Proc Antiqc So Scot, (1997)7 12 , 855-8

Aspects of the architectural history of Kirkwall Cathedral Malcolm Thurlby*

ABSTRACT This paper considers intendedthe Romanesque formthe of Kirkwallof eastend Cathedraland presents further evidence failurethe Romanesque for ofthe crossing, investigates exactthe natureof its rebuilding and that of select areas of the adjacent transepts, nave and choir. The extension of the eastern arm is examined with particular attention to the lavish main arcades and the form of the great east window. Their place medievalin architecture Britainin exploredis progressiveand and conservative elements building ofthe evaluatedare context building. the ofthe in use ofthe

INTRODUCTION sequence Th f constructioeo t Magnus'S f o n s Cathedra t Kirkwalla l , Orkney comples i , d xan unusual. The basic chronology was established by MacGibbon & Ross (1896, 259-92) and the accoune Orkneth n i ty Inventory e Royath f o l Commissio e Ancienth d Historican o an nt l Monuments of (RCAHMS 1946,113-25)(illus 1 & 2). The Romanesque cathedral was begun by Earl Rognvald in 1137. Construction moved slowly westwards into the nave before the crossing was rebuilt in the Transitional style and at the same time modifications were made to the transepts includin erectioe gpresene th th f no t square eastern chapels. Shortly after thi sstara t wa sextensioe madth eastere n eo th befor f m no n ar e returnin nave e worgo t th t thi n .A k o s stage no reason was given for the remodelling of the crossing and transepts in the late 12th century. Aspect f thio s s chronology have been refine receny b d t writers. Stewart Cruden (1977, 87-8; 1986, 119; 1988, 85) examined the extent of the Romanesque build and argued that the eastern arm was probably built quickly so as to accommodate the high altar and the shrine of St Magnus. He observed that 'in 1151 the founder and his bishop departed from Orkney on a two-year crusad Hole th yo et Lan backd dan adventurn a , e whic beed hha n discussed wite hth kin Norwaf go 1148n yi unlikels i t I . y that they would leave befor choie completes eth rwa d dan relice Magnut S th f so s enshrined within it' (Cruden 1977, 88). Cruden suggested tha originae th t l east end had an apse-echelon plan with an ambulatory returning across the eastern bay between St Magnus's Shrine in the apse and the high altar immediately to the west (Cruden 1977, fig 5; ; 1988 1986crossin 12 w 11) g datee g ne ,fi fi ,H . e dgth about 1170, afte presumee th r d collapsf eo Romanesqus it e predecessor observed an , d that 'tharched eol crossinsw adjacenne e gth wero t t e carefully re-fashioned' (Cruden 1977, 90).

2 Cooper Court, Brantford, Ontario, Canada N3T 6G2 85 | 6SOCIET ANTIQUARIEF YO SCOTLANDF SO , 1997

ILLUS 1 Kirkwall Cathedral: plan (after RCAHMS 1946, fig 225)

ILLUS 2 Kirkwall Cathedral: longitudinal section (after RCAHMS 1946, fig 226)

Cruden's interpretatio liturgicae th f no l divisio Romanesque th f no challenges ewa easd ten d by Eric Cambridge (1988, 119-21) o founwh , d insufficient evidenc n ambulatorya r fo e . Cambridge provided one of the most detailed accounts of the stylistic similarities and differences between Kirkwall and Durham, albeit without any discussion of the choir aisle rib vaults, a point subsequently addresse Eriy db c Fernie (1994, 272-3). Cambridge also presente da carefull y reasoned interpretation of the iconography of Kirkwall Cathedral. Cambridge's account complements the stimulating essay on the entire fabric by Richard Fawcett (1988). Fawcett clarified aspects of Cruden's reading of the first great Romanesque campaign and suggested that the string-course on the aisle side of the easternmost Romanesque pier of the south choir arcade THURLBY: ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY OF KIRKWALL CATHEDRAL 857

extends too far to the east to allow an apsidal termination to the aisle (Fawcett 1988, 89, pi 4a). He observed that work on the Romanesque nave aisles progressed in a rather faltering manner in contras late th e o 12th-centurt y rebuildin crossinge th f g o remodellin e th , transepte th f go d san extensioe stare th easterth e f o tth whicf m no n ar h indicated infusio 'botw ne ha fundf no a t a s critica lwork e stag th alsd f an eo , perhap interventioe sth mora f no e dynamic driving force' (Fawcett 1988, 97) thee H . n mooted that impetuthiw sne s might correspond wit electioe hth f no Bishop Biarni Kolbeinsson aftedeate th rf Williaho n 1188i e continuedI mI H . : 'His long episcopate [1188-1223] would cover much of an important building period, and he would seem hav o somf t o en ebee energyma na ' (Fawcett 1988, 97)liaisoe e attractivn th Th . a t s ni bu e eon implication is that the rebuilding was driven by liturgical and/or aesthetic considerations. This is almost certainl eastere y th tru r enfo extension whic 'probabls hwa accommodato yt chaptee eth r canonf o planne cathedraw e basie th sno r th s fo d a l constitution' (Can twhic d 1972an ) h7 , finds numerous parallels in contemporary churches in to provide more space and a more glorious settin r majogfo r shrines (Draper 1979; 1980; 1987) requiremente Th . canone th f so s alsy oma explai rebuildine nth transepe th f go t chapels (Cant 1972 . However7) , difficuls i t i , o t t imagin eliturgicaa l rebuildine reasoth r crossinge nfo th f go . Moreover retentioe th ,e th f no Romanesque work in the three-bay choir and in the transepts and nave suggests that the primary motivation for the major structural undertaking of the replacement of the crossing was probably not aesthetic.

THE INTENDED TERMINATION OF THE CHOIR AISLES arrangemene Th maie th nf t o arcade Romanesque th f so e choi unusuas ri tha n easternmosli e tth t freestanding pier is asymmetrical; to the east it is flat to correspond to the east respond, while to the west its segmental form agrees with the columnar pier to the west (illus 1-4). The arch of the eastern bay is narrower than either the first or second bay, counting from the crossing, and while its orders toward choie sth r hav same eth e moulding othee archeso th s rtw sa inne e th , r ordes ri carrie pairen do d head corbels rather than wester restine capitale th th n i n go ns s a bay s (illu. s5) Furthermore ordero , thertw e s ear toward westere aisle th sth centran d ei nan l bay t thresbu n ei eastere inclusioe th (illu y Th thire . nba th s4) df n o orde causes rha d problem vaulsb ri wit e thth of the aisle. The rib cuts off the western springer of the outer order of the arch and even cuts into springee th secone th f ro d order (illus 3-5) suco .N h proble wese bayo mth t tw o occurs t e th n si because the ribs there do not have to compete for space on the capital with a third order of the arch. The vault of the east bay goes with the early Gothic extension to the east as witnessed by the form of the wall arch and the transverse arch between bays 2 and 3; the former does not hug hooe th d moul windo, while 2 th pointe e d bayf n dei o th an s ws1 a d for compled man x mouldings transverse th f o e arch contrasts wit round-headee hth d transverse arch betwee wit2 n d bayh an s1 their simple angle rolls (illus 3, 4, 6 & 7). Furthermore, the crease at the apex of the web of the Gothic vault is also witnessed in the eastern severy of the vault of the second bay in contrast to the work to the west. The different articulation of the pier and the arch in the Romanesque eastern bay may suggest that this space had a different function. This would seem to be confirmed by the clumsy junction betweeoutee th Gothird e Romanesque ordenth an th b f cri o r e arcade along wite hth absence of any trace of an earlier vault in the eastern bay. Why the different treatment of this bay? The answer is twofold. In the first place, the use of paired grotesque head corbels on the flat face respondsamthe the choi eas is the pieofrsof the aislr bay e vaults (illus 3-5). Such continuityin

