Hope Navigator

HOPE NAVIGATOR

Train the Trainer

Science and Power of Hope

The Hope Navigator training is a focused 12 hour training designed to prepare selected individuals to provide leadership and support on the Science and Power of Hope. This training is designed to use small group discussion and brainstorming groups for shared learning. Therefore, engagement is a requirement. For those attending virtually, you should join the training with access to a camera and audio for full participation. HOPE NAVIGATOR Train the Trainer

January 26-27, 2021

1. Hope Navigator Training Agenda 2. Day One - Pre-Reading Assignments: (These articles will be discussed during Session 1). a. Rainbows of the Mind b. 3 Pillars of Trauma Informed Care c. Hope and Resilience 3. Day One - Session 1 Hope Theory a. Hope Workshop 4. Day One - Session 2 Enhancing, Finding and Modeling Hope a. Your Personal and Professional Goals Worksheet b. Hope Worksheet c. Pathways To Goal Planning Worksheet 5. Day Two - Pre-Reading Assignments: (These articles will be discussed during Session 3). a. Camp HOPE as a interview for Children Exposed to Domestic Violence: A Program Evaluation of Hope, and Strength of Character b. “Building Hope for the Future”: A Program to Foster Strengths in Middle-School Students c. The positive impact and development of hopeful leaders 6. Day Two - Session 3 Hope at Work: Building a Hope Centered Organization a. Creating A Hope Centered Framework 7. Day Two - Session 4 Hope Centered Implementation and Change a. Hope Centered and Trauma Informed Implementation & Change HOPE NAVIGATOR TRAINING AGENDA The Hope Navigator training is a focused 12 hour training designed to prepare selected individuals to provide leadership and support on the Science and Power of Hope. This training is designed to use small group discussion and brainstorming groups for shared learning. Therefore, engagement is a requirement. For those attending virtually, you should join the training with access to a camera and audio for full participation.

Before the Training: 1. Identify your unique character strengths by completing a profile at www.viacharacter.org 2. Please complete the assigned pre-readings provided in the meeting confirmation email before the first course. Day 1 Check-In: 8:30 am – 9:00 am ~ Technology Check

Session 1: 9:00 am – 12:00 pm ~ Hope Theory 1. Introduction to positive psychology and Hope in the context of well-being. 2. The Power and Science of Hope, Hope Awareness presentation. 3. Hope Reading Review: a. Rainbows of the Mind, b. 3 Pillars of Trauma Informed Care, c. Hope and Resilience

Break-Out Discussion Focus (Readings): 1. What is the big take away for each article? 2. Why is nurturing Hope important? 3. What does it mean to claim, “Hope is a science”? 4. Is positive psychology only focused on what is good? Is it just the power of positive thinking? 5. What is needed for your CHC to implement the 3 pillars of TIC?

Session 2: 1:00 pm – 4:00 pm ~ Enhancing, Finding and Modeling Hope 1. The Importance of Setting and Clarifying Goals. a. Your Personal and Professional Goals Worksheet. 2. Identifying Pathways to Nurture Hope. a. Hope Worksheets. b. Pathways to Goals Worksheet. Break-Out Discussion Focus: 1. How does identifying and discussing goals nurture hope? 2. How is goal setting understood in the research? What is the impact of high and low hope on goal setting? 3. Why do people benefit from pathway planning and considering barriers and problems? Doesn’t that just lower hope? 4. What do you feel when you work on your goal setting worksheet?

1 ©. Chan Hellman LLC 5. How can you help others make the connection between the activities and their own hope? Can the tools help Hope rise? 6. Individual hope can be varied in any group, how can you use the training and information to find hope, enhance hope and model hope?

Day 2 Check-In: 8:30 am – 9:00 am ~ Technology Check

Session 3: 9:00 am – 12: 00 pm ~ Hope at Work: Building a Hope Centered Organization 1. Check-In: Big Group Discussion a. Tell us one thing that stands out to you about hope? b. Describe one thing about hope this is not clear or causes some doubt. 2. The Science and Power of Hope at Work. a. 10-minute Breakout rooms: (Where do you see hope in your work, in the community hope center? What are the potential detractors to integrating hope?). 3. Characteristics of a Hope Centered Organization. a. 6 Guiding Principles of a Hope Centered Organization. 4. Measuring Hope. a. Take and score the adult hope scale. 5. Hope Reading Review: a. Camp Hope b. Building Hope for the Future c. Hope & Leadership Discussion Focus: 1. What is the big take away for each article? 2. Where is there a risk for hope to decrease? 3. How have the authors of the readings used Hope to build programs and organizations? What was the result of their effort?

Session 4: 1:00 pm – 4:00 pm ~ Hope Centered Implementation and Change 1. Where do we go from here? Using the tenants of Hope to implement a Hope Centered framework in the center. 2. Hope Centered Model for Project Implementation. a. Large group brainstorming of ideas to use Hope in the CHC. b. 25-minute break out by center teams to complete the goal setting worksheet. c. Debrief the goals in large group. d. 35-minute break out by center teams to complete pathways to goals worksheet. 3. Determining your implementation goals and selecting pathways. a. On boarding new employees. b. Lunch and learn awareness presentations. c. Stakeholder presentations. d. Etc.

2 ©. Chan Hellman LLC Discussion Focus: 1. What are the opportunities to use Hope in your project? 2. Are there policy strategies, program strategies or structural strategies that can be adapted to help with Hope finding, Hope enhancing and Hope modeling? 3. As a team, what do you think needs to happen next?

3 ©. Chan Hellman LLC HOPE NAVIGATOR Train the Trainer

Tuesday, January 26, 2021 PRE-READING ASSIGNMENTS

Session 1 9:00 am - 12:00 pm Hope Theory

Articles for discussion this morning.

• Rainbows of the Mind

• 3 Pillars of Trauma Informed Care

• Hope and Resilience

Hope Theory: Rainbows in the Mind Author(s): C. R. Snyder Source: Psychological Inquiry, Vol. 13, No. 4 (2002), pp. 249-275 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1448867 Accessed: 15-02-2020 18:42 UTC

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This content downloaded from 156.110.185.215 on Sat, 15 Feb 2020 18:42:26 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Psychological Inquiry Copyright ? 2002 by 2002, Vol. 13, No. 4, 249-275 Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

TARGET ARTICLE

Hope Theory: Rainbows in the Mind

C. R. Snyder The University of Kansas, Lawrence

Hope is defined as the perceived capability to derive pathways to desired goals, and motivate oneself via agency thinking to use those pathways. The adult and child hope scales that are derivedfrom hope theory are described. Hope theory is compared to theories of learned optimism, optimism, self-efficacy, and self-esteem. Higher hope consistently is related to better outcomes in academics, athletics, physical health, psychological adjustment, andpsychotherapy. Processes that lessen hope in children and adults are reviewed. Using the hope theory definition, no evidence isfoundfor 'false " hope. Future research is encouraged in regard to accurately enhancing hope in medi- calfeedback andhelpingpeople to pursue thosegoalsfor which they are bestsuited.

Origins of the Theory Next, I should mention the valuable advice of my colleague, Fritz Heider, who suggested that I interview In this article I share my views about evolution of people about their thought processes. This is what I did hope theory. Let us begin by stepping back to the in the early part of my 1987 sabbatical. Primarily, I mid-1980s when I was formulating the basic tenets of asked people to describe their goals for that day. They hope theory. I had been doing research on how people could do this readily, but I became concerned that I give excuses when they make a mistake or perform was giving them too much of a prompt by asking ex- poorly (Snyder, Higgins, & Stucky, 1983). In talking plicitly about their goals. Therefore, I did not mention with the research participants after these excuse exper- goals in the next phase of my interviewing. Again, iments, they commented on another motive that they however, goals emerged either explicitly or implicitly. wanted to fulfill-the desire to reach out for positive For those people who did not use the word goals to de- goals. These interchanges led to my casting of hope as scribe their actions, they spoke of "things they had to the "other side" of the "excusing" process in my first do," or some variant of this phrase. My interviews thus published article on hope (Snyder, 1989). corroborated the premise that people are likely to think I began by looking at the motivational literature from in terms of goals, and they also bolstered my hypothe- the 1960s and 1970s. In that scholarly work, I discemed a sis that people frequently are processing how to find shared theme regarding the desire to seek goals (e.g., routes to their goals. In addition, people made a point Cantril, 1964; Farber, 1968; Frank, 1975; Stotland, 1969). to talk about their motivations to use those pathways. This view of the hope motive seemed intuitively sound, al- Around this same time, I was visiting Karl beit lacking in some yet to be identified component. Menninger at his cottage on the Menninger Foundation Around this same time, I was reading books on the campus. As the president of the American Psychiatric "cognitive revolution." Particularly influential in my Association in 1959, Karl Menninger gave an address thinking was Craig's (1943) classic, The Nature of Ex- titled, "The Academic Lecture on Hope." It was planation, where he persuasively reasoned that the Menninger who encouraged me to place thinking at the purpose of the brain is to comprehend and anticipate core of hope rather than emotions-the latter he char- causal sequences. Other cognitive theorists also em- acterized as being reactive in nature. Menninger' s phasized the role of pathways-like thinking. Especially stance was consonant with my own evolving views helpful volumes were Miller, Galanter, and Pribrams' about cognitions providing the underlying bases of (1960), Plans and the Structure of Behavior; Newell hope. Hope, as I was coming to define it, was primarily and Simons' (1972), Human Problem Solving; and An- a way of thinking, with feelings playing an important, derson's (1983), The Architecture of Cognition. These albeit contributory role. volumes kindled my view about the importance of Before finalizing a definition, I needed to clarify pathways thought in pursuing goals. whether people's hopeful thinking was situation spe-

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Table 1. The Two Major Types of Goals in Hope Theory cific, cross situational and trait like, or some combination of the two. I believed that hopeful thinking could Type I-Positive goal outcome reflect both situational and trait-like processes, but my A. Reaching for the first time interviews with people made it clear that hope was B. Sustaining present goal outcome something more than the thoughts surrounding a spe- C. Increasing that which already has been initiated cific goal. Superceding their thoughts about a specific Type 2-Negative goal outcome goal, people appeared to have self-appraisals about A. Deterring so that it never appears their capabilities in goal pursuits more generally. That B. Deterring so that its appearance is delayed is to say, people had enduring, self-referential thoughts about their capacities to produce routes to goals, and their capacities to find the requisite motivations for in Table 1; e.g., wanting to support oneself as a wrilter those goal pursuits. after having sold a first book). A second general type of goal involves the forestall- ing of a negative goal outcome (Type 2 of Table 1). In Deflning and Refining This its strongest form, this type of goal reflects stoppinig "New" Hope something before it happens (Type 2A in Table 1; e.g., not wanting to get laid off at work). In its weaker forn, In 1991, my colleagues and I (Snyder, Irving, & An- such deterrence is aimed at delaying the unwanted derson, 1991) offered the following definition: "Hope (Type 2B in Table 1; e.g., seeking to delay being laid is a positive motivational state that is based on an inter- off of work for 1 year). actively derived sense of successful (a) agency Other writers have placed constraints on what coni- (goal-directed energy), and (b) pathways (planning stitutes to a legitimate goal for the hoping process. For meet goals)" (p. 287). I now detail the trilogy-goals, example, Lazarus (1999) suggested, "A fundamentEal pathways, and agency-of concepts in this definition. condition of hope is that our current life circumstance is unsatisfactory-that is, it involves deprivation or is damaging or threatening" (p. 664). This exemplifies Goals what I would call the repair definition of hope in which the only appropriate goals are those that fill a profound As noted earlier, my guiding assumption is that hu- void in a person's life. Certainly, many examples of man actions are goal directed. As such, the goal is the hope do fit this view. What this prerequisite precludes, cognitive component that anchors hope theory however, are two important categories of hope. First, (Snyder, 1994a, 1994b, 1998b; Snyder, Cheavens, & there are those goal-directed thoughts that comprise Sympson, 1997; Snyder, Sympson, Michael, & daily agendas in living. These "maintenance" goals are Cheavens, 2000). Goals provide the targets of mental the very stuff of our ongoing lives. Second, the Lazarus action sequences. For some people, these mental tar- (1999) definition precludes hopeful thoughts about gets are visual images, although they need not be "pic- building on what already is satisfactory-to reach for tures" in our minds. Although goals may have visual the many grand goals that have enticed people properties, they also may have verbal descriptions throughout history. These are enhancement goals. (Pylyshyn, 1973). In addition, goals vary in terms of Initially, I believed that hope goals needed to have their temporal frame, going anywhere from short term some perceived uncertainty. Related research revealed (e.g., "I want to get some lunch") to long term ("I want that, in the eyes of people, hope flourishes under prob- to lose 30 pounds"). Also, goals vary in the degree to abilities of intermediate goal attainment (Averill, which they are specified, with vague goals being less Catlin, & Chon, 1990). My early reasoning was that likely to occur in high-hope thinking. For example, it is hope was not applicable in those goal pursuits where difficult to imagine having pathways or motivation to the probabilities of goal attainment were either very pursue vague goals. Furthermore, these goals must be high (the proverbial "sure thing") or virtually nil. Over of sufficient value to warrant sustained conscious time, however, I have changed my views so as to in- thought about them. clude very high or very low probability goals as being There are two general types of desired goals in hope appropriate targets for hoping. theory (see Table 1). A first type (Type 1 in Table 1) re- Contrary to my early view that exceedingly high. flects positive or "approach" goals. Such a positive probability goals were so automatic that hopeful think- goal may (a) be envisioned for a first time (Type IA in ing was unnecessary, my observations of, and conver- Table 1; e.g., a person wanting to buy a first car); (b) sations with, research participants who were pertain to the sustaining of a present goal (Type IB in undertaking such easy tasks suggests that high-hope Table 1; e.g., wanting to keep one's retirement savings persons change the rules so as to stretch their skills intact); or (c) represent the desire to further a positive (e.g., setting shorter time limits or demanding new goal wherein one already has made progress (Type 1 C pathways of themselves). In this latter sense,

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high-hope people appear to inject some uncertainty tain) about the pathways for their goals; this premise into a goal situation that may seem very certain (and has been supported in regard to career goals reachable) to an observer. For example, it has been ar- (Woodbury, 1999). For a low-hope person, on the gued that for some basketball players, it is not just get- other hand, the pathways thinking is far more tenuous, ting the ball in the hoop, but also doing it with flair and and the resulting route is not well articulated. Using uniqueness (Jones, 1973; Snyder & Fromkin, 1980). laboratory tasks involving listening preferences, mem- In addition, contrary to my early views that ex- ory (free recall and recognition), and self-report about tremely difficult goals were not applicable to hope be- typical self-talk, we have found consistent support for cause they truly were unattainable (viz., the "abandon high- as compared to low-hope persons' affirming and all hope ye who enter here" sign on the doorway to positive internal pathways messages (e.g., "I'll find a hell-where nothing is possible; Fowlie, 1981), I have way to get this done!"; Snyder, Lapointe, Crowson, & learned that high-hope people occasionally alter those Early, 1998). seeming absolute failure situations so as to attain the Beyond the primary route, the high-hope person impossible. Over the years, for example, one of my fa- also should be very good at producing plausible alter- vorite laboratory tasks has involved the solving of ana- nate routes. The low-hope person, on the other hand, grams. In that regard, I had developed some anagrams should be unlikely to produce alternate routes. that were so complex that they had not been solved in High-hope people describe themselves as being flexi- any of my previous experiments. These anagrams, I ble thinkers who are facile at finding alternate routes, thought, represented virtual impossibilities for suc- whereas low-hope persons report that they are less cess. More recently, however, very high-hope people flexible and do not produce these additional routes; have been solving some of these previously unsolvable moreover, high-hope people actually are very effective anagrams. The seemingly unreachable, therefore, may at producing alternative routes-especially during cir- become reachable. cumstances when they are impeded (Irving, Snyder, & Crowson, 1998; Snyder, Harris, et al., 1991; Snyder et al., 1996; Tierney, 1995). Pathways Thinking Pathways thinking should become increasingly refined and precise as the goal pursuit sequence pro- Just as we were able to produce mental representa- gresses toward the goal attainment. Differences in this tions of ourselves and our environs, so too did humans, process should appear, however, depending on the trait at some point in our evolution, develop a sense of time hope level of the person. That is to say, high-hope peo- in which there was a past, present, and future. In this ple more so than low-hope people should more quickly linear view of time, however, there may be cyclical tailor their routes effectively so as to reach their goals. repetitions of previous events. Likewise, there need not be an absolute unidirectionality in the movement toward the future. For example, my view of the future Agency Thinking may influence my present thoughts (e.g., I am going to get a flu shot so as to decrease my chances of catching Agency thought-the perceived capacity to use the flu in the future). Therefore, I would advocate a re- one's pathways to reach desired goals-is the motiva- ciprocal temporal thinking wherein the past influences tional component in hope theory. These self-referential the future, and vice versa. Overall, I posit that we typi- thoughts involve the mental energy to begin and con- cally think about how we can link our present to imag- tinue using a pathway through all stages of the goal ined futures. Accordingly, the concept of time and how pursuit. Related to this point, we have found that we are journeying through this continuum are neces- high-hope people embrace such self-talk agency sary and useful to human thought. phrases as, "I can do this," and "I am not going to be Goals remain but unanswered calls without the req- stopped" (Snyder et al., 1998). uisite means to reach them. Accordingly, people ap- Agency thinking is important in all goal-directed proach particular goal pursuits with thoughts of thought, but it takes on special significance when peo- generating usable routes. It is as if we are constantly ple encounter impediments. During such blockages, thinking about how to get from Point A to Point B. In- agency helps people to channel the requisite motiva- deed, Craig (1943) reasoned that the very purpose of tion to the best alternate pathway (Snyder, 1994b). the human brain was to anticipate these A to B sequences. For a high-hope person pursuing a specific goal, The Union of Pathways and Agentic this pathways thinking entails the production of one Thinking plausible route, with a concomitant sense of confidence in this route. As such, high- as compared to Hopefull thinking necessitates both pathways and low-hope persons should be more decisive (and cer- agency thought. From the beginning of any one

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instantiation of hopeful thinking, the pathways and perceptions of successful goal pursuit. Such agency thoughts feed each other. Therefore, pathway perceptions of successful goal pursuit may result from and agency thoughts are iterative as well as additive unimpeded movement toward desired goals, or they over a given goal pursuit sequence (Snyder, 1995; may reflect instances in which the protagonist has ef- Snyder, Harris, et al., 1991). Because of varying levels fectively overcome problems or blockages that appear in hopeful thought, however, differing robustness in the goal pursuit. Conversely, negative emotions should emerge in pathways and agentic thought. The should be the product of unsuccessful goal pursuits. full high-hope person (i.e., high pathways and high These latter perceptions of unsuccessful goal pursuit agency) will have iterative pathway and agentic can result from insufficient agentic and pathway think- thought that is fluid and fast throughout the goal pur- ing, or the inability to overcome a thwarting circulm- suit sequence; conversely, the full low-hope person stance. (i.e., low pathways and low agency) will have iterative Using causal and correlational methodologies in the pathway and agentic thought that is halting and slow (if laboratory, support is consistently found for both sicles at all operative) in the goal sequence. The mixed pat- of the hypotheses that goal pursuit perceptions drive tern of high pathways and low agency would entail ac- emotions. Specifically, persons who successfully pur- tive routing thoughts that are not energized by the sue goals under unimpeded or impeded circumstances necessary motivational thinking; conversely, the thereafter experience positive emotions; converse:ly, mixed pattem of low pathways and high agency would persons who are blocked by impeding situations expe- entail active motivation that lies fallow without the rience negative emotions (Snyder et al., 1996). These necessary pathways thoughts. In these mixed hope pat- findings parallel those in other laboratories, where terns, the weakest agency or pathways component people encountering severe difficulties in their pur- slows the iterative thinking. suits of important goals report lessened well-beinlg (Diener, 1984; Emmons, 1986; Little, 1983; Omodei & Wearing, 1990; Palys & Little, 1983; Ruehlman & Hope, Barriers, and Emotions Wolchik, 1988). Likewise, the perceived lack of progress in the pursuit of important goals is the cause for re- Problems can be construed as barriers to desired ductions in well-being, rather than vice versa goals. Generally, a problem can be deflating and, in the (Brunstein, 1993; Little, 1989). short run, should lessen a person's agency. In an experi- For persons who are high as compared to low in mental test of this point, Rakke (1997) randomly as- hope, there should be differing emotional sets that they signed people to fill out a checklist of problems, a have about their lives. A high-hope person should have neutral checklist, or no checklist. Thereafter, the agency enduring positive emotions, with a sense of affective subscale scores for persons in the problem checklist zest about the pursuit of goals. A low-hope person, on condition were lower than were the agency scores in the the other hand, should have negative emotions, with a other two conditions. The pathways scores, although sense of affective lethargy about the pursuit of goals. lower in the problem checklist conditions as compared Therefore, the dispositional hope levels also should to the two other conditions, were not significantly dif- have associated emotional sets that are brought to bear ferent. Therefore, agency was deflated when consider- on particular goal pursuit activities. It is the goal-di- ing problems (barriers). Theoretically, it is predicted rected thinking, rather than the enduring emotions, that people should rebound from such problem expo- however, that drive subsequent goal-related perfor- sure, but high- as compared to low-hope persons should mances (Snyder, Cheavens, & Michael, 1999). be quicker to re-energize. This postulation is important To the aforementioned analysis of the etiology of for theoretical and practical reasons, but to my knowl- enduring positive and negative emotions, I now add an edge it has yet to be tested (although the ego depletion appraisal-like process that is crucial for responding to concept and research of Baumeister, Bratslavsky, impeding circumstances. On realizing that a particular Muraven, & Tice, 1998, and Baumeister & Exline, goal pursuit may be thwarted, the person may appraise 2000, represents a conceptually related paradigm). that circumstance as being stressful. This is consistent Although there have been many writers who have with the thinking of Lazarus, Deese, and Osler (1952) conceptualized hope solely as an emotion (for review, when they wrote, "stress occurs when a particular situ- see Farina, Hearth, & Popovich, 1995), I have chosen ation threatens the attainment of some goal" (p. 295). to emphasize the thinking processes in hope theory. In As a person continues in a given goal pursuit and gains this regard, I have proposed that the person's percep- a stronger sense of the imperviousness of the barrier, tions about the success (or the lack thereof) regarding the initial sense of stress is transformed into negative personal goal pursuits influence subsequent emotions. emotions. Persons who are high as compared to low in Therefore, emotions reflect responses to perceptions dispositional hope should be less likely to construe the about how one is doing (or has done) in goal pursuit ac- impediments as stressful-at the beginning and tivities. As such, positive emotions should flow from throughout the temporal process of the goal pursuit.

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Furthermore, even if a situation does elicit some stress because they were not taught to think in this manner, or initially, the high-hope person's subsequent thoughts forces intervened to destroy such hopeful thought dur- and actions may render the impediment as being less ing their childhoods. The person brings this enduring and less stressful. This latter regulative thought pro- pathways and agency iterative thought process to par- cess, colored by the resultant emotions, reflects what ticular instances of goal pursuit. has been called coping (Lazarus, 1999, 2000). As described previously, the enduring hopeful I also believe that the various instantiations of suc- thinking is accompanied by trait-like emotional sets or cessful and unsuccessful goal pursuits are located in moods (see in Figure 1 just to the right of agency path- memory via their being aggregated into positive and ways learning history thoughts). They cast an affective negative emotions, respectively. In other words, as a tone on the goal pursuit process in general. These emo- mechanism for storage, memories are catalogued ac- tional sets represent the residue from myriad previous cording to emotions-as well as to the contents (in ab- goal pursuits, such that the dispositionally high-hope breviated form) of the particular action sequences. person's self-referential emotions reflect positive and Therefore, if primed with a positive emotion, the person active feelings about engaging in future goal pursuits. should recall successful goal pursuit activities; con- As such, high-hopers' emotions consistently are fla- versely, if primed with a negative emotion, the person vored with friendliness, happiness, and confidence should recall unsuccessful goal pursuit activities. For (Snyder, Cheavens, & Michael, 1999; Snyder, Harris, someone who has undergone a particularly traumatizing et al., 1991; Snyder, Sympson, et al., 2000). On the event, because of the sheer power of that traumatizing other hand, the low-hope person's emotions tap into a situation in that person's thinking, any priming of nega- reservoir of negative and passive feelings about task tive emotions should lead to thoughts of that most potent pursuit endeavors. event. It is as if further goal setting is shattered, and the High- as compared to low-hope persons also exhibit victimizing event becomes so powerful that it takes over another difference when entering the goal se- the memory when a person is feeling bad. I quence-they should generate more goals. This fol- The applied implication of this hope theory emotion lows because having a variety of goals represents a postulate is that the emotions can be used as a clue for diversified "goal investor" who has a readily available helping the therapy client to locate the underlying new goal should an original goal prove unreachable. source of such feelings. Having completed this latter We have found support for the greater number of goals process of understanding those circumstances, the held by high as compared to low hope in a random helper and client can work on new ways to interpret sample of community members (Langelle, 1989). that event, along with ways to cope with similar future Prior to settling on one goal, the person will con- events (McDermott & Snyder, 1999). Although the pa- sider the outcome values of the particular goal pursuits. thology model would suggest that our efforts should Goals based on one's own standards should be more at- focus on the circumstances undergirding the experi- tractive than goals built on the standards of other peo- ence of negative emotions, the recent positive psychol- ple. Related to this point, we have found that high- as ogy model would advise that there are benefits in compared to low-hope people are more likely to select tracing the roots of one's positive emotions (Snyder & stretch goals that represent extensions of their previous McCullough, 2000). outcomes on similar tasks (Harris, 1988; Snyder, Har- ris,etal.,. 991). As shown in Figure 1, appraisal of outcome value Elaborated Hope Model occurs at the pre-event analysis phase. If the imagined outcome of the goal pursuit is sufficiently important to Moving from the left to the right side of Figure warrant 1, continued mental attention, the person then one can observe the temporal unfolding of the goal-di- moves to the event sequence analysis phase. Other rected thought sequence. Let us begin at the far left, scholars have described this latter phase as current where the etiologies of the pathways and agency concerns (Klinger, 1977), personal projects (Little, thoughts are depicted. A person's pathways and 1983, 1987), life tasks (Cantor & Kihlstrom, 1987), agency thinking are leamed over the course of child- and personal strivings (Emmons, 1986). In this itera- hood (and later).2 Most people lack hope, therefore, tion of pathways and agency thinking, the person may check to see whether the potential outcome is suffi- In eliciting powerful traumatic memories, the person may de- ciently important for continued cognitive processing. velop a sense of bodily detachment as a means of coping. On this This outcome value check-back allows the person to point, in a sample of abuse survivors, lower hope colTelated signifi- cease cognitive processing if a given goal pursuit does cantly with higher dissociative thinking (Saunders, 2000). not have the value estimated at the pre-event phase. For in-depth descriptions of the developmental antecedents of the hope process, see McDermott and Snyder (2000, pp. 5-18), Rapoff Sometimes people cannot accurately appraise the (2002), pp. 1-32), Snyder (1994b, pp. 75-114), Snyder (2000a, pp. value of a given goal pursuit until they have begun to 21-37), and Snyder, McDermott, Cook, & Rapoff (1997, pp. 1-32). pursue that goal.

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HOPE 1 THOUGHTS I YS pathways THOUGHTS (developmental lessons oft correlation/causality) 3 EM ) > TION> att toI inment! GOAL + Value ~~~~Inon- agency attainment (developmental lessons of selfA Y as author ofTHOGH causal chains of even(ts)

suru

Learning History Pre-rvent Event Sequence

Figure 1. Schematic offeed-forward andfeedbackfunctions involving agency andpathway goal-directed thoughts in hope theoly.

