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Review of Coliphages As Possible Indicators of Fecal Contamination for Ambient Water Quality

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Review of Coliphages As Possible Indicators of Fecal Contamination for Ambient Water Quality REVIEW OF COLIPHAGES AS POSSIBLE INDICATORS OF FECAL CONTAMINATION FOR AMBIENT WATER QUALITY 820-R-15-098 EPA Office of Water Office of Science and Technology Health and Ecological Criteria Division April 17, 2015 NOTICES This document has been drafted and approved for publication by the Health and Ecological Criteria Division, Office of Science and Technology, United States (U.S.) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and is approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The development of this criteria document was made possible through an effort led by Sharon Nappier, EPA Project Manager, EPA, Office of Science and Technology, Office of Water. EPA acknowledges the valuable contributions of EPA Internal Technical Reviewers who reviewed this document: Jamie Strong and Elizabeth Doyle. The project described here was managed by the Office of Science and Technology, Office of Water, EPA under EPA Contract EP-C-11-005 to ICF International. EPA also wishes to thank Audrey Ichida, Kirsten Jaglo, Jeffrey Soller, Arun Varghese, Alexandria Boehm, Kara Nelson, Margaret Nellor, and Kaedra Jones for their contributions and invaluable support. The primary contact regarding questions or comments to this document is: Sharon Nappier U.S. EPA Headquarters Office of Science and Technology, Office of Water 1200 Pennsylvania Ave., NW Washington, DC 20460 Mail Code 4304T Phone: (202) 566-0740 Email: [email protected] ii EXTERNAL PEER REVIEW WORKGROUP The External Peer Review was managed by the Office of Science and Technology, Office of Water, EPA under EPA Contract No. EP-C-13-010 to Versar, Inc. The following professionals were part of the External Peer Review Workgroup that provided excellent technical and scientific review on the Draft regarding the content and technical approach in response to EPA Charge to the Peer Reviewers: Valerie J. Harwood University of South Florida Tampa, Florida 33620 Sunny Jiang University of California, Irvine Irvine, California 92697 Mark D. Sobsey University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill Chapel Hill, NC 27599 EPA reviewed and incorporated their comments, where appropriate, to develop this literature review. Potential areas for conflict of interest were investigated with the Peer Reviewers, including a review of their current affiliations. No conflicts of interest were identified. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Notices ............................................................................................................................................. i Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................... ii External Peer Review Workgroup ................................................................................................. iii Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... iv Tables ............................................................................................................................................. vi Figures........................................................................................................................................... vii 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1 1.1. Context and Purpose......................................................................................................... 1 1.2. Background ...................................................................................................................... 1 1.3. General Attributes of an Ideal Indicator of Enteric Viral Degradation ............................ 3 2. Bacteriophage Characteristics ................................................................................................. 5 2.1. Origin and Replication ..................................................................................................... 5 2.2. Morphology ...................................................................................................................... 7 2.2.1 Morphological Properties Affecting Persistence ........................................................... 9 2.3. Detection Methods ......................................................................................................... 10 2.3.1 Culture-Based Methods ............................................................................................... 10 2.3.2 Rapid Methods ............................................................................................................. 12 3. Epidemiological Relationships ............................................................................................. 16 3.1 Von Schirnding et al. (1992) ............................................................................................... 17 3.2 Lee et al. (1997) .................................................................................................................. 18 3.3 Medema et al. (1995) and Van Asperen et al. (1998) ......................................................... 19 3.4 Wiedenmann et al. (2006) ................................................................................................... 20 3.5 Colford et al. (2005, 2007) .................................................................................................. 21 3.6 Wade et al. (2010) ............................................................................................................... 22 3.7 Abdelzaher et al. (2011) ...................................................................................................... 23 3.8 Griffith et al. (personal communication, 2015) .................................................................. 24 3.9 General Conclusions from Epidemiological Studies .......................................................... 24 4. Occurrence in the Environment ............................................................................................ 27 4.1. Associations between Coliphages and Viruses .............................................................. 27 4.1.1 Coliphage – Virus Associations in Freshwater ............................................................ 31 4.1.2 Coliphage-Virus Associations in Saline or Brackish Water ........................................ 31 5. Environmental Factors and Fate ........................................................................................... 37 5.1. Temperature ................................................................................................................... 37 5.2. Sunlight .......................................................................................................................... 39 iv 5.3. Salinity ........................................................................................................................... 44 5.4. Predation and Enzymatic Degradation ........................................................................... 47 5.5. Organic and Inorganic Matter ........................................................................................ 49 5.6. Environmental Factors Impacts Summary ..................................................................... 51 6. Wastewater Treatment .......................................................................................................... 56 6.1. Primary Treatment.......................................................................................................... 60 6.2. Secondary Treatment...................................................................................................... 61 6.3. Wastewater Treatment Ponds ......................................................................................... 63 6.4. Tertiary Treatment and Advanced Treatment ................................................................ 63 6.5. Disinfection .................................................................................................................... 66 6.5.1 Free Chlorine ............................................................................................................... 66 6.5.2 Combined Chlorine ...................................................................................................... 68 6.5.3 Ozone ........................................................................................................................... 71 6.5.4 UVC ............................................................................................................................. 72 6.5.5 UVA and UVB ............................................................................................................. 75 7. Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 78 8. References ............................................................................................................................. 81 APPENDIX A: Literature Search Strategy and Summary of Literature Search Results ............ 110 APPENDIX B: Coliphage and NoV Densities during Wastewater Treatment .......................... 114 v Tables Table 1. Morphology of a subsection of bacteriophages. ............................................................... 8 Table 2. Morphology of human enteric viruses that may be transmitted in aquatic environments. ..................................................................................................................
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