THURLBY: ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY OF KIRKWALL CATHEDRAL | 859

articulation suggest continuitsa function yi n (Cambridge 1988, 119). Therefor plausibls i t ei o et reconstruct an ambulatory across the eastern bay of the choir to provide access to the shrine of St Magnus in the apse, as suggested by Cruden. The Kirkwall master mason thereby gave monumental architectural expression to a liturgical division that was probably created with wooden screens at Durham Cathedral to provide access behind the high altar to the shrine of St (Klukas 1983, 173-5; Fernie 1993b, 150-1). segmentae Th le pier e faceth th n sf i so

two western bays articulate the sanctuary, as at Norwich Cathedra1 l and elsewhere (Fernie 1993a, 67; Hoey 53)1989seconn e 5 Th . 25 , d aspecarticulatioe th f to eastere th speakf y no nba morf so e ambitious intentions. The inclusion of rib vaults in the two western bays of the Romanesque choir aisles makes the former absence of a vault in the eastern bay hard to explain. It is physically possible that a Romanesque groin vault covered the bay but iconographically this is unlikely given that in the hierarchy of vault forms in the Romanesque and early Gothic periods the rib vaul sees s superionwa a t groie th no t r vault (Thurlby 1994a; Hoe Thurlby& y forthcoming). There was almost certainly an altar in the niche beyond the eastern bay of both aisles and therefore the space was liturgically more important than the two western bays of the aisles. Concomitantly aisle th ef i ,alta t articulater spacno s ewa d vaultwitb ri ha fora , m that acteo s n di many case permanena s sa t ciborium ove altar e coulw th r space ho ,d th e have been markes da special? A tower is a plausible solution. Not only would this fit the archaeological evidence of the large eastere r th siz f eo thire n th pier d d arcade ordesan th f o re toward aislee t alssth bu t ,oi makes sense iconographically. Eastern towers were almost certainly used at Durham Cathedral where their inspiration seems to have been imperial, perhaps via the east end of St Albans Abbey (Thurlby 1994b; 1995 Thurlb; 19 , pressn yi ; Jarret Masot& n 1995, 212-20). Transeptally placed towers without vault usee sar altas da r marker Romanesqun si e Exeter Cathedral (Orme 1986, 15; Thurlby 1991a). A reduced-scale reflection of this idea seems to explain the former existence of turrets on the Romanesque east front of (Coffman forthcoming). The wider buttresse eastere Romanesquf o th f y so n ba e Kirkwall would also accord happily wit toweha r (Fawcett 1988, pi 6). Be that as it may, the plan to construct towers was abandoned before work advanced ha faro dto . indicationThero n e egalleriesar e th n si , piere eithe th againsr so n ro e th t outside wall, of any reinforcement for towers, and the clerestory windows in the 'tower' bay are same th e Romanesqu. 2 y eba forn i s ma

LATE TH E 12TH-CENTURY REMODELLIN CROSSINE TH F GTRANSEPTO D GAN S piere arched crossine Th san th f so g contrast wit Romanesque hth e choire wor deeplth e n ki Th . y cut, multiple mouldings of the pointed crossing arches are far removed from the relatively shallow roll-and-hollow articulation of the round-headed choir arcade arches (illus 8). The difference betwee earliee n th late d an r r 12th-century wor furthes ki r appreciate innee th n rdi e ordeth f o r east and west arches which is flanked with saw-tooth chevron quite different from the shallow zigzags on the inside of the Romanesque choir aisle windows (illus 7). The desire to create more complex effectcrossine th n i s g arche takes si n furthe usiny b rdiffereno gtw t moulding profiles, one for the north and south arches, the other for the east and west arches (illus 8-10) (Thurlby & Kusaba 1991) e crossinTh . g capital e waterleaar s f e north-easexcepth n o t t pier whics ha h rudimentary stiff leaf and, on the main east capital of the north crossing arch, a centrally placed head (illus 8-10) capitale soute Th . th f hso respon arce th hf do fro norte mth h transepe th o t t north choir aisle are adorned with various foliage forms including an elementary form of stiff-leaf albeit with rather limp stems (illus 11). These capitals contrast wit scallopee hth d capitale th f so

THURLBY: ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY OF KIRKWALL CATHEDRAL 861

ILLUS 10 Kirkwall Cathedral: north crossing arch, east capitals

ILLUS 11 Kirkwall Cathedral: arch from north transep norto t h choir aisle

Romanesque build. Keeled shaft introducee ar s maie th ncrossinn e do axeth f o s g pierd an s proto-water-holding bases contrast with the shallow mouldings of the Romanesque bases. motife Th scrossine useth n di g relate closel earle th yo y t Gothi norte th Englandf f hco o , Scotland and Trondheim Cathedral. Keeled shafts appear under the influence from northern Franc choie th n rei arcade f Archbishoso p Roge Ponf o r t 1'Eveque's York Minster, begun soon afte tooe h r k offic 115n i e 4 (Browne 1847, pi XXX ; Wilso3 g fi , n 1986) Scotlann i , t Arbroatda h (Fawcett 1994, fig 3) and Dundrennan (Fergusson 1973, 239) abbeys before 1200, and in the 'chapter house' of Trondheim Cathedral after 1161 (Fischer 1965, 116; Wilson 1986, 97). Waterleaf capital normalle sar y associated wit Cisterciane hth examplet sbu commoe sar n outside the Cistercian realm as in Archbishop Roger's work at York Minster (Browne 1847, pi XXXI) and Ripon Minster (Hearn 1983, pi 13), in Scotland at Cathedral (Thurlby 1994c, 53-4) and the nave of Jedburgh Abbey (Garton 1987, 79-80) and in the 'chapter house' and the transepts at Trondheim Cathedral (Fischer 1965, 112, 115). To counter the undue emphasis on Cistercian influenc importans i t ei f chevro o ease wes d observo e t th an tus tn ncrossino e eth g 862 SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 1997