As the pathways and agency thoughts Snyder, are 1999; activatedSnyder, Harris, et al., 1991; Snyder et in pursuit of a goal, the person may al., experience 1996). Similarly, emo-inabilities at focusing on the ap- tional reactions to this "getting started" propriate process. goals are atAs the cancore of attention deficit disor- be seen in Figure 1, these emotions derscan (ADD), cycle where back off-task so thinking is legendary in as to influence the goal pursuit pathways terms ofand its associatedagency frustrations it- and even depres- erative thought process. If the start appearssion. In my clinicalto be experiences,going persons with ADD are well, the feedback loop should entail very positive low in hope. emotions that reinforce the goal pursuit process. Although Important the goal-directed dif- cognitions are eliciting ferences should occur at this stage, the however, particular emotions, in the those emotions in turn are emotional feedback of dispositionally high- as com- shaping and informing the cognitions of the person pared to low-hope people. The high-hope person en- who is in the throes of a goal pursuit. This role of emo- joys goal pursuits and pursues them with a positive tions has been described as functional (Clore, 1994; emotional set. Therefore, at the start of such activities, Thompson, 1994). On this point, I agree with the high hopers may be engaging in internal self-talk Levenson's (1994) functionalist view that, "Emotions such as, "This should be interesting," and "I am ready serve to establish our position vis-'a-vis our environ- for this challenge." The high-hope person should be ment, pulling us toward certain people, objects, ac- extremely attentive and focused on the appropriate tions, and ideas, and pushing us away from others stimuli at this getting started stage. This curios- [italics added]" (p. 123). Also, some people embrace ity-challenge-focused attention set elicits positive the processing and expressing of emotions, and such emotions that are functional in that they reinforce the active emotional processing should facilitate the path- application of effective pathways agency thoughts. ways and agency thought. Emotions, in this latter Accordingly, the ongoing emotions sustain attention sense, are not task avoidant and harmful; rather, they and motivation to the particular task at hand. contribute to, and are a natural part of, an active, pro- The story for the low-hope person, on the other ductive, goal-directed type of thought. This is similar hand, is quite different. Even at the beginning of the to what Stanton and her colleagues (Stanton, goal pursuit sequence, the low-hope person has a nega- Danoff-Burg, et al., 2000; Stanton, Kirk, Cameron, & tive emotional set and is apprehensive about what is to Danoff-Berg, 2000) termed as emotional approach come. Attention quickly is diverted from the task-rele- coping, and Hope Scale scores have correlated signifi- vant cues to such thoughts as, "I'm not doing very cantly and positively with this type of coping (espe- well." All too soon, the low-hope person may feel an cially for women). uncontrolled rush of negative emotions. These nega- As the goal pursuit proceeds, the person may encoun- tive feelings cue self-critical rumination, and ter a stressor (see Figure 1). (Or, the stressor may occur cognitions become off-task. Several laboratory studies even earlier in the sequence.) As I have noted previously, provide support for the aforementioned sequence of a stressorrepresents any impediment ofsufficient magni- thoughts and emotions for high- and low-hope persons tude to jeopardize hopeful thought. Low-hope persons (Onwuegbuzie, 1998; Onwuegbuzie & Snyder, 2000; should be especially susceptible to succumbing to stress-

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ors and becoming derailed in their goal pursuits. With the positive or negative contrast that it represents rela- such derailments, the low-hope person perceives that she tive to the person's particular ongoing circumstances. or he is not going to reach the desired goal, and the result- Such surprise emotions carry an arousal that translates ing disruptive negative emotions cycle back to register on to the person's ongoing agency thinking. In turn, this the person's dispositional and situational hopeful think- agency is attached to a goal and pathways that are ap- ing. For a high-hope person, however, the stressor is seen propriate to the situation (e.g., the goal of helping the as a challenge (Snyder, Harris, et al., 1991), which may injured person in the car accident). Therefore, although necessitate alternate pathways and rechanneling of most emotions flow within the context of the goal pur- agency to a new pathway. In this process, high-hope peo- suit process depicted in Figure 1, occasionally there are ple often are successful in working around the stressor, surprise-generated emotions that are outside that goal and this success feedback cycles back via approach emo- pursuit sequence. Of note, however, these surprise tions so as to reinforce the person's dispositional and situ- emotions are quickly incorporated into the goal pursuit ational hopeful thinking. Support for this appraisal and thought sequence. feedback process has been gained through tracking peo- In summary, the hope model contains both feed-for- ple through the various stages of laboratory and real-life ward and feedback emotion-laden mechanisms that goal pursuits (Anderson, 1988). contribute to the person's success in his or her goal If there is no stressor, or the person has made it past pursuits. As such, hope theory involves an interrelated the stressor, then pathways and agency thoughts should system of goal-directed thinking that is responsive to continue to alternate (as shown in the bidirectional ar- feedback at various points in the temporal sequence. rows) and aggregate (summate) throughout the event sequence. As the person journeys toward a goal, he or she also should have perceptions about the success (or lack Individual Differences Measures thereof) in the goal pursuit, and these perceptions and the associated approach emotions can cycle back throughout Once a new psychological theory has been defined, the goal pursuit sequence. The overall feed-forward flow a useful next step is to develop and validate an individ- of hopeful goal-directed thinking can be seen in the ual differences scale that reflects the theory structure. left-to-right broad-lined arrows of Figure 1. Beyond the scale representing a faithful rendering of Having completed a particular goal pursuit, the per- its theory, it must be both reliable and valid. Such indi- son's goal attainment (or nonattainment) thoughts, vidual differences measures are advantageous because along with the resulting positive (or negative) emo- they facilitate tests of the theory, they make the theory tions, should cycle back to inform and influence the more amenable to research, and they allow for mea- subsequent outcome value for that activity, and per- surement applications of the construct to applied set- ceived pathways and agentic capabilities for that situa- tings. In this section, I briefly review the three hope tion and situations more generally. As can be seen in instruments that my colleagues and I (Snyder et al., the narrow-lined, right-to-left arrows in Figure 1, the 1996; Snyder, Harris, et al., 1991; Snyder, Hoza, et al. feedback process contains the particular emotions that 1997) have developed and validated. reflect perceptions regarding successful or unsuccessful goal attainment. Therefore, emotions inforn goal-directed thinking. Under conditions of goal Trait Hope Scale nonattainment and the subsequent negative emotions, it is posited that high- as compared to low-hope per- The adultTraitlHope Scale (Snyder, Harris, etal., 1991) sons are better able to use such feedback to improve consists of four agency, four pathways, and four distracter their goal pursuit thoughts and strategies for that same items. In completing the items, respondents are asked to situation should it be encountered in the future. Indeed, imagine themselves across time and situational contexts. one of the unfortunate aspects of low-hope thinking is This instrument demonstrates both internal reliability that feedback from goal nonattainments are not used (alphas ranging from .74-.88 for the overall scale, and diagnostically to improve future efforts, but it instead alphas of .70-.84 for the agency and .63-.86 for pathways produces rumination and self-doubt (Michael, 2000; subscales separately) and temporal reliability (tests-re- Snyder, 1999). tests ranging from .85 for 3 weeks to .82 for. 10 weeks). It There is one additional aspect of the hope model has two separate yet related agency and pathways factors that needs to be discussed. Namely, there are surprise (rs ranging from .38-.69, withamodal rof.50 across many events (see the middle of the lower part of Figure 1) of samples), as well as an overarching hope factor (using tra- both a positive and negative nature (e.g., suddenly ditional and confirmatory procedures; Babyak, Snyder, & looking up and seeing a breathtakingly beautiful sunset Yoshinobu, 1993). Moreover, the scale has received ex- or witnessing a terble car accident). This surprising tensive concurrent and discriminant validational support, event occurs outside of the normal goal pursuit thought as well as experimental manipulation-based convergent process, and immediately elicits emotion because of validation (Cheavens, Gum, & Snyder, 2000; Snyder,

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Harris, et al., 1991). A typical mean score is 49 (SD discriminant= 7). No (e.g., it correlates .03 with intelligence) va- differences in the scores ofmen and women have emerged. lidities (Moon & Snyder, 2000; Snyder, Hoza, et al., The pathways and agency subscales can be examined sep- 1997). The means over samples have ranged from 25.41 arately to provide additional information for both the ap- (SD = 4.99) to 27.03 (SD = 4.5 1), with a median meanr of plied and research issues. The scale has been used with 25.89. No differences in the scores of boys and girls samples of undergraduate college students (Cramer & have emerged. The scale has been administered to chil- Dyrkacz, 1998; Magaletta & Oliver, 1999; Range & dren from public schools, children with different medi- Penton, 1994; Snyder, Harris, et al., 1991; Snyder, 1999; cal problems, boys with a primary diagnosis of attention Sumerlin, 1997), graduate students (Onwuegbuzie & deficit hyperactivity disorder, children under treatment Snyder, 2000), psychiatric outpatients (Pearlman, for cancer, early adolescents exposed to violence, aclo- McCann, & Johnson, 1990), psychiatric inpatients (Irving, lescents with sickle-cell disease, children in treatment Crenshaw, Snyder, Francis, & Gentry, 1990), adults with for asthma, and children who have survived burn ijju- spinal cord injuries (Elliott, Witty, Herick, & Hoffinan, ries (Moon & Snyder, 2000; Moon, Snyder, & Rapoff, 1991), adventitiously blinded older adults (Jackson, Tay- 200 1; Snyder, Hoza, et al., 1997). The Children's Hope lor, Palmatier, Elliott, & Elliott, 1998), elderly women Scale is shown in Appendix C. (Westburg, 2001), womenundergoing treatment forbreast cancer (Stanto, Danoff-Burg, et al., 2000), persons in drug Hope Theory Compared With rehabilitation programs (Seaton & Snyder, 2001), veterans Other Theories with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD; Crowson, Frueh, & Snyder, 2001), and persons in treatnent for drug In this section, I compare hope theory to five other re- dependencies (Seaton & Snyder, 2001). The Trait Hope lated theories. Each of these five theories has individual Scale is shown in Appendix A. differences scales, which facilitates empirical comparisons with hope. Hope theory should exhibit some simri- State Hope Scale larities to these other constructs so as to support its co:n- vergent validity, but it also should display sufficient The State Hope Scale (Snyder et al., 1996) has three differences to support its discriminant validity. Table 2 agency and three pathways items to which respondents shows the shared and unshared components of the theo- describe themselves in terms of how they are "right ries, along with their relative emphases.: now." Numerous studies support the (a) internal reliability (alphas of .90-.95 for overall scale, and .90 and Optimism-Seligman and Colleagues higher for the agency and pathways factors); (b) factor structure; and (c) concurrent and discriminant validity, In an evolution of the Abramson, Seligman, and as well as the manipulation-based convergent con- Teasdale (1978) reformulated helplessness model, struct validity (Feldman & Snyder, 2000; Snyder et al., Seligman (1991; see also Seligman, Reivich, Jaycox, & 1996). Likewise, as should be the case for a malleable Gillham, 1995) used the attributional explanatory pro- state measure, the longer periods between retests have cess to build his theory of optimism (see Table 2). More lower temporal consistencies. For example, with the specifically, the optimistic explanatory style reflects the same sample of people, the State Hope Scale has corre- pattern of making external, variable, and specific attri- lated .48 over a 30-day interval and .93 over a 2-day in- butions for negative outcomes rather than internal, sta- terval. There is no typical average score because it is ble, and global attributions.4 This theory implicitly given in differing situations that yield varying scores. focuses on negative outcomes as being the key for one's The scale has been used with a sample of homeless vet- attributional explanations. Therefore, optimisticv erans undergoing treatment for substance abuse goal-directed cognitions are aimed at distancing the per- (Irving, Tefler, & Balke, 1997), several college sam- son from negative outcomes. Hope theory differs in that ples (Snyder et al., 1996), and collegiate athletes the focus is on reaching future positive goal-related out- (Curry, Snyder, Cook, Ruby, & Rehm, 1997). The comes, and there is an explicit emphasis placed on the State Hope Scale is shown in Appendix B. agency and pathways goal-directed cognitions. The outcome must be of high importance in both theories, but Children's Hope Scale this is given more emphasis in hope theory. Hope theory

The Children's Hope Scale (ages 8-16; Snyder, For more detailed theory comparisons, see Snyder (1 994a, Hoza, et al., 1997) comprises three agency and three 1998b, 2000b); Snyder et al. (2000a); Snyder, llardi, Michael, andl pathways items. The internal (alphas for overall scale Cheavens (2000b); Snyder, Irving, and Anderson (1991); and Snyder, Sympson, Michael, and Cheavens (2000). ranging from .72-.86, with a median of.77) and test- re- The instrument used to measure attributional style in adults is test (correlations of .7 1-.73 over 1 month) reliabilities called the Attributional Style Questionnaire (Peterson et al., 1982), have been documented, as has the two-factor structure and the instrument used for children is called the Children's of the scale. Studies also support its convergent and Attributional Style Questionnaire (Seligman et al., 1984).

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Table 2. Implicit and Explicit Operative Processes and Their Respective Emphases in Hope Theory as Compared to Selected Positive Psychology Theories

Theory

Optimism: Optimism: Scheier Self- Self- Problem- Processes Hope Seligman (1991) & Carver (1985) Efficacy Esteem Solving

Attributions +++ Outcome value ++ + ++ ++ + + Goal-related thinking +++ + ++ +++ + +++ Perceived capacities for +++ +++ +++ agency-related thinking Perceived capacities for +++ + ++ +++ pathways-related thinking

Emotions ++ + + + +++ +

also expressly addresses how positive and negative Both theories are cognitive and aimed at explaining emotions arise, whereas the Seligman (1991) optimism behavior across situations (Snyder, Ilardi, Cheavens, et theory appears to address this issue implicitly. al., 2000a); furthernore, the Hope Scale and Life Ori- entation Test (LOT) correlate around .50 (Anderson, Optimism-Scheier and Carver 1988; Harris, 1988; Munoz-Dunbar, 1993; Snyder, Harris, et al., 1991). The factor structures of these two Generalized outcome expectancies are emphasized constructs differ (Magaletta & Oliver, 1999), and rela- in the Scheier and Carver (1985) theory of optimism. tive to scores on the LOT, scores on the Hope Scale Similar to hope theory, these theorists assume that op- have reliably augmented the variance in predicting timism is a goal-based cognitive process that operates several variables. Finally, hope theory explicitly de- whenever an outcome is perceived as having substan- scribes the etiology of emotions (positive and nega- tial value. The generalized outcome expectancies take tive), whereas Scheier and Carver (1985) embed their the form of people perceiving themselves as being able theory of optimism in their overarching theory of to move toward desirable goals and away from unde- self-regulation (Carver & Scheier, 1998). sirable goals (Carver & Scheier, 1999, 2000). The agency-involved thinking and pathways-like thinking are implicit in the Scheier and Carver (1985) model, Self-Efficacy-Bandura but the outcome expectancies (most similar to agency in hope theory) are the prime elicitors of goal-directed For self-efficacy thinking to become activated, behaviors (Scheier & Carver, 1985, 1987). On this lat- Bandura (1977, 1982, 1997) posited that a fairly im- ter point, Scheier and Carver (1985) appear to empha- portant goal-related outcome must be involved. The size agency-like thought; whereas in hope theory, protagonist in hope theory also must perceive the goal equal (and constantly iterative) emphases are assigned as being important to continue the goal-directed to agency and pathways thinking (Snyder, Cheavens, thought. Although a trait self-efficacy measure has & Michael, 1999; see Table 2).5 been developed, according to Bandura (1977), the self-efficacy thinking must always be based on situation-specific goals.6 Hope theory also emphasizes sThere are indications, however, that optimists do use such planful goals, but they may be enduring, cross-situational, sit- thought (e.g., Carver & Scheier, 2000; Scheier & Carver, 1985). For uational goal-directed thoughts, or all three. In self-ef- example, optimists have elevated problem-focused coping (Scheier, ficacy theorizing, people are hypothesized to analyze Weintraub, & Carver, 1986; Strutton & Lumnpkin, 1992) and planfulness (Fontaine, Manstead, & Wagner, 1993; Friedman et al., the contingencies in a specific goal attainment situa- 1992). Therefore, the positive goal-directed expectancies implicitly tion (tiis is labeled outcome expectancy-somewhat may tap pathways-related thinking. In one study, the agency subscale similar to pathways thought). Contrary to these out- has correlated more strongly with optimism than the pathways come expectancies based on specific situational con- subscale (Crouch, 1989), lending some support to my view that the tingencies, in pathways thought the focus is on the agency as compared to the pathways component is primary in this optimism theory. Related to this issue, Magaletta and Oliver ( 1999) re- self-analysis of one's overall capabilities to produce ported that the pathways component is orthogonal to items on the Life Orientation Test (LOT; the original instrument tapping optimism; Scheier & Carver, 1985) in a factor analysis. The revised instrument Nevertheless, a dispositional measure of self-efficacy has been is called the LOT-Revised (Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994). developed by other researchers (see Sherer et al., 1982).

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initial routes to goals, as well as to produce alternate Problem Solving routes should one become blocked. Next in Bandura's (1977) theory, it is proposed that The identifying of a desired goal (e.g., a problem the individual evaluates her capacity to carry out those solution) is explicitly noted as being at the heart of particular actions that make up the outcome expectan- problem-solving theory; moreover, an important goal cies (this is called efficacy expectancy-bearing some is assumed to be involved (see Table 2; Heppner & similarity to agency thought). This efficacy expectancy Hillerbrand, 1991). Similar to hope theory, an empha- taps the perception as to whether the person can perform sis is placed on uncovering the pathway that is the basis the actions that are necessary in a specified situational for a problem-solving solution (D'Zurilla, 1986). In context, whereas in hope theory the emphasis is on the comparison to problem-solving theories, in hope the- self-referential belief that the person will initiate (and ory the agency thinking supposedly provides the moti- continue) the required goal-directed actions. An impor- vation to activate pathways thinking (probleim tant difference here lies with the words can and will, solving); as such, agency thought is emphasized arid with the former referring to the capacity to act and the explicit. Hope and problem solving have correlated latter reflecting the intention to act-with intention be- positively (rs of .40-.50; Snyder, Harris, et al., 1991). ing more willful. For Bandura (1977), the situa- These two theories have similar approaches to explain- tion-based self-efficacy thoughts are the temporally fi-ing emotions, although hope theory gives somewhat nal and most important cognitive step prior to beginning more attention to them. the particular goal-directed action (see Table 2); in hope theory, however, both agency and pathways thoughts are emphasized prior to and throughout the goal pursuit Looking at the Last Decade of sequence. Differences between the two theories are Research shown in a study by Magaletta and Oliver (1999), where it is noted that hope yields unique variance that is inde- I have carved the corpus of 1 990s research into seg- pendent ofself-efficacy in predicting well-being; more- ments for review in this section. High-hope persons over, they showed that the factor structures of the two consistently fare better than their low-hope counter- constructs vary. Finally, and contrary to hope theory, the parts in the arenas of academics, athletics, physica[l etiology of emotions are not explicitly described in health, psychological adjustment, and psychotherapy. Bandura's (1977) self-efficacy theory. Moreover, high hopers (as measured by the Hope Scale) rate themselves higher in these arenas wheni asked to make direct comparisons (Kleinke & Miller, Self-Esteem 1998).

Self-esteem reflects the emotions that result from persons' appraisals of their overall effectiveness in the Academics conduct of their lives (Hewitt, 1998).7 As Coopersmith (1967) put it, "self-esteem is the personal judgment of Based on available research with grade school, high worthiness" (p. 4). Although self-esteem models do school, and college students, hope correlates reliably not explicitly articulate it, they are implicitly built on with superior academic performances (see Snyder, goal-directed thinking (Hewitt, 1998; see Table 2), and Cheavens, & Michael, 1999). For example, hope re- self-esteem is assumed to result from valued activities. lates to higher scores on subsequent achievement tests Hope theory shares these latter two characteristics of for grade-school children (Snyder,, Hoza, et al., 1997)., goal-directed thought and the necessity of important higher overall grade point averages (GPAs) for high activities, but within hope theory the focus is on the school students (Snyder, Harris, et al., 1991), and goal pursuit process that elicits emotion and esteem. higher semester and overall GPAs for college students Self-esteem correlates about .45 with hope (Barnum, (Chang, 1998; Curry, Maniar, Sondag, & Sandstedt, Snyder, Rapoff, Mani, & Thompson, 1998; 1999; Curry et al., 1997; Snyder, Harris, et al., 1991). Munoz-Dunbar, 1993; Snyder, Harris, et al., 1991; In one study, Hope Scale scores significantly predicted Sympson, 1993), but the evidence supports the as- college students' final grades in their introductory psy- sumption that goal pursuit thinking (i.e., hope) effects chology courses and did so even when removing the esteem and not vice versa. Furthermore, hope en- variance related to the first of three exams in those hances the prediction of positive outcomes beyond courses (Snyder, Harris, et al., 1991). In another study self-esteem (Curry et al., 1997; Snyder, Cheavens, & involving 100 female and 100 male college students, Michael, 1999). Hope Scale scores were taken at the beginning of the students' first semester in college. These students were For related reviews, see Wells and Marwell (1976) and Wylie followed for 6 years to chart their progress. Hope Scale (1974, 1979). scores significantly predicted higher cumulative GPAs

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(e.g., the grade averages of the high- and low-hope My stu- thinking here is based on the role of high-hope dents were 2.85 and 2.43, respectively), higher gradua- thinking in helping the athlete to find the best routes to tion rate, and lower attrition as measure'd by dropout the particular sport goal, and motivating the athlete to rate (Snyder, Shorey, et al., in press; Snyder, Wiklund, use those routes. In a test of the benefits of hopeful & Cheavens, 1999). In these previous studies, it also thinking, Curry et al. (1997) had Division 1 track ath- should be noted that hope's predictive power remained letes at seven universities complete the Hope Scale at significant when controlling for intelligence (chil- the beginning of their seasons. Also, coaches rated the dren's studies), previous grades and self-esteem natural abilities of their athletes. The high-hope ath- (cross-sectional college studies), and entrance exami- letes performed significantly better than their nation scores (longitudinal college study). low-hope counterparts (even when the variance due to Given these results on the predictive capabilities of natural athletic ability was removed statistically). In a the Hope Scale for academic performance, there may subsequent study by Curry et al. (1997) of female track be opportunities to use hope theory to benefit students athletes, the Trait Hope Scale scores taken at the begin- who are at various stages in their educations. In an on- ning of the season and the State Hope Scale scores going 6-year project at the University of Wyoming, a taken before each track meet each significantly pre- college class aimed at teaching hopeful thinking has dicted the actual track performances, and together they been instituted (Curry et al., 1999). This course raises accounted for 56% of the variance related to these per- students' levels of hope, along with their academic performances. formances and self-esteem. In future efforts, we may High- as compared to low-hope girls who were at- want to identify academically at risk low-hope stu- tending a summer sport camp set more sport-specific dents and target them for interventions to raise their goals, and they were less likely to entertain thoughts of levels of hopeful thought. A more omnibus approach quitting their sports (Brown, Curry, Hagstrom, & would be to use hope interventions for all students, ir- Sandstedt, 1999). These latter results are similar to respective of their beginning levels of hope. those found for academics in that high-hope persons Why do high-hope students do better than their are more likely to stick with an activity. low-hope counterparts? Part of the answer lies, I be- As noted previously, sports psychologist Lewis lieve, in the benefits derived by finding multiple Curry instituted a college class aimed at imparting pathways to desired educational goals, as well as be- hopeful thinking to various aspects of life (Curry, ing able to motivate one to go after those goals. An- Maniar, Sondag, & Sandstedt, 1999). For athletes who other part of the answer to this question probably re- have taken the course, there have been significant im- lates to high-hope students staying on task and provements in confidence about their athletic perfor- attending to the appropriate cues in particular learn- mances (also maintained at a 1-year follow up; see ing and testing environments. In other words, Curry & Snyder, 2000). Although confidence is the high-hope as compared to low-hope students should "gold standard" self-report measure in sports psychol- not be prone to become sidetracked by self-depreca- ogy, hope significantly augments the projections made tory thinking and counterproductive negative emo- via sport confidence. Certainly, the thoughts of ath- tions. We have some data in support of this latter letes play an important role in their performances. The speculation (Onwuegbuzie & Snyder, 2000; Snyder, work to date on hope theory and athletic performance 1999). is promising, albeit at a very initial stage. Before leaving the academics section, the obvious point should be made that teachers fonn the other half of the academic performance dyad. My colleagues and Physical Health I (McDermott & Snyder, 1999; Snyder, 1994b; Snyder, McDermott, Cook, & Rapoff, 1997, 2002) A focus in health psychology is on promoting and speculated that high- as compared to low-hope teach- maintaining good health and preventing, detecting, ers should be more encouraging to their students about and treating illness (Matarazzo, 1982). Hope may be the pursuit of classroom goals. Support has been given implicated in each of these areas (Irving et al., 1998; to this hypothesis in that Hope Scale scores have corre- Snyder, 1996, 1998a; Snyder, Irving, & Anderson, lated significantly (r = .49) with a scale measuring 1991). Elsewhere, my colleagues and I (Snyder, teacher encouragement (Culver, 1992). Feldman, Taylor, Schroeder, & Adams, 2000) examined hope in the context of two types of prevention. First, there is primary prevention, which entails Athletics those cognitions or actions that are aimed at eliminating or reducing subsequent physical (Kaplan, A high-hope athlete as compared to a low-hope ath- 2000) or psychological health (Heller, Wyman, & lete should be more successful, especially during Allen, 2000) problems before they occur. Second, stress-filled competitions (see Curry & Snyder, 2000). there is secondary prevention, which reflects those

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cognitions or actions that are aimed at eliminating, the effectiveness of the hopeful goal-directed reducing, or containing problems once they have al- cognitions.8 ready appeared. Profound and chronic pain represents another One theoretical paper and three empirical studies thorny health issue. I observed in my clinical work that bear on hope and the primary prevention of physical high-hope persons seemed to endure physical pain illness at the level of the individual. My colleagues and better than their low-hope counterparts. It appeared I (Snyder, Feldman, et al., 2000) postulated that higher that hopeful thought facilitated the production of strat- hope people may use information about physical ill- egies for coping with the pain and the motivation to ini- ness as a pathway for prevention efforts. In one empiri- tiate and continue the use of these strategies. Followirng cal study related to this speculation, high-hope women this observation, my colleagues and I (Snyder, Odle, & performed better on a cancer facts test than low-hope Hackman, 1999; Snyder, Taylor, et al., 2001; see women. This difference was maintained when control- Snyder, 1998a) studied pain tolerance experimentally ling for their contacts with other persons who had can- by the use of a cold pressor task. In two studies, we cer and their previous academic perfornances (Irving found that the high-hope persons (men and women et al., 1998). These higher hope women also reported alike) kept their hands in the water about twice as long having stronger intentions to engage in cancer preven- the low-hope people (115 sec vs. 60 sec). In the poSt tion activities. Related to this latter point, in another experimental questionnaires, these high- as compared study, the high-hope persons relative to the low-hope to low-hopers also reported experiencing less pain, persons reported engaging in more preventative be- they produced more strategies for coping with the pain, haviors-physical exercise in this instance (Harney, and they reported a greater likelihood of using those 1990). In a third study, higher hope gay men were less strategies. likely to engage in high-risk sexual behaviors (Floyd & Another example of secondary prevention pertains McDermott, 1998). to medical regimen adherence. The problem of After the development of a physical illness, the role nonadherence to prescribed medications is wide- of hope would emerge in the context of secondary pre- spread, with a nonadherence rate of at least 50% being vention-perhaps helping people to cope with pains, common. In a test of whether higher hope relates to disabilities, and so forth. Along these lines, researchers better adherence, we examined 10- to 16-year-old chil- have found that higher hope is related to better adjust- dren's adherence in taking their inhaler medication ment in coping with severe arthritis (Laird, 1992), ma- treatments for juvenile asthma. Children's Hope Scale jor burn injuries (Barnum et al., 1998), spinal cord scores (particularly the agency component) signifi- injuries (Elliott et al., 1991), fibromyalgia (Affleck & cantly predicted adherence, and they did so beyond Tennen, 1996; Tennen & Affleck, 1999), and blind- variances related to demographic or quality of life vari.- ness (Jackson et al., 1998). For the reader who is inter- ables (Moon et al., 2001). Instead of adherence to tak.- ested in a case history involving hope and the recovery ing medication, adherence also can reflect a person's of a young woman from an extremely severe automo- remaining in treatment. On this latter issue, we founcl bile accident, I would recommend Elliot and Kurylo's that high Hope Scale scores significantly predicted (2000), "Hope Over Acquired Disability: Lessons of a staying in a drug treatment program (beyond other de- Young Woman's Triumph." mographic and psychological variables; Seaton & In her work on emotion-focused coping, Stanton Snyder, 2001). and her colleagues (Stanton, Danoff-Burg, et al., In the book, The Health of Nations. The Causes of' 2000) studied psychological and physical adjust- Sickness and Well Being, physician Leonard Sagan ment to breast cancer. She found that both emotional (1987) reviewed the epidemiological data on physical expression and hope (as measured by the Hope health, and concluded that, "It is the brain that is the Scale) predict perceived health and sense of vigor in true health provider" (p. 185). Sagan believed that tra- these women. Furthermore, these two variables in- ditional factors such as improved sanitation and clean teracted such that the expressive, high-hope women water, better nutrition, and superior medical care pro- fare the best on having less distress and fewer visits vide only partial solutions in improving the overall with their physicians for cancer-related problems. health. His conclusion is that, "More important in ex- For example, among high-hope women, the average plaining the decline in death worldwide is the rise of number of doctor visits was 3.44 for the women who

were low on emotional expression, whereas the av- Based on prospective research using indexes of hope not derived erage number of doctor visits was 0.0 for the women from hope theory, the absence of hope relates to greater cancer mor- who were high on emotional expression. These find- bidity and mortality (Schmale & lker,1966, 1971). Everson et al. ings are consistent with my earlier proposition that (1996) and Everson, Kaplan, Goldberg, Salonen, and Salonen (1997) reported that hopelessness significantly predicted later cardiovascu- an emotional set and ongoing approach type of emo- lardisease and cancer among middle-aged men (even beyond number tional expression can work hand-in-hand to facilitate of biological and behavioral risk factors).

