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The Transformation of Elite-Level Association Football in England, 1970 to the Present

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The Transformation of Elite-Level Association Football in England, 1970 to the Present 1 The Transformation of Elite-Level Association Football in England, 1970 to the present Mark Sampson PhD Thesis Queen Mary University of London 2 Statement of Originality I, Mark Sampson, confirm that the research included within this thesis is my own work or that where it has been carried out in collaboration with, or supported by others, that this is duly acknowledged below and my contribution indicated. Previously published material is also ackn owledged below. I attest that I have exercised reasonable care to ensure that the work is original, and does not to the best of my knowledge break any UK law, infringe any third party’s copyright or other Intellectual Property Right, or contain any confidential material. I accept that the College has the right to use plagiarism detection software to check the electronic version of the thesis. I confirm that this thesis has not been previously submitted for the award of a degree by this or any other university. The copyright of this thesis rests with the author and no quotation from it or information derived from it may be published without the prior written consent of the author. Signature: M. Sampson Date: 30 June 2016 3 Abstract The purpose of this thesis is to provide the first academic account and analysis of the vast changes that took place in English professional football at the top level from 1970 to the present day. It examines the factors that drove those changes both within football and more broadly in English society during this period. The primary sources utilised for this study include newspapers, reports from government inquiries, football fan magazines, memoirs, and oral histories, inter alia. This thesis is organised into five main chapters, along with an introduction and conclusion. In the introduction, the historiography of modern English football is dissected in order to contextualise my dissertation in terms of the existing literature. The first chapter explores the theme of football in decline from 1970 to the mid-1980s – diminishing crowds and attempts to reverse that trend, poor grounds, and increasing hooliganism. The second chapter examines the seminal event of the Hillsborough disaster, including the attitude of the police and press towards fans, the Taylor Report and the rebuilding of football stadia. The third looks at the Premiership, examining the reasons for its formation and its impact on the game, such as changes in supporter experience. The fourth chapter assesses the internationalisation of the game, in the era of the Bosman Ruling, as players were drawn to play in England not only from the continent but from around the world. The fifth chapter examines the advent of foreign ownership of English football clubs, assessing both its positive and negative consequences. All of these developments are anchored in a discussion of the broader social, economic, and political changes in modern Britain - including Thatcherism and the dominance of free-market economics, consumerism, and shifts in youth culture – that help to explain the salient changes in English football. 4 Contents 1. List of tables………………………………………………….. 5 2. List of abbreviations………………………………………… 6 3. Introduction………………………………………………….. 7 4. Chapter One – Football in Decline………………… ………. 27 5. Chapter Two – Hillsborough and its aftermath…………... 86 6. Chapter Three – The Premiership…………..……………. 146 7. Chapter Four – Internationalisation……………………. 184 8. Chapter Five – Foreign Ownership……………………... 239 9. Conclusion………………………………………………… 277 10. Appendices………………………………………………... 295 11. Bibliography………………………………………………. 297 5 List of tables Table 1. p.12., Leicester City’s Premiership winning team 2015/2016 Table 2. p.32., Football League attendances 1948/1949 to 1985/1986 Table 3. p.41., Premiership club shirt sponsorship deals during 1999/2000 Table 4., p.115., League Football Club relocations Table 5., p.116., Stadium sponsors Table 6., p.123., Increases in admission prices at clubs who were in the Premier League in 1994/1995 Table 7., p. 144., The inquest jury’s fourteen questions and verdicts Table 8., p.251., Abramovich’s spending spree Table 9., p.271., The Abu Dhabi United Group’s Spending Spree Map. 1., p.92., The Leppings Lane end of Hillsborough 6 List of abbreviations AFC Association Football Club BBC British Broadcasting Corporation BSB British Satellite Broadcasting CCTV Closed Circuit Television DIC Dubai International Capital ECJ European Court of Justice EEC European Economic Community EU European Union EGM Extraordinary General Meeting FA Football Association FC Football Club FIFA Federation of International Football Associations FSA Football Supporters Association IMUSA Independent Manchester United Supporters Association ITV Independent Television NFL National Football League* NTST