ILLUS 12 Kirkwall Cathedral: north nave ILLUS 13 Kirkwall Cathedral: north nave gallery, bay 3, east respond gallery, bay 4, west respond

arches motia , f form use varioun di s form Archbishon si p Roger's York Minste uniformld ran n yi formee th r crossin t AndrewS f go s Cathedral-Priory (Thurlby 1994c, pi VIIC). proto-stiffe 2Th - leaf capitals of the north-east crossing pier are unusual in the context of northern early Gothic although ther certaia s ei n kinship with capitale som navth e f th eJedburgo f eo n s i h Abbey where waterleaf type alse sar o found (illu (Garto) 11 s n 1987 43),& pi0 . s4 Also presence th ,e th f eo head on the main east capital of the north crossing arch at Kirkwall may be paralleled on the Jedburgh west doorway (illus 10) (Garton 1987, pi 10). The arch mouldings belong to the family with multipl esoffie rollth tn si establishe t Archbishoda p Roger's York Minster followedd an , , for example t Ripoa , n Minster, Byland Abbe Trondheid yan m .Cathedral (Wilson 1986 5);g fi ,3 but the closest parallels for both types in the Kirkwall crossing are in the north nave gallery at (illus 9&10, 12&13). Before discussin crossine date th g th f e o wil e gw l examine eth archaeolog adjacene th f yo t bays wit viee h th determininw o t introductioreasoe e gth th r nfo f no a new crossing. The ashlar of the crossing piers courses without interruption through the west responds of choir-arcadese th easd ,an t respond nave th ef so arcades responde th archee d th an ,f so s froe mth transepts to the choir and nave aisles. The pointed arches from the transepts to the nave aisles are coeval wit crossinge hth soffie ;th t mouldin varian a eas e wesd gs i th tan tn crossinto g arches with keeled rather than plain angle rolls (illus 8, 14 & 15). Against the aisle wall, however, the arches spring from paired Romanesque head corbels, as in the choir aisles, the eastern bay of the Romanesque choir arcade, and the arches from the transepts to the choir aisles (illus 3, 4, 11 & latte14)e round-headee .Th rar havd dan e Romanesque detai spitn li beinf eo g carrie late th e n do 12th-century crossing piers. The arches from the transepts to the choir and nave galleries have THURLBY: ARCHITECTURAL HISTOR KIRKWALF YO L CATHEDRA3 86 L

ILLUS 14 ICirkwall Cathedral: arch from south transept to south nave aisle ILLUS 15 Kirkwall Cathedral: arch from north transept to north nave aisle, south capitals

ILLU 6 S1 Kirkwal l Cathedral: south transept, interior from south nave gallery

plain round-headed orders, like the choir gallery arches, but the subdividing pier in the back plane of the wall has a quatrefoil plan with intermediate angle fillets and waterleaf capitals that wito crossing e hth g (illu (Fawcet) 16 s t 1988, pi 10). Related waterleaf capitale usee th sar n di transept clerestory windows next to the crossing but not in the other transept clerestory windows. Similarly in the choir the westernmost clerestory windows have waterleaf capitals and are slightly bigge Romanesquo r thatw e nth e window ease th t whico st h have scalloped capitals (illus 17). The picture that emerges is one of a total rebuilding of the crossing coupled with a selective remodellin f adjacengo t areas. This suggest failure originae sth th f eo l crossing tower whics hi 4 86 SOCIET ANTIQUARIEF YO SCOTLANDF SO , 1997

borne out by evidence of patching in the transept clerestories and the constructional details of the main arcade arches which flan crossin e archee kth th d sg an fro transepte mth choie th o rst aisles (Cruden 1977, 90; 1986, 119-20; 1988, 82). The clerestories of the south transept have undergone more patching than the north. On the eas soute t th sid f heo transept ther changa s ei e from late 12th-century ashla Romanesquo t r e rubble between the first and second clerestory arches from the crossing (illus 16 & 18). The second windo wsurroundes i formee scae th f th ro y rd b Romanesqu e opening formee Th . r third window completelw isno y blocked wese th t n clerestorI . firse yth t arc ashlar-buils hi ease th tt n ando s a , side, ther breaa s ei k between thi ssecone ashlath d dan rwindo w (illus 19)e latten a Th .s i r reduction of the Romanesque original the scalloped capitals of which are immured in the infill. The arc of the original window is still clear. The arches from the transepts to the choir aisles represent a careful reconstruction of the Romanesque originals. The evidence is clearest in the north transept where the original work is recognized in the arch in the white masonry on the left of the second order and the hood-mould correspondine th d an firsgthirstone d d sectionth an re t d f e o order th n si s (illu righe s th 11) to .T alternatine oth f whitd an ed gorderre stonewore sth lats ki e 12th-century divisioe Th . worf no k soute inth h transept arc less hi s clear becaus stond ere uses ei d throughou worke th t . However, change th discernibls ei e afte stonex si r s fro hooe righe mth th dn ti moul afted dan r 11 stonef so the third order where the newer work is recognized by the crisper edge to the single billet ornament. Above soute th n hi , transep choie arce th tth ro ht galler totalls yi y rebuilt accordino gt its Romanesque form but with the addition of reinforcement at the back plane of the arch in the form of the subdivision of the arch (illus 16). The adjacent arch is original Romanesque. In the north transep choie arce th th tro h t galler y also retain Romanesqus sit e form and, apart froe mth same infilled subdivision as in the south transept, it is virtually impossible to tell the earlier from e lateth r 12th-century work (illus 20). Similarly t clerestora , y level o obviouthern s i e s differentiation but because the south jamb of the clerestory arch courses with the ashlar in the spandrel of the north crossing arch then it must be late 12th-century; a remarkable piece of antiquarianism! On the west wall there is analogous conservatism; there seems to be a change in the hood-moul gallere th f do y arc t o'clockabouh2 a o t 1 t (30-60 degree righe th verticalf to o s t ) but otherwise no differences can be detected. At clerestory level there is a break in the regular coursin firse righe gth t th jus f openino to t t g which must mean thafirse th tt arc lats hi e 12th- centurremaindee th d clerestore yan th f ro y retain originas sit l Romanesque form (illus 21). Similar attention to the recreation of the Romanesque design is seen in the choir and nave bays immediately adjacent to the crossing. In the west bay of the south choir arcade six voussoirs hood-moulde oth f , counting fro eastere mth n springer f whito e ear , ston belond e ean th o gt original Romanesque build while after this red stone is used in the rebuilding (illus 22). The detail on the red stone is much sharper and is accompanied by a similarly crisper appearance in the late 12th-century billet-ornamented e outestoneth f re o inneso th orderorder tw n e r O th s. Romanesque detai s beeha ln carefully reproduced, althoug latee hth r 12th-century stonee ar s somewhat larger tha oldee nth r work arce breae th accompanies h Th i . n ki changa y db f eo coursing in the spandrel. In the stonework to the left of this break the wedge-shaped course, three courses below the gallery string-courses, suggests that settlement started soon after the initial construction as in the first bay of the nave at Selby Abbey (Fernie 1995; Harrison & Thurlby 1995). A change is also seen in the capital type, from scalloped octagonal in the western pier to a simple waterleaf on the round capital of the respond. In the gallery the break comes after five stonehood-moulde th f so changa , e fro mquirkea d chamfe shalloa o t r w chip-carved chevron. There is a change in the ashlar above; the late 12th-century stones are larger as are the voussoirs

| SOCIET 6 86 ANTIQUARIEF YO SCOTLANDF SO , 1997

ILLUS 20 Kirkwall Cathedral: north transept, ILLU 1 S2 Kirkwal l Cathedral: north transept, interior to south-east from north interio south-weso rt t from north clerestory clerestory