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hope and the decline in despair and hopelessness" (p. and Krauss (1968) took measures in many countries of 184). Whether at the individual or societal levels, I be- the degree to which citizens felt impeded in their daily lieve that we have only begun to understand and apply activities by their societies. They found that the less re- hope theory to the prevention, detection, and effective stricted (i.e., hope engendering) societies had signifi- coping with illnesses. cantly fewer citizens who committed suicide. In a second study, Range and Penton (1994) reported that lower Hope Scale scores (more so than hopelessness Psychological Adjustment scores) were related to suicidal ideation among college students. In a third study involving Vietnam veterans, Many correlational studies have explored the rela- we asked former soldiers to fill out the Hope Scale un- tions of hope to psychological adjustment, with a con- der two sets: (a) as if they were back in Vietnam, and sistent finding that higher hope is related to better (b) based on their present lives (Crowson et al., 2001). overall adjustment (Kwon, 2002). For example, higher Their hope scores for their present-day civilian lives hope relates to more adaptive composite adjustment were significantly lower than for their Vietnam days. scores on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality In- Furthennore, higher hostility as measured by the Hos- ventory in persons who are psychiatric inpatients tile Automatic Thoughts Scale (Snyder, Crowson, (Irving et al., 1990) and college students (Cramer & Houston, Kurylo, & Poirier, 1997) was related to lower Dyrkacz, 1998). Hope has correlated negatively with hope among these veterans. The reasons for the lower negative affect and positively with positive affect hope in their present-day civilian lives point to frustra- (about .55). Likewise, laboratory manipulations for in- tions and anger at the blockages that they had encoun- creasing hope also have raised positive affects and tered (e.g., prejudice and difficulties in finding lowered negative affects. In a study in which research employment). To their shock and dismay, they found participants were followed over a 28-day period, that they were not being given a fair chance, although higher hope was associated (each day) with the report they had risked their lives for their country. In a fourth of fewer negative thoughts and more positive thoughts study, Irving, Tefler, and Blake (1997) also found very (Snyder et al., 1996). College students with high as low Hope Scale scores in Vietnam veterans with compared to low hope have reported feeling more con- PTSD. Overall, the role of hope at the societal level in fident, inspired, energized, and challenged by their life psychological adjustment warrants further study. goals (Snyder, Harris, et al., 1991); moreover, they re- Secondary prevention in psychological health taps ported elevated feelings of self-worth and life satisfac- those thoughts or actions that reduce or eliminate a tion and low levels of depression (Chang, 1998; Kwon, problem once it has appeared (Snyder, Feldman, et al., 2000; Snyder, Hoza, et al., 1997; Snyder et al., 1996). 2000). Related to this issue, when high-hope people Likewise, high- relative to low-hope people are more encounter an immutable goal blockage, they are flexi- prone to find benefits in their attempts at coping with ble and can find alternative goals. Low hopers, how- stressors (Affleck & Tennen, 1996; Tennen & Affleck, ever, ruminate about being stuck (Michael, 2000; 1 999).9 Snyder, 1999) and engage in almost magical escape Hope theory also may have larger scale applications fantasies. This avoidance and disengaged coping gen- in reducing risks and inoculating segments of society erally has counterproductive consequences (Snyder & against despair. Examples of such primary preventions Pulvers, 2001; Stanton & Snider, 1993). Preoccupied at the societal level would be advertisements, laws, and with their avoidance thoughts, low-hope persons con- shared social values aimed at increasing desired be- tinue their passivity because they do not learn from haviors and decreasing undesired behaviors. If a soci- past experiences. ety is open and fair in terms of allowing its citizens to When encountering stressors, high-hope people can obtain the rewards, then the likelihood of mass frustra- call on their family and friends-persons with whom tion and its associated destructive behaviors should be they share a satisfying sense of mutuality. Higher hope diminished. Therefore, when laws are implemented so is associated with better social adjustment, both with as to allow a maximal number of people to pursue friends and one's extended family (Kwon, 2002). We goal-directed activities, then citizens should be less have found that adults who are high in hope recount likely to become frustrated and act aggressively having close bonds to caregivers, along with large against each other (Snyder, 1993, 1994b; Snyder & amounts of time spent with those caregivers (Rieger, Feldman, 2000). 1993). Also, high-hope adults have positive views I was able to locate four studies that relate to the about interpersonal relationships and form strong at- aforementioned speculation. In a first study, Krauss tachments to others (Snyder, Cheavens, & Sympson, 1997). Not surprisingly, higher levels of hope are re-

For in-depth coverages of hope and successful coping, see lated to less loneliness (Sympson, 1999), more social McDermott and Snyder ( 1999); Snyder (I 994b); Snyder, Cheavens, competence (Snyder, Hoza, et al., 1997), and more per- and Michael (1999); and Snyder, Cook, and Rapoff (1997, 2002). ceived social support (Barnum et al., 1998; L. J.

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McNeal, 1997). In the process of enjoying their inter- ing an active one). An agency-like effect can be de- actions with friends, high hopers also appear to be in- rived by subtracting the outcome effect size for the terested in their goals and others' goals (Snyder, no-contact control groups from the placebo outcome 1994b; Snyder, Cheavens, & Sympson, 1997). Like- effect size. Likewise, the pathways-like effect should wise, high-hope people are forgiving of their friends reflect the full treatment outcome effect size minus the and tolerant of other people in general (Tiemey, 1995). effective placebo effect size. Applying these defini- People with low hope, on the other hand, tend to be tions and measuring change magnitudes in standard lonely, fearful of interpersonal closeness, and unfor- deviation units wherein one group differs from another giving of other people (Thompson, Snyder, et al., group mean, the effect sizes for agency and pathways 2002). Low-hope persons are more likely to have par- were .47 SD and .55 SD, respectively, in the Barker et ents who divorced or to have lost a parent through al. meta-analysis (see Figure 2). As predicted, there- death (Rieger, 1993; Westburg, 2001). Likewise, in a fore, agency by itself significantly improves outcomes, laboratory interactive task, people gravitate toward and the adding of pathways again significantly aug>- high-hope people and away from low-hope people mented the positive outcomes. I0 By adding the agency (Cheavens, Taylor, Kahle, & Snyder, 2000). and the pathways effects, there was an overall hope e-f- The relation of hope to psychological adjustment fect size of 1.02 SD. I" also can be examined by considering the "What is the In addition to applying hope theory principles to nature of meaning?" question. In my first book on hope psychotherapy more generally, the theory has served (Snyder, 1994b), I proposed that hope and meaning as the framework for developing successful individual should be companions because it is through the self-re- treatments (Lopez, Floyd, Ulven, & Snyder, 2000). flections about personal goals, and the perceived prog- There also are examples using hope theory in working ress in reaching those goals, that meaning is with couples (Worthington et al., 1997) and groups constructed in a person's life. In support of this hy- (Klausner et al., 1998; Klausner, Snyder, & Cheavens, pothesis, it is found that Hope Scale scores correlated 2000). In the group intervention study for depresseid in the .70 to .76 range with the three meaning measures older adults, a 10-session series of hope-based group (Feldman & Snyder, 2001). (See also Elliott and activities lessened the elders' depression and increased Sherwin, 1997, for an analysis of hope and meaning.) their activity level significantly more than Butler's (1974) reminiscence group therapy (which is the present treatment of preference for depression in older Psychotherapy adults). We also have developed an effective 8-session group hope intervention for young- to middle-age Jerome Frank (1968, 1973, 1975) offered pioneer- adults who are depressed (Cheavens et al., 2001). ing views about hope as a shared process across differ- In addition, hope theory has been used as the frame- ing psychotherapy approaches. Using hope theory as a work for pretreatment therapy preparation. Results four guiding framework, my colleagues and I (Snyder, that study showed that the persons who underwent this Ilardi, Cheavens, et al., 2000a; Snyder, Ilardi, Michael, pretreatment hope preparation, especially those who & Cheavens, 2000b; Snyder, Michael, & Cheavens, were low in hope, experienced superior treatment out- 1999; Snyder & Taylor, 2000) continued this line of comes relative to persons without such pretreatments, thought. Irrespective of the specific psychotherapy (Irving, Snyder, et al., 1997). In another study, Trump system, the beneficial treatment changes reflect the cli- (1997) developed a videotaped intervention involving; ents' learning of more effective pathways goal-di- hopeful narratives of adult female survivors of child- rected thinking, along with the agency motivation to hood incest. Relative to the women who viewed a con- use the pathways. Consistent with this speculation, it trol comparison tape, the hopeful narrative produced a has been found that the children (both boys and girls) significant increase in State Hope Scale scores. Lopez who improved because of their participation in a fam- and his colleagues (Lopez, Bouwkamp, Edwards, & ily-oriented intervention also significantly increased in Teramoto Pediotti, 2000) initiated a program for pro- hope as measured by the Children's Hope Scale (R. E. moting hope in junior high students. The results to date McNeal, 1998). indicate that hope, taught in the classroom context of a I use the findings of a psychotherapy meta-analysis school setting, can be raised. Although I see many ap- by Barker, Funk, and Houston (1988) to extrapolate hope theory to psychotherapy outcome research. This These agency and pathways effect sizes are similar to those that meta-analysis is noteworthy because the authors in- can be calculated from other psychotherapy outcome effect cluded only those studies where the positive expecta- meta-analyses (Landman & Dawes, 1982; Shapiro & Shapiro, 1982; tions of people in the placebo groups were equal to Smith, Glass, & Miller, 1980). "The overall effect of psychotherapy can be seen as the sum of the those of people in active treatment groups (other agency and pathways effects sizes; this approach will approximate meta-analysis do not check for this, thereby making it the magnitude of improvement that is derived by subtracting the no difficult to draw any inferences about the placebo be- treatment control effect from the whole treatment effect.

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HOPE = does not have at least one caregiver who spends a con- AGENCY EFFECT + PATHWAYS EFFECT siderable amount of time and attention with him or her NO TREATMENT vs. TREATMENT (1.06) ) (see Rieger, 1993).

PATHWAYS EFFECT Whereas neglect is a passive killer of hopeful thought, physical abuse is a more active force in de- 1 L/'_~TREATMENOT PL~ACEBOvg (3.55)~ AGENCY EFFECT creasing hope. The terrible paradox here is that the LX' NO TREATMENT '\1 P vs. PLACEBO (.47) I very caregiver to whom the child should be able to turn for nurturance and instruction in goal-directed think- 0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0 1.1 ing becomes a source of fear. Attachment to the care- SIZE OF POSITIVE PSYCHOTHERAPY OUTCOME EFFECT (standard deviation units that one group differs giver is crucial for learning goal-directed thought; from another group mean) moreover, goal-directed hopeful actions usually tran-

Figure 2. The agency andpathways components ofhope in the con- spire in the context of other people. The abused child, text ofpsychotherapy outcome research. however, learns that interpersonal bonds cannot be trusted. Therefore, the abused child has lost a key as- plications of hope theory in the realm of pect of hopeful thought, and it comes as no surprise psychotherapies, it is prudent to characterize thatthe shework or he manifest deficits and delays in learning so far as an encouraging start. 12 (Hoffman-Plotkin & Twentyman, 1984). Similar to abuse in general, sexual abuse also begets a fear and confusion about human relationships, and it leads to The Death of Hope: Factors subsequent behavior problems and depression (see Undermining Goal-Directed Thought Wyatt & Powell, 1988). Another process that undermines hopeful thought in That there are individual differences in hope sug- children is the loss ofa parent. This child often feels vul- gests that some people have low, whereas other people nerable and helpless, and has difficulty in reaching goals have high hope. How does this happen? Although (Brown, Harris, & Bifulco, 1986). Whether this is space constraints preclude a detailed answer to this im- through the death ofaparent or divorce, the child often is portant question, the short answer is that hope is left with an uneasiness and uncertainty about being able learned. Furthermore, I would emphasize that we learn to go after important goals, especially when those goals hopeful, goal-directed thinking in the context of other depend on or occur within the contexts of interpersonal people. Generally, from childhood throughout the relationships. Such children also face increased likeli- adult years, the loss of hope typically involves other hood of having difficulty with relationships throughout people. In this section, I speculate briefly about some their lives (Wallerstein, 1983). of the forces that diminish hope in children and adults. Children who are raised in an environment that For a discussion of the factors that increase hope, lacks boundaries, consistency, and support, are at risk please see the previous section on psychotherapy, for not learning hopeful thinking. The boundaries and along with footnote 12. consistency represent a rule structure for determining when it is or is not appropriate to engage in goal-directed behaviors-a lesson that is crucial for seeking The Loss of Hope in Children personal goals while living amidst others. The support reflects the love and respect that provides the neces- I have postulated that the loss of hope in children sary attachment whereby the child tries his or her may take two general forms (Snyder, 1994b). On one goal-directed thinking and actions (Rieger, 1993). hand, there are the those newborns who do not receive Last, the forcing of the caregiver's interests and as- the necessary care and attention to learn hopeful think- pirations on a child can squelch hope because the child ing. On the other hand, there are those children who do is not allowed to pursue those goals for which he or she learn hopeful thought, only to have childhood events is best matched in temperament and talents. A child dampen those hopes. who is forced to become a "replication" of the parent Children who are physically neglected never have will have a cap on his or her level of hope. Coercing a anyone who teaches them to think hopefully. Such ne- child to compare himself or herself to parental goals is glect typically is thought to transpire in very poor fami- demoralizing (Swallow & Kuiper, 1988). lies, but even some affluent families do not attend to their children. The key to such neglect is that the child The Loss of Hope in Adults

There are two books (McDermott & Snyder, 2000; Snyder, McDermott, Cook, & Rapoff, 1997, 2002) and a chapter (McDennott Similar to the findings for children, an adult who & Hastings, 2000) applying hope theory to children, and a book loses a loved one is also at risk for losing hope. The aimed at helping adults to raise their levels of hope (McDermott & reason for this is that people often define their goals as

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a couple; and with the demise of one partner, the re- virtuous, and even may reflect problematic "pie in the maining partner is left bewildered and depressed sky" thinking. I am asked frequently about such false (Horowitz, 1990). This effect should be more marked hope. I take this query very seriously because I thirk if the death of the loved one is not expected and it is that we must be very careful in our claims about human seen as being unfair. In a parallel manner, divorce, es- strengths (see Snyder & Rand, 2000; Snyder, Rand, pecially for the one who feels "left behind," can lead to King, Feldman, & Taylor, 2002). Over-zealous con- a serious erosion of hope (Dalfiume, 1993). Our soci- clusions not only represent bad science, but they can ety places a great emphasis on relationships, and many quickly undermine the credibility of what has come to of the goals in life are pursued with one's partner. be called "positive psychology" (Snyder, 2000c). Therefore, a single person is at risk for an enduring di- The false hope view is not a new one, and it has had minishment of goal-directed thought and personal some famous proponents. Benjamin Franklin (Bartlett, worth. Just as it can be very hurtful to lose a partner, it 1968) warned, "He that lives on hope will die fasting" also is very immobilizing to be unable to make connec- (p. 422). Similarly, Francis Bacon (Bartlett, 1968) tions with other people. Recall that hope is inherently a opined that, "Hope is a good breakfast, but a bad sup- way of thinking that occurs in social commerce. To not per" (p. 207). Echoing these historical concerns, recent connect with others, in many ways, is not to hope. scholars have argued that it can be maladaptive to have Although the media appears to describe the modem high hope. The three themes that have emerged in these as compared to previous American workers as being modem criticisms of such false hope are as follows: (a) less emotionally wed to their work, my sense is that the the expectations rest on illusions rather than reality loss of one's job is still a devastating event for most (e.g., Callan, 1989), (b) unsuitable goals are being pur- people. The job, or perhaps even more aptly, the ca- sued (e.g., Murrell & Norris, 1983; Rule, 1982), and reer, becomes a focal point for many life goals, and the (c) the strategies to achieve the desired goals are poor loss of such work also threatens one's identity-even (Kwon, 2000,2002). Using hope theory as a lens, let us to the degree that psychological help often is needed examine each of these criticisms. (Brenner, 1976). Traumatic events also deprive people of their desire to engage in the normal goal pursuits of life (Sympson, False Hopes Reflect Out of Touch 2000). Beyond the immediate stress that flows from Illusions such victimizations (e.g., rape, robbery, severe car accident, etc.), the enduring tragedy is that they may stop First, in regard to the extreme high hopers being out people from thinking in their usual, active, goal pursuit of touch with reality (for proponents, see Beavers & ways. It is as if people have given up the grand goal Kaslow, 1981; Breznitz, 1983; Callan, 1989; Klenow, game of life and have opted for a safe, protected exis- 1991; Murrell & Norris, 1983; Rule, 1982; Tillich, tence in which they do not stretch their talents and in- 1965; Tomko, 1985), it is the case that high hopers do terests. Victimization can rob people of their hope. have slightly positively biased self-referential views, Our present system of labeling people according to but they do not have extreme biases (Snyder, 1989). I their pathologies (using the Diagnostic and Statistical also note that people do not maintain their high hopes ir- Manual of Mental Disorders-Fourth Edition, 1994) respective of feedback that should constrain such hope as part of psychological treatment may be a Faustian (Kwon, 2002). In a study of African American patients bargain. So labeled, the person may perceive that he or with sickle-cell disease, for example, as the severity of she understands a problem, he or she may get treat- the disease increased into the extreme range, hopeful ment, the mental health professional may get reim- thought abated (Kliewer& Lewis, 1995). Likewise, in a bursed, and everyone seemingly is happy. Not quite. study of predominantly African American children liv- Although it may be heretical as a clinical psychologist ing in the inner city, we have found that their hope levels to find fault with this process, I am concerned that the were lower when they had witnessed, as compared to not client must increasingly live a life that typifies the having witnessed, acts of violence committed against thoughts and behaviors associated with a particular di- their friends and family (Hinton-Nelson, Roberts, & agnostic label. In so doing, the labeled client may not Snyder, 1996). Therefore, contrary to the false hope be open to the full range of goal pursuits in life (Snyder viewpoint regarding the illusion-based invariance of el- & Higgins, 1988b). evated probability of goal attainment, high hopers appear to calibrate their goal expectations according to the relevant boundary conditions. The Question of False Hope Another aspect of this illusion criticism involves the sequelae of the slight positive biases that accompany Granted that hopeful thinking generally is a good high-hope thought. Murrell and Nors (1983) reasonedl thing, is it always good? Surely there must be some that when a person has expended considerable effort boundary conditions under which hope becomes less only to have his or her high expectations dashed, then a

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lessened psychological state will result. The literature There is one recent body of research that has the po- on positive illusions suggests, however, that such illu- tential for testing the counterproductive nature of false sions relate to positive psychological health (Taylor & hope. Namely, high hopers appear to find a sense of Annor, i996). Likewise, as previously discussed in re- benefit and meaning when they face traumatic events gard to the literature on hope, high hopers are not devas- such as the birth of a child who is extremely ill or the tated by goal blockages, but instead they seem to thrive death of a spouse or child (Affleck & Tennen, 1996; in solving the dilemmas produced by these life impedi- Feldman & Snyder, 2001; Tennen & Affleck, 1999, ments. Therefore, even if high-hope persons find their 2002). How could there possibly be anything hopeful hopes dashed, they appear to arise phoenix-like again so in such life-threatening events? Such pie in the sky as to try another strategy for effectively pursuing their thinking in the face of dreadful life events surely can- goals. Therefore, high-hope people become re-ener- not be adaptive and, as such, must epitomize an irrefut- gized with agency thoughts after confronting impedi- able verification of the false hope phenomenon. The ments (Snyder, Rand, et al., 2002). evidence, however, suggests otherwise. First, this ben- Opposite to the high hopers, the low hopers are of- efit finding appears to be very prevalent among people ten depressed and vegetable-like in their demeanors, who are undergoing such dire events. Second, such especially after encountering impediments. Recall the benefit finding consistently has been linked to height- literature on depressive realism, wherein persons who ened well-being and superior adjustment are depressed appear to lack positive biases (e.g., Alloy (Nolen-Hoeksema & Davis, 2002; Tennen & Affleck, & Abramson, 1979; Golin, Terrell, & Johnson, 1976; 2002). Therefore, the prevalence of, and benefits re- Lewinsohn, Mischel, Chaplin, & Barton, 1980). Like- lated to benefit finding suggest that it does not exem- wise, such people lack an "illusion of control" (Golin plify false hope. et al., 1976). Low-hope people are similarly lethargic and have an "I don't give a damn" attitude. Related to this point, among gay men, those with very low hope False Hopes are Based on Poorly have been found to engage in risky sexual behaviors Chosen Goals (Floyd & McDermott, 1998). This latter finding obviously runs counter to the body of literature in which ex- The topic of poorly chosen goals can be divided into treme optimistic self-referential views are associated two subcategories-those goals that are far too big and with risk-taking behaviors (see Weinstein & Klein, those that are maladaptive. I elaborate on these two 1996). Beyond suggesting that the pathways compo- topics in this section. nent of hope theory ties the people's expectations more realistically to goal pursuits than does the more general (and agency-like) optimism notion, there is no readily Having goals that are too big. The concern here apparent explanation for the discrepancies in these re- is that people's hopes may be false in that they set goals sults. Research is needed to uncover whether this di- that are far too difficult (Rule, 1982). Polivy and vergence in findings rests on differences in the hope Herman (2000) suggested that the "false-hope syn- and optimism concepts per se, or on the methods or drome" arises when people launch overly difficult samples that have been used. self-change regimens (e.g., weight loss) and thereafter Having worked clinically with people for the last 4 crash psychologically when they do not succeed (see decades, I have witnessed how extreme illusions are as previous discussion of dashed hopes). My guess is that bad or worse than having no illusions. This distortion of these persons who are setting extreme change goals reality to the delusional level is a hallmark of schizo- may in fact be low in hope. On this point, we have found phrenia, delusional disorder, mood disorders with psy- that at times, low-hope people set absurdly high goals chotic features, and so on. Are such delusional people in certain arenas, whereas they set extremely easy goals also high in hope? In this regard, research reveals that in most other arenas of their lives. In experiments con- persons who evidence extreme reality distortions (i.e., ducted in my laboratory over the last 2 decades, I con- delusions) are very low in hope (i.e., they produce psy- sistently find that the high-hope people do set more dif- chotic profiles on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personal- ficult goals than low-hope people, but these high ity Inventory; Cramer & Dyrkacz, 1998; Irving et al., hopers are just as likely to reach their difficult goals 1990), and their illusions interfere with the attainmentof (Snyder, 1994b; Snyder, Harris, et al., 1991). This par- desired goals. One of the reasons for the existence of the allels Emmons's (1992) findings that high-level goal false hope notion may have been that it has been incor- strivers are no less likely to attain their goals than their rectly equated with the extreme illusions that we see in low-level goal striving counterparts. The reasons for people with psychoses. Although I am not aware of any high hopers success in such difficult goal pursuits are example, perhaps there is a particular subcategory of threefold. First, high-hope people see their goals as psychological disturbance where the persons are very challenges and are invigorated by them (Anderson, high in hope and that hope is counterproductive. 1988; Snyder, Cheavens, & Michael, 1999). Second,

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high-hope people are flexible (Irving et al., 1998) and it worked for one patient. The following true case illus- think of several avenues to their goals. Third, high hop- trates this (taken from Snyder, 1994b): ers persist, even under stressful conditions (Snyder, Taylor, et al., 2001). Mr. Wright had been diagnosed with cancer that had There are instances of where a person may pursue spread to various parts of his body. In the face of this untreatable disease, however, he was infused with a a lofty goal, with the expectation being that the goal desire to live. When he learned of a new drug called will not be met, but rather that it will be approxi- Krebiozen that was being given to persons with a more mated. Does this represent false hope? Consider an favorable prognosis than his, Mr. Wright implored his example. For persons who are devoted Christians, the physicians to give him this experimental drug. After goal is to emulate the perfection of Christ in their be- one injection, his condition improved. With continued haviors and attitudes. In such circumstances, the de- treatments, most of the markers of his cancer had dis- voted Christian does not truly expect to reach this appeared. Two months later, however, conflicting evi- goal, but the pursuit of this goal brings a profound dence about the effectiveness of Krebiozen was pub- sense of satisfaction and fulfillment. It should be lished. Concerned that Mr. Wright's physical noted that this latter process orientation is typical of condition had returned to its previous grave status, his therapist decided to employ a placebo on the chance high-hope people (i.e., they enjoy the journey often that improvement would occur again. The therapist more so than the goal attainment; Snyder, 1994a, told Mr. Wright that previous shipments of Krebiozen 1994b; Snyder, Thompson, & Heinze, in press). Such were made ineffective by incorrect storage techniques, striving obviously does not have the hard edge that is and that it indeed was effective. Thereafter, Mr. associated with the goal pursuits depicted in the pre- Wright was given the treatments from a "new" batch of viously popular achievement motivation or Type A the drug (actually water), and he evidenced even more behavior pattern constructs. pronounced improvement in his cancer (as traced by This issue of goals that are too lofty is of major im- objective indices such as a radiograph) than had been portance in the medical arena (Frank, 1973; Klenow, the case the first time. For two months he was free of 1991). Suppose that a physician believes, based on the symptoms. Then the American Medical Association available medical evidence, that his or her patient is pronounced that Krebiozen was ineffective as a cancer treatment. Several days later, Mr. Wright was readmit- going to die within 1 year. Should that physician imbue ted to the hospital under rapidly deteriorating condi- this patient with hopes that she or he will live beyond 1 tions. His faith and hope, it was reported, were de- year? Klenow suggested that physicians can respond pleted. He died two days after entering the hospital. so as to impart hope-engendering but untrue informa- (pp. 156-157) tion, and undertake unneeded medical procedures that imply that the patient can be treated successfully. Es- Consider another case in which hope is implicated sentially, both of these approaches involve purposeful in the recovery of patients from cancer (taken fron deceptions, albeit with the intended purpose of benefit- Buchholz, 1988). ting the patients.

