premature' feelings that many men numbers and asserted rather than express for other men before learning apologized for themselves". about the concept of homosexuality Interestingly, Altman recognized that (Schippers 1989:143). In the past few the global gay identity is firmly decades, this debate was fed by constructed on the basis of oppression. psychoanalytical research. Jan Schippers Without opposition and intolerance (1989) identified the appositional around the world, homosexuals would consciousness, in which sexual and have no need to cling to their gay emotional urges develop, and the identities in an effort to protect their propositional consciousness, which allows rights and gain acceptance in a for the cognitive recognition of actions community. With less of a global and identity. Schippers (1989: 142) argued divide between sexual orientations, TOTEM vol 15 2006-2007 Copyright © 2007 TOTEM: The G'\XIOJournal of Anthropology Altman (1971:239) suggested that hyperbolized by Western scholars homosexuality will become simply an because the global gay identity is adjective to describe behaviour and no looking more and more like the longer a noun to describe an identity. Western gay identity. More recently, Altman (2001) began to explore the cultural variations in The Global Gay Identity and the Mass homosexuality as expressed by Media constructionist scholars. Altman In the past few decades, the (2001: 86) stated that "the question is not homosexual identity has emerged as whether gay exists-it does in almost one of the most distinct and every society we know of-but how contemporary in Western culture. people incorporate it into their sense of Globalization is exposing billions of self'. It is important to realize that people around the globe to the although homosexual activity occurs all evolving lifestyles of homosexuals in over the world, the cultural meaning and the Western world. Although the significance of these acts and identities variation between the behaviour, vary greatly, despite globalization. For experiences, and identities of gay men example, in Latin America a homosexual within Western nations is great, there is one who rejects dominant gender roles, is an emerging concrete homosexual so sex with another man does not identify stereotype that not only pervades that man as a homosexual if he conforms Western discourse, but saturates to the male gender role (Altman 2001:90). cultures in every corner of the globe. Although Western ideologies are slowly Some of the characteristics that define seeping into Latin American culture, this homosexual stereotype include a distinct and divisive homosexual patterns predisposition for fashion and beauty, do remain. Peter A. Jackson (1998:955) an avaricious sex life, and an innate explained that Latin American femininity (Das and Harry 1980). This homosexuality appears to be quite stereotypical identity has taken root in homogenous and similar to its North Western culture and Altman (2001:94) American counter-parts, but local poignantly stated that "it is as specificity of homosexual discourse varies impossible to prevent identities and greatly between communities. Jackson categories from traveling as it is to also recognized the bias that exists among prevent pornography from traveling contemporary Western scholars and its across the Internet". However, before significance in the study of a global gay the internet surged into the mainstream identity. Jackson (1998:955) stated that media, newspapers and television "the theoretical lenses scholars use to view provided the greatest flow of erotic cultures can predispose them to homosexual culture and identity from seeing either similarity or difference". the West to the rest of the world The former, over the latter, has become (Boellstorff 200 I). Through these increasingly problematic in the perception mediums, men all over the world are that gay communities all over the world, exposed to the achievements, failures,

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