inneo tw re oorderth f maie th snn i jus arcads a t ee clerestor archth e westerf o Th . y s yi nba completely late 12th-century norte th hn O side. clerestore th , y matche southe sth , whil breae eth k gallere inth y comes after just three stonehood-moule th f so accompanies i d dan middle th n di e and outer orders of the arch with the use of some white stone in the original work which is absent rebuile inth t maiworke th nn I .arcad breae eth aftes ki r five white voussoir hood-moule th f so d otherwise the change is almost unnoticeable except in the simple foliage trail on the moulded capita respone th f lo d which contrasts wit octagonae hth l scalloped capita westere th f o l n pier. In the nave the very same principles are involved: to retain the springers of the arches above the first piers and then rebuild the majority of the arch out from the crossing tower. On the south side in the main arcade the only change of detail is seen after nine stones of the outer order when the incised Romanesque chevron is abandoned in the late 12th-century work (illus 23) (Cruden 1977 ; 198690 , , 119-20) norte th n hI . nave arcade chevron remain jusn so t four voussoire th f so outer order. No ornament is detected in the arches of the eastern bay of the nave gallery. accouno t natur e rebuildine e th w th r f e crossinetfo o e ar th f w gadjaceno d Ho gan t arean si hande on e which, th up-to-dat n o , e motif introducee ar s e otheth yetd n r o dan ,hand , some elements were carefully reconstructed to virtually their original form? Pointed crossing arches were probably used primarily for structural reasons to give a more efficient transfer of the weight of the tower to the crossing piers. A similar consideration seems to have determined the use of the pointed arches betwee transepte navne th th ed aislesan s (illus 14). Wor construction ko e th f no nave aisle vaults had not begun in the earlier campaign and therefore, after the failure of the tower, work could begin wite latest th hd whas presumablan ,wa t y considerea e b o t d technologically superior, design with pointed transverse arches and semicircular diagonals THURLBY: ARCHITECTURAL HISTOR KIRKWALF YO L CATHEDRAL 867

ILLU 2 S2 Kirkwal l Cathedral: south choir arcade, wesy tba from north

(illus 24) botn .I h choir aisle vaulte secone sth th froy n swesi e dba m th t remained unaffectey db the failure of the tower (illus 3 & 4). Therefore, rather than demolish this work, the vault in the rebuils westerwa y t naccordingba Romanesque th o t e pattern (illu . Concomitantlys7) arce th ,h fro transepe mchoith e th ro t t aislreconstructes ewa formee th o dt r design (illue sth 11)r Fo . upper storeye sidth e f transepte wallo sth f o s s ther s littlewa e consideratio r fashionablnfo e design. It was essentially a matter of consolidation, although the subdivisions of the arches to the galleries do sport waterleaf capitals. The absolute date of the remodelling of the crossing has to be determined with reference to motifs archaeologye employeth o t motife d th dan proto-stiff-leae f sth O . f capital northe th f so - east crossin mose gth pie e t progressivrar unlikele ar d ean y befor 1180se eth . Indeed, they might wel usee b l supporo dt t Fawcett's attributio f thino s wor Bishoo kt p Kolbeinsson after 1188 rather tha 117e nth 0 suggeste Crudeny db . This conforms wit archaeologicae hth l evidence which indicates that the Romanesque crossing was removed rather than collapsing, hence the reinforcement of the clerestory windows in the south transept rather than their rebuilding. rectangulaw ne e th r r Fo transept chapels soute th , h transept doorwatransepe th d yan t gables differena , t approac witnesseds hi whice on , h expresses, even flaunts latese th , t stylee Th . transept chapel enteree ar s d through round-headed Romanesque arches which appeae b o t r untouched in the late 12th-century remodelling (illus 25). It has been suggested that these arches led into apsidal chapel Romanesque th n si e cathedral (RCAHMS 1946, 113; Cruden 1977; 5 g fi , ; 1988198612 11)doorwaye g g fi ,fi , Th . s fro ease mth t trifori botf ao h transept rooe th f o sspact e of the chapels seem to belong to the Romanesque fabric which suggests that chapels, apsidal or squared, were planned if not completed in the original scheme. Be that as it may, the chapels were rebuillate th e n 12ti t h century eastere arce th n Th .ho n wale planth lf naturalleo y followe th s round-headed barre e forth f mo l vault betwee archesmouldinge o th tw t same e nth bu ,th s e a sar innee th n r easo wese orded th an tf t ro crossin g arches, minu chevroe sth n (illus 25) eastere .Th n arch rests on corbels as do the chamfered vault ribs while the pointed windows have a plain continuous inner order and a richly moulded outer order on waterleaf capitals and detached shafts (illus 26). Stiff-leaf foliage bosse vault e usee th sar botf n di so h chapels significance Th . f eo the chapels is clearly articulated on the exterior where not only the pointed windows contrast with the Romanesque work but, more particularly, the shafted turrets are quite different from the 868 SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 1997

ILLU 3 S2 Kirkwal l Cathedral: south nave ILLU4 S2 Kirkwall Cathedral: north nave aisle arcade, bay 1, west springer to east

Romanesque vocabulary (Fawcett 1988decisioe up-to-date Th ,. us p i6) o n t e motifs accords with the liturgical importance of the altar space within the chapel and serves to differentiate it from the transept in which spatial integrity was retained with the reproduction of the Romanesque detail. The south transept doorway is very weathered but enough remains to tell of its astounding richness (illus 27). Of four orders, the inner one on coursed triple shafts, the others on detached shaft waterlead san moulder fo d capitals. Excep jambinnee e th th f n rso o t orde r wher stond ere e is used exclusively jambe th voussoir,d san s alternat whitd an ed stoneere arce Th h. mouldings vere ar y complex with dogtoot e seconth fourtd n ho dan h orders e whol s doubtlesTh . ewa s deemed appropriat portae th r lefo facin Bishop'e gth s Palacedoorwainside e th th f n eo e O . yar crocket capitals wit rinha g beneat abacue Frence hth th n si h manner (illu (Jalaber) s27 t 1932, 190-208). Whil uppee eth soute r parth f ho t transept fa?ad wore th f Richars ko ei d Spencn ei 1856 (Gifford 1992, 318) norte th , h transept front retain medievas sit l masonry clerestore Th . y there belong late th e o 12th-centurst y programm buils i ashlan d i t ean contrasn ri rubble th o t e below (illus 29)round-headee Th . d window keepinn i e sar g with thos edetachee beloth t wbu d shafts with mid-shaft ring crocked san t capitals represent somethin (illuw gne s 30). Furthermore, the arch mouldings are different in the two windows, a trait paralleled in consecutive orders of the presbytery arcades.

