The Emergence of a Male Global quite 'anthropologically incorrect' to Gay Identity: A Contentious and make such broad generalizations. Contemporary Movement However, despite all of the research and theory suggesting that gay sexuality around the world is diverse and divided, it is evident that there is an emerging international identity of Introduction the 'gay man'. Previous anthropological studies One of the most important have emphasized the extensive variation in factors in the development of a homosexual identity formation among universal gay identity is globalization. different cultures. However, Easier travel, expansive contemporary research and evidence communication networks, and better points to the emergence of a male global access to information have exposed gay identity that is bridging cou~tless various homosexual lifestyles and cultural barriers. I intend to argue III the ideologies to almost every culture on following article that the intensification of Earth. In order to better understand the essentialism versus constructionist whether a global gay identity is truly debate, the growth of mass media, and the emerging, it is important to explore development of international gay various aspects of globalization that movements, have each contributed to the contribute to, or impede, the solidification of a contentious male global construction of such a controversial gay identity. The examination of these international identity. The social and cultural factors reveals a essentialism versus constructionism significant trend for homosexual identity debate, which is defined in the formation intricately woven into the subsequent section, has factored complexity of globalization. . significantly into the exploration ?f a All around the world vanous global gay identity. There are vanous cultures contain specific and unique patterns that suggest homosexuality is norms, values, and traditions regarding a universal phenomenon and others sexuality. From small villages to complex that indicate cultural specificity, and nation-states, every social unit produces this conflict is clear in the research of different relationships based on varying many gay communities around the sexualities. Although these sexual norms world (Altman 2001). The media has have evolved throughout human history, also emerged as one of the most recently homosexuality is emerging as an important features in the study of a arguably international sexual global gay identity. In many cases, the development. Anthropologists have spent onslaught of Western media has a lot of time and energy trying to precipitated identification with t.he categorize the varying homosexual global gay identity in many countnes relationships found in cultures based on (Boellstorff 2001). However, there gender, sexuality, and sex acts, among has also been mounting resistance to many other things. It is clear from recent the Western homosexual culture that anthropological works that it is far too has been so pervasive in the complex to label men around the ~orld international homosexual circuit who have sex with other men as SImply (Donham 1998). Finally, the gay or homosexual and it has become

TOTEM vol 15 2006-2007 emergence of international gay that with the increase in homosexual organizations, communities, and exposure cross-culturally, the gay movements are important because they urges of the appositional indicate the level of 'brotherhood' among consciousness are reinforced and more gay men cross-culturally and the amount easily solidified into an identity in the of acceptance that exists for propositional consciousness. homosexuality on an international scale Identity formation at an (Adam et al. 1999). Despite the cultural individual level indicates the processes variance and intolerance of male that gay men experience in coming to homosexuality that exist around the world identify with the homosexual today, all of these factors contribute to community. However, contemporary slow the development of a global gay research recognizes the significance of identity. culture and socialization in the construction of identity, especially the The Global Gay Identity and the formation of a global identity (Altman Essentialism Versus Constructionism 1971). Dennis Altman (1971) has Debate produced a series of works exploring The emergence of a male global homosexual identity construction at a gay identity is controversial and believed national and international level. In one to be 'imagined' by many individuals and of his first books, Altman (1971: 15) communities cross-culturally (Schippers stated, "the very concept of 1989). The issue arises over the process in homosexuality is a social one, and one which a gay identity is formed. cannot understand the homosexual Essentialists believe that the homosexual experience without recognizing the identity develops universally from extent to which we have developed a intrinsic human characteristics and certain identity and behaviour derived behaviours, while constructionists argue from social norms". Altman that homosexuality is a cultural invention acknowledged the importance of, constructed to define sexual behaviour societies and the global community in (Schippers 1989: 139). Essentialism does particular, in forming homosexual not account for the cross-cultural identities around the world today. differences which have emerged in Altman (1971: 10) explained that homosexual behaviour, and conversely, "homosexuals have, for the first time the constructionist view fails to account in modem societies 'come out' in large for the 'premature' feelings that many men numbers and asserted rather than express for other men before learning apologized for themselves". about the concept of homosexuality Interestingly, Altman recognized that (Schippers 1989:143). In the past few the global gay identity is firmly decades, this debate was fed by constructed on the basis of oppression. psychoanalytical research. Jan Schippers Without opposition and intolerance (1989) identified the appositional around the world, homosexuals would consciousness, in which sexual and have no need to cling to their gay emotional urges develop, and the identities in an effort to protect their propositional consciousness, which allows rights and gain acceptance in a for the cognitive recognition of actions community. With less of a global and identity. Schippers (1989: 142) argued divide between sexual orientations,