Northampton Town Supporters Trust OFT Office of Fair Trading PLC Public Limited Company PFA Professional Footballers Association UEFA Union of European Football Associations UK United Kingdom WSC When Saturday Comes * This is the league for American Football 7 Introduction In the 1970s, a fan would attend an elite professional game of football in England, paying less than £1 to pass through a turnstile and stand on the terraces to watch the team. The terrace itself might have a roof, but often it did not, and in this case the supporter would be exposed to all the elements the British winter might bring. Little had changed by 1983, bar inflationary increases in admission price, and the American journalist Bill Buford describes his experience of standing on the terraces at two games in that year, the first a visit to White Hart Lane to watch Tottenham Hotspur: I do remember that we were late and that it took twenty minutes of pushing, grabbing squeezing, groaning, inching, striving, wrestling before finally securing our place, a tiny expanse of cold concrete step, crushed between a number of lads – how else to describe them? – ten years younger than me and five stone heavier whose passion for expression seldom went beyond the simple yet effectively direct (and often repeated) phrase: ‘you fuckin’ bastard.’1 The second was a visit to Stamford Bridge to watch Chelsea: I entered … and emerged from the turnstile to find people everywhere, on the steps, sitting atop fences, on posts, suspended from bits of architecture … I joined the mob pushing its way through for a place from which to watch the match. Except that there was no place. There was a movable crush … I couldn’t move left or right, let alone turn around and walk back the way I came. There was only one direction: forward. For some reason, there was an advantage, an advantage worth defending, in being one step ahead of wherever it was that you happened to be. And that was where everybody was trying to go.2 1 Bill Buford, Among The Thugs (London: Secker & Warburg, 1991), p.16. 2 Ibid., pp.17-18. 8 He summarizes with a sense of incredulity: It appeared that, in exchange for a few pounds, you received one hour and forty-five minutes characterized by the greatest possible exposure to the worst possible weather, the greatest number of people in the smallest possible space and the greatest number of obstacles – unreliable transport, no parking, an intensely dangerous crush at the only exit, a repellent polio pond to pee into … to keep you from ever attending a match again. And yet, here they all were, having their Saturday.3 By 1970, most of the players in the team were on a good wage by the standards of the day, but their earnings were no higher than those of some of the more affluent fans sat in the seats in the main stand. The players on view were usually English, or at least British, and many in the home team may have come from the local area. If players moved from one club to another they signed for a transfer fee that was usually a five figure number. A top player might command a fee in excess of £100,000, but the first £250,000 player was still four years in the future. There were three domestic competitions, namely the League, the FA Cup and the League Cup. The League was divided into four divisions – as one might expect, First, Second, Third, and Fourth. The FA Cup enjoyed equal ‘parity and esteem’ with the League, but arguably the FA Cup final itself carried a greater sense of occasion, being held at Wembley on the last day of the domestic season. The FA Cup final was the only domestic game broadcast live on television. Fans who wished to see football on television had to be content with the two main ‘highlights’ packages on offer – the BBC’s Match of the Day or ITV’s The Big Match. The League Cup meanwhile was the third competition and had only been 3 Ibid., p.19. 9 in existence since the 1960/1961 season, with finals at Wembley only from 1967 onwards. The sociologist Gareth Hopkins argues that the League Cup was introduced by the League to challenge the position in power of the FA, and therefore had importance from that point of view.4 The team that finished top of the League were League Champions and as such entered the European Cup. This was a knock-out competition between the champions of European countries, culminating in a match between the two finalists that took place just after the end of the domestic season. The teams that finished just below the League Champions entered the UEFA Cup and the FA Cup winners entered the Cup Winners Cup. The supporter was usually a man. Women did attend football matches, but they were a small minority in what was largely a male preserve. Sports sociologist David Goldblatt, in The Game Of Our Lives, states that ‘although there was a female presence in football crowds, somewhere between 5 and 10 per cent of the audience, they are almost absent from the collective historical memory.’5 The man was almost always white and from a working-class background.
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