EARLE TH Y GOTHIC EASD TEN cathedrae extensioe th Th easterf e o th f m lno nar conform s wit hlata e 12th 13th-centurd an - y trend to provide greater space and usually a more glorious setting for a major shrine. The lavish THURLBY: ARCHITECTURAL HISTOR KIRKWALF YO L CATHEDRAL 869

ILLU 5 S2 Kirkwal l Cathedral: arc souto ht h transept chapel

ILLU 6 S2 Kirkwal l Cathedral: south transept chapel vault east end at St Andrews was conceived as an updated version of the shrine setting of St Cuthbert at Durham Cathedral (Cambridge 1977; Thurlby 1994c) e earlTh . y Gothic t eastera m ar n Canterbury Cathedral provided an elaborate home for the shrine of Thomas a Becket (Kidson 1993; Hearn 1994; Hoey 1995b). St Oswin was given a new setting at Tynemouth Priory (Draper 1980, 82) t TrondheiA . m Cathedral mothee th , r churc Kirkwallf ho Octagoe th , begus nwa n ni 118 houso 3t bodt Olae S e th f yvo (Fischer 1953, 181-3; 1965, 127-88) trene Th . d wen weln o t l into the 13th century as at Worcester Cathedral (1224-32) for St Oswald and St Wulfstan; Ely (1234-51) for St Ethelreda; (1245-69) for Edward the Confessor; and the Angel Choir of Lincoln Cathedral (1256-80) for St Hugh. At Kirkwall, in addition to consideratio settine t Magnus'th S r f gno fo s shrine extendee th , d easprovided en t d more room canone foth r facilitated san placemene dth choie th f ro t stall crossinse easth f o t g (Cant 1972; 7 , Fawcett 1988, 97). The proportions of the presbytery elevation continue those of the Romanesque church aspecn (illua , f continuits2) o t y insufficiently recognized histore th n i f architectur yo e on t ebu

THURLBY: ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY OF KIRKWALL CATHEDRAL I 871

ILLU 0 S3 Kirkwal l Cathedral: north transept, north clerestory windows

ILLUS 31 Kirkwall Cathedral: north presbytery aislo et east comparede b whic y hma r examplefo , , with Chichester Lincold an y nEl , cathedrals. Round- headed arches continue in the main arcades even though pointed arches were used in the crossing. However, individual motifmaie th nf s o arcade remover fa e sar d fro Romanesque mth e wort kno least in the pier design (illus 31). The principle of design is established in the east responds which evolves fro mregulaa r compound pier with larger cardina e shaftth n so l axes, westkeelee th n ,do and the two intermediate smaller shafts. In other words, they follow the same design principle as the crossing piers (illus 8 & 10). The free-standing piers of the arcades modify this form with a 872 | SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 1997

hollow betwee minoe nth r shaft o creatt s ea soft , rippling effect (illus 31-3). This changs i e accompanieplinte th n hi desige on y dnb fro msingla e step beneath both minor easshafte th tn si respond o roundet s d plinths beneath each mino re free-standin shafth n i t g piers e fullTh .y developed water-holding base moulding typologicalle sar y more advanced crossine thath n ni g piers (illus 32). e capital maie Th th nf o sarcad aisle eth pier e d respondan s extremele ar s y varied dan include moulded rangtypea d differenf esan o t type foliagf so e some inhabited with human heads and others with grotesques (illus 33-8). Several capitals conform to the strict order of the French crocket typ ) (Jalabere34 (illu& 3 t3 s 1932, 190-208), while other rather wea sometimed kan s sinuous forms desperately need a hefty dose of fertilizer to grow into a full stiff-leaf (illus 35-7) (Gardner 1927; Wynn-Reeves 1952). The waterleaf which proliferated in the crossing and adjacent remodelled area absens si t fro presbyterye mth . However appearance th , f headeo n si presbytere somth f eo y capitals unusuan a , l feature presages i , maie th nn d o eas t capitae th f o l north crossing arc 34)& h 3 .(illu 3 Similarly , 10 s channellee th , d spiky foliage lobee th th f f so e o main capita soute th f ho l respon arce th h f dfroo norte mth h transep norte th ho t choir aisls ei close to the foliage between the heads on the south-west of capital S2 in the presbytery (illus 11 & 37), while the limp, crossed stems of the former reappear on the left capital of the east respond of presbytere th y north arcade (illus 35)11& . This suggests that little time elapsed between worn ko the crossing and the start of the presbytery and even that the latter may have been started before the crossing repairs were completed (RCAHMS 1946, 119; Fawcett 1988, 98). The closeness campaigno tw e ofth furthes si r emphasize repetitioe th inney e db th f rn o arche ordee th f ro s from the transepts to the nave aisles in the inner order of the presbytery arcades, while the other two orders of the former provide the basis for the outer order of the latter (illus 15, 31 & 36). Similarly secone th n i ,d presbytere ordeth f ro y arcad separatioe eth centrae th f no l rolls witn ha angle fillet relates to the inner order of the north and south crossing arches (illus 9, 10 & 34). The only motif in the presbytery arcades not found in the crossing area is the fillet on the angle roll of the third order. Beneat greae hth t east window ther three-baa s ei y pointed dado arcade with keeled shafts, moulded capitals and stylized foliage paterae in the spandrels (illus 37). This enrichment indicates that the high altar and possibly the shrine of St Magnus would have been placed away from the wal thin li presbyterse areth f ao y (Fawcett 1988, 97-8). External parallels provide a context for the Kirkwall presbytery arcades and substantiate their attribution to Bishop Kolbeinsson. Neither the free-standing piers nor the east responds are precisely paralleled elsewhere, but this is hardly surprising given the remarkable inventiveness in pier desigperioe th f no d (Hoey 1986; 1987; 1994) compoune Th . d east responds some closeso t the south nave arcade piers of Holyrood Abbey although at Holyrood only the west respond has a keeled central shaft (illus 31, 40 & 41) (Hoey 1994, 89-93). For keeled shafts there is the tradition of the clustered piers in northern early Gothic starting with the eight-shafted clusters (from the choir of York Minster as rebuilt by Archbishop Roger of Pont 1'Eveque (1154-81) (Browne 1847, pi XXX, fig 3). Closer to Kirkwall are the 12-shaft clusters of the transept east arcade t Dundrennasa n Abbe whicn yi h ther largee ear r keeled cardina e shaftth n o s l axes with smaller intermediate paired shafts (illus 342)1& . Typologicall Dundrennae yth e n th pier d san penultimat Holyrooe th pie f o r d south nave arcade (with chamfered rather than right-angled stones between the shafts) take their place between the east responds and the free-standing piers Kirkwale ofth l presbytery arcadesholloe th r wFo . betwee minoe nth r shaft numbea s earlf o r y Gothic parallels migh citee b t dchoie sucth s rha aisle respond t Noyosa n Cathedral soute th , h presbytery arcade at New Shoreham, Sussex, the chancel arch responds at Angmering, Sussex,

874 | SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 1997

ILLUS 35 Kirkwall Cathedral: presbytery, north arcade, east respond capitals from north-west

ILLUS 36 Kirkwall Cathedral: presbytery, south arcade, capitals SI from north-west the north nave arcade piers at Bayeux Cathedral, and the south pier of the north transept east arcade at Ripon Minster, Yorkshire (Hoey 1987,252). Whether any of these had a bearing on the Kirkwall pier mooa s si t point t give man,bu e nth y permutation clustered-pief so r design earln si y Gothic architecture in northern Britain it seems most likely that the Kirkwall variation should be attribute inventivenese th o dt talentee th f so d master mason. For the capitals one might compare the main arcade capitals of Wells Cathedral (c 1175-1220) in which there is an analogous variety of foliage as well as various creatures inhabitin e capitalsgth . More importantl Scotlann yi e wes th te portaldar f Jedburgo s d han Holyrood abbey whicn i s h ther e somear e crocket type creatured an s same th s f ealbeio t no t species as Kirkwall (illus 43) (Garton 1987, 74, pi 10 & 21). The multiplicity of the arch mouldings again recalls the Holyrood nave, but the inner order at Kirkwall is conceived on a flat plane with keeled angle rolls rather than on a triangular sequence finishing in a single soffit roll (illus 31, 34, 40 & 41). In this regard the Kirkwall design conforms to principles established in the north of England as early as the 1150s in the choir of THURLBY: ARCHITECTURAL HISTOR KIRKWALF YO L CATHEDRA5 87 | L

ILLU 7 S3 Kirkwal l Cathedral: presbytery, south arcade, capitals fro2 S m south-west

ILLUS 38 Kirkwall Cathedral: presbytery, south arcade, capitals S2 from north-east

Archbishop Roge Ponf ro t 1'Eveque's York Minster (Wilson use d 1986,96 Scotlanan n d i , 5) g ,fi d nave in th Jedburgf eo h Abbey (Garton 1987, pi 44) transepte ,th t Dundrennasa n (illu and) s42 , f courseo crossine th , g arche t Kirkwalla s alsy significane ob ma t I . t that similar mouldings appear in the chapter house of Trondheim Cathedral (Fischer 1965, illus on 111-12, 115-16). Ther foue ear r order mouldingf so t Kirkwalsa l rather than thre t Holyrooea Kirkwale th d dan l mouldings are more varied. This variety is presaged in the arch from the south transept to the south nave aisle at St Andrews and was probably seen as a mark of design sophistication (Thurlby 1994c,plVIc). There is precedent for the pointed dado arcade beneath the east window at Abbey (Fawcett 1994, pi XIs), whic s base intersectinn hwa a turn i dn o n g versio t AndrewS t na s Cathedral (Thurlby 1994c, 48) decorate,e whilth r efo d spandrels ther parallea dads e ei th on i l arcade of the north transept east aisle at Abbey (Pevsner & Richmond 1957, pi 2lb). gallere sharn Th i s yi p contras lavise th o ht main simpls arcadha d e ean steppe d pierss a , on the north side of the Romanesque choir, with simple steps in the arch on the north side and

THURLBY: ARCHITECTURAL HISTOR KIRKWALF YO L CATHEDRAL 877

ILLU 3 S4 Holyroo d Abbey: west portal, R capitals

ILLUS 44 Kirkwall Cathedral: east window ILLU 5 S4 Kirkwal l Cathedral: east window, interior, north enclosing arch capitals

chamfered orders on the south (illus 2). Does the change mark an economy or an attempt at visual unity with the choir when a screen would have masked the presbytery arcades from view fro weste mth ? flae Whetheth t t easno tr frono r t (Fawcett 1988 inspires wa , ) p Archbisho5 iy db p Roger of Pont PEveque's eastern extension at York Minster is a moot point — Browne's plan shows the east wall thicker than the aisle walls (Browne 1847, pi XII) — but at least the form was a very popula earln i e y ron Gothi c great churche northe th n si .

THURLBY: ARCHITECTURAL HISTOR KIRKWALF YO L CATHEDRA9 87 | L

One of the most notable features of Kirkwall Cathedral is the great east window (illus 44) (Fawcett 1988, 101-2). Large fa?ade window associatee sar d with Gothic front Britain i s n from the west front of Lincoln Cathedral (Russell 1986), Peterborough Cathedral and Binham Priory (Thurlby 1991b) Lincolo t , n Angel Choir, Ripon Minster, York Minste elsewhered ran thesf O . e e earlies datee th b documentary o db t t y evidenc Binhas i e m whic s completehwa 1244y db , although Peterboroug Lincold han botfillenw — hno d with later tracer probably— y date from e 1230sth . Therefore Kirkwale th f i , l east windo integran a ws i l par f Bishoo t p Kolbeinsson's presbyter completes wa d yan d befor s deathi e n 1223hi t takei , grean o s t importance th r efo history of Gothic architecture in Britain. The plate tracery of the rose and the subarcuation of the two mains light are clearly restored doubo n e t b thert n thabu , essentiae eca th t lwindoe forth f wholma o s wa originals ei . That it is contemporary with the presbytery is demonstrated by careful internal analysis (illus 44). In the first place, the junctions of the jambs and sub-arches, the plate tracery in the spandrels beneath the rose, and the springers of the lower half of the rose, are each formed with single stones whic onln singlpara e hca yb f o t e integral desig executiond nan mouldinge Th . e th f so enclosing arch of the window, both inside and out, repeat the filleted angle roll flanked by two hollow thinned san r oute rthire rollth df s o presbytere orde th f ro y main arcade 45)(illu& .2 s3 mouldee Th d capital enclosine th f north-ease so th samge n o arcth s e a htar capitaln piei f so 2 rS presbytere th y main arcad centrae 45)d (illuTh an . 8 ls3 capita sub-archee th f o l inhabites si n di mannee th presbytere somf ro th f eo y arcade capitals, this time wits beasha ha t riderd i d an t an , hollowed spiky lobed leaves like the south-west capital of pier S2 (illus 37 & 46). The north capitasub-arce th f o s lfoliag hha e crockets with central pointed lobe spiralled an s d side lobes south-ease exactlth n i s ya tpresbyter e capitath f o pie f 2 o l rN y main arcade 47)(illu& .3 s3 Suc h close correspondences indicate that the works are contemporary. The east window of Kirkwall is therefore the earliest extant example of a major traceried facade window .sourcee Wha designe th 1160 e e th Andrewt f tth S ar s o t n ?sa I s Cathedra ease lth t fron dissolves i t d into three tier f threso e large round-headed windows (Thurlby 1994c, 48-50) and by the a pointed variant existed at Arbroath Abbey (Fawcett 1994, 63). In the south transept fa?ade at Arbroath tall paired lancets — equivalent in height to the combined transept gallery and clerestory — are surmounted by a rose window in the gable, while a ruined huge rose window occupie e entirth s e uppe e wesr th par tf o frontt s witA . h other aspect f Bishoo s p Kolbeinsson's work at Kirkwall, the architectural context extends south to Yorkshire. Rose windows surmounted triplet f separato s e round-headed window ease th t n froni s t Kirkstala t l Abbey (Harrisowese th t d fronan f nFountain) o t4 1995 g fi , s Abbey (Coppack 1993, 40-1, fig wheelatte a e 25) d Th . rha l design with round-headed archespokese th n so . Close Kirkwalo rt l wese th rose t n th frone o e t Bylanar a t d Abbey reconstructes a , Stuary db t Harriso Paud nan l Barker, and the south transept rose of York Minster (Harrison & Barker 1987, fig 7). In particula trefoie rth l arches trefoiled an d piercing spandrele th f innee so th f rs o Yor circle th kf eo liko s ros ee Kirkwalear l tha restoratioe th t lattee th o rnf must surel trustee yb d (Gifford 1992, 320). What is remarkable at Kirkwall is that unlike any of the Yorkshire designs the lancets and the rose are integrated into a single window. Its design is progressive not only in the early Gothic of Britain but also of France. It must be noticed, however, that the dissolution of the upper part of the Kirkwall facade into tracery does find a near-contemporary analogue in Scotland in the west fron Holyroof o t d Abbey, even thoug detaile hth differene sar t (illus 48) (Wilson 1984,135-8). parallele Th s betwee wese th nave t d nth fron ean f Holyrooo t d Kirkwale Abbeth d yan l presbyter bote yar h intriguin tantalizinghandd e gan on e , theth n yO . represent what must have been regarded as an ideally rich aesthetic for a building of the highest order. On the other hand, | SOCIET 0 88 ANTIQUARIEF YO SCOTLANDF SO , 1997