I do not have an estimate of the percentage of physi- As I was eating breakfast one morning I overheard two cians who engage in such false hope feedback. As- oncologists discussing the papers they were to present suming that this is done fairly frequently, an important that day at the national meeting of the American Society question arises: Do the ends justify the means here? In of Clinical Oncology. One was complaining bitterly: Howard Spiro's (1999) volume, The Power ofHope: A You know, Bob, I just don't understand it. We used Doctor's Perspective, he argued that there is no false- the same drugs, the same dosage, the same schedule, hood being conveyed when a physician applies such and the same entry criteria. Yet I got a 22% response rate and you got 74%. That's unheard of for metastatic placebos. Borrowing on SisselaBok's (1979) view that lung cancer. How do you do it? the truth of an act or statement rests not in its content, We're both using Etoposide, Platinol, Oncovin, and but rather in the protagonist's intention, Spiro con- Hydroxyurea. You call yours EPOH. I tell my patients cludes that the end absolutely justifies the means. Fur- I'm giving them HOPE. Sure, I tell them this is experi- thermore, Spiro emphasized that only the physician is mental, and we go over the long list of side effects to- qualified to make the decision as to whether to apply gether. However, I emphasize that we have a chance. such a placebo. As dismal as the statistics are for non-small cell cancer, Certainly, some physicians can recount stories of there are always a few patients who do really well. how one or more of their patients have defied all odds (Buchholz, 1988, p. 69) and not only have survived terminal illnesses, but have been cured from what was thought to be incurable. Sur- I would emphasize that we are not at a point to sug- geon Bernie Siegel's (1986) book, Love, Medicine, and gest that high hope is causally implicated in the recov- Miracles, is a compendium of such cases. Furthermore, ery process from terminal illnesses. As discussed although one case does not prove that hope works for all, previously in the results on hope as it relates to recov- for many, or even for some patients, it does suggest that ery from severe medical problems, however, we do

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know that higher hope is related to coping better lethalitywith is when the person begins to talk of suicide arthritis, bums, spinal cord injuries, fibromyalgia, and as a "way out" of extreme suffering and pain. The breast cancer. My sense is that, at minimum, a patient's next marker of suicide lethality is one that signals a hope may aid in the battle against a life-threatening far more serious threat. Namely, when the person be- disease in that such hope contributes to a fighting gins to describe the means by which he or she is go- stance, one in which the patient follows the prescribed ing to carry out suicide, then more intention can be medical regimen (recall that higher hope does relate to inferred. For example, the person may have pur- adherence to taking medications). In this regard, I can- chased a hand gun or started to stockpile his antide- not condone the purposeful misleading of the patient pressant medications. Last, about 10 days before about the difficult odds that she or he faces. Such ac- actually making the suicide attempt or suicide, the tive misleading is open to several problems that may person's mood seems to lift from the previous leth- undo the "big lie" and backfire so that the patient's argy and he or she appears to have more energy. This hope is squandered needlessly. I say needlessly be- marker is by far the most serious one in terms of sui- cause such lying is not necessary. Indeed, I believe that cide potential-assuming that the person previously patients can be given honest feedback that engenders has exhibited the goal-making steps (to kill oneself) hope. I return to this important issue at the close of this and pathways (finding the means for accomplishing article. one's demise). Although it may seem paradoxical, the suicidal person is using the basic principles of hope theory, Having bad goals. Hope theory is meant to be albeit for a very negative goal. That is to say, the per- neutral in its treatment of the value of the goals selected son has a goal-to stop the pain by killing himself or by people (Snyder, 1994a, 1994b). Therefore, because herself. Likewise, the person comes up with a path- a person has high hope, there is no theoretical premise way to attain this goal (i.e., when a weapon or drugs that prosocial, positive goals are being pursued. Indeed, are attained). Last, the seeming burst of energy rep- high-hope goals may be antisocial, such as a gang resents the person's motivation to actually use the leader who wants to secure his turf and tum a handsome pathway to kill himself or herself. This example is profit on the sale of illicit drugs. Such gang leader anti- the closest I can find to what may be false social hopes are not false, however, because they are hope-given that there often may be better goals to not less likely to be attained than societally rewarded solve the suffering than suicide (e.g., in clinical goals. Although the gang leader's reaching of his goals practice, one can ask a suicidal person to put off the is detrimental to society as a whole, this is not the same deed for 1 month, and this allows other "living" as being false. goals to reemerge). I would hasten to add, however, All goals have implications for the goalsetter and that unless we have experienced the wrenching pain the surrounding society in which that person lives. Al- and suffering that seems without end, I do not think though each society throughout history has had a sub- that we can fully comprehend the imagined relief set of persons who are pursuing goals that are that suicide would bring. I say this because for the antisocial relative to the society as a whole, it should be last 10 years I have endured chronic, very severe noted that the overwhelming majority of citizens are pain, and at times I have thought of the relief that brought up so as to pursue goals that reflect the posi- death would bring. There is no way, however, that I tive, accepted standards for that society (see Snyder & would have understood such thoughts prior to hav- Higgins, 1988a, 1997; Snyder, Irving, Sigmon, & ing experienced this chronic, largely untreatable, Holleran, 1992). In other words, we raise our children physical pain. Even with my having some experi- so that they covet the goals that are deemed to be good ence with pain and suffering, I probably cannot in the context of our society. In addition, a society es- fathom the depths of another's despair. tablishes reward and punishment systems so as to enhance the probability that its citizens will go after the positive, valued goals (Snyder & Feldman, 2000). False Hopes Represent Bad Planning Therefore, although hope theory is neutral about the value of goals, its actual application takes place in the The thrust of this bad planning criticism is that peo- context of most people having the positively valued ple select inappropriate strategies for reaching their goals in those societies. goals. Elsewhere, I have written that suicide is the final act of hope (Snyder, 1994b). My thinking here is that when people have met profound, chronic, and seem- Pathways thought. Hope theory research shows ingly unending goal blockages, then their usual life consistently that high-hope persons select good routes goals may be abandoned in favor of a suicide goal. for their goals, and that this is especially the case during Clinicians know that the first marker of suicidal circumstances involving stress or goal impediments;

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conversely, low-hope people become confused, Looking to the Next Decade of avoidant, and ineffective in finding routes to their goals Research during normal or impeded situations (Snyder, 1994a, 1994b, 2000a, 2000b, 2000c). Perhaps because path- In this section, I briefly speculate about two largely ways thought by definition is related to effective goal unexplored areas (see Snyder, 2000c). First, I return to thinking, it is not possible in hope theory to find inap- the topic of false hope as it applies to the giving cf propriate pathways cognitions. feedback to medical patients. Some physicians and other medical professionals probably do deliver feedback to patients that is more positive than what they ac- Direct empirical tests. False hope, as defined by tually believe, and they do so with the laudable goal of Kwon (2000; 2002), is the state of having a desired goal engendering patient hope. Among the physicians witfh and the requisite motivation (i.e., agency), but not hav- whom I have spoken about this matter, those who pur- ing the plans to reach the goal. Specifically, Kwon posefully promote false hope do so to lessen the pa- (2000) reasoned that people with high hope and imma- tient's worry and suffering, rather than to improve the ture defense styles should think that they can achieve a patient's chances of survival. Such "ends justify the goal (high hope), but thereafter use poor strategies to means" logic must be based on the premise that the reach the goal (immature defense style). For the false only way to raise the needed hope is to do so throughi hope hypothesis to be supported, the high hope plus im- deception. I question this premise because the physi- mature defense style should relate to more maladjust- cian can join with the patient in an honest alliance that ment (dysphoria) than is experienced by people with acknowledges the difficult survival odds and main- lower hope and more mature defense styles. Contrary tains hope. In my experience, patients ferret out the to the false hope hypothesis, his results indicated that truth by watching the nonverbal cues of their physi- high hope was related to better adjustment no matter cians and nurses, by talking with other patients, by what the defense style. talking with family members, and surfing the net so as In two replications using college students, Kwon to find the relevant actuarial data about survival rates (2002) explored hope level, defense style maturity, for their illnesses. When the patient discovers that the and psychological adjustment (dysphoria). Kwon physician has been misleading him or her, then the cru- (2002) measured hope levels in specific domains of cial doctor-patient alliance is broken-often beyond participants' lives, emphasizing how previous the- repair. Borrowing on the pioneering ideas of physician orists (Beavers & Kaslow, 198 1; Tomko, 1985) had Eric Cassell (1976, 2002), I suggest that the severity of held that genuine hope would relate to adaptive re- the disease be faced head-on by the physician and the sponses (mature defenses), whereas false hope health care team, and that they and their patient there- should relate to maladaptive responses (immature after agree to make the very best fight possible so as to defenses) and psychological maladjustment. Re- defeat the odds. Hope simply is too important, in my sults showed that high hope and high defense im- view, to be jeopardized by untruths, even those that maturity never resulted in individuals with supposedly are for the good of the patient. The helpingr dysphoria having levels that were higher than indi- relationship, whether it be physician-patient, psycho- viduals with low hope. Therefore, again no support therapist-client, and so on, is one of the prime arenas was found for false hope. for future hope research and applications. We already know that hope and therapeutic alliance are strongly correlated (Magyar-Moe, Edwards, & Lopez, 2001), The Airline Pilot Maxim: Do We Want but there is much more to be learned. Pessimism in the Cockpit? Second, I see hope as being crucial for enhancing the quality of our lives. Commenting on the future of I close this section with an aphorism that I have the positive psychology, human strengths approach., heard many times as a precaution involving false hope. my colleagues and I (Snyder, Feldman, et al., 2000) People rhetorically ask, "Surely you would much pre- proposed that there are primary and secondary en- fer to have a nonrisk-taking pessimist flying your plane hancements. Primary enhancement reflects those rather than a risk-taking optimist?" Ignoring the ques- thoughts and actions that can be used to establish opti- tionable assumption that the optimist is necessarily a mal functioning and satisfaction. Secondary enhance- risk taker, I would ask the readers to think about this ment involves those thoughts and actions that are question when it is posed differently: Do we really undertaken so as to further enhance and sustain opti- want the pessimistic pilot-filled with anxiety, ten- mal functioning and satisfaction. The latter states may sion, worry, sadness, rejection, anger, self-criticalness, be characterized as peak experiences, perhaps bearing and profound uncertainty-to be at the controls when some similarity to Maslow's (1970) notion of self-ac- our jet.is landing during a thunderstorm? Not me. I tualization. It is interesting to note that the strongest want a high-hope pilot in that cockpit. correlation of any scale to date with the Hope Scale

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This content downloaded from 156.110.185.215 on Sat, 15 Feb 2020 18:42:26 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms HOPE THEORY was obtained with a measure of self-actualization Averill, (r = J. R., Catlin, G., & Chon, K. K. (1990). Rules of hope. New York: Springer-Verlag. .79; Sumerlin, 1997). The road that enables people to Babyak, M. A., Snyder, C. R., & Yoshinobu, L. (1993). Psychometric attain such optimal functioning would be paved with properties a of the Hope Scale: A confirmatory factor analysis. new premise-that education and business should as- Journal of Research in Personality, 27, 154-169. sign people to activities that match their strengths Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of be- rather than trying to fix their weaknesses (Buckingham havior change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215. Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. & Clifton, 2001; Clifton & Nelson, 1992).13 If this new American Psychologist, 3 7, 122-147. premise were applied, it would allow more people to Bandura, A. (1997). Self efficacy: The exercise ofcontrol. New York: obtain the joys associated with successfully pursuing Freeman. the goals for which they are most suited. Such a grand Barker, S. L., Funk, S. C., & Houston, B. K. (1988). Psychological real-life study of hope is within reach. treatment versus nonspecific factors: A meta-analysis of conditions that engender comparable expectations of improvement. Clinical Psychology Review, 8, 579-594. Barnum, D. D., Snyder, C. R., Rapoff, M. A., Mani, M. M., & A Rainbow of the Mind Thompson, R. (1998). Hope and social support in the psychological adjustment of pediatric bum survivors and matched con- In studying hope, so too have I observed the spec- trols. Children's Health Care, 27, 15-30. trum of human strength. This reminds me of the rain- Bartlett, J. (1968). Familiar quotations. Boston: Little, Brown, & Co. bow that frequently is used as a symbol of hope. A Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., & Tice, D. (1998). Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource? Journal of rainbow is a prism that sends shards of multicolored Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1252-1265. light in various directions. It lifts our spirits and makes Baumeister, R. F., & Exline, J. J. (2000). Self control, morality, and us think of what is possible. Hope is the same-a per- human strength. Joursnal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19, sonal rainbow of the mind. 29-42. Beavers, W. R., & Kaslow, F. W. (1981). The anatomy of hope. Jour- nal of Marital and Family 7herapy 7, 119-126. Bok, S. (1979). Lying: Moral choice in puiblic and private life. New Notes York: Vintage. Brenner, M. H. (1976). 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Snyder & D. R. Forsyth (Eds.), Handbook ofsocial and clinical Laird, S. (1992). A preliminary investigation into prayer as a coping psychology: The health perspective (pp. 681-698). Elmsford, technique for adultpatients with arthritis. Unpublished doctoral NY: Pergamon. dissertation, Department of Psychology, University of Kansas, Hewitt, J. P. ( 1998). The myth of self-esteem: Finding happi- Lawrence. ness and solvingproblems in America. New York: St. Mar- Landman, J. T., & Dawes, R. M. (1982). Psychotherapy outcome: tin's Press. Smith and Glass' conclusions stand up under scrutiny. Ameri- Hinton-Nelson, M. D., Roberts, M. C., & Snyder, C. R. (1996). can Psychologist, 3 7, 504-516. Early adolescents exposed to violence: Hope and vulnerability Langelle, C. (1989). An assessment of hope in a community sample. to victimization. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 66, Unpublished master's thesis, Department of Psychology, Uni- 346-353. versity of Kansas, Lawrence. Hoffman-Plotkin, D., & Twentyman, C. T. (1984). A multimodel as- Lazarus, R. S. (1999). Hope: An emotion and a vital coping resource sessment of behavioral and cognitive deficits in abused and ne- against despair. Social Research, 66, 665-669. glected preschoolers. Child Development, 55, 794-802. Lazarus, R. S. (2000). Toward better research on stress and coping. Horowitz, M. J. (1990). A model of mourning: Change in schemas of American Psychologist, 55, 653-678. self and other. Journal of American Psychoanalytic Associa- Lazarus, R. S., Deese, J., & Osler, S. F. (1952). The effects of psycho- tion, 38, 297-324. logical stress upon performance. Psychological Bulletin, 49, Irving, L. M., Crenshaw, W., Snyder, C. R., Francis, P., & Gentry, G. 293-317. ( 1990, May). Hope and its correlates in a psychiatric setting. Levenson, R. W. (1994). Human emotion: A functionalist view. In Paper presented at the Midwestern Psychological Association, P. Ekman & R. J. Davidson (Eds.), The nature of emotion: Chicago. Fundamental questions (pp. 123-126). New York: Oxford Irving, L. M., Snyder, C. R., & Crowson, J. J., Jr. (1998). Hope and University Press. the negotiation of cancer facts by college women. Journal of Lewinsohn, P. M., Mischel, W., Chaplin, W., & Barton, R. (1980). So- Personality, 66, 195-214. cial competence and depression: The role of illusionary self-per- Irving, L. M., Snyder, C. R., Gravel, L., Hanke, J., Hilberg, P., & Nel- ceptions? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 89, 203-212. son, N. (1997, April). Hope and effectiveness qf a pre-therapy Little, B. R. (1983). Personal projects: A rationale and method for in- orientation group for community mental health center clients. vestigation. Environment and Behavior, 15, 273-309. Paper presented at the Western Psychological Association Con- Little, B. R. (1987). Personal projects and fuzzy selves: Aspects of vention, Seattle, WA. self-identity in adolescence. In T. Honess & K. Yardley (Eds.), Irving, L. M., Tefler, L., & Blake, D. (1997). Hope, coping, and social Self and identity: Perspectives across the life span (pp. support in combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Jour- 230-245). New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. nal of Traumatic Stress, 10, 463-477. Little, B. R. (1989). Personal projects analysis: Trivial pursuits, mag- Jackson, W. T., Taylor, R. E., Palmatier, A. D., Elliott, T. R., & nificent obsessions, and the search for coherence. In D. M. Buss Elliott, J. L. (1998). Negotiating the reality of visual impair- & N. Cantor (Eds.), Personality psychology: Recent trends and ment: Hope, coping, and functional ability. Journal of Clinical emerging directions (pp. 15-31). New York: Springer-Verlag. Psychology in Medical Settings, 5, 173-185. Lopez, S. J., Bouwkamp, J., Edwards, L. M., & Teramoto Pediotti, J. Jones, J. M. (1973). Racial differences in sports activities: A look at (2000, October). Making hope happen via brief interventions. the self-paced versus reactive hypothesis. Journal of Personal- Paper presented at the 2nd Positive Psychology Summit, Wash- ity and Social Psychology, 2 7, 86-95. ington, DC. Kaplan, R. M. (2000). Two pathways to prevention. American Psy- Lopez, S. J., Floyd, R. K., Ulven, J. C., & Snyder, C. R. (2000). Hope chologist, 55, 382-396. therapy: Helping clients build a house of hope. In C. R. Snyder Klausner, E. J., Clarkin, J. F., Spielman, L., Pupo, C., Abrams, R., (Ed.), Handbook of hope: Theory, measures, and applications & Alexopoulas, G. S. ( 1998). Late-life depression and func- (pp. 123-150). San Diego, CA: Academic. tional disability: The role of goal-focused group psychother- Magaletta, P. R., & Oliver, J. M. (1999). The hope construct, will and apy. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 13, ways: Their relative relations with self-etficacy, optimism, and 707-7 16. general well-being. Journal of Clinical Psychology 55, Klausner, E. J., Snyder, C. R., & Cheavens, J. (2000). Teaching hope 539-55 1. to a population of older, depressed adults. In G. Williamson Magyar-Moe, J. L., Edwards, L. M., & Lopez, S. J. (2001). A new (Ed.), Advances in aging theory and research (pp. 295-310). look at the working alliance: Is there a connection with hope? New York: Plenum. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Psychological Re- Kleinke, C. L., & Miller, W. F. (1998). How comparing oneself with search and Education, University of Kansas, Lawrence. others relates to well-being. Journal of Social and Clinical Psy- Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and personalitv (2nd ed.). New chology, 17, 107-123. York: Harper & Row. Klenow, D. J. (1991). Emotion and life threatening illness: A Matarazzo, J. D. ( 1982). Behavioral health's challenge to academic, typology of hope sources. Omega, 24, 49-60. scientific, and professional psychology. American Psycholo- Kliewer, W., & Lewis, H. (1995). Family influences on coping pro- gist, 37, 1-14. cesses in children with sickle cell disease. Journal of Pediatric McDermott, D., & Hastings, S. (2000). Children: Raising future hopes. Psychology, 20, 511-525. In C. R. Snyder(Ed.), Handbook of hope: Theory, measures, and Klinger, E. (1977). Meaning and void: Inner experience and the in- applications (pp. 185-199). San Diego, CA: Academic. centives in people's lives. Minneapolis: University of Minne- McDermott, D., & Snyder, C. R. (1999). Making hope happen. Oak- sota Press. land, CA: New Harbinger Publications. Krauss, H. H., & Krauss, B. J. (1968). Cross-cultural study of the McDermott, D., & Snyder, C. R. (2000). The great big bookof hope: thwarting-disorientation theory of suicide. Journal ofAbnormal Help your children achieve their dreams. Oakland, CA: New Psychology, 73, 352-357. Harbinger Publications. Kwon, P. (2000). Hope and dysphoria: The moderating role of de- McNeal, L. J. (1997). The effects of perceived non-work social sup- fense mechanisms. Journal of Personality, 68, 199-233. port and hope upon oncology nurses' occupational stress. Dis- Kwon, P. (2002). Hope, defense mechanisms, and adjustment: Impli- sertation Abstracts International, 58(4-A), 1209. cations for false hope and defensive hopelessness. Journal of McNeal, R. E. (1998). Pre- and post-treatmnent hope in children and Personality, 70, 207-231. adolescents in residential treatmnent: A further analysis of the ef-

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fects of the teaching family model. Dissertation Abstracts Inter- Rule, W. R. (1982). Pursuing the horizon: Striving for elusive goals. national, 59(5-B), 2425. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 61, 195-197. Menninger, K. (1959). The academic lecture on hope. The American Sagan, L. A. (1987). The health of nations: The causes of sickness Journal of Psychiatry, 109, 481-491. and well-being. New York: Basic Books. Michael, S. T. (2000). Hope conquers fear: Overcoming anxiety and Saunders, R. (2000). The relation oftraumaticphysical and/orsexual panic attacks. In C. R. Snyder (Ed.), Handbook of hope: Theory, abuse to dissociation and sensory processing. Unpublished measures, and applications(pp. 355-378). San Diego, CA: Ac- master's thesis, Department of Psychology, University of Kari- ademic. sas, Lawrence. Miller, G. A., Galanter, E., & Pribram, K. H. (1960). Plans and the Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1985). Optimism, coping, and health: structure of behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectari- Moon, C., & Snyder, C. R. (2000). Children's Hope Scale. In J. cies. Health Psychology, 4, 219-247. Maltby, C. A. Lewis, & A. Hill (Eds.), A handbook ofpsycho- Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1987). Dispositional optimism and logical tests (Vol. 1, pp. 160-166). Lampeter, Wales: Edwin physical well-being: The influence of generalized outcome ex- Mellen Press. pectancies on health. Journal of Personality, 55, 169-210. Moon, C., Snyder, C. R., & Rapoff; M. (2001). The relationship of Scheier, M. F., Carver, C. S., & Bridges, M. W. (1994). Distini- hope to children's asthma treatment adherence. Unpublished guishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self manuscript, Department of Psychology, University of Kansas, mastery, and self-esteem): A reevaluation of the Life Orienta- Lawrence. tion Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, Munoz-Dunbar, R. (1993). Hope: A cross-cultural assessment of 1063-1078. American college students. Unpublished master's thesis, De- Scheier, M. F., Weintraub, J. K., & Carver, C. S. (1986). Coping with partment of Psychology, University of Kansas, Lawrence. stress: Divergent strategies of optimists and pessimists. Journa!l Murrell, S. A., & Norris, F. H. (1983). Resources, life events, and of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1257-1264. changes in psychological states: A prospective framework. Schmale, A. H., & Iker, H. (1966). The affect of hopelessness and the American Journal of Community Psychology, 11, 473-491. development of cancer: Identification of uterine cervical cancer Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. in women with atypical cytology. Psychosomatic Medicine, 28, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 714-721. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Davis, C. G. (2002). Positive responses to Schmale, A. H., & lker, H. (1971). Hopelessness as a predictor of cer- loss: Perceiving benefits and growth. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. vical cancer. Social Science and Medicine, 5, 95-100. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook ofpositive psychology (pp. 598-607). Seaton, K., & Snyder, C. R. (2001). Hope and r emaining in a treal- New York: Oxford University Press. mentprogram.fordrugabuse. Unpublishedmanuscript, Depart- Omodei, M. M., & Wearing, A. J. (1990). Need satisfaction and inment of Psychology, University of Kansas, Lawrence. volvement in personal projects: Toward an integrative model of Seligman, M. E. P. (1991). Learned optimism. New York: Knopf. subjective well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psy- Seligman, M. E. P., Kaslow, N. J., Alloy, L. B., Peterson, C., chology, 59, 762-769. Tanenbaum, R., & Abramnson, L. Y. (1984). Attributional style Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (1998). Role of hope in predicting anxiety about and depressive symptoms among children. Journal o fAbnormal statistics. Psychological Reports, 82, 1315-1320. Psychology, 93, 235-238. Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Daley, C. E. (1999). Relation of hope to Seligman, M. E. P., Reivich, K., Jaycox, L., &Gillham,J. (1995). The self-perception. Perceptual and Motor Skill, 88, 535-540. optimistic child. New York: Houghton Miffin. Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Snyder, C. R. (2000). Relations between hope Shapiro, D. A., & Shapiro, D. (1982). Meta-analysis of comparative and graduate students' studying and test-taking strategies. Psy- therapy outcome studies. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 581-604. chological Reports, 86, 803-806. Sherer, M., Maddux, J. E., Mercandante, B., Prentice-Dunn, S., Palys, T. S., & Little, B. R. (1983). Perceived life satisfaction and or- Jacobs, B., & Rogers, R. (1982). The self-efficacy scale: Con - ganization of personal projects systems. Journal of Personality struction and validation. Psychological Reports, 51, and Social Psychology, 44, 1221-1230. 663-671. Pearlman, L. A., McCann, L., & Johnson, G. (1990). The McPearl Siegel, B. S. (1986). Love, medicine, & miracles: Lessons learned Belief Scale: A new measure ofcognitive schemas. Unpublished about self-healing from a surgeon's experience with excep- manuscript, Traumatic Stress Institute, South Windsor, CT. tional patients. New York: Harper & Row. Peterson, C., Semmel, A., von Baeyer, C., Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, Smith, M. L., Glass, G. V., & Miller, T. 1. (1980). The benefits ofpsy.. G. I., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1982). The Attributional Style Ques- chotherapy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. tionnaire. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 6, 287-299. Snyder, C. R. (1989). Reality negotiation: From excuses to hope ancl Polivy, J., & Herman, C. P. (2000). The false-hope syndrome: Unful- beyond.JournalofSocialand ClinicalPsychology, 8, 130-157. filled expectations of self change. Psychological Science, 9, Snyder, C. R. (1993). Hope for the joumey. In A. P. Tumball, J. M. 128-131. Patterson, S. K. Behr, D. L. Murphy, J. G. Marquis, & M. J Pylyshyn, Z. W. (1973). What the mind's eye tells the mind's brain: Blue-Banning (Eds.), Cognitive coping, families and disability A critique of mental imagery. Psychological Bulletin, 80, 1-24. (pp. 271-286). Baltimore: Brookes. Rakke, B. K. (1997). Impact of self-report check list on level of hope Snyder, C. R. (1 994a). Hope and optimism. In V. S. Ramachandren upon. Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (9-B), 5973. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 535-542). Range, L. M., & Penton, S. R. (1994). Hope, hopelessness, and San Diego, CA: Academic. suicidality in college students. Psychological Reports, 75, Snyder, C. R. (1994b). The psychology of hope: You can get there 456-458. from here. New York: Free Press. Rieger, E. (1993). Correlates of adult hope, including high- and Snyder, C. R. (1995). Conceptualizing, measuring, and nurturing low-hope adults' recollection of parents. Psychology honors hope. Journal of Counseling and Development, 73, 355-360. thesis, Department of Psychology, University of Kansas, Law- Snyder, C. R. (1996). To hope, to lose, and hope again. Journal of' rence. Personal and Interpersonal Loss, 1, 3- 16. Ruehlman, L. S., & Wolchik, S. A. (1988). Personal goals and inter- Snyder, C. R. (1 998a). A case for hope in pain, loss, and suffering. In personal support and hindrance as factors in psychological dis- J. H. Harvey, J. Omarzu, & E. Miller (Eds.), Perspectives on tress and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychol- loss: A sourcebook (pp. 63-79). Washington, DC: Taylor & ogy, 55, 293-301. Francis.