TOTEM vol 15 2006-2007 Copyright © 2007 TOTEM: The G'\XIOJournal of Anthropology Altman (1971:239) suggested that hyperbolized by Western scholars homosexuality will become simply an because the global gay identity is adjective to describe behaviour and no looking more and more like the longer a noun to describe an identity. Western gay identity. More recently, Altman (2001) began to explore the cultural variations in The Global Gay Identity and the Mass homosexuality as expressed by Media constructionist scholars. Altman In the past few decades, the (2001: 86) stated that "the question is not homosexual identity has emerged as whether gay exists-it does in almost one of the most distinct and every society we know of-but how contemporary in Western culture. people incorporate it into their sense of Globalization is exposing billions of self'. It is important to realize that people around the globe to the although homosexual activity occurs all evolving lifestyles of homosexuals in over the world, the cultural meaning and the Western world. Although the significance of these acts and identities variation between the behaviour, vary greatly, despite globalization. For experiences, and identities of gay men example, in Latin America a homosexual within Western nations is great, there is one who rejects dominant gender roles, is an emerging concrete homosexual so sex with another man does not identify stereotype that not only pervades that man as a homosexual if he conforms Western discourse, but saturates to the male gender role (Altman 2001:90). cultures in every corner of the globe. Although Western ideologies are slowly Some of the characteristics that define seeping into Latin American culture, this homosexual stereotype include a distinct and divisive homosexual patterns predisposition for fashion and beauty, do remain. Peter A. Jackson (1998:955) an avaricious sex life, and an innate explained that Latin American femininity (Das and Harry 1980). This homosexuality appears to be quite stereotypical identity has taken root in homogenous and similar to its North Western culture and Altman (2001:94) American counter-parts, but local poignantly stated that "it is as specificity of homosexual discourse varies impossible to prevent identities and greatly between communities. Jackson categories from traveling as it is to also recognized the bias that exists among prevent pornography from traveling contemporary Western scholars and its across the Internet". However, before significance in the study of a global gay the internet surged into the mainstream identity. Jackson (1998:955) stated that media, newspapers and television "the theoretical lenses scholars use to view provided the greatest flow of erotic cultures can predispose them to homosexual culture and identity from seeing either similarity or difference". the West to the rest of the world The former, over the latter, has become (Boellstorff 200 I). Through these increasingly problematic in the perception mediums, men all over the world are that gay communities all over the world, exposed to the achievements, failures, despite their differences, are merging into lifestyles, and stereotypes of a select one homogenous international community group of homosexuals in developed (Jackson 1998:955). Although this pattern Western nations. There are many is emerging, its speed and intensity is stereotypical attributes of Western gay

TOTEM vol 15 2006-2007 Copyright © 2007 TOTEM: The UWO Journal of Anthropology men that have become the model for the knew they could understand global gay identity (Das and Harry 1980). themselves through the concepts Among these homosexual identity markers 'lesbi' or 'gay"'. Even if these in Western culture are hairdressing, acting, Indonesian men and women heard decorating, outdoor nudity, and attending about the homosexual categorizations the opera (Das and Harry 1980:46). from a friend, more often than not the Creativity and individualism have also friends first heard it from the emerged as stereotypical values of mainstream media (Boellstorff homosexuals (Das and Harry 1980:48). 2001 :228). Unfortunately, the media These values and characteristics, although message received by the Indonesians is certainly accurate for some Western often incomplete, negative, and homosexuals, represent the centered on Western celebrity gossip commercialized, mainstream, middle-class (Boellstorff 2001 :228). Boellstorff gay identity, not necessarily the poor (2001:229) explained that for some urban gay or the 'closeted' conservative time many Indonesian men referred to business executive (Das and Harry 1980). themselves as gay and lesbi Regardless of these incompatibilities, men interchangeably because they were around the world who are exploring their never told the difference between the sexuality often identify with the two Western identities. A common stereotypical gay identity oozing from the misconception in the West is that gay media. men in non-Western countries have Television and video have played affluent lifestyles because they are less significant parts in the transmission of bogged down by traditional family and homosexual Western culture to the rest of religious values, free to pursue the world. Neil Miller (1992) described economic enterprises (Boellstorff the effect pornography has had on gay 2001:230). Boellstorff (2001:233) men in Thailand. Self-identified explained that in Indonesia, most gay homosexuals in Thailand had rigid gender men are poor, do not speak English, roles between sexual partners, but with the and have never traveled beyond the exposure to gay sex in the Western world, Indonesian islands. Clearly, the media Thai men have begun to experiment as connection between Western gay both 'king' and 'queen' in sexual relations culture and the rest of the world has (Miller 1992:360). In Tokyo, gay many faults and distortions. However, communities have studied tapes of gay it is evident that globalization has seminars and meetings in New York and brought Western gay culture closer to San Francisco as a model to develop their homosexual men all over the world. own organizations (Miller 1992:360). Although European nations, as Tom Boellstorff (2001) presented well as Canada and Australia, have one of the most compelling cases on the contributed to the transmission of effect the media can have on homosexual homosexual culture, America has identity formation cross-culturally. produced the most resilient model for Boellstorff (2001:228) explored the global gay identity (Altman 1983). homosexual culture in Indonesia and Ironically, America does not have the stated "nearly 90 percent of my gay and most tolerant or liberal culture in lesbi informants cite mainstream mass which homosexuality typically thrives. media as the means by which they first However, the American hegemony on

TOTEM vol 15 2006-2007 Copyright © 2007 TOTEM: The L:\XIOJournal of Anthropology globalization has allowed its homosexual The similarities of these movements culture to infiltrate various markets all include their mass demonstrations, .over the world. Altman (1983) described institutionalized around pride and how homosexuality has gripped the nation AIDS awareness, and the lack of and in turn Americanized homosexuality violence in said demonstrations (Adam around the globe. Altman (1983:216) et al. 1999:347). The differences explained that the powerful dichotomy of between these movements, however, gender in America and the idea of a speak to the cultural uniqueness that distinct homosexual minority has become still exists despite globalization (Adam a model to the entire First World. In et al. 1999). Gay movements differ contrast, Europe has traditionally had far cross-culturally based on the meanings less separation between homosexuals and of symbols and expressions, the role of heterosexuals, blurring the lines and national politics, the presence of reducing minority status (1983:216). The religious hegemony, the lack of European model is found in many non- 'sibling movements', and the impact of Western cultures and it provides greater AIDS on the population (Adam et al. integration into society (Altman 1999:359). 1983 :217). The American model, Despite all of these differences, however, has created a global gay identity however, Adam and colleagues that strives to be different, risks (1999:368) stated that "the question is persecution for personal rights, and whether we should still speak of embraces gay solidarity (Altman national histories, or whether the 1983:217). Altman (1983:217) stated that international context has become so "it is possible with time that the American important that we might talk of a model of self-conscious gay separatism global movement". The global gay will become established elsewhere". With identity, which more and more men the American gay anthem 'In the Navy' adhere to around the world, exists playing in every gay bar around the world, because of the achievements of gay Altman (1983 :21 7) was confident the movements that span national Americanization of the global gay identity boundaries. In 1991, Amnesty is near completion. International agreed to tackle the situation of gay prisoners of The Global Gay Identity and conscience, and in 1992, Canada International Gay Movements became the first North American Beyond the media and the nation to accept a man as a refugee saturation of American popular culture, based on the anti-gay policies of his other global movements and developments country of origin (Miller 1992:364). have helped with the construction of the One of the most powerful examples of contemporary international gay identity. international movements affecting gay Political movements in particular have identity is the emergence of gay shaped the global gay identity and allowed culture in South Africa. Pressure from it to grow in certain areas of the world international leaders and lobbyists more prominently than others (Adam et al. brought the apartheid system in South 1999). "All round the world gay and Africa down and with the monumental lesbian movements influence and learn change came a revolutionary gay from each other" (Adam et al. 1999:345). culture (Donham 1998). In the late

TOTEM vol 15 2006-2007 Copyright © 2007 TOTEM: The lJWO Journal of Anthropology 1980s, the multiracial gay rights France, Martinican men face intense organization, Glow, developed in South racism in the economy and the gay Africa and pride parades began, modeled community, as well as exoticism by on similar parades in New York and San the general public (Murray 2000:265). Francisco (Donham 1998: 11). Before the It is quite difficult for French black collapse of apartheid, many South African men to embrace the restrictive global leaders of the African National Congress gay identity and this produces identity (ANC) were in exile, and during this time crises for these Martinican men, as they became exposed to international well as many others around the globe ideologies (Donham 1998: 12). After the (Murray 2000). Murray (2000:267) collapse of apartheid, the ANC lawyers concluded that, "these men identify and politicians returned to South Africa with and desire, to some extent, the and brought with them liberal Western (ostensibly) 'liberated' public notions of gender diversity, as well as the expression of same-sex desire that they legitimization of gay rights (Donham have seen in these global gay 1998:12). Recently, ANC leaders have products"; however, "they recognize become the most pronounced gay rights their exclusion from it". In many lobbyists in the country (Donham cases, men reject the global gay 1998: 12). With the rebuilding of South identity completely in favour of their Africa, gay men, as well as most other traditional ideologies. In Honduras, South Africans, have developed strong for example, researchers expected to nationalism and liberalism. Donham find the traditional 'heterogender form (1998:16) stated that "gay identity in of homosexuality', in which stark South Africa reverberates-in a way that it gender identities exist between male cannot in the United States-with a proud, partners, to be eradicated by the new national identity". Evidently, the emergence of the global gay identity global gay identity feeds off of the (Babb 2004:227). However, this progress and achievements of traditional Honduras form of male communities, organizations, and homosexuality has persisted (Babb movements around the world. 2004:227). Scholars recognized that The global gay identity is the gay men of Honduras "desire to beneficial for many men around the world. remain different even when such By providing gay men with a community difference is not viewed as properly to relate to, the global gay identity helps 'modern'" (Babb 2004:228). them to discover more about themselves. Evidently, the global gay identity, However, despite these superficial though powerful and growing, has not benefits, the global gay identity can also yet pervaded every culture. cause severe issues for men that do not quite fit the stylized mold. David A. B. Conclusion Murray (2000) described the experience of Globalization is one of the gay men in Martinique. These gay men most significant forces in the are forced to conceal their sexualities or contemporary world and this is face persecution and most of them aspire reflected in the plethora of research to move to Quebec or France where they and academic work on the topic. The can assume the role of the global gay man. great cultural divisions that once Unfortunately, upon arrival in Quebec or separated people around the globe are

TOTEM vol 15 2006-2007 Copyright © 2007 TOTEM: The UWO Journal of Anthtopology breaking down and allowing international Babb, Florence E. 2004. Incitements to identities to form. The global gay identity Desire: Sexual Cultures and is emerging from the contributions of Modernizing Projects. American many complex processes; evolving Ethnologist. 31:225-230. perceptions of identity, media expansion, and political and social movements are all Boellstorff, Tom 2001. Dubbing combining to construct an identity that gay Culture: Indonesian Gay and men around the world can relate to. Lesbi Subjectivities and However, this global gay identity lacks Ethnography in an Already both impartiality and diversity. Western Globalized World. American gay discourse, particularly American Ethnologist. 30:225-242. ideology, continues to dominate the construction of the global gay identity and Donham, Donald L. 1998. Freeing men of incompatible cultures must choose South Africa: The whether to conform or reject it. Despite "Modernization" of Male-Male obstacles and detriments, a global Sexuality in Soweto. Cultural community of gay men is developing Anthropology. 13:3-21. internationally in an effort to combat AIDS, obtain human rights, and secure an Das, Man S., and Joseph Harry 1980. identity that for so long has been ignored, Homosexuality in International persecuted, or rejected. It remains to be Perspective. New Delhi: Vikas seen whether the future brings an absolute Publishing House. global gay identity or a harmony between international ideology and discrete cultural Jackson, Peter A. 1998. Reading Rio differences. from Bangkok: An Asianist Perspective on Brazil's Male Works Cited Homosexual Cultures. American Adam, Barry D., Jan Duyvendak and Ethnologist. 27:950-960. Andre Krouwel 1999. The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Miller, Neil 1992. Out in the World: Politics: National Imprints of a Gay and Lesbian Life from Worldwide Movement. Philadelphia: Buenos Aires to Bangkok. New Temple University Press. York: Random House.

Altman, Denrfl&mose~7J 1. Murray, David A.B. 2000. Between a Oppression and Liberation. Rock and a Hard Place: The Norwich: Fletcher & Son. Power and Powerlessness of Transnational Narratives among Altman, Dennis 1983. The Gay Martinican Men. American Homosexualization of America. Anthropologist. 102:261-270. Boston: Beacon Press. Schippers, Jan 1989. "Homosexual Altman, Dennis 2001. Global Sex. Identity: Essentialism and Chicago: University of Constructionism." In Chicago Press. Homosexuality, which Homosexuality?: International

TOTEM vollS 2006-2007 Copyright © 2007 TOTEM: The UWO Journal of Anthropology Conference on Gay and Lesbian Studies. eds. Dennis Altman, Carole Vance, Martha Vicinus, and Jeffrey Weeks, 139-147. London: GMP.