I ILLUS 49 Kirkwall Cathedral: presbytery high vault, east boss

ILLU 0 S5 Kirkwal l Cathedral: choir high vault, capita2 lN

what do they tell us about the exact nature of the connection between the two buildings? The lavish articulation in both cases represents the wishes of the patron while details such as pier forms and arch mouldings were in the charge of the master mason. Are the details close enough suggeso t t tha same tth e master mason worke botn do h buildings theo ?D y sugges sharine th t f go one or more craftsmen? Or are the similarities so general as to be dictated by the patron? The use of compound piers rather than the virtually ubiquitous northern cluster pier is sufficient to suggest shared craftsmen. And this is supported by the resemblances between certain capital types, arch mouldings eved darine ,an n th g traceriee voith dn i d facade. However, nowhere th o ed THURLBY: ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY OF KIRKWALL CATHEDRAL 881

details seem sufficiently clos indicato et same wore th e th f eko maste r mason. Perhap mastee sth r mason of one building had previously served in a junior capacity at the other and if that was the case it raises the question of relative dates. Holyrood is not documented but there is general consensus tha t shouli t datee db d between about 119 d 1235an 0 (Wilson 1984, 130; Hoey 1994, 89-92), in other words contemporary with the Kirkwall presbytery. On the one hand, the arch moulding foliagd san e capital Kirkwale th f so l presbyter typologicalle yar y earlier tha soute nth h nave arcade and aisle at Holyrood. On the other hand, there are waterleaf capitals in the north nave aisle dado arcade at Holyrood which, as we have seen, were abandoned in the Kirkwall presbytery thi o problee t s d th los e th .Ad t m f square-endeo d easterHolyroof o m nar d from which there may exist fragmentary keeled shafts (Wilson 1984, 139; Hoey 1994, 90-1), and the question of priority seems insoluble. Fawcett suggested tha plannet hige no tth hs easter e vauldwa th f whem to nar n work began presbytere th n o y (Fawcett 1988, 102-3) supporn .I cass citee hi eh f to d change wale th l n sshafti s which divide the presbytery bays, from thin single shafts in the main arcade spandrels to thicker single shafts on the gallery piers, to triple shafts in the gallery spandrels and into the clerestory (Fawcett 1988, pi 12). He then observed that the clerestory throughout the eastern arm was raised to accommodate the high vault (Fawcett 1988, pi 5 & 6). Fawcett may be right, but an alternative readin worts gi h considering firss Hi .t point demand senssa absolutf eo e 'logic' whic hardls hi y symptomati earlf co y Gothic architectur Britain ei n (Hoey 1986; 1987) juss i likels t ta I . y thae tth staggering of the wall shafts resulted from the desire to have thin shafts in the main arcade spandrels so as to maximize the impact of the main arcade piers and arch mouldings. That a high vaul integran intendes a eastere s wa ta th r lm dparfo nar Bishof to p Kolbeinsson's programms ei suggeste e higth hy dvaulb t capital choie th rn si whic variante har waterlean o s simpld an f e acanthus themes (illus 50 & 51) (RCAHMS 1946, 124). In contrast, the north-west capital of the presbyter stiff-leae yth vaulf o s fi t type wit hrouna dpresbytere abacuth n i s sa y main arcade, whil remaindee eth presbytere th f ro y high vault capital mouldenorth-ease e sar th n i s da t capital of presbytery arcade pier S2 (illus 38 & 52). Therefore, it would appear that work on the high vault capital choie startes th f rwa so d soon afte crossine th r transepd gan t were completedd an , tha presbytere th t y vault capital ssame werth ey eb craftsme arcade th s na e capitals below.e B 4 t completemaythat i s no vaul e ta s ,th wa t d immediately becaus bossee eth carvee sar d wit richa h array of stiff-leaf (illus 49). A chronology for stiff-leaf in Scotland has not been established, but obviously the foliage of the bosses is much later than the rudimentary foliage of the presbytery arcade capitals. Perhap change sth foliagn ei e types shoul equatee db d wit hdelaa y while eth clerestory wall was raised throughout the eastern arm. The latter would have been necessary because the geometry of the high vault had not been accurately determined in relation to the height of the clerestory. Incredible as this may seem at first, it is not entirely surprising that difficulties were experienced give differene nth easter e sizey th (illuba tn m s i . nThaar s2) t there was no ideal solution is indicated because the nave high vault was built at a lower level than in the easter (illum nnav, while ar s2) th en e i aisle vaulte sth s rise highe rchoi e thath n ri aisles (illu, s3 4 & 24). Moreover, high stone vaults are rare in Scotland in the early Gothic period. St Andrews presbytery and Holyrood nave were planned for high vaults from the first but the remaining vaults there were (re)built respectively from 1418 to 1443 (Thurlby 1994c, 48-50) and from 1460 148o t 3 (Wilson 1984, 133). This raise possibilite sth y tha earle tth y Gothic vaults were eithet rno completed or were built in wood, and serves to emphasize the ambitious nature of the Kirkwall project. The inclusion of a ridge rib in the high vault may once again indicate a Yorkshire link given appearance th thif eo s nortmotie th n hfi transept chapel Ripot sa n Minste 1180c r( ) (Hearn 1983,

THURLBY: ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY OF KIRKWALL CATHEDRAL | 883

pi 22). However, for the ridge rib in a high vault we have to look further south to St Hugh's Choir and eastern transepts at Lincoln Cathedral, begun in 1192, where there are also a number of features in common with Holyrood (Wilson 1984). Before considerin significance gth certaif eo n motifpresbyterye th n si continuatioe th , f no building in the nave will be examined to provide a better context for discussion of stylistic differences.

THE COMPLETION OF THE NAVE Fawcett's detailed analysi sequence th nave f so th ef e o require furtheo sn r comment sav drao et w attention to the use of the channelled rolls in the second and third orders of the interior mouldings of the windows in bays 3-5 in the south'nave aisle (illus 53). This motif is not used further east in the building but it was popular in Archbishop Roger's York Minster and the related work at Trondheim Cathedral (Wilso sucs a hd nservean ) 19865 reinforco sg t fi , parallele eth s already cited with those buildings. What does require emphasis is the uniformity of the nave design (illus 2) (Sharret & Sharret 1985, pi 111). As Fawcett observed in his opening paragraph, Kirkwall Cathedra e 'appearancth s ha l f beino e n essentiallga y Romanesque building' even though 'much less of the building is in fact Romanesque than first appearances might suggest. The latter masons of the cathedral took the architectural forms established by their predecessors guide a sth their efo r work and, despit inordinate eth e lengt timf ho toot ei completeo kt d en e th , resul a buildin s i t f remarkablo g e homogeneity' (Fawcett 1988, 88) f courseO . , there ar e differences between phases as in the dado arcade fifth bay of the north nave aisle where the late 12th-century waterleaf capitals contrast wit scallopee hth d capitals further eastbold an ,d roll- and-hollow mouldings replace the earlier chevron (illus 54 & 55). However, the basic form of the paired shaft d mouldean s d intersecting round-headed arches continues unabated. Similarly, moulding introducee sar secone th o dt d windoe ordeth f ro w arche bayn si s N4-N plac6n i f eo the unmoulded further east (illus 54 & 55). These mouldings do not have a precise parallel in the late 12th-century work elsewher churche keelee th th n t ei d ,bu angl e roll thinned san r rolls belong same th eo t familpresbytere th s ya y arcadesthet ye y d for.An m minoa r elemen nave th ef o taisl e window in which the continuity of the basic design established in the eastern bays of the nave is all important. The sense of uniformity is even more obvious in the nave arcades and galleries. In the former, apart from the change from octagonal scalloped to round moulded capitals, the cylindrical piers remain the same throughout the nave and there are only minor changes to the simple three-order arches. Allied simplicit carries yi d throug t gallerha y level. Aside from minor deviations associated with the late medieval completion of the nave (Fawcett 1988, 109-10), the only major changes in the nave are in the portal in the sixth bay of the north aisle and the three western portals (illus 56). In these portals, so carefully analysed by Fawcett (1988, 106-9), we encounte richnesra s whic quit s hi similao s t einterioe spiritalieye n nave th ri d th o n t ef f an i , ro exacn i t tno detailmaie th accouno nt o t ,e arcade e presbyteryw r suc th fo e t hf ar o s w Ho . similarities and differencies in what was probably contemporary work? The principle is the same choie th n ri transepts a s where articulatio allies ni functiono dt transep.e Justh s a t t chapels were more elaborate tha maie nth n transept e bodemphasizo th t f s ya o o s e their functio altas a n r spaces, so the highly articulated main arcades and east window of the presbytery marked the most important churce spacth n ei h aroun hige dth shrine ht Magnus th S alta f d eo an r t naturallI . y follows tha relative tth e simplicit nave th ef y o shoul d reflec lesses it t r liturgical significanced An . elaboratn jusa s a t e doorwa introduces ywa soute th hn di transept facin bishop'e gth s palaco es 884 SOCIET ANTIQUARIEF YO SCOTLANDF SO , 1997

ILLU 5 S5 Kirkwal l Cathedral: north nave aisle ILLUS 56 Kirkwall Cathedral: west front, interior, 5 bay & s4 central portal the north nave doorwa especialld yan wese yth t front portals presen strikingla t y rich public facade. These aspect continuitf so changd yan Kirkwalt ea l Cathedra meano n y isolaten b s a e lar d case. To cite two examples: much of the nave of Peterborough Cathedral was built by Benedict (1177-94) accordin pattere th o gt n establishe outsee th t constructiof da o t 1117/n ni 8 (Peers 1906). This only gave way to the early Gothic in the spatially separate western transepts. Similarly t Wella , s Cathedral ther remarkabls ei e uniformit nave th en yi desig e spitn nth i f eo 'break construction i ' n detecte Bilsoy db n (1928)processionae th t bu , l doorways, west frond an t north porch are all stylistically different from the nave. Even though the latter is bonded with the aisle wall it is often attributed to a different master mason (Brakspear 1931, 16).

CONCLUSION The Romanesque fabric of Kirkwall Cathedral has long been connected with Durham Cathedral and related buildings. This study suggests that the liturgical arrangement of the original east end followed that at Durham and that the association with the resting place of St Cuthbert was to have been further emphasized with eastern towers. The latter were never realized, instead attentio turnes remodelline nth wa o dt crossine th f gtranseptd o gan whicn si h conservativd ean progressive elements were used accordin structurao gt r liturgicao l l function. This wors kwa probably undertaken early in the episcopate of Bishop Kolbeinsson. He was also responsible for the extensio eastere th witf m no magnificens n ar hit t main arcade platd san e tracery windown i the fa?ade have W .e compared feature thif so s work with Holyrood Abbey, Archbishop Rogef ro THURLBY: ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY OF KIRKWALL CATHEDRAL | 885

Pont 1'Eveque's York Minste allied an r d buildings witd an ,h Trondheim Cathedral r CanFo . t (1988 lattee )th r playe drathea r more important role tha have nw e suggested whic entirelys hi plausible give diocesae nth n connection betwee buildingso tw e n th maythat e i s B .'chapte ta e ,th r house d uppean ' re transeptpartth f o s t Trondheia s m represent something entireln i w yne Norwaundoubtedle ar d yan wore y th f mason ko s associated with Archbishop Roge t Yora r k Minster. Therefore, rather than thinking just in terms of a Trondheim-Kirkwall connection we might adapt one of Eric Fernie's conclusions on the church at Egilsay (Fernie 1988). Fernie suggested that the design of Egilsay 'belongs to a family of buildings originating in North Germany and linked by the North Sea'. For Kirkwall the North Sea would also have provided the vital link, whether with Durham for the Romanesque design or with Yorkshire, Holyrood and Trondheim in the time of Bishop Kolbeinsson.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I should like to thank Jim Rousay, Custodian of Kirkwall Cathedral, and Liz Johnston, Assistant Custodian, for giving me unlimited access to the upper parts of the fabric without which this study would have been impossible alsm a o I . gratefu r RicharD o t l d Fawcet r generouslfo t y sharin views ghi varioun so assistancs shi r aspect fabrie fo th d ef csan o wit h archival mattern si Edinburgh. Research fund r thifo ss project were provide e Socia th parn di y b lt Scienced an s Humanities Research Counci Canadaf lo .

NOTES 1 Cambridge (1988, 119-22) present cassa e agains ambulatoryn a t westero tw readins e Hi .n th f go choie baydoubl a unconvincinth s i s f ra sy o eba g becaus considerable th f eo e differenc size f th eo n ei baye th s (illus2). 2 Cunningham 1976, 37; Stalley 1995,11. 3 Wilson's (1986) emphasi Gothie th n so c missionary activitie Cisterciane th f so northern si n Britain had a good pedigree with Bilson (1909), Bony (1949), Webb (1956, 82-4), Kidson et a/(1962, 62-6), and Fergusson (1975; 1984, 69-90), but already in the 1970s Jane Cunningham suggested that 'the Cistercian theid san r contact onle s th wer yt meaneno whicy sb h foreign up-to-date influences were brough norte th f Englandho o t t ' (Cunningham 1976, 37) r Hear.Fo n (1983 e patronagth ) f o e Archbishop Roger of Pont 1'Eveque was more important for the beginning of northern Gothic but at Ripon rather tha t Yorna k Minster [see revie Thurlbyy wb Architectc So J , (1986)Hist,V XL , 68-9; and correspondence in ibid, XLVI (1988), 101-2]. Recently, in his study of the early Gothic fabric of Selby Abbey, Roger Stalley (1995,11) stated that 'Cistercian architecture in the North had less impact tha sometimes ni s imagined'. 4 The shafts of the choir high vault capitals are carried on grotesque and human head corbels. The summary detailing of the human head on the north-east corbel of the choir high vault (illus 51) compares favourably wit hloosa e corbel from Jedburgh Abbe y1180-9c 0 (Thurlby 1981, pi 29b).

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