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Snyder, C. R. (I 998b). Hope. In H. S. Friedman (Ed.), Encyclopedia (pp. 275-297). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, of mental health (pp. 421-431). San Diego, CA: Academic. Inc. Snyder, C. R. (1999). Hope, goal blocking thoughts, and test-related Snyder, C. R., Lapointe, A. B., Crowson, J. J., Jr., & Early, S. (1998). anxieties. Psychological Reports, 84, 206-208. Preferences of high- and low-hope people for self-referential in- Snyder, C. R. (2000a). Genesis: Birth and growth of hope. In C. R. put. Cognition & Emotion, 12, 807-823. Snyder (Ed.), Handbook ofhope: Theory, measures, and appli- Snyder, C. R., & McCullough, M. (2000). A positive psychology cations (pp. 25-57). San Diego, CA: Academic. field of dreams: "If you build it, they will come...."Journal of Snyder, C. R. (2000b). Hypothesis: There is hope. In C. R. Snyder Social and Clinical Psychology, 19, 151-160. (Ed.), Handbook of hope: Theory, measures, and applications Snyder, C. R., McDermott, D., Cook, W., & Rapoff, M. (1997). Hope (pp. 3-21). San Diego, CA: Academic. *for the journey: Helping children through the good times and Snyder, C. R. (2000c). The past and future of hope. Journal of Social the bad. Boulder, CO: Westview. and Clinical Psychology, 19, 11-28. Snyder, C. R., McDermott, D., Cook, W., & Rapoff, M. (2002). Hope Snyder, C. R., Cheavens, J., & Michael, S. T. (1999). Hoping. In C. R. for the journey. Clinton Corners, NY: Percheron. Snyder (Ed.),Coping: The psychology of what works (pp. Snyder, C. R., Michael, S., & Cheavens, J. (1999). Hope as a 205-231). New York: Oxford University Press. psychotherapeutic foundation for nonspecific factors, placebos, Snyder, C. R., Cheavens, J., & Sympson, S. C. (1997). Hope: An indi- and expectancies. In M. A. Huble, B. Duncan, & S. Miller vidual motive for social commerce. Group Dynamics: Theory, (Eds.), Heart and soul of change (pp. 179-200). Washington, Research, and Practice, 1, 107-118. DC: American Psychological Association. Snyder, C. R., Crowson, J. J., Jr., Houston, B. K., Kurylo, M., & Snyder, C. R., Odle, C., & Hackman, J. (1999, August). Hope as Poirier, J. ( 1997). Assessing hostile automatic thoughts: Devel- related to perceived severity and tolerance ofphysical pain. opment and validation of the HAT Scale. Cognitive Therapy and Paper presented at the American Psychological Association, Research, 4. 477-492. Boston. Snyder, C. R., & Feldman, D. B. (2000). Hope for the many: An em- Snyder, C. R., & Pulvers, K. (2001). Dr. Seuss, the coping machine, powering social agenda. In C. R. Snyder (Ed.), Handbook of and "Oh, the places you will go." In C. R. Snyder (Ed.) Coping hope: Theory, measures, and applications (pp. 402-415). San and copers: Adaptive processes and people (pp. 3-29). New Diego, CA: Academic. York: Oxford University Press. Snyder, C. R., Feldman, D. B., Taylor, J. D., Schroeder, L. L., & Ad- Snyder, C. R., & Rand, K. (2000, August). Are "false " hopes really ams, V., 111. (2000). The roles of hopeful thinking in preventing false? Paper presented at the American Psychological Associa- problems and enhancing strengths. Applied and Preventive Psy- tion, Washington, DC. chology, 15, 262-295. Snyder, C. R., Rand, K., King, E., Feldman, D., & Taylor, J. (2002). Snyder, C. R., & Froinkin, H. (1980). Uniqueness: The human pur- "False" hope. Journal of Clinical Psvchology, 58, 1003-1022. suit of difference. New York: Plenum. Snyder, C. R., Shorey, H., Cheavens, J., Pulvers, K. M., Adams, V., Snyder, C. R., Harris, C., Anderson, J. R., Holleran, S. A., Irving, L. III, & Wiklund, C. (in press). Hope and academic success in col- M., Sigmon, S. T., et al. (1991). The will and the ways: Develop- lege. Journal of Educational Psychology. ment and validation of an individual-differences measure of Snyder, C. R., Sympson, S. C., Michael, S. T., & Cheavens, J. (2000). hope. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, The optimism and hope constructs: Variants on a positive ex- 570-585. pectancy theme. In E. C. Chang (Ed.), Optimism andpessimism Snyder, C. R., & Higgins, R. L. (I 988a). Excuses: Their effective role (pp. 103-124). Washington, DC: American Psychological As- in the negotiation of reality. Psychological Bulletin, 104, 23-35. sociation. Snyder, C. R., & Higgins, R. L. (I 988b). From making to being the Snyder, C. R., Sympson, S. C., Ybasco, F. C., & Borders, T. F., excuse: An analysis of deception and verbal/nonverbal issues. Babyak, M. A., & Higgins, R. L. (1996). Development and vali- Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 12, 237-252. dation of the State Hope Scale. Journal of Personality and So- Snyder, C. R., & Higgins, R. L. (1997). Reality negotiation: Gov- cial Psychology, 70, 321-335. erning one's self and being governed by others. General Psy- Snyder, C. R., & Taylor, J. D. (2000). Hope as a common factor chology Review, 4, 336-350. across psychotherapy approaches: A lesson from the Dodo's Snyder, C. R., Higgins, R. L., & Stucky, R. (1983). Excuses: Mas- Verdict. In C. R. Snyder(Ed.), Handbooko,fhope: Theory, mea- querades in search of grace. New York: Wiley-Interscience. sures, and applications (pp. 89-108). San Diego: Academic. Snyder, C. R., Hoza, B., Pelham, W. E., Rapoff, M., Ware, L., Snyder, C. R., Taylor, J. D., Gum, A., Rand, K. L., Kahle, K. E., Danovsky, M., et al. (1997). The development and validation of Brown, J., et al. (2001). Hope and physical pain tolerance. Un- the Children's Hope Scale. Journal ofPediatric Psychology, 22, published manuscript, Department of Psychology, University 399-421. of Kansas, Lawrence. Snyder, C. R., Ilardi, S. S., Cheavens, J., Michael, S. T., Yamhure, L., Snyder, C. R., Thompson, L. Y., Shorey, H. S., & Heinze, L. (in & Sympson, S. (2000). The role of hope in cognitive behavior press). The hopeful ones: A psychological inquiry into the posi- therapies. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 24, 747-762. tive mind and heart. In R. Jacoby (Ed.), Between hope and Snyder, C. R., Ilardi, S., Michael, S., & Cheavens, J. (2000). Hope stress. New York: Greenwood. theory: Updating a common process for psychological change. Snyder, C. R., Wiklund, C., & Cheavens, J. (1999, August). Hope and In C. R. Snyder & R. E. Ingram (Eds.), Handbooko.fpsychologi- success in college. Paper presented at the American Psychologi- cal change: Psychotherapy processes and practices for the 21st cal Association, Boston. century (pp. 128-153). New York: Wiley. Spiro, H. M. (1999). The powerofhope: A doctor 'sperspective. New Snyder, C. R., Irving, L., & Anderson, J. R. (1991). Hope and health: Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Measuring the will and the ways. In C. R. Snyder & D. R. Stanton, A. L., Danoff-Burg, S., Cameron, C., Bishop, M., Collins, C. Forsyth (Eds.), Handbook of social and clinical psychology: A., Kirk, S. B., et al. (2000). Emotionally expressive coping pre- The health perspective (pp. 285-305). Elmsford, NY: dicts psychological and physical adjustment to breast cancer. Pergamnon. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 875-882. Snyder, C. R., Irving, L. M., Sigmon, S., & Holleran, S. (1992). Stanton,Real- A. L., Kirk, S. B., Cameron, C. L., & Danoff-Burg, S. ity negotiation and valence/linkage self theories: Psychic show- (2000). Coping through emotional approach: Scale construction down at the "'I'm OK" corral. In L. Montrada, S.-H. Filipp, & M. and validation. Journal o,f Personality' and Social Psychology, L. Lemer ( Eds. ), Life crises and experiences of loss in adulthood 78, 1150-1 169.

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Stanton, A. L., & Snider, P. R. (1993). Coping with a breast cancerdi- Wyatt, G. E., & Powell, G. J. (Eds.). (1988). Lasting effects of child agnosis: A prospective study. Health Psychology, 12, 16-23. abuse. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Stotland, E. (1969). The psychology of hope. San Francisco: Wylie, R. C. (1974). The self-concept: A review of methodological Jossey-Bass. and measuring instruments (Vol. 1, rev. ed.). Lincoln: Univer- Strutton, D., & Lumpkin, J. (1992). Relationship between optimism sity of Nebraska Press. and coping strategies in the work environment. Psychological Wylie, R. C. (1979). The self-concept: Theory and research on se- Reports, 71, 1179-1186. lected topics (Vol. 2, rev. ed.). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Sumerlin, J. (1997). Self-actualization and hope. Journal of Social Press. Behavior and Personality, 12, 1 101-1 1 10. Swallow, S. R., & Kuiper, N. A. (1988). Social comparison and negative self-evaluations: An application to depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 8, 55-76. Sympson, S. (1993). Construction and validation of a state hope Appendix A measure: A month in the lives of college students. Unpublished The Trait Hope Scale doctoral dissertation, Department of Psychology, University of Kansas, Lawrence. Directions. Read each item carefully. Using the scale Sympson, S. (1999). Validation of the Domain Specific Hope Scale. shown below, please select the number that best de- Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Department of Psychology, University of Kansas, Lawrence. scribes YOU and put that number in the blank provided.. Sympson, S. (2000). Rediscovering hope: Understanding and working with survivors of trauma. In C. R. Snyder(Ed.),Handbookof 1. = Definitely False hope: Theory, measures, & applications (pp. 285-300). San 2. = Mostly False Diego, CA: Academic. 3. = Somewhat False Taylor, S. E., & Annor, D. A. (1996). Positive illusions and coping with adversity. Journal of Personality, 64, 873-898. 4. = Slightly False Tennen, H., & Affleck, G. (1999). Finding benefits in adversity. In C. 5. = Slightly True R. Snyder (Ed.), Coping: The psychology of what works (pp. 6. = Somewhat True 279-304). New York: Oxford University Press. 7. = Mostly True Tennen, H., & Affleck, G. (2002). Benefit-finding and benefit re- 8. = Definitely True minding. InC. R. Snyder& S. J. Lopez(Eds.), Handbookofpos- itive psychology (pp. 548-597). New York: Oxford University Press. _ 1. I can think ofmany ways to get out of ajam. Thompson, L. Y., Snyder, C. R., Hoffman, L., Michael, S. T., _ 2. I energetically pursue my goals. Rosmussen, H. N., Billings, L. S., et al. (2002). Dispositional _ 3. I feel tired most of the time. forgiveness of self others, and situations. Unpublished manu- 4. There are lots of ways around any problem. script, University of Kansas, Lawrence. Thompson, R. A. (1994). Emotion regulation: A theme in search of _ 5. I am easily downed in an argument. definition. Monographs of the Society for Research in ChildDe- _ 6. I can think of many ways to get the things in velopment, 59, 25-52. life that are important to me. Tierney, A. M. (1995). Analysis of a new theory of hope and person- _ 7. I worry about my health. ality as measured by the California Psychological Inventory. _ 8. Even when others get discouraged, I know I Dissertation Abstracts International, 55(10-B), 4616. Tillich, P. (1965). The right to hope. University of Chicago Maga- can find a way to solve the problem. zine, 58, 16-22. 9. My past experiences have prepared me weil Tomko, B. (1985). The burden of hope. The Hospice Journal, 1, for my future. 91-97. 10. I've been pretty successful in life. Trump, M. R. (1997). The impact of hopeful narratives on state hope, state 11. I usually find myself worrying about some- self-esteem, and state positive and negative affect for adult female survivors of incest. DissertationAbstracts International, 58(4-A), 121 1. thing. Wallerstein, J. S. (1983). Children of divorce: The psychological 12. I meet the goals that I set for myself. tasks of the child. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 53, 230-243. Note. When administering the scale, it is calle(i Weinstein, N. D., & Klein, W. M. (1996). Unrealistic optimism: Present and future. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 15, 1-8. The Future Scale. The agency subscale score is derive(i Wells, L. E., & Marwell, G. (1 976). Self-esteem: Its conceptulaliza- by summing items 2, 9, 10, and 12; the pathway tion and measurement. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. subscale score is derived by adding items 1, 4, 6, and 8. Westburg, N. (2001). Hope in older women: The importance of past The total Hope Scale score is derived by summing the and current relationships. Journal of Social and Clinical Psy- four agency and the four pathway items. From "The chology, 20, 354-365. Woodbury, C. A. ( 1 999). The relationship of anxiety, locus of control Will and the Ways: Development and Validation of an and hope to career indecision of African American students. Individual Differences Measure of Hope," by Snyder, Dissertation Abstracts International, 59(1 1-A), 4072. Harris, et al., 1991, Journal of Personality and Social Worthington, E. L., Jr., Hight, T. L., Ripley, J. S., Perrone, K. M., Psychology, 60, p. 585. Copyright 1991 by the Ameri- Kurusu, T. A., & Jones, D. R. (1997). Strategic hope-focused re- can Psychological Association and the senior author. lationship-enrichment counseling with individuals. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 44, 381-389. Reprinted with permission.

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This content downloaded from 156.110.185.215 on Sat, 15 Feb 2020 18:42:26 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms HOPE THEORY

Appendix B things in general. Read each sentence carefully. For The State Hope Scale each sentence, please think about how you are in most situations. Place a check inside the circle that describes Directions. Read each item carefully. Using the YOU the best. For example, place a check (i) in the scale shown below, please select the number that best circle (0) above "None of the time," if this describes describes how you think about yourself right now and you. Or, if you are this way "All of the time," check put that number in the blank before each sentence. this circle. Please answer every question by putting a Please take a few moments to focus on yourself and check in one of the circles. There are no right or wrong what is going on in your life at this moment. Once you answers. have this "here and now" set, go ahead and answer each item according to the following scale: 1. I think I am doing pretty well. 1. = Definitely False O 0 0 0 0 0 None of A little of Some of A lot of Most of All of 2. = Mostly False the time the time the time the time the time the time 3. = Somewhat False 2. I can think of many ways to get the things in life 4. = Slightly False that are most important to me. 5. = Slightly True O 0 0 0 0 0 6. = Somewhat True None of A little of Some of A lot of Most of All of 7. = Mostly True the time the time the time the time the time the time 8. = Definitely True 3. I am doing just as well as other kids my age. O o 0 0 0 0 None of A little of Some of A lot of Most of All of 1. If I should find myself in ajam, I could think the time the time the time the time the time the time of many ways to get out of it. 4. When I have a problem, I can come up with lots 2. At the present time, I am energetically pursu- of ways to solve it. ing my goals. O 0 0 0 0 0 3. There are lots of ways around any problem None of A little of Some of A lot of Most of All of that I am facing now. the time the time the time the time the time the time 4. Right now, I see myself as being pretty suc- 5. I think the things I have done in the past will help me in the future. cessful. O 0 0 0 0 0 5. I can think of many ways to reach my current None of A little of Some of A lot of Most of All of goals. the time the time the time the time the time the time 6. At this time, I am meeting the goals that I 6. Even when others want to quit, I know that I can have set for myself. find ways to solve the problem. O 0 0 0 0 0 Note. The agency subscale score is derived by sum- None of A little of Some of A lot of Most of All of ming the three even-numbered items; the pathways the time the time the time the time the time the time subscale score is derived by adding the three odd-numbered items. The total State Hope Scale score is derived by Note. When administered to children, this summing the three agency and the three pathways items. scale is not labeled "The Children's Hope Scale," Scores can range from a low of 6 to a high of48. When ad- but is called "Questions About Your Goals." To ministering the State Hope Scale, it is labeled as the "Goals calculate the total Children's Hope Scale score, add Scale For the Present." From "Development and Valida- the responses to all six items, with "None of the tion of the State Hope Scale," by Snyder, Sympson, et al., time" = 1; "A little of the time" - 2; "Some of the 1996, Journal ofPersonality and Social Psychology, 70, p. time" = 3; "A lot of the time" = 4; "Most of the 335. Copyright 1996 by the American Psychological As- time" = 5; and "All of the time" = 6. The three sociation and the senior author. Reprinted with permission. odd-numbered items tap agency, and the three even-numbered items tap pathways. From "The De- Appendix C velopment and Validation of the Children's Hope The Children's Hope Scale Scale," by Snyder, Hoza, et al., 1997, Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 22, p. 421. Copyright 1997 Directions. The six sentences below describe how by the Journal of Pediatric Psychology and the se- children think about themselves and how they do nior author. Reprinted with permission.

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This content downloaded from 156.110.185.215 on Sat, 15 Feb 2020 18:42:26 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms All who interact with traumatized children in home, school, and community can make important contributions to healing and growth. This care involves actions to strengthen three pillars: safety, connections, and managing emotional impulses.

The Three Pillars of Trauma-Informed Care Howard Bath

he past decade has brought with it a greatly in- and justice settings have been exposed to trauma Tcreased awareness about the impact of trauma in their early years. The literature differentiates be- on children, which has, in turn, led to a focus on tween type 1, or acute trauma, which results from the treatment of trauma-related conditions. Much exposure to a single overwhelming event, and type of the recent literature describes different approach- 2, or complex trauma (a.k.a. developmental or re- es to therapy (e.g., Greenwald, 2005; Kinniburgh, lationship trauma), which results from extended Blaustein, Spinazzola, & van der Kolk, 2005; Perry, exposure to traumatising situations. Bessel van der 2006). This burgeoning body of literature conveys Kolk (2005) describes complex trauma as “the expe- the impression that to effectively respond to trauma- rience of multiple, chronic and prolonged, develop- related conditions, it is necessary to have advanced mentally adverse traumatic events, most often of an therapeutic skills and years of formal study. How- interpersonal nature...and early life onset” (p. 402). ever, there are a few consistent propositions arising Kinniburgh and her colleagues (2005) note that in from the research and clinical literature which sug- terms of both experience and effect, “exposure to gest that much of the healing from trauma can take complex interpersonal trauma is qualitatively displace in non-clinical settings. Greenwald (2005), tinct from acute trauma” (p. 430). for example, observes that “Parents, counsellors, teachers, coaches, direct care workers, case managers, and others are all in a position to help a child Outcomes of complex trauma heal” (p. 37). There is some evidence to suggest that Following exposure to acutely traumatising events, trauma-informed living environments in which healing and growth can take place are a necessary some people develop the symptoms of post-trau- precursor to any formal therapy that might be of- matic stress disorder. These involve the repeated, fered to a traumatised child. It might even be ar- cue-triggered, involuntary re-experiencing of the gued that the creation of these environments is the terror and helplessness (often through nightmares critical ingredient in therapeutic transformation. or flashbacks); a focus on avoiding cues that might be reminders of the trauma; hyperarousal and hy- pervigilence; problems with concentration and fo- Complex trauma cus; and an exaggerated startle response (the formal Many of the children and young people found in criteria can be found in American Psychiatric Asso- child welfare, mental health, special education, ciation, 1994).

fall 2008 volume 17, number 3 | 17 Although many traumatised children do experi- orders (beyond post-traumatic stress disorder) and ence these symptoms, many of them do not fully that a number of developmental domains can be meet the formal diagnostic criteria which were affected including attachment systems, biology, af- originally formulated with adults in mind. Given fect regulation, dissociation, behavioural control, that the exposure to complex trauma usually takes cognition, and self-concept. place at an early age and the exposure is sustained, the developmental impacts tend to be more per- Although the outcomes of complex trauma can be vasive. The brain-based stress response systems many and varied, there is one impact that appears of these children appear to become permanently to stand out above the rest. Allan Schore (2003) ob- changed as they focus attention on the need to serves “The most significant consequence of early ensure safety rather than on the many growth- relational trauma is the loss of the ability to regu- promoting interests and activities that secure chil- late the intensity and duration of affects” (p. 141). dren find attractive and stimulating. Bruce Perry In a similar vein, van der Kolk (2005) states that “at (2006) has observed that “Traumatized children the core of traumatic stress is a breakdown in the reset their normal level of arousal. Even when no capacity to regulate internal states” including fear, external threats exist, they are in a constant state anger, and sexual impulses (p. 403). of alarm” (p. 32). In particular, such children come to view adults as potential sources of threat rather than sources of comfort and support. In substitute Contexts of healing care and school settings such children are often It stands to reason that the treatment of children described as hypervigilant because they constant- exposed to complex trauma will itself be complex ly scan the environment for potential sources of and long-lasting. However, there appears to be a danger. A recent neurological study of people who remarkable consensus about the key prerequisites were in the vicinity of the events of September 11, for healing—those critical factors or therapeutic 2001, in New York found that their brain threat de- pillars that need to be in place if healing is to take tection systems were significantly over-active a full place. Although there is debate about the number five years after the events of that one day (Ganzel et of critical factors, there are three that are common al., 2007). It is as if their brains have become perma- to most approaches. van der Kolk and Courtois nently re-tuned to the possibility of harm. (2005) put it this way: “Clinicians have learned to focus on issues of safety, affect regulation, coping Cook and her colleagues (2005) have observed that and self-management skills as well as on the thera- children who have suffered complex trauma may peutic relationship itself” (p. 387). One does not meet the diagnostic criteria for many different dis- need to be a therapist to help address these three crucial elements of healing: the development of safety, the promotion of healing relationships, and the teaching of self-management and coping skills. Some trauma intervention models add more treatment elements to the three canvassed here, such as a focus on experiences of loss and the development of future goals (Abramovitz & Bloom, 2003). In particular cases, a range of other treatment elements may need to be considered, but the three critical pillars for intervention outlined here are fundamental and universal.

Safety Major developmental theorists such as Abra- ham Maslow, Erik Erikson, and John Bowlby saw safety as a core developmental need of infants. Maslow numbered it among the primary survival needs while Erikson understood that the first “psychosocial” crisis for any infant is the establishment of trust (which is based on a sense of being safe).

18 | reclaiming children and youth www.reclaiming.com Bowlby understood that the primary function of the so-called attachment behaviours displayed by infants (e.g., the finger grasp, the reflex smile, cry- ing, babbling) was that of ensuring safety—where an infant fails to ensure its safety it cannot survive.1 Harry Harlow’s famous experiments with rhesus monkeys graphically showed how infant monkeys deprived of their biological mothers preferred to cling to wire-framed, towelling-covered substitute “mothers” that passively provided some measure of comfort, than to bare wire-framed “mothers” that had milk-producing teats.

Unfortunately, the defining experience of any child who has experienced complex trauma is that of feeling unsafe. These children develop a pervasive mistrust of the adults with whom they interact, and as Seita and Brendtro (2005) point out, they become “adult wary,” employing a range of strategies that keep adults at bay.

The first imperative...is creating a safe place for them.

It stands to reason then, that the first imperative in working with traumatised children is creating a safe place for them. Ricky Greenwald (2005), echo- The challenging behaviours of many traumatised ing the thoughts of many therapists, observes that children elicit controlling and even punitive re- any healing must start by creating an atmosphere sponses from the adults who care for them. James of safety (p. 37), and he goes on to suggest that es- Anglin (2002) points out that it is this phenomenon tablishing a sense of safety may take some time but that often creates unsafe environments for chil- formal therapy is unlikely to be successful until this dren. Noting that many of the challenging behav- critical element is in place. iours of troubled children reflect their inner pain, he observes that care providers often respond to The notion of safety is multi-faceted and has many pain-based behaviours with pain-based reactions. elements that need to be considered by care provid- The central challenge for carers of troubled chil- ers in addition to the more obvious needs for physi- dren, Anglin maintains, is “dealing with primary cal and emotional safety. For example, consistency, pain...without unnecessarily inflicting secondary reliability, predictability, availability, honesty, and pain...through punitive or controlling reactions” transparency are all carer attributes that are related (2002, p. 55). to the creation of safe environments for children. Including the child in decision-making is also im- Connections portant as is the provision of knowledge about their circumstances (where appropriate). Bruce Perry Safety itself depends on the development of the (2006) places considerable emphasis on ensuring second pillar of trauma-informed care—comfort- that children have appropriate power and control able connections between traumatised children over their circumstances where it is developmen- and their care providers and mentors. Positive re- tally and practically possible. lationships are necessary for healthy human development, but trauma undermines these life-giving connections. Although the importance of positive 1 References to the works of Bowlby, Ainsworth, Erikson, relationships has long been recognised, there is and Maslow can be found in most basic social science text now good scientific evidence from human services books, e.g., Sroufe et al. (1992) contains reference to Bowlby that these are the critical ingredients in healing and on pp. 20-22 and Ainsworth on pp. 205-213; Myer (1992) growth. For example, Asay and Lambert (1999) in contains references to Maslow on p. 355 and Erikson on pp. 102-103. their major study of what leads to positive outcomes

fall 2008 volume 17, number 3 | 19 in psychotherapy, determined that, on average, the From a neurodevelopmental perspective, the orb- qualities of the therapeutic relationship itself ac- itofrontal cortex, which is immediately above the count for twice as much positive change as the spe- “orbit” of the eye sockets, has been identified as the cific therapeutic techniques that are used. This mir- part of the brain that is most powerfully involved rors the findings of research into resilience, which in the management and regulation of emotion. The again points to the primacy of positive connections good news is that it is also the part of the brain that with caring adults (Benard, 2004). is the most “plastic” or amenable to change. Allan Schore (2003) has observed that “more than any other part [of the brain it] retains the plastic capaci- Treatment of children exposed ties of early development” even in adulthood (p. to complex trauma will itself 265). This suggests that the capacity to learn new skills of emotion management is not limited to be complex and long-lasting. childhood.

From a neurodevelopmental perspective, it ap- There are many approaches to the teaching of self- pears that the brains of traumatised children have regulation skills. For example, some traumatised learned to associate adults with negative emotions children have not had the benefit of parental fig- which, in turn, lead to behaviours characterized ures who have taught them how to calm them- by suspicion, avoidance, and/or outright hostil- selves down. These children may need adults who ity. The task for care providers and other mentors are willing to “co-regulate” with them when their is to help restructure these associations so that the emotions run wild, rather than relying on coer- children can develop positive emotional responses cive approaches (e.g., Bath, 2008). The basic skills (e.g., happiness, joy, feelings of security) with some of active listening have a central role, especially adults and can learn to accurately distinguish be- the reflective skills which promote the labelling of tween those who threaten harm and those that do feelings. Recent research has confirmed that the not. If the establishment of safety is the first consid- process of consciously labelling troublesome emo- eration with traumatised children and yet it is the tions has a direct calming effect on those emotions responses of adults that often bring further pain to (Lieberman et al., 2007). Active listening can lay the children, Anglin’s central challenge might be the foundation for self-reflection and thus help re-formulated as follows: How to prevent the cor- children develop “stories” about their experiences, rections adults use from sabotaging connections a critical element in the trauma recovery process they need! (van der Kolk, 2003).

Emotion and impulse management The literature describes a number of other promising approaches that can be used by care givers and As indicated earlier, the most pervasive and far- mentors. Greene and Ablon’s (2006) Collaborative reaching impact of complex trauma is the dysregu- Problem-Solving model is an interactive approach lation of emotions and impulses. It has also been that teaches a young person a range of affect man- observed that the ability to manage emotions adap- agement skills, as are intervention formats such tively or to self-regulate is one of the most “funda- as Response Ability Pathways (Brendtro & du Toit, mental protective factors” for healthy development 2005) and other Life Space Crisis Intervention mod- (Alvord & Grados, 2005). els (Long, Wood, and Fecser, 2001; Holden, 2001). Any approach that promotes the use of rational pro- This being the case, it stands to reason that a prima- cessing and the development of the capacity to re- ry focus of work with traumatised children needs to flect on feelings and impulses (sometimes referred be on teaching and supporting them to learn new to as “mindfulness”) would appear to have a role in ways of effectively managing their emotions and helping children to develop self-regulation skills. impulses. Interestingly, van der Kolk (1996) has suggested that “the primary function of parents can be thought of as helping children modulate their own Conclusion arousal by...teaching them skills that will gradually Children affected by developmental trauma need help them modulate their own arousal” (p. 185). adults in their lives who can understand the perva- Should this not then become a primary goal for the sive impact of their experiences and who recognise intervention efforts of others who come into con- that the pain from ruptured connections can lead to tact with traumatised children? a range of challenging behaviours. They need adults who can develop trauma-informed approaches that

20 | reclaiming children and youth www.reclaiming.com promote healing and connection. The three treat- Greenwald, R. (2005). Child trauma handbook: A guide for ment elements outlined here can be applied by any- helping trauma-exposed children and adolescents. New one who has a role in caring for, teaching, or other- York: The Haworth Maltreatment and Trauma Press. wise mentoring these children and constitute the Holden, M. (2001). Therapeutic Crisis Intervention (5th Ed.). essential features of healing environments. Trainer’s manual. Residential Child Care Project, Family Life Development Center. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University.

Kinniburgh, K., Blaustein, M., Spinazzola, J., & van der Kolk, B. (2005). Attachment, self-regulation and com- Howard I. Bath, PhD, is newly appointed Chil- petency: A comprehensive intervention framework dren’s Commissioner of the Northern Territory and for children with complex trauma. Psychiatric Annals, based in Darwin, Australia. A licensed psychologist, he 35(5), 424-430. is a Response Ability Pathways (RAP) trainer and has coordinated Circle of Courage activities in Australia. He Lieberman, M., Eisenberger, N., Crockett, M., Tom, S., Pfe- ifer, J., & Way, B. (2007). Putting feelings into words: can be contacted by e-mail: [email protected]. Affect labeling disrupts amygdala activity in response to affective stimuli. Psychological Sciences, 18(5), 421- 428. References Long, N., Wood, M., & Fecser, F. (2001). Life Space Crisis Abramovitz, R., & Bloom, S. (2003). Creating sanctuary Intervention: Talking with students in conflict. Austin, in residential treatment for youth: From the “well- TX: PRO-ED. ordered asylum” to a “living learning environment.” Psychiatric Quarterly, 74(2), 119-113. Myer, D. G. (1992). Psychology. New York: Worth Publishers.

Alvord, M. K., & Grados, J. J. (2005). Enhancing resilience Perry, B. (2006). Applying principles of neurodevelopment in children: A protective approach. Professional Psy- to clinical work with maltreated and traumatized chil- chology, 36, 238-245. dren. In N. Webb (Ed.), Working with traumatized youth in child welfare (pp. 27-52). New York: The Guilford American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and Press. statistical manual of mental disorders (4th Ed.). Wash- ington, DC: Author. Schore, A. (2003). Affect regulation and the repair of the self. New York: W. W. Norton. Anglin, J. P. (2002). Pain, normality, and the struggle for congruence: Reinterpreting residential care for children and Seita, J., & Brendtro, L. (2005). Kids who outwit adults. youth. New York: Haworth Press. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree.

Asay, T. P., & Lambert, M. J. (1999). The empirical case for Sroufe, L. A., Cooper, R. G., & De Hart, G. B. (1992). Child the common factors in therapy: Qualitative findings. development: Its nature and course. New York: McGraw- In M. A. Hubble, B. L. Duncan, & S. D. Miller, The heart Hill. and soul of change: What works in therapy (pp. 33-56). Washington, DC: American Psychological Associa- van der Kolk, B. (1996). The complexity of adaptation to tion. trauma: Self-regulation, stimulus discrimination, and characterological development. In B. van der Kolk, A. Bath, H. (2008). Calming together: The pathway to self- McFarlane, & L. Weisaeth (Eds.), Traumatic stress: The control. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 16(4), 44-46. effects of overwhelming experience on mind, body and society (pp. 182-213). New York: The Guilford Press. Benard, B. (2004). Resiliency: What have we learned? San Francisco: West Ed. van der Kolk, B. (2003). The neurobiology of childhood trauma. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North Brendtro, L., & du Toit, L. (2005). Response Ability Pathways: America, 12(2), 293-317. Restoring bonds of respect. Cape Town: Pretext. van der Kolk, B. (2005). Developmental Trauma Disor- Cook, A., Spinazzola, J., Ford, J., & colleagues. (2005). Com- der: Towards a rational diagnosis for children with plex trauma in children and adults. Psychiatric Annals, complex trauma histories. Psychiatric Annals, 33(5), 35(5), 390-398. 401-408.

Ganzel, B., Casey, B., Glover, G., Voss, H., & Temple, E. van der Kolk, B., & Courtois, C. (2005). Editorial com- (2007). The aftermath of 9/11: Effect of intensity and ments: Complex developmental Trauma. Journal of recency of trauma on outcome and emotion. Emotion, Traumatic Stress, 18(5), 385-388. 7(2), 227-238.

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fall 2008 volume 17, number 3 | 21 Traumatology Hope and Resilience as Distinct Contributors to Psychological Flourishing Among Childhood Trauma Survivors Ricky T. Munoz, Heather Hanks, and Chan M. Hellman Online First Publication, October 10, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/trm0000224

CITATION Munoz, R. T., Hanks, H., & Hellman, C. M. (2019, October 10). Hope and Resilience as Distinct Contributors to Psychological Flourishing Among Childhood Trauma Survivors. Traumatology. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/trm0000224 Traumatology

Hope and Resilience as Distinct Contributors to Psychological Flourishing Among Childhood Trauma Survivors

Ricky T. Munoz, Heather Hanks, and Chan M. Hellman University of Oklahoma

Resilience is routinely described as important to coping with adversity. Hope is an alternative construct also referenced as important to coping with adversity. C.R. Snyder, a pioneer in hope theory, contended that although hope shares similarities with resilience, hope is both distinct and easier to understand and apply. To test Snyder’s theory, we conducted a study involving two independent samples of adult childhood trauma survivors from the United States (Sample 1: N= ϭ 273; Sample 2: N= ϭ 219). Using structural equation modeling, we modeled hope and resilience as distinct predictors of psychological flourishing. In the calibration sample, the results indicated the proposed model fit the data well (␹2 ϭ 254.02, p Ͼ .001; df ϭ 204, root mean square error of approximation ϭ .06; 90% confidence interval [.049, .072]; standardized root mean square residual ϭ .055; comparative fit index ϭ .927), serving as a robust predictor of psychological flourishing (R2 ϭ .65). Standardized beta values also indicated hope (␤ϭ.62) was a stronger predictor of psychological flourishing than resilience (␤ϭ.24). In the validation sample, the model again produced good fit (␹2 ϭ 322.49; df ϭ 204; p Ͻ .001; root mean square error of approximation ϭ .052; 90% confidence interval [.041, .062]; comparative fit index ϭ .943; standardized root mean square residual ϭ .052) and accounted for robust variance in flourishing (R2 ϭ .62). A hopeful mindset again significantly predicted flourishing, whereas resilience proved a nonsignificant predictor. The article concludes with a discussion of the study’s implications, which includes the suggestion that hope is an important targeted outcome variable for interventions designed to assist survivors of childhood trauma.

Keywords: childhood trauma, hope, resilience, flourishing

Although the prevalence of childhood trauma has been estab- important psychological strength to coping with childhood trauma lished in various ways, there is consensus that the problem is large (Hellman & Gwinn, 2017; Snyder, 1994). Yet, despite similarities enough to be considered a public health crisis (Dube, 2018). In in theoretical descriptions of resilience and hope (Snyder, 2000), fact, child abuse at the hands of alleged caregivers has been linked little research exists that tests the empirical relationship between to severe neurobiological and mental health concerns that can the two variables (Morote, Hjemdal, Krysinska, Martinez Uribe, & plague a person throughout his/her life (Chapman et al., 2004; Corveleyn, 2017). Moreover, we are aware of no research that tests Felitti et al., 1998; Schofield, Lee, & Merrick, 2013). However, not the difference between hope and resilience in driving psycholog- all individuals who suffer childhood trauma also suffer psycho- ical well-being among childhood trauma survivors. Therefore, the logical distress later in life (Bellis et al., 2018; Shah et al., 2018). current study was designed to add to the literature by testing a Thus, research into identifying what variables might contribute to model of hope and resilience as unique predictors of psychological psychological well-being despite the experience of childhood flourishing among childhood trauma survivors. trauma has value to informing practitioners on how best to help child abuse survivors cope. Resilience Theory

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. Two constructs that have been linked to well-being after child- Resilience has long been described as an important quality for This article is intended solely for the personal use ofhood the individual user and is not to be trauma disseminated broadly. are resilience and hope. Resilience is often used to coping with adversity (Rutter, 1987). However, the variability describe a factor(s) thought to play an important role in coping offered by researchers when defining resilience has generated with childhood trauma (Beutel et al., 2017; Nugent, Sumner, & considerable controversy (Luthar, Cicchetti, & Becker, 2000; van Amstadter, 2014). Likewise, hopefulness is also spoken as an Breda, 2018). Resilience has been described as a trait, a process, an outcome, or an all-encompassing combination of all three (South- wick, Bonanno, Masten, Panter-Brick, & Yehuda, 2014). Resil- ience has also been said to include not only external protective factors, but also internal psychological characteristics and/or spe- X Ricky T. Munoz, Heather Hanks, and Chan M. Hellman, The Anne and Henry Zarrow School of Social Work, University of Oklahoma. cific coping behaviors (Ahern, Kiehl, Sole, & Byers, 2006). The Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Ricky T. internal psychological characteristics of resilience have been de- Munoz, The Anne and Henry Zarrow School of Social Work, University scribed as involving various other established psychological vari- of Oklahoma, 4502 East 41st Street, Tulsa, OK 74135. E-mail: ables, including self-efficacy, humor, patience, optimism, and faith [email protected] (Connor & Davidson, 2003). The external factors of resilience

1 2 MUNOZ, HANKS, AND HELLMAN

have also been described in multiple ways, including the presence Sharing similarities with resilience, research using hope has of social support networks that include friends, families, and shown that hope consistently correlates with well-being among communities (Zimmerman, 2013). For some, the amorphous na- populations facing adversity. For example, in the context of inti- ture by which resilience is discussed in the literature has led to the mate partner violence, hope has positively correlated with a sense conclusion that resilience has “. . .become an empty word that can of empowerment (Munoz, Brady, & Brown, 2017) and life satis- be filled with almost any meaning” (van Breda, 2018, p. 15). faction (Munoz, Hellman, & Brunk, 2017). Among children exposed to domestic violence, hope has positively correlated with Resilience, Childhood Trauma, and Child important character strengths such as self-control and optimism Development (Hellman & Gwinn, 2017). Among homeless individuals, hope correlates with a greater sense of physical health (Munoz et al., Despite the panoply of definitions of resilience found in the 2016). literature, studies exist that have linked different conceptualiza- tions of resilience to greater well-being in the face of childhood trauma and during childhood development. For instance, for child- Hope and Childhood Trauma hood trauma survivors, greater internal psychological resilience, as In recent years, research into hope has expanded to include measured by the Brief Resilience Scale (BRS), was linked with fewer difficulties in caring for children after a hospital discharge studying hope’s operations in the aftermath of childhood trauma. (Shah et al., 2018). Additional research defining resilience as an Research has established the childhood trauma exposure is predic- array of external protective factors, such as being treated fairly, the tive of lower hope into adulthood (Baxter, Hemming, McIntosh, & presence of supportive childhood friends, being given opportuni- Hellman, 2017) via the mechanism of posttraumatic stress disorder ties to use one’s abilities, and access to a trusted adult were linked (Munoz et al., 2018) and rumination (Munoz & Hanks, 2019). to well-being after the experience of childhood trauma (Bellis et Moreover, among childhood trauma survivors, hope has been al., 2018). Defining resilience as a self-report variable of “children linked to other variables of well-being such as self-control, grit, whose parents reported that their child usually/always was en- and curiosity (Hellman & Gwinn, 2017). Thus, much like research gaged in school or usually/always demonstrated elements of resil- that uses resilience, a body of research suggests hope is an impor- ience” (Kasehagen et al., 2018, p. 301), a third study supported that tant psychological trait to coping with childhood trauma. resilience buffered the impact of childhood trauma on education outcomes. Furthermore, a longitudinal study of child development (Masten & Tellegen, 2012) based on Garmezy’s (1985) founda- Hope Versus Resilience tional work conceptualized resilience as including an individual’s Because of the similarities in descriptions of hope and resil- attachment system, mastery motivation system, cognitive systems ience, the constructs are often described as part of the same associated with problem-solving and executive functions, and re- conceptual framework. For example, Saleebey (2000) noted, ligious/spiritual systems. Using this broadly defined definition of “Hope is also very much a part of the strengths perspective and the resilience, the study found that children with more of such factors recovery and resilience movements” (pp. 132–133). In other cases, had significantly better well-being outcomes than those that did the terms hope and resilience are used interchangeably (Duggal, not (Masten & Tellegen, 2012). Sacks-Zimmerman, & Liberta, 2016; Ong, Edwards, & Bergeman, Although the aforementioned studies have demonstrated links 2006). between various formulations of resilience and an array of vari- In addressing the potential theoretical overlap between hope and ables associated with well-being, the wide variability in the de- resilience, Snyder acknowledged that both constructs describe an scriptions of resilience used in such studies highlights why some immunization-like characteristic in the face of adversity (Snyder, authors have questioned the utility of resilience as a construct 2000). However, Snyder contended that hope has greater practical (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013; Kolar, 2011). Research and practice for value because hope “offers a succinct two-component model” childhood trauma survivors may be advanced if a more parsimo- (Snyder, 2000, p. 30). In contrast, as noted earlier, because resil- nious variable can be found that explains individual differences in ience has come to mean so many things, it is often difficult to the ability to cope with adversity. Unlike resilience, this alternative This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. variable should be easy to understand and apply. One such variable know how to apply the concept (van Breda, 2018). This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. may be the psychological trait of hope (Snyder, 1994). Others have noted the similarities between hope and resilience in terms of describing characteristics important to well- being in the face of adversity. For instance Ong, Standiford, and Hope Theory Deshpande (2018) conducted a systematic review of 99 hope Based on the assumption that all purposeful human action is studies that examined the relationship between hope and resil- goal directed, Snyder (1994) described hope as a two-dimensional ience. The researchers found that hope exhibited characteristics cognitive set of goal directed expectations. Per Snyder (1994), associated with resilience, such as robust positive relationships hope consists of both agency and pathways thinking. Hope agency with physical health, mental health, interpersonal functioning, reflects a cognitive assessment of one’s ability to initiate and and behavioral outcomes for both clinical and nonclinical sam- sustain goal directed action, whereas hope pathways thinking ples. Ong et al. (2018) concluded, however, that more theoret- involves the identification of viable routes to goals. Agency and ical driven research is needed to better understand the relation- pathways thinking are iterative, forming an individual’s overall ship of hope to resilience, an aim we sought to accomplish with hope level (Snyder et al., 1991). the current study. HOPE AND RESILIENCE 3

The Current Study Participants Despite the theoretical similarities between hope and resilience, The demographics of each respective sample are described in little research exists testing the empirical distinctiveness between the following text: the two constructs (Morote et al., 2017). Furthermore, no other Calibration sample. The mean age of the first sample (N= ϭ research, of which we are aware, involves testing the relationship 273) was 43 years (SD ϭ 11.9). The sex identification consisted of between hope and resilience using latent variables. Nor has any 83% female and 17% male. The ethnicity was 70% White and 30% research examined the distinctiveness between hope and resilience minority. In all, 48% of respondents reported one to three experi- within an at-risk population such as childhood trauma survivors. ences of childhood trauma, whereas 52% reported four or more Consequently, the current study involved testing a structural experiences. equation model, using two independent samples, of hope and Validation sample. The mean age of the second sample (N= ϭ resilience as distinct contributors to psychological flourishing 219) was 42.1 years (SD ϭ 11.9), with 86% identifying as female, among a sample of adult childhood trauma survivors. Psycholog- 14% as male, and 1% as other. The ethnicity was 71% White and ical flourishing was selected as the dependent variable for the 29% minority. In all, 46% of the respondents reported one to three study because flourishing is considered a construct that describes experiences of childhood trauma, whereas 54% reported four or optimal human functioning (Fredrickson & Losada, 2005). Based more experiences. on Snyder’s theoretical formulation of hope as a distinct psychological state apart from resilience, we hypothesized that among a Measures sample of childhood trauma survivors (a) hope and resilience Revised Adverse Childhood Experiences Scale. To identify would operate as distinct psychological states, and (b) each would participants who experienced childhood trauma, we used the 14- make unique contributions to psychological flourishing. Should item R-ACE Scale (Finkelhor et al., 2015). The R-ACE contains the data support that hope and resilience are unique contributors to all the items of the Adverse Childhood Experiences Scale (ACE) flourishing, such results would have implications for further re- Scale (Felitti et al., 1998), well-established as a tool to measure search and practice for survivors of childhood trauma. variance in child abuse experiences. As with the ACE scale, the R-ACE scale uses a yes/no response format to capture individual Method differences in the experiences of childhood trauma. The R-ACE contains the original 10 categories of childhood trauma, including Procedure whether a respondent experienced emotional, physical, or sexual abuse; emotional or physical neglect from a caregiver; witnessed The study involved a cross sectional survey of two distinct domestic violence; grew up with a mentally ill or substance- samples of adult childhood trauma survivors residing in the United abusing caregiver or household member; or had a caregiver or States. The inclusion criteria for the study was individuals between household member incarcerated (Finkelhor et al., 2015). However, the ages of 18 and 64 who reported at least one experience of the R-ACE expands on the original 10-item ACE scale to 14 items childhood trauma as captured by the Revised Adverse Childhood by including additional items that measure adverse environmental Experiences Scale described in the measures section (R-ACE; factors and/or abuse or rejection from peers/siblings (Finkelhor et Finkelhor, Shattuck, Turner, & Hamby, 2015). al., 2015). Participants were enrolled in the study via an online survey The Adult Hope Scale. Hope was measured using the Adult created with the Qualtrics software (2005). Participants’ e-mail Hope Scale (AHS; Snyder et al., 1991). The AHS has been used in addresses were obtained from a roster of social service profession- hundreds of studies, and is well-established as an adequate mea- als registered for an annual childhood trauma conference. Using sure of Snyder’s hope construct (Hellman, Pittman, & Munoz, identical inclusion criteria and data collection procedures, two 2013). independent samples were drawn 1 year apart. The AHS has 12 items scored with an 8-point Likert response Two samples were utilized for the study per best practices of format (1 ϭ definitely false;8ϭ definitely true). The AHS consists covariance based structural equation modeling (CB-SEM) model- of four pathways items, four agency items, and four filler items. ing (Bowen & Guo, 2012). The first sample was used as calibra- An example of an AHS agency item is “I energetically pursue mu This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. tion sample to test a model of both hope and resilience as distinct goals.” whereas an AHS pathways item is “I can think of many This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. psychological states and to examine their relative contributions to ways to get the things in life that are important to me.” (Snyder et the outcome variable of flourishing. The second sample was used al., 1991). Total hope scores are obtained by summing the four to test the validity of the model developed in sample one (Bowen pathways and four agency items, with higher scores reflecting & Guo, 2012). By validating the model with a second sample, it more hope. strengthened the evidence for the generalizability of the results to A reliability generalization study indicated the AHS has pro- the population. duced good internal consistency across samples (Hellman et al., Before completing the survey, each participant was presented 2013). The AHS has also shown good validity, with AHS scores with a consent information screen that contained the purpose of the negatively correlating with dysphoria and positively correlating study and notified participants the survey was voluntary. For those with an array of other variables associated with well-being (Feld- that agreed to participate, an incentive was provided that consisted man & Snyder, 2005; O’Sullivan, 2011; Snyder et al., 1991). of entrance into a drawing for a voucher for a subsequent confer- Brief Resilience Scale. Given the amorphous nature of the ence registration. The institutional review board of the institution construct of resilience (van Breda, 2018), selecting a single scale with which the researchers were affiliated approved of the study. to capture resilience is daunting. However, to compare resilience 4 MUNOZ, HANKS, AND HELLMAN

to the internal psychological state of hope, we selected a measure square error of approximation (RMSEA) was also used with a of resilience that purported to measure the internal psychological threshold of Յ .10 as a cut-off for reasonable fit, with scores state of resilience. Based on a systematic review of resilience approaching .06 indicating superior fit (Browne & Cudeck, 1993; measures (Windle, Bennett, & Noyes, 2011), we elected to mea- Hu & Bentler, 2009). Next, the standardized root mean square sure resilience using the BRS (Smith et al., 2008). The BRS was residual (SRMR) was used with a score of Յ .08 indicating chosen because the systemic review of resilience measures sug- acceptable fit, with a score approaching .05 indicating superior fit gested the BRS produced the best psychometric results (Windle et (Hu & Bentler, 2009). Finally, a ␹2 analysis was used with a al., 2011). threshold of p Ͼ .05 indicating acceptable fit. However, it is Based on the theoretical conceptualization of resilience as an well-known that the ␹2 is sensitive to sample size and frequently internal psychological ability to bounce back or recover from exhibits a p Ͻ .05 for models even when such models produce stress (Smith et al., 2008), the BRS assesses individual differences good fit according to other indices (Kline, 2016). in resilience with six items that use a 5-point Likert response Missing data. For Sample 1, all items from the R-ACE scale, format (1 ϭ strongly disagree;5ϭ strongly agree). Three items of the AHS, and the BRS were completed were again completed, the BRS are positively worded, whereas three are negatively whereas the FS had 1.8% missing data. For Sample 2, all items for worded. An example of positively worded BRS items is “I tend to the R-ACE scale and the AHS were completed, whereas 1% of the bounce back quickly after hard times.” whereas a negatively data were missing for both the FS and the BRS. Thus, no variable worded item is “It is hard for me to bounce back when something had more than 5% missing data, the threshold under which missing bad happens.” (Smith et al., 2008). BRS items are summed such data is thought to be inconsequential (Schafer, 1999). that higher scores represent higher subjective perceptions in the Nevertheless, although the missing data rate was small, to ability to bounce back and recover from stress. Scores in the BRS increase the power of the study, we elected to estimate missing have demonstrated good internal reliability, and correlated in the values with full information maximum-likelihood analysis. Re- expected directions with optimism, purpose in life, social interac- search has consistently established that full information maximum- tions, and various other variables linked to global well-being likelihood analysis is an effective means to minimize any bias that (Smith et al., 2008). may be introduced by missing data (Enders & Bandalos, 2001; Flourishing Scale. Global psychological well-being was mea- Graham, 2009). sured using the Flourishing Scale (FS). The FS, developed by Power. To determine the power of the proposed model to Diener and colleagues (2010), consists of eight items that capture detect population effects, we used the estimation tables of Mac- individual differences on perceptions of the quality of relation- Callum, Browne, and Sugawara (1996). For the first sample, the ships, self-esteem, purpose in life, and optimism (Diener et al., power of a model with a degrees of freedom (df) of 204 and a 2010). An example of an FS item is “I am engaged and interested sample size of N= ϭ 273 well exceeded the standard threshold in my daily activities” and “My social relationships are supportive (Ͼ.80) for adequacy (Cohen, 1988). For the second sample, with and rewarding.” (Diener et al., 2010). a sample size of N= ϭ 219, and a degrees of freedom (df) of 204, Responses for each FS item are measured on a 7-point Likert the model again exceeded the .80 threshold for adequate power scale (1 ϭ strongly disagree;7ϭ strongly agree) that is totaled, (Cohen, 1988). with higher scores reflecting greater flourishing (Diener et al., Nested models. In Sample 1, the quality of the theorized 2010). The FS has exhibited good internal consistency and good model in explaining the covariance structure of the data was validity, correlating positively with life satisfaction and positive evaluated by comparing “nested” models. A nested model in the emotions (Diener et al., 2010). CB-SEM context is a model that freely estimates parameters that are a subset of another model (Bollen, 1989). To evaluate the Data Analysis quality of a given nested model, as an additional path is added, the resulting ⌬␹2 is examined to determine its statistical significance. CB-SEM was chosen as a data analysis approach because it If the ⌬␹2 from the additional path is statistically significant, the allowed us to examine the distinctiveness of hope and resilience path is retained (Kline, 2016). If the ⌬␹2 is not, the path is using latent variable modeling. CB-SEM also enabled us to sub- excluded based on the principle of parsimony (Kline, 2016). The sequently examine the relative strength of the respective contribu- model determined to be of best fit in sample 1 was validated using This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. tions of hope and resilience to the psychological state of flourish- sample 2. This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. ing. Per standard CB-SEM practice, the model’s latent variables were estimated using the reference variable approach. The refer- Results ence variable approach involves setting an unstandardized coefficient on each latent variable to one, thereby giving each variable a Calibration Sample unit of measurement (Bollen, 1989). The quality of the proposed model was judged according to For the calibration sample, the internal reliability of all the multiple fit criteria. All the selected fit indices were calculated measures was adequate, with alpha coefficients for the AHS using maximum likelihood estimations and the SPSS software add (.832), the BRS (.832) and the FS (.888) all exceeding acceptable on Amos 19 (Arbuckle, 2010). Regarding the specific fit indices, thresholds. The normality assumptions necessary for ML estima- we used the confirmatory fit index (CFI) with a cut-off of Ն .90 tions were also tested and met. Table 1 reflects the correlation indicating acceptable fit and scores approaching .95 considered matrix from sample 1, containing all zero order correlations at the superior fit (Bentler, 1992; Hu & Bentler, 2009). The root mean item level. Reporting the correlation matrix at the item level is HOPE AND RESILIENCE 5

considered a best practice in CB-SEM modeling because it allows for the reproduction of the full model (McDonald & Ho, 2002).

5.20 (.752) Having established the internal reliability of the data, we then

moved to test a CB-SEM model of (a) hope and (b) resilience as ءء

.604 independent predictors of psychological flourishing. The model 5.32 (.700) evaluation process is described in the following text. ءء ءء .657 .507 5.40 (.612) Nested Models ءء ءء ءء

.557 .528 .575 The first model tested included the latent variables of hope and 5.38 (.602) resilience as correlated variables, with a direct path from resilience to the latent variable of flourishing. This first model produced ءء ءء ءء ءء

.544 .467 .409 .441 ␹2 ϭ ϭ Ͻ ϭ

5.31 (.661) adequate fit, ( 454.04; df 205; p .001; RMSEA .067; 90% confidence interval [CI] [.059, .075]; CFI ϭ .902; SRMR ϭ ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء

.512 .538 .488 .610 .471 .08). Next, to determine if hope was a unique contributor to

5.17 (.786) flourishing, an additional direct path from hope to flourishing was added. The addition of the direct path from hope to flourishing ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء

.579 .492 .389 .457 .452 .415 significantly improved model fit, ⌬␹2 (1) ϭ 50.22; p Ͻ .001. 5.13 (.824) Moreover, all factor loadings for the respective latent variables ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء were Ͼ.50 and statistically significant. .433 .541 .446 .522 .523 .581 .443

5.33 (.714) Thus, the model of resilience and hope as distinct predictors of 2 flourishing best explained the data (␹ ϭ 403.82; df ϭ 204; p Ͻ ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء

.395 .291 .318 .312 .376 .423 .428 .467 .001; RMSEA ϭ .06; 90% CI [.051, .069]; CFI ϭ .922; SRMR ϭ 4.90 (.760) .055). The model also accounted for robust variance in flourishing .(R2 ϭ .645) ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء .587 .478 .273 .396 .308 .415 .374 .413 .358

5.16 (.728) Finally, an examination of the model’s standardized beta values

indicated that according to the heuristics of Cohen (1988), hope ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء

.440 .421 .365 .236 .316 .326 .389 .264 .361 .338 was a strong predictor of flourishing (␤ϭ.62), whereas percep- 5.32 (.771) tions of resilience were a small predictor (␤ϭ.24). See Figure 1 .for all the empirical values of the model ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء .357 .331 .378 .289 .267 .338 .333 .522 .299 .421 .374 4.98 (.747) 273) ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ϭ Validation Sample .536 .357 .338 .471 .292 .205 .273 .226 .376 .286 .343 .328 5.07 (.729) As was the case for Sample 1, before interpreting the data for the

,(validation sample, we noted that alpha scores for the AHS (.862 ءء ءء ءء ءء ء ء ء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء .491 .411 .320 .279 .305 .252 .143 .198 .203 .415 .303 .232 .233 the BRS (.817), and the FS (.884) were all adequate. Moreover, the 5.08 (.784)

Flourishing Scale. Means and standard deviation are displayed across the diagonal. normality assumptions of the respective variables were again ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء

ϭ tested and met. Moving to the CB-SEM results, a model of hope .256 .463 .381 .385 .454 .587 .467 .350 .411 .312 .344 .365 .446 .402

5.15 (.761) and resilience as distinct predictors of flourishing among child- 2 hood trauma survivors again produced good fit (␹ ϭ 322.49; df ϭ ءء ءء ء ءء ءء ءء ء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء

.212 .433 .319 .378 .360 .279 .217 .267 .127 .220 .272 .270 .141 .202 .247 204; p Ͻ .001; RMSEA ϭ .052; 90% CI [.041, .062]; CFI ϭ .943; 5.14 (.778) SRMR ϭ .052). Furthermore, as was the case in Sample 1, the model was again a robust predictor of variance in flourishing ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ء ءء ءء ءء ءء ء ءء ء .177 .244 .206 .330 .348 .345 .280 .288 .352 .263 .394 .249 .368 .349 .463 .403 2 3.12 (.576) (R ϭ .62). Finally, consistent with Sample 1, an examination of Adult Hope Scale; FS standardized beta values again revealed that hope (␤ϭ.73) was a ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. ϭ

.545 .233 .282 .226 .274 .397 .345 .278 .303 .313 .205 .343 .341 .247 .388 .456 substantially larger predictor of flourishing than resilience (␤ϭ This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. 2.85 (.572) .08). In fact, in the second sample, resilience scores were a not a ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ء ء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ء ءء ء ءء ءء

45678910111213141516171819202122 statistically significant predictor of flourishing scores. .410 .530 .187 .257 .178 .266 .280 .293 .246 .302 .255 .157 .312 .108.294 .262 .213 .323 .400 2.99 (.667)

Discussion ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء .422 .603 .517 .255 .318 .415 .295 .268 .261 .254 .372 .321 .233 .333 .338 2.92 (.611) As noted earlier, resilience, despite lacking in a consensus ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ء ءء ء ء ءء ء ء ءء ءء ءء ءء

.001. definition, has emerged as a popular construct to describe the .335 .473 .329 .490 .114.131 .092 .255 .152 .259 .244 .208 .114.146 .248 .226 .141 .239 .117.230 .204 .179 .245 .316 3.0 (.664) Ͻ characteristics needed to overcome adversity such as childhood Brief Resilience Scale; AHS p ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء ءء

ϭ trauma (Beutel et al., 2017; Nugent et al., 2014). Hope is also used ءء to describe a psychological state that assists in coping with adver-

.05. sity (Saleebey, 2000; Snyder, 1994). The results from the current . BRS

Ͻ study support the distinctiveness of hope and resilience as psycho- Items 1 2 3 p 6. BRS-6 .471 4. BRS-4 .415 9. AHS-3 .233 3. BRS-3 .541 7. AHS-1 .235 1. BRS-1 3.20 (.592) 2. BRS-2 .318 5. BRS-5 .469 8. AHS-2 .316 13. AHS-7 .294 20. FS-6 .370 11. AHS-5 .367 18. FS-4 .310 ء Table 1 Zero Order Correlations Among Manifest Variables in Calibration Sample (N’ Note 14. AHS-8 .307 16. FS-2 .317 12. AHS-6 .375 19. FS-5 .384 21. FS-7 .433 17. FS-3 .410 22. FS-8 .480 10. AHS-4 .273 15. FS-1 .383 logical states that independently contribute to flourishing among 6 MUNOZ, HANKS, AND HELLMAN

Figure 1. Standardized values (N= ϭ 273).

survivors of childhood trauma. However, when comparing the 2012; Hellman & Gwinn, 2017; Thornton et al., 2014). The current relative strength of hope as a contributor to flourishing, hope was results suggest a need for further research into Snyder’s (2000) again a substantially larger predictor over resilience. Such results hope theory as an intervention tool to assist survivors of childhood align with Snyder’s (1994) contention that hope offers a simple trauma. It may ultimately be that hope need not displace resilience two-component model that explains, perhaps more readily than in the discussion of what is needed for positive adaptation in the resilience, an important psychological characteristic needed to face of adversity. Rather, it may be that hope can be integrated into maintain well-being in the face of adversity. a resilience framework that advances a practitioner’s ability to improve the psychological well-being of childhood trauma survi- Implications vors. Research has long established that exposure to childhood trauma can compromise lifelong health and wellness (Chapman et al., Limitations 2004; Felitti et al., 1998; Schofield et al., 2013). To better combat the deleterious effects of childhood trauma, researchers and prac- Although the current study holds promise for advancing our titioners would benefit from a theoretical framework that provides understanding of the relationship between hope and resilience, greater guidance for the development of more effective interven- potential limitations exist. First, the model was tested on two tions. Although theorists have spoken of resilience as a protective distinct samples of adult survivors of childhood trauma living in This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. factor in the face of childhood trauma (Bellis et al., 2018; Shah et the United States. As a result, uncertainty remains as to the true This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. al., 2018), resilience theory has come under scrutiny as a practical parent population from which the two samples were drawn. Al- tool because of the variability within definitions of resilience (van though theory does not suggest that variables such as national Breda, 2018). origin would moderate the relationships identified in the study, The current data suggest that the simplicity of Snyder’s (2000) further research from more samples is needed to test this assump- hope construct, along with a research base that supports hope as a tion. Second, given the amorphous nature of how resilience is consistent predictor of well-being, makes hope theory a prime theoretically described, alternative ways of conceptualizing resil- candidate to guide future efforts to assist survivors of childhood ience may produce different results. However, one might argue trauma. The simplicity of hope theory lends itself to the develop- that if future research did produce discrepancies from the current ment of hope informed interventions to assist survivors of child- results, such a finding only highlights the lack of uniformity found hood trauma. In fact, hope informed interventions have already within definitions of resilience (van Breda, 2018). Nevertheless, been developed that have been linked to positive outcomes among regardless of potential limitations, the current study furthers the various samples, including survivors of childhood trauma (Cheav- discussion on the nature of resilience by empirically testing its ens, Feldman, Gum, Michael, & Snyder, 2006; Feldman & Dreher, distinctiveness in relation to the construct of hope in accounting HOPE AND RESILIENCE 7

for variance in psychological flourishing among survivors of child- Diener, E., Wirtz, D., Tov, W., Kim-Prieto, C., Choi, D., Oishi, S., & hood trauma. Biswas-Diener, R. (2010). New well-being measures: Short scales to assess flourishing and positive and negative feelings. Social Indicators Research, 97, 143–156. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11205-009-9493-y Conclusion Dube, S. R. (2018). Continuing conversations about adverse childhood Despite potential limitations, the results of the current study are experiences (ACEs) screening: A public health perspective. Child Abuse consistent with Snyder’s (2000) theory that hope and resilience are and Neglect, 85, 180–184. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.03 distinct psychological constructs. In fact, not only does the current .007 study support the distinctiveness of hope and resilience, the results Duggal, D., Sacks-Zimmerman, A., & Liberta, T. (2016). The impact of hope and resilience on multiple factors in neurosurgical patients. Cureus, also indicate that hope was a more robust predictor of psycholog- 8, e849. http://dx.doi.org/10.7759/cureus.849 ical flourishing compared to resilience among a sample of adult Enders, C. K., & Bandalos, D. L. (2001). The relative performance of full survivors of childhood trauma. Although resilience theory is not information maximum likelihood estimation for missing data in struc- without positive attributes (Masten, 2014), the practical value of tural equation models. Structural Equation Modeling, 8, 430–457. resilience theory remains limited due to the varied definitions of http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0803_5 the construct (Luthar et al., 2000; van Breda, 2018). Based on the Feldman, D. B., & Dreher, D. E. (2012). Can hope be changed in 90 current results, we believe that hope theory offers the field of minutes? Testing the efficacy of a single-session goal pursuit interven- childhood trauma studies an important alternative to resilience for tion for college students. Journal of Happiness Studies, 13, 745–759. use when explaining a characteristic that is helpful to the mainte- http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10902-011-9292-4 nance of well-being in the face of adversity. Feldman, D. B., & Snyder, C. R. (2005). Hope and the meaningful life: Theoretical and empirical associations between goal-directed thinking Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 24, References and life meaning. 401– 421. http://dx.doi.org/10.1521/jscp.24.3.401.65616 Ahern, N. R., Kiehl, E. M., Sole, M. L., & Byers, J. (2006). A review of Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., instruments measuring resilience. Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Edwards, V.,...Marks, J. S. (1998). 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Kolar, K. (2011). Resilience: Revisiting the concept and its utility for social O’Sullivan, G. (2011). The relationship between hope, eustress, self- research. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 9, efficacy, and life satisfaction among undergraduates. Social Indicators 421–433. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11469-011-9329-2 Research, 101, 155–172. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11205-010-9662-z Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resil- Qualtrics. (2005). Qualtrics (April, 2017) [Online survey tool]. Provo, UT: ience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child De- Qualtrics. velopment, 71, 543–562. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00164 Rutter, M. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. MacCallum, R. C., Browne, M. W., & Sugawara, H. M. (1996). 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The Brief Resilience Scale: Assessing the ability to http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40359-017-0205-0 bounce back. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15, 194– Munoz, R. T., Brady, S., & Brown, V. (2017). The psychology of resil- 200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10705500802222972 ience: A model of the relationship of locus of control to hope among Snyder, C. R. (1994). The psychology of hope. New York, NY: The Free survivors of intimate partner violence. Traumatology, 23, 102–111. Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/trm0000102 Snyder, C. R. (Ed.). (2000). Genesis. The birth and growth of hope. In Munoz, R. T., & Hanks, H. (2019). A Structural Model of Adverse Handbook of hope (pp. 25–38). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. http:// Childhood Experiences as Antecedents of Rumination Leading to Lower dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-012654050-5/50004-X Hope. Advanced online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ Snyder, C. R., Harris, C., Anderson, J. R., Holleran, S. A., Irving, L. M., 0886260519868195 Sigmon, S. T.,...Harney, P. (1991). The will and the ways: Develop- Munoz, R. T., Hellman, C., & Brunk, K. (2017). The relationship between ment and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope. Jour- hope and life satisfaction among survivors of intimate partner violence: nal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 570–585. http://dx.doi The enhancing effect of self-efficacy. Applied Research in Quality of .org/10.1037/0022-3514.60.4.570 Life, 12, 981–995. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11482-016-9501-8 Southwick, S. M., Bonanno, G. A., Masten, A. S., Panter-Brick, C., & Munoz, R. T., Hellman, C. M., Buster, B., Robbins, A., Carroll, C., Yehuda, R. (2014). Resilience definitions, theory, and challenges: In- Kabbani, M.,...Fox, M. D. (2016). Life satisfaction, hope, and positive terdisciplinary perspectives. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, emotions as antecedents of health-related quality of life among homeless 5, 25338. http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.25338 individuals. International Journal of Applied Positive Psychology, 1, Thornton, L. M., Cheavens, J. S., Heitzmann, C. A., Dorfman, C. S., Wu, 69–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s41042-017-0005-z S. M., & Andersen, B. L. (2014). Test of mindfulness and hope com- Munoz, R. T., Pearson, L. C., Hellman, C. M., McIntosh, H. C., Khojasteh, ponents in a psychological intervention for women with cancer recur- J., & Fox, M. D. (2018). Adverse childhood experiences and posttrau- rence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 82, 1087–1100. matic stress as an antecedent of anxiety and lower hope. Traumatology, http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0036959 24, 209–218. van Breda, A. (2018). A critical review of resilience theory and its Nugent, N. R., Sumner, J. A., & Amstadter, A. B. (2014). Resilience after relevance for social work. Social Work, 54, 1–18. trauma: From surviving to thriving. European Journal of Psychotrau- Windle, G., Bennett, K. M., & Noyes, J. (2011). A methodological review matology. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5 of resilience measurement scales. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, .25339 9, 8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-9-8 This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its alliedOng, publishers. A. D., Edwards, L. M., & Bergeman, C. (2006). Hope a source of Zimmerman, M. A. (2013). Resilience theory: A strengths-based approach

This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual userresilience and is not to be disseminated broadly. in later adulthood. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, to research and practice for adolescent health. Health Education and 1263–1273. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2006.03.028 Behavior, 40, 381–383. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1090198113493782 Ong, A. D., Standiford, T., & Deshpande, S. (2018). Hope and stress resilience. In M. W. Gallagher & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The Oxford Received April 23, 2019 handbook of hope (pp. 255–286). New York, NY: Oxford University Revision received August 27, 2019 Press. Accepted August 29, 2019 Ⅲ HOPE NAVIGATOR Train the Trainer

Tuesday, January 26, 2021

Session 1 9:00 am - 12:00 pm Hope Theory

1. Introduction to positive psychology and Hope in the context of well-being. 2. The Power and Science of Hope, Hope Awareness presentation. 3. Hope Reading Review a. Rainbows of the Mind b. 3 Pillars of Trauma Informed Care c. Hope and Resilience

Break-Out Discussion Focus (Readings):

1. What is the big take away from each article? 2. Why is nurturing Hope Important? 3. What does it mean to claim, “Hope is a science”? 4. Is positive psychology only focused on what is good? Is it just the power of positive thinking? 5. What is needed for your CHC to implement the 3 pillars of TIC? 1/26/2021 Hope Workshop Participant Note Pages

Chan M. Hellman, PhD

HOPE Workshop Participant notes page

Adverse Childhood Experience (ACE) Categories

ABUSE NEGLECT HOUSEHOLD DYSFUNCTION

Known Associations with ACE

How Does Trauma Impact Our Ability To Relate to Others?

Perception that Difficulty with Inability to trust Guarded and danger is change and others anxious everywhere transitions

Difficult to re- Difficulty “calming Highly physically Highly emotionally direct, rejects down” after reactive reactive support outbursts

Unable to recognize Holds onto dynamics that lead grievances to same results

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Definition of Hope:

How is hope different from Optimism and Self-Efficacy?

Simplicity of Hope Theory Goals:

Pathways:

Agency

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Willpower (Agency)

Desired Goal

Way Power (Pathways)

Does hope require both willpower and waypower?

How is hope different from a wish?

Where have you observed hope?

Where have you observed a wish?

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The Application of Hope

How well can you manage your willpower?

Selected Identified Goal Pathway

Attention Unmitigated trauma Detractors is a hope ROBBER!

Consider a time in your life when you were successful in pursuing a goal?

Can you describe how you were able to manage your willpower?

What kept you on track or not?

What was an Attention Detractor? How did you manage the detractor?

Who or what helped you?

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How Does Trauma Impact Our Attention and Intention

Flourishing Positive Emotions Adaptive Coping Nostalgia Secure Attachments Hope

Past Memory Attention Imagination Future

Worry Rumination Suffering Negative Emotions Maladaptive Coping Insecure Attachments

Where do you focus your attention? In the future or the past?

How does trauma impact where we focus our attention?

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THE LOSS OF HOPE

HOPE

•Goal is significantly Anger blocked.

•Unable to adjust goal. DESPAIR Pathways are unavailable.

APATHY •Loss of Motivation (Hopeless)

Where have you seen desperation in your work?

What was the goal?

How did desperation impact pathway thinking?

How did desperation impact willpower?

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Nurturing Hope

HOPE

• Progress Reinforces Creating Future Pathway/Agency Memories of Relationship Success

• Barriers are Considered and Viable Pathways Pathways Adjusted

• Clarifying Goals Goal Setting Increases Agency

Examples of Hope Theory

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Strategies To Nurture Hope

Introduce the concept of hope and discuss its core components (distinguish Introduce Hope wishful thinking).

Goal Setting Help the individual develop personally relevant goals.

Pathways List and discuss potential pathways the individual choose.

Willpower Have individual identify/describe sources of motivation.

Problem Solve Identify and list obstacles.

Create Hope Create a Visual Map accessible for the reference. Visual

Re-Goaling Remember – We have the ability to re-goal.

What are some creative ways to implement this process in your work?

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The Science and Power of Hope What We Have Learned What is Hope? Hope is the belief the future will be better than today, and you play a role in making that future possible. Hope is not a wish. Hope allows us to identify valued goals, set the pathways to achieve these goals, and exert the willpower to make these goals possible. Impact of Unmitigated Trauma on Hope: How does unmitigated trauma rob children and adults of hope? Our research shows that trauma leads to rumination, anxiety/depression, PTSD, and insecure attachment styles. Being stuck in our past trauma robs our ability to connect with others and lowers our ability to be future oriented effectively reducing our hope. Can Hope Be Measured? We published two meta-analytic studies on the Children’s Hope Scale and the Adult Hope Scale. These publications provide strong evidence in the validity and reliability of the scales used to measure hope. This research is informing the field that hope scores can be used with confidence for both researchers and practitioners. Can Hope Be Learned? This line of research identifies strategies to nurture hope among those experiencing trauma and adversity. Hope is malleable across the life span showing that targeted program services can help move from despair to hope for both children and adults. This research is guiding our work to identify effective practices and develop training programs for service providers. Impact of Hope on Trauma Survivors: These publications provide a framework for organizations to become hope centered and trauma informed when working with survivors. Incorporating strategies to nurture hope leads to positive outcomes. This research provides a unifying framework that can shape interventions, advocacy and social policy around hope’s evidence-based practice. Hope as A Coping Resource for At-Risk Children and Adults Our research has found that increasing hope among depressed youth reduces suicidal ideation. We have also found that increasing hope buffers the negative consequences of parenting stress among parents at-risk for child maltreatment. Multiple on-going studies show that increasing a parent’s hope is related to positive parenting practices and improved parent child relationships. Secondary Traumatic Stress and Staff Burnout: You cannot give what you do not have! Ensuring hope among service providers is also important to well-being. Our research demonstrates that hope can mitigate the negative effects of secondary traumatic stress on burnout social service and medical providers. 9 Hope Centered and Trauma InformedÔ Ó Chan Hellman LLC

Your Personal and Professional Goals Worksheet

Below write down three goals you set for yourself. These can be Personal Goals, Family Goals, and/or Professional Goals.

Goal 1:

Goal 2:

Goal 3:

Adding Detail to Your Goals

Specifics: Goal 1 Goal 2 Goal 3 Approach vs. Avoidance:

Degree of difficulty: Low Moderate High

Stretch vs. Mastery:

Time to completion:

Degree of change involved:

Support Networks:

Potential Detractors

Beneficiaries:

Other Details:

Overall, how successful do you think you will be in pursuing these goals?

1 2 3 4 5 6 Not at all A little Somewhat Moderately Mostly Very successful successful successful successful successful successful

Goal 1: ______Goal 2: ______Goal 3: ______

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Hope Worksheet Directions

As you review the hope worksheet, some explanation may be useful. This worksheet is designed to add detail and clarity to your pathways (waypower) and agency (willpower). Individuals who are more hopeful will move through this worksheet with ease whereas less hopeful individuals will likely respond to this process with frustration and a focus on failure. It is important that you focus on the details of the goals – taking the time to identify them with patience and diligence. Do not rush through the worksheet. With each answer, spend time exploring more explanation and detail. The key to all these worksheets is to remember that imagination is the instrument of hope. Imagine your life differently if you achieve your goals. What will it:

• Look like? • Feel like? • Be like? Take notice of the ebb and flow of pathways and agency as you move through the worksheet. Item 1: Do not rush through this part of the worksheet. It is worth exploring each goal in terms of specific details, short term vs. long term, etc. The personal and professional goal worksheet may be useful in preparing for the full hope worksheet. A low hope person may struggle with describing specific details of a goal and might need help from a higher hope person. Do not be afraid to ask someone that seems to have higher hope in his or her life, for assistance. Item 2: A person who does not desire the goal will struggle to complete the worksheet. It is important that the goal is truly desired. Finding a goal, no matter how small is often a great place to start if you are a low hope person. Item 3: This item can help clarify the goal. For example, is the motivation to the goal intrinsic or extrinsic? Is it coming from within? On the other hand, is it some outside force or person inspiring the goal? Goal motivation may start externally but eventually it must become internal. Intrinsic motivation is more likely to sustain you in the presence of barriers and adversity. Item 4: After describing the goal, it is worth spending time savoring what success will feel like. This is intended to reinforce willpower.

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Items 5, 6, 7, & 8: Lower hope individuals will possibly struggle with these items. Do not be discouraged if you find yourself in that place. After considering the potential barriers, your willpower may be lower. Therefore, item 7 is intended to re-invigorate you to complete item 8. Item 9: It is often helpful to break a goal into sub-goals or benchmarks. Sub-goals can also serve to help determine if you are on the right pathway to your goals. Finally, breaking the goal into sub-goals helps you connect the future to the present – seeing how the small steps can get you to the goal eventually. Dream big, start small. Items 10 & 11: These are intended to reinforce willpower and demonstrate the social resources available when pursuing your goals. You likely have far more resources available to you than you might think. It may take being honest with others by asking for help and it may take the time to find the right person to ask for help; but take it one step at a time.

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Hope Worksheet The purpose of this worksheet is to assist you in establishing and pursuing a desirable goal. By describing your desirable goal in as much detail as possible, you are likely to experience an increase in your motivation and interest. When you have described one or more possible strategies to your goal, you are now on the pathway to rising and sustained hope.

1. Describe your goal in as much detail as possible (Narrative)

2. How much do you desire this goal? None A great amount

3. Why you want to achieve this goal? That is, describe what is motivating you.

4. Imagine you have just achieved your goal. Describe how you will feel? What will change in your life?

5. List the pathways (actions/strategies) you can use to achieve your goal. For example, if your goal is to get a better job, pathways might include: Education, Changing Jobs, etc.

Pathway 1:

Pathway 2:

Pathway 3:

6. Describe potential barriers for each pathway you listed. Pathway 1 Potential Barrier: Pathway 2 Potential Barrier: Pathway 3 Potential Barrier:

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7. From points 5 & 6 above, choose the best pathway and describe how you will overcome the barriers to that pathway.

8. Describe a time when you achieved a difficult goal by overcoming barriers. That is, what were the barriers and how did you overcome them and how did you feel?

9. Describe the benchmarks that you need to achieve to attain the goal. For example, what are steps that must be accomplished for you to attain your goal?

Benchmarks or sub-goals that lead to desired goal

Goal Benchmark 1 Benchmark 2 Benchmark 3 Benchmark 4

Note: add more benchmarks if needed.

10. Identify people and/or resources you can count on for support in pursuing your goal.

11. Describe something that motivates you (e.g., music, movie, person). Think of how you can use this inspiration to help you stay motivated as you pursue your goal.

Overall, how successful do you think you will be in pursuing this goal?

1 2 3 4 5 6 Not at all A little Somewhat Moderately Mostly Very successful successful successful successful successful successful

Goal 1: ______Goal 2: ______Goal 3: ______

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Peer Reviewed Publications Supporting This Workshop

1. Gwinn, C., & Hellman, C. M. (2018). Hope rising: How the science of hope can change your life. New York, NY: Morgan James Publishing.

2. Passmore, S., Hemming, E., McIntosh, H., Hellman, C. M. (In Press). The relationship between hope, meaning in work, secondary traumatic stress and burnout among child abuse pediatric clinicians. The Permanente Journal.

3. Muñoz, R.T., & Hanks, H., & Hellman, C. M. (In Press). Hope and resilience as distinct contributors to psychological flourishing among childhood trauma survivors. Traumatology.

4. Muñoz, R.T., & Hanks, H. (In Press). A structural model of adverse childhood experiences as antecedents of rumination leading to lower hope. Journal of Interpersonal Violence.

5. Munoz, R. T., Hanks, H., Brahm, N. C., Miller, C. R., McLeod, D. & Fox, M. D. (2019). Adverse childhood experiences and trust in the medical profession among young adults. Journal of Health Care for the Poor & Underserved, 30, 238-248.

6. Munoz, R. T., Quinton, K. A., Worley, J. A., & Hellman, C. M. (2019). Locus of hope: External hope in parents/guardians as an antecedent of adolescents’ internal hope and life satisfaction. Child Indicators Research, 12, 1107-1124.

7. Sulimani-Aidan, Y., Melkman, E., & Hellman, C. M. (2019). Nurturing the hope of youth in care: The contribution of mentoring. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 89, 134-143.

8. Munoz, R. T., Pearson, L. C., Hellman, C. M., McIntosh, H. C., Khojasteh, J., & Fox, M. D. (2018). Adverse childhood experiences and posttraumatic stress as an antecedent of anxiety and lower hope. Traumatology, 24, 209-218.

9. Hellman, C. M., Munoz, R. T., Worley, J. A., Feeley, J. A., & Gillert, J. E. (2018). A reliability generalization on the Children’s Hope Scale. Child Indicators Research, 11, 1193-1200.

10. Hellman, C. M., Robinson-Keilig, R. A., Dubriwny, N. M., Hamill, C., & Kraft, A. (2018). Hope as a coping resource for parents at-risk for child maltreatment. Journal of Family Social Work, 21, 365-380.

11. Hellman, C. M., Worley, J. A., & Munoz, R. T. (2018). Hope as a coping resource for caregiver well-being. In W. A. Bailey and A. W. Harris (Eds.). Family Caregiving: Fostering Resilience Across the Life Course. Springer.

12. Munoz, R.T., Hoppes, S., Hellman, C.M., Brunk, K.L., Bragg, J.E., & Cummins, C. (2018). The effects of mindfulness meditation on hope and stress. Research on Social Work Practice, 28, 696- 707.

17 Hope Centered and Trauma InformedÔ Ó Chan Hellman LLC

13. Bragg, J. E., Miller-Cribbs, J., Gordon, J., Gaudet, J., Hellman, C. M., & Munoz, R. T. (2017). Increasing self-efficacy and building hope through simulation-based education. International Journal of Arts & Sciences, 10, 549-558.

14. Muñoz, R.T. Brady, S., & Brown, V. (2017). The psychology of resilience: A model of the relationship of locus of control to hope among survivors of intimate partner violence. Traumatology, 23(1), 102-111.

15. Munoz, R.T., Hellman, C. M., & Brunk, K. (2017). The relationship between hope and life satisfaction among survivors of intimate partner violence: The enhancing effect of self-efficacy. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 12, 981-995.

16. Baxter, M. A., Hemming, E. J., McIntosh, H. C., & Hellman, C. M. (2017). Exploring the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and hope. The Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 26, 948-956.

17. Fry-Grier, L., & Hellman, C. M. (2017). School aged children of incarcerated parents: The effects of alternative criminal sentencing. Child Indicators Research, 10, 859-879.

18. Hellman, C. M. & Gwinn, C. (2017). Children exposed to domestic violence: Examining the effects of Camp HOPE on children’s hope, resilience, and strength of character. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 34, 269-276.

19. Olinske, J. L., & Hellman, C. M. (2017). Leadership in the human service nonprofit organization: The influence of board of directors on executive director well-being and burnout. Human Service Organizations: Management, Leadership, and Governance, 41, 95-105.

20. Muñoz, R.T., Hellman, C. M., Buster, B., Robbins, A., Carroll, C. Kabbani, M., Cassody, L., Brahm, N., & Fox, M. (2016). Life satisfaction, hope, and positive emotions as antecedents of health-related quality of life among homeless individuals. International Journal of Applied Positive Psychology. 1, 69-89.

21. Munoz, T. R., Bull, L., Sheth, D., Gower, S., Engstrom, E., Brunk, K., Hellman, C. M., Fox, M. (2014). The predictive power of Adverse Childhood Experiences on Trust in the Medical Profession among residents of a public housing facility. Annals of Community Medicine and Practice. 1, 995-1002.

22. Hellman, C. M., Pittman, M. K., & Munoz, R. T. (2013). The first twenty years of the will and the ways: An examination of score reliability distribution on Snyder’s Dispositional Hope Scale. Journal of Happiness Studies, 14, 723-729.

23. Hoppes, S. Bryce, H., Hellman, C. M., & Finlay, E. (2012). The effects of brief mindfulness training on caregivers’ well-being. Activities, Adaptation, & Aging, 36, 147-166.

18 Hope Centered and Trauma InformedÔ Ó Chan Hellman LLC

Commonly Used Terms in Hope Theory 1. ACE-Adverse childhood experiences 2. Agency-A complex term used to describe your ability to dedicate mental energy (willpower) to begin and sustain the journey toward your goals. 3. Burn Out-Professional exhaustion 4. Collective Hope-Similar to individual hope in that it is based upon goals, pathways, and willpower. However, it includes the complexity of social influences necessary for shared values and beliefs. Collective hope requires the group to have a shared vision of the future (goals) and collectively agree on the strategies (pathways) for pursuing this vision along with a unified mental focus (willpower). 5. Compassion Fatigue-The impact of trauma on care providers or others that did not experience that trauma personally. 6. Goals-Something you are trying to do or achieve. Approach (positive) are those we want to attain. Avoidance (negative) goals are those that we do not want to happen. 7. Hope-Hope is the belief that your future will be better than today and you have the power to make it so. 8. Hope Continuum-When after repeated attempts to a goal and hope declines, individuals will react to goals with a focus on failure and negativity such as anger, frustration or sadness. 9. Pathway-The roadmaps (waypower) individuals have in mind that will allow them to begin the journey toward the future. 10. Polyvictimization-When someone has experienced different kinds of trauma in childhood and then other types in adulthood. 11. Resilience-Individual can overcome and move past difficult things that have happened to them. 12. Self-efficacy-Refers to the confidence you have about your ability to pursue and attain a specific goal. 13. Survival Window-When your focus is not on hope. A time of grief/when adversity slams into our lives. 14. Talking Cure-Empowering victims of abuse/trauma to tell their stories which opens the door for healing. 15. TBI-Traumatic Brain Injury 16. Toxic Stress-When a child or adult experiences something that is not brief, but is prolonged or frequent. 17. Trauma-Results from an event, series of events, or set of circumstances that are experienced by an individual as physically and emotionally harmful or threatening. 18. Vicarious Trauma-Also known as compassion fatigue.

19 Hope Centered and Trauma InformedÔ Ó Chan Hellman LLC

Research Activities Supported In Partnership With: HOPE RESEARCH CENTER The mission of the University of Oklahoma is to provide the best possible educational experience for students through excellence in teaching, research, creative activity and service to the state and society. The Hope Research Center focus this mission by collaborating with nonprofit agencies to improve program services using sound scientific practice while simultaneously training students in the application of research methodologies. The Hope Research Center is an interdisciplinary social science unit in the College of Arts & Sciences for the University of Oklahoma. Collaborating with nonprofit organizations, faculty and graduate students lead research projects with a particular focus on sustainable well-being among vulnerable and otherwise at-risk individuals and communities. Guided by the principles of Positive Psychology, and the right of all members in the community to flourish; we use hope as the theory of change to assess the impact of nonprofit and human service organizations. Faculty and students who work in the center provide a full range of applied research activities including program evaluation and outcome assessment in support of program service delivery. Participating faculty members are nationally recognized for their area of research and are expert methodologist with the capacity to match research protocols to the needs of the nonprofit community. HOPE RESEARCH CENTER The University of Oklahoma 4502 East 41st Street Tulsa, Oklahoma 74135 http://www.ou.edu/tulsa/hope

20 Hope Centered and Trauma InformedÔ Ó Chan Hellman LLC

HOPE NAVIGATOR Train the Trainer

Tuesday, January 26, 2021

Session 2 1:00 pm - 4:00 pm Enhancing, Finding and Modeling Hope

1. The Importance of Setting and Clarifying Goals. a. Your Personal and Professional Goals Worksheet. 2. Identifying Pathways to Nurture Hope. a. Hope Worksheets. b. Pathways to Goals Worksheet.

Break-Out Discussion Focus:

1. How does identifying and discussing goals nurture hope? 2. How is goal setting understood in the research? What is the impact of high and low hope on goal setting? 3. Why do people benefit from pathway planning and considering barriers and problems? Doesn’t that just lower hope? 4. What do you feel when you work on your goal setting worksheet? 5. How can you help others make the connection between activities and their own hope? Can the tools help Hope rise? 6. Individual hope can be varied in any group, how can you use the training and information to find hope, enhance hope and model hope?

Your Personal and Professional Goals Worksheet

Below write down three goals you set for yourself. These can be Personal Goals, Family Goals, and/or Professional Goals.

Goal 1:

Goal 2:

Goal 3:

Adding Detail to Your Goals

Specifics: Goal 1 Goal 2 Goal 3 Achievement vs. Avoidance:

Degree of difficulty: Low Moderate High

Stretch vs. Mastery:

Time to completion:

Degree of change involved:

Support Networks:

Potential Detractors

Beneficiaries:

Other Details:

Overall, how successful do you think you will be in pursuing these goals?

1 2 3 4 5 6 Not at all A little Somewhat Moderately Mostly Very successful successful successful successful successful successful

Goal 1: ______Goal 2: ______Goal 3: ______

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Hope Worksheet

The purpose of this worksheet is to assist you in establishing and pursuing a desirable goal. By describing your desirable goal in as much detail as possible, you are likely to experience an increase in your motivation and interest. When you have described one or more possible strategies to your goal, you are now on the pathway to rising and sustained hope.

1. Describe your goal in as much detail as possible (See Goal Worksheet)

2. How much do you desire this goal? None A great amount

3. Why you want to achieve this goal? That is, describe what is motivating you.

4. Imagine you have just achieved your goal. Describe how you will feel? What will change in your life? How will others be impacted by you achievement?

5. List the pathways (actions/strategies) you can use to achieve your goal. For example, if your goal is to get a better job, pathways might include: Education, Changing Jobs, etc.

Pathway 1:

Pathway 2:

Pathway 3:

6. Describe potential barriers for each pathway you listed. Pathway 1 Potential Barrier: Pathway 2 Potential Barrier: Pathway 3 Potential Barrier:

7. From points 5 & 6 above, choose the best pathway and describe how you will overcome the barriers to that pathway.

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8. Describe a time when you achieved a difficult goal by overcoming barriers. That is, what were the barriers and how did you overcome them and how did you feel?

9. Describe the benchmarks that you need to achieve to attain the goal. For example, what are steps that must be accomplished for you to attain your goal?

Benchmarks or sub-goals that lead to desired goal

Goal Benchmark 1 Benchmark 2 Benchmark 3 Benchmark 4

Note: add more benchmarks if needed.

10. Identify people and/or resources you can count on for support in pursuing your goal.

11. Describe something that motivates you (e.g., music, movie, person). Think of how you can use this inspiration to help you stay motivated as you pursue your goal.

Overall, how successful do you think you will be in pursuing this goal?

1 2 3 4 5 6 Not at all A little Somewhat Moderately Mostly Very successful successful successful successful successful successful

Goal 1: ______Goal 2: ______Goal 3: ______

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Pathways To Goal Planning Worksheet

1. List your goal identified from the goal worksheet and identify each successive step (sub goal) that will lead to success. 2. For each step, identify a potential barrier that may block success. 3. Describe solutions to barriers and the supports that will help you stay on track to success. 4. Identify multiple pathways to the goal using this sheet. Then prioritize each pathway based upon the potential for success.

Goal Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5

Selected Pathway

Identify Potential Barrier for Each Step

Solution Solution Solution Solution Solution

Supports Supports Supports Supports Supports

Ó Chan Hellman LLC HOPE NAVIGATOR Train the Trainer

Wednesday, January 27, 2021 PRE-READING ASSIGNMENTS

Session 3 9:00 am - 12:00 pm Hope at Work: Building a Hope Centered Organization

Articles for discussion this morning.

• Camp Hope

• Building Hope for the Future

• Hope & Leadership Child Adolesc Soc Work J (2017) 34:269–276 DOI 10.1007/s10560-016-0460-6

Camp HOPE as an Intervention for Children Exposed to Domestic Violence: A Program Evaluation of Hope, and Strength of Character

1 2 Chan M. Hellman • Casey Gwinn

Published online: 17 September 2016 Ó Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016

Abstract Children exposed to domestic violence are at- Introduction risk for physical, mental, and social difficulties that have received an increased focus among researchers and policy Researchers estimate that upwards of 18.8 million children makers. Using Snyder’s (2000) theory of Hope as a con- in the US witness domestic violence across their lifetime ceptual framework, Camp HOPE America is a summer (Hamby, Finkelhor, Tuner, & Ormrod, 2011). Several camp program targeting school-aged children exposed to meta-analytic studies find that children exposed to domestic violence. The purpose of this study is to present domestic violence are at a higher risk for emotional, social, the changes in child hope before and after camp and cor- and behavioral difficulties both in the short- and long-term relate child hope to positive character strengths as rated by (Evans, Cavies, & DiLillo, 2008; Kitzmann, Gaylord, Holt, camp counselors. This study used a matched pretest & Kenny, 2003; Wolfe, Crooks, Lee, McIntyre-Smith, & posttest design to examine the change in hope, and strength Jaffe, 2003). Children exposed to domestic violence of character among 229 school-aged children participating experience additional stresses associated with the trauma of in Camp HOPE America. Results showed that hope, and repeated separations, child custody battles, and isolation psychological strengths improved from pre-test to post-test from extended family supports. Children exposed to assessments. Additionally, children’s scores on hope were domestic violence are also at a significantly higher risk for positively associated with the character strengths of zest, abuse and neglect (Fantuzzo & Mohr, 1999). An emerging grit, self-control, optimism, gratitude, social intelligence, literature indicates that children exposed to domestic vio- and curiosity obtained from counselor observations. These lence are also likely to experience other forms of victim- findings highlight hope as a coping resource for children ization (e.g., abuse, neglect). Indeed, research has recently exposed to domestic violence and provides preliminary brought attention to the prevalence of co-occurring or poly- support Camp HOPE America as an intervention within the victimization (cf. Finkelhor, Ormrod, & Turner, 2007; established Family Justice Center system in the US. Finkelhor, Turner, Hamby, & Ormrod, 2011). In a US national sample of youth between the ages of 2–17, Keywords Children exposed to domestic violence Á Hope Á Finkelhor et al. (2009) found eight out of ten children have Character strength Á Camp HOPE experienced at least one victimization with respondents reporting an average of 3.7 victimizations. The research contained in this article was supported in part by a grant While the research on exposure to domestic violence from Verizon to Alliance for Hope International for Camp HOPE continues to emerge, existing evidence suggests these America. children are at risk for increased anxiety, depression, social isolation, increased physical and psychological aggression, & Chan M. Hellman and propensity to perpetuate the cycle of domestic violence [email protected] (Carlson, 1990; Lichter & McClosky, 2004; Litrownik, 1 Department of Human Relations, University of Oklahoma, Newton, & Hunter, 2003). Exposure to childhood trauma is 4502 East 41st Street, Tulsa, OK 74135, USA associated with higher the rates of illness, disease, and 2 Alliance for HOPE International, San Diego, CA 92101, USA 123 270 C. M. Hellman, C. Gwinn criminality in adults (Felitti & Anda, 2010; Reavis, Loo- cognitive processes termed ‘‘pathways’’ and ‘‘agency’’. man, Franco, & Rojas, 2013). Pathway thought processes are the mental strategies or road As such, there is a need for system level intervention maps toward goal attainment. In this process, children that can document research-supported practices focused on consider various pathways to their goals. Once viable children exposed to domestic violence. The purpose of this pathways are formed, the hopeful child is able to conceive study is to assess the change in children’s hope among of potential barriers and develop strategies to overcome the participants of Camp HOPE America (Gwinn, 2015). The barriers or switch to alternative pathways. Agency thinking primary focus of this program evaluation is to assess refers to the mental energy or willpower the child can children’s hope along with a sense of belonging, support direct and sustain toward their goal pursuits. Hopeful and encouragement, believing they can achieve their children are able to exert mental energy to their pathways dreams (resilience), and strength of character (e.g., Zest, and persevere by self-regulating their thoughts, emotions Grit, Self-Control, Optimism, Gratitude, Social Intelli- and behaviors toward their desirable goal. gence, and Curiosity). This study is important for several Snyder (1995) described the process of nurturing hope reasons. First, while hope has been shown to be an for a child begins with goal setting strategies. Here, a child important resource for adults and children, no studies exist begins to experience the possibility of a positive future; this focusing on children exposed to domestic violence. Sec- attention to a newly considered goal results in the short- ond, Camp HOPE America uses Snyder’s (2002) Hope term increase in agentic thinking. During this increase in Theory as the foundation of its activities and is situated agency, the social worker can work with the motivated within the multi-agency, multi-disciplinary Family Justice child to identify pathways to achieving the goal while Center model of service delivery with an estimated 136 considering likely barriers. It is important that pathways centers existing across the US. Therefore, this study rep- have measurable benchmarks that allow the child to resents the first empirical assessment of an emerging experience early success indicators, which results in camping and mentoring model that can offer a intervention increased agency. This illustration demonstrates the inter- that has the capacity to generalyze to children exposed to play between the hope processes of pathways and agency domestic violence at a national level. thinking. Alternatively, children who have experienced repeated failed attempts at goal pursuits often recognize Hope Theory their deficits in both pathways and agency thoughts. These low hope children will face future goals with negativity, Hope refers to the positive expectation we have toward the their lack of assets, and a focus on the probability of failure attainment of a future oriented goal. While the target of (Snyder, 1995). Thus, goals that are significantly blocked hope can be in the short or long-term (e.g., obtaining a hot result in anger, frustration, and despair. When a child is meal vs. a life free from domestic violence), the outcome unable to overcome a barrier, the final result is apathy or exists with some degree of possibility rather than certainty. hopelessness (e.g., lack of motivation and goal directed In social work, hope represents a core aspect of the behavior). The important reminder of these processes is strengths perspective in the helping process (Collins, 2015; that hope and hopelessness can be learned and reflects the McCarter, 2007; Powell & Blanchet-Cohen, 2014; Rapp, importance of the child’s interaction with the social and Saleebey, & Sullivan, 2005; Saleebey, 1996, 2000; Smal- environmental context. dino, 1975; Sullivan & Floyd, 2013). Freire’s (1996) quote, The role of hope in a child’s capacity to flourish is well ‘‘There is no change without the dream, as there is no established. Hopeful thinking among children is positively dream without hope,’’ (p. 91) illustrates the role of hope as associated with perceived competence and self-worth a psychological strength buffering the negative conse- (Kwon, 2000) as well as lower depression and anxiety quences experienced from adversity such as witnessing (Ong, Edwards, & Bergeman, 2006). Higher hope children domestic violence. are more optimistic about the future, have stronger problem Snyder’s (2000) hope theory has received growing solving skills, and develop more life goals. Hopeful chil- empirical support as a goal-oriented psychological strength dren are less likely to have behavior problems or experi- that promotes well being across the lifespan. Moreover, ence psychological distress. These children also report Snyder has developed brief self-report measures for both better interpersonal relationships and higher school adults and children that has shown positive psychometric achievement success in the areas of attendance, grades, characteristics across samples (Bryant & Harrison, 2015; graduation rates, and college going rates (Pedrotti, Hellman, Pittman, & Munoz, 2013). Snyder (2000) Edwards, & Lopez, 2008). Moreover, hope has been shown described hope as a cognitive-based motivational theory in to serve as a resilience factor when facing stressful life which children learn to create strategies as a means to events among children (Valle, Huebner, & Suldo, 2006). attain their desired goals. Hope theory has two fundamental Finally, hope was shown to be positively associated with 123 Camp HOPE as an Intervention for Children Exposed to Domestic Violence… 271 emotional well being in a six-year longitudinal study therapeutic components were managed by Camp HOPE investigating hope and positive youth development (Ciar- staff members employed by Alliance for HOPE Interna- rochi, Parker, Kashdan, Heaven, & Barkus, 2015). tional. Using a trauma-informed camper/counselor approach, Camp HOPE focuses on providing affirmation Camp HOPE America and encouragement including campfire sessions where children received character trait awards each day from their Camp HOPE America (www.camphopeamerica.com)is peers or adult counselors. Camp HOPE program activities the first local, state, and national camping and mentoring are site specific but has included rafting, tubing, high and initiative in the United States to focus on children exposed low ropes challenge courses (age specific), horseback rid- to domestic violence. The vision for Camp HOPE America ing, arts and crafts, kayaking and canoeing, recreational is to break the generational cycle of family violence by hiking and field games, skits and camp songs, nightly offering healing and hope to children who have witnessed campfires, journaling, KBAR (kick back and relax) time in family violence. Camp HOPE America is a program of the cabins/tents each day with counselors and campers, Alliance for HOPE International (www.allianceforhope. camp fire group discussions each night (‘‘Where did you com). Alliance for HOPE International is the umbrella see hope today?’’), three family-style meals each day organization for all Family Justice Centers and similar (eating with their own cabin group), and other relationship- multi-agency models serving victims of domestic violence oriented times. Each day at Camp HOPE there is a positive and their children throughout the United States. statement for the day. These included: ‘‘I am a unique masterpiece,’’ ‘‘I am becoming my best self,’’ ‘‘We need Camp HOPE Program each other,’’ ‘‘My future is brighter than my past,’’ and ‘‘My best self is within reach.’’ By having a positive The Camp HOPE Program is a values-based summer statement for each day, children had the opportunity to camping and mentoring model with a six-day program and internalize their own uniqueness, personal progress, need follow-up activities during the school year. The program for others, future-oriented focus, and perseverance. Chil- focuses on three key elements: (1) ‘‘Challenge by Choice’’ dren did not have ‘‘free time’’ at Camp HOPE and children activities; (2) Affirmation and Praise for developing and were never without an adult mentor or adult counselor observed character traits; and (3) Themed, small group (with the exception of toilet/showering needs). All elec- discussion and activities focused on helping children set tronics including cell phones, laptops, and other devices goals and pursue viable pathways. Challenge by Choice were collected and turned off when children arrived at refers to challenging children to set daily achievement camp. Electronic items were then returned after the con- goals by pursuing activities with perceived danger or risk clusion of the camping week. (e.g., canoeing, zip line) while allowing them to opt out of One of the key elements of Camp HOPE was the use of those activities if the challenge creates unmanageable a de-centralized programming model. In this particular stress or fear. Campers are positively encouraged to engage model, each cabin was paired with another cabin of a in the personal challenges presented, however no camper is similar age. Older campers (11–17 year olds) were paired coerced, negatively pressured or unconstructively per- with a cabin of the opposite sex. Younger campers suaded to take part in an activity. Campers are encouraged (7–11 year olds) were paired with similarly aged campers to support each other in their personal challenge by choice of the same sex. The combined cabins were referred to as a whether they determine to undertake a particular activity or ‘‘track’’ or ‘‘circle.’’ Throughout the week, each track/cir- not. All activities are designed to promote: creative cle participated in the various camp activities together and thinking, decision-making, problem-solving, teamwork and built relationships within the smaller group instead of mutual support, reasoning, self-esteem, competency, self- simply participating in all activities in a large group. management, group trust, organization, and goal setting. In 2015, Camp HOPE children also included foster Even if campers do not participate in challenging activities, children, group home children, and a small group of chil- they are expected to participate in other daily camp dren not receiving services in an existing Family Justice activities and to follow all safety and group protocols. For Center. All the children attending Camp HOPE had been safety reasons, campers are not allowed to leave the group exposed to and/or witnessed family violence prior to setting or be alone at any time (the exception includes coming to Camp HOPE. Approximately 20 % of the chil- toileting or showering). dren attending had also been physically and sexually All recreational activities were supervised by trained abused children as well. A subset of 64 participating Camp staff members who also operated weekly summer campers had been administered the Adverse Childhood camps that are not focused on children exposed to family Experience (ACE) questionnaire which ranges from 0 to 10 violence. Specialized program activities and other to quantify the number of trauma experiences. This 123 272 C. M. Hellman, C. Gwinn assessment was administered to a subset of children over children believe they can establish pathways to their goals the age of 11 and assessed by a Family Justice Center as well as develop and maintain the will power to follow counselor. The average ACE score for the 64 campers was these pathways. This measure is comprised of six self-re- 5.51 (SD = 2.38) with a median score of 5.0 and a mode of port items with a six-point Likert-Type response format 4.0. Indeed, 79.4 % of these children had an ACE score of (1 = none of the time; 6 = all of the time). Scores can 4 or higher. Comparatively, the Center for Disease Control range from a low of six to a high of 36. Thus, higher scores Kaiser Permanente Adverse Childhood Study with over reflect higher hope. Internal consistency reliability analysis 17,000 participants report that 12.5 % of the population for the data collected in this study indicated a Pre-Hope have an ACE score of 4 or higher. Additionally, Ford et al. a = .77 and Post-Hope a = .81. (2014), with a sample of 57,703 subjects, found an average ACE score of 1.61. Results of a one sample t test Measurement: Counselor Observations [t(62) = 12.99; p \ .05] demonstrate that the average ACE score for our sample of Camp HOPE children was signif- Hope Index icantly higher than the national rate (Ford et al., 2014). Counselors were asked to complete the Children’s Hope Scale (Snyder et al., 1997) for each camper in their Method respective group. Similar to Snyder (2005), items were modified to reflect an observational assessment approach. Assessment Procedure For example, the item ‘‘I think I am doing pretty well’’ was reworded to ‘‘I think the camper is doing pretty well.’’ The Two hundred and thirty-eight surveys were administered to questionnaires included the same six-item children’s Hope the youth participants of Camp HOPE during the 2015 Scale reworded to fit the observation intent. Internal con- summer. A pre-camp and post-camp design was utilized. sistency reliability was adequate for the sample of coun- Children received the pre-camp survey thirty days prior to selor’s (pretest a = .92; posttest a = .91). camp and post-camp surveys were collected the final morning of camp. Individual Family Justice Centers Child Character Strength coordinated the recruiting and selecting of children and the obtaining of consent from parents/caregivers/guardians Following the positive psychology foundation that char- prior to data collection. These data were matched to the acter leads to the capacity to live a fulfilling and mean- post-camp assessments and de-identified prior to delivering ingful life, we included a 20-item assessment of character to the first author for statistical analyses. This protocol was strengths from the KIPP Character Counts Growth Card approved by the University of Oklahoma IRB. (available: https://characterlab.org/character-growth-card/). Following the KIPP Character Counts model, counselors Sample Demographics assessed the child in the area of Zest, Grit, Optimism, Self- Control, Gratitude, Social Intelligence, and Curiosity. Pre-camp surveys were completed by 234 children while 237 Counselors rated each camper in their group at the begin- post-camp survey were completed. Ultimately, 229 com- ning of camp and the final day of camp. Each item was pleted pre and post surveys were matched, resulting in a rated on a seven point Likert-Type response (1 = almost 96.2 % match rate. Specific demographic characteristics of never; 7 = almost always) on the frequency of observa- the children were limited in the survey. However, the aver- tion. Thus, higher scores reflect higher levels for each age age of the respondent was 10.8 years (SD = 2.57). Two character strength assessed. Table 1 provides the character hundred and thirty-four children reported their gender with strength observed, definition, number of items, and when 48.7 % males and 51.3 % females. In addition to the child 3? items are used the internal consistency from the pre-test self-report assessment, camp counselors completed pre and assessment. Internal consistency from the posttest scores post observation based assessments for each camper that are presented in Table 2. were matched to the 229 camper self-assessments.

Measurement—Child Self-Report Research Questions and Hypotheses

Children’s Hope Given the growing literature on the positive nature of hope, two questions served to guide this evaluation. First, can Hope was assessed using the Children’s Hope Scale hope scores be increased among children exposed to (Snyder et al., 1997) which examines the extent to which domestic violence? Second, does hope predict adaptive 123 Camp HOPE as an Intervention for Children Exposed to Domestic Violence… 273

Table 1 Character strengths assessed at Camp HOPE Character strength Deﬁnition

Zest An approach to life filled with anticipation, excitement, and energy (3 items; a = .84) Grit Perseverance and passion for long-term goals (3 items; a = .83) Optimism The expectation that the future holds positive possibilities and likelihood (2 items) Self-control Capacity to regulate thoughts, feelings, and behaviors when they conflict with interpersonal goals (4 items; a = .90) Gratitude Appreciation for the benefits received from others and a desire to reciprocate with positive actions (2 items) Curiosity Search for information for its own sake. Exploring a wide range of information when solving problems (3 items; a = .67) Social intelligence Being aware of the motives and feelings of other people. (3 items; a = .82) Note Cronbach’s alpha presented for scales with three or more items from pretest scores

Table 2 Zero-order correlation Item 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. matrix of hope, resiliency, and strength of character Child scores 1. Hope (.85) 2. Resiliency .79* (.86) Counselor observations 3. Hope .28* .39* (.91) 4. Zest .35* .38* .69* (.82) 5. Grit .21* .26* .66* .51* (.79) 6. Self-control .22* .30* .61* .43* .73* (.90) 7. Optimism .27* .36* .72* .58* .65* .71* – 8. Gratitude .36* .41* .67* .67* .60* .56* .72* – 9. Social intelligence .36* .38* .70* .63* .65* .71* .70* .73* (.86) 10. Curiosity .34* .43* .72* .65* .61* .58* .66* .71* .67* (.70) Note Values in parenthesis reﬂect Cronbach’s Alpha for scores obtained at posttest. N = 233. * p \ .05 outcomes for children exposed to domestic violence? This Bonferroni correction was used for to control the type I resulted in the following hypotheses. error, which was set at .007. While paired sample t test could be used in each comparison, the resulting ANOVA H Children attending Camp HOPE will report an 1: F-ratio is equivalent to t2 and provides additional infor- increase in their hope scores from pretest to posttest. mation relative to effect size estimates (partial eta-

H2: Children attending Camp HOPE will report an squared). increase in positive character scores as reported by camp counselors. Child Self-Report

H3: Child hope scores at the posttest will be positively correlated with child character strength pottest scores as The results of this repeated measures ANOVA showed that observed by camp counselors. the increase in children’s hope scores from pre-test (M = 25.40; SD = 5.38) to post-test (M = 26.75; SD = 6.19) was statistically signiﬁcant [F(1228) = 15.15; Results p \ .001; g2 = .06]. Moreover, the partial eta square indicates that estimated rate of change as small (cf. Cohen, A series of repeated measures analysis of variance was 1992). computed to investigate the level of change between pretest and post-test on children’s self-report of hope as well Counselor Assessment as the counselor assessments of camper hope, zest, grit, self-control, optimism, gratitude, curiosity, and social The repeated measures ANOVA showed the increase in intelligence. Given the number of comparisons, a hope pre-test scores (M = 23.23; SD = 5.92) compared to

123 274 C. M. Hellman, C. Gwinn the post-test scores (M = 25.13; SD = 5.64) were also camp. Additionally, counselors completed an observational statistically significant [F(1219) = 30.95; p \ .001; assessment on each child and found significant increases in g2 = .12] and of moderate strength. Moreover, all the character strengths of hope, zest, grit, self-control, increases in character strength observations were statisti- optimism, gratitude, social intelligence, and curiosity. cally significant. More specifically, post-test observations Finally, the correlational analyses demonstrated that chil- showed a moderate and significant increase for zest dren’s self-reported hope were positively associated with [F(1229) = 46.63; p \ .001; g2 = .17], grit camp counselor’s observations of the child’s character [F(1228) = 30.86; p \ .001; g2 = .12], gratitude strength. Our findings are consistent with other research [F(1229) = 44.36; p \ .001; g2 = .16], and curiosity (Chang & DeSimone, 2001; Kwok, Gu, & Kit, 2016; [F(1229) = 46.51; p \ .001; g2 = .17]. Small yet statis- Marques, Lopez, & Pais-Ribeiro, 2011) suggesting that tically significant increases in mean scores were observed brief hope interventions with children can increase their for self-control [F(1229) = 9.50; p \ .001; g2 = .04], psychological strengths and well being. optimism [F(1229) = 20.16; p \ .001; g2 = .08], and Children exposed to domestic violence and who live in social intelligence [F(1229) = 18.13; p \ .001; g2 = .07] chaos and fear experience a multitude of negative stressful respectively. situations and in the absence of strategic intervention these experiences will manifest into potentially negative psy- Correlation Analysis chological and behavioral reactions that make life difficult (Benavides, 2015). Hope, as a psychological strength, is a As seen in Table 2, the correlational analysis demon- protective resource that can help children cope with stress stratedthatanincreaseinchildren’sselfreportedhope and adversity associated with domestic violence (Bena- was associated with increased scores in the child’s vides, 2015; Chang, 1998; Ciarrochi, Heaven, & Davies, observed character strengths. More specifically, higher 2007; Horton & Wallander, 2001; Valle et al., 2006). scores in Hope were associated with higher levels of Children with high levels of hope have a greater capacity to energy (Zest), perseverance toward goals (Grit), ability to identify viable pathways and dedicate mental energy to regulate thoughts, feelings and behaviors (Self-Control), their goals. Moreover, the relationship found in our study an expectation that the future holds positive possibilities suggests that hope is associated with striving for opportu- (Optimism), appreciation toward others (Gratitude), nities (zest, grit, optimism, curiosity), the ability to regulate desire to seek out new things (Curiosity), and awareness thoughts and feelings (self-control), and understanding and of the feelings and motivations of others (Social Intelli- appreciating of the actions, motives and feelings of others gence). Additionally, child self-reported hope was posi- (social intelligence, gratitude). Consistent with the positive tively associated with counselor observation of the child’s psychology literature, these character strengths predict well hope. being and provide psychological resources to enhance coping during difficult times (Park & Peterson, 2009).

Discussion Camp HOPE America

Given that upwards of 18? million children are exposed to Camp HOPE America is informed by Snyder’s hope domestic violence in the US and that exposure can have theory (2002) and the challenge by choice activities are negative effects on physical, mental, and social well-being designed to enhance and support pathways and agency research examining positive youth development is note- cognitions among children exposed to domestic violence. worthy. More specifically, activities for Camp HOPE Camp HOPE America’s curriculum is designed to enhance America are based upon Snyder’s (2002) theory of hope goal setting, pathways thinking, and inspire goal attainment and are operated by Alliance for Hope International, the in children who have experienced the adversity associated parent organizational structure for multi-agency, multi- with domestic violence. Camp HOPE America is the first disciplinary domestic violence-oriented Family Justice camp in the United States focused entirely on children Centers located across the US, Canada, Latin America, and exposed to domestic violence and other related abuse with Europe. This study represents the first research to examine a dedicated curriculum designed to change the way the the Camp HOPE America model as it relates to increases in children view themselves and their futures. While prelim- children’s hope and character strength as an intervention inary in nature, the findings from our evaluation of Camp for children exposed to domestic violence. The findings HOPE support its strengths approach to empowering chil- include significant increases in hope as reported by children toward a positive orientation to the future. dren several days prior to camp and on the last day of

123 Camp HOPE as an Intervention for Children Exposed to Domestic Violence… 275

Limitations community based intervention models, such as Camp HOPE America, that target that children can potentially While the results of this study are promising, potential mitigate these negative effects and promote hope as a limitations must be considered when interpreting the find- psychological asset. This study offers at least two com- ings. First, a pre-experimental one-group pretest posttest pelling contributions. First, this study is the first of its kind design was employed to measure changes in hope and the to investigate hope and character strength among children other character strengths, no control group was used to exposed to domestic violence. Second, this study offers bolster confidence in the internal validity that increases, new empirical evidence supporting the Camp HOPE while statistically significant, were directly related to the America model as an effective community based inter- Camp HOPE experience. Furthermore, given the lack of vention that can be implemented across the US given its follow-up the sustainability of these positive changes connection to the Family Justice Center network. This remain in question. The use of control groups in inter- study offers promising information about the initial effi- vention research can be difficult for many reasons. How- cacy of an intervention to increase hope and strength of ever, Camp HOPE is a model situated within operating and character among children exposed to domestic violence. It developing Family Justice Centers, which provide a is our intent that this study’s findings stimulate additional coalition approach to social services for families experi- interest (e.g., research, practitioner, policy makers) in encing domestic violence. Therefore, to further test the systems level interventions focused on developing char- efficacy of this intervention, future research could pursue a acter strengths and hope that allow a child impacted by longitudinal design perhaps including children from a trauma and abuse to flourish. Family Justice Center that as yet has not established a Camp HOPE intervention to fashion a wait-list compara- Compliance with Ethical Standards tive control group. Among other potential limitations is the Conflict of Interest Chan M. Hellman declares no conflict of inter- use of self-report survey research for both children and the est. Casey Gwinn is President of Alliance for HOPE International. observational assessment by the adult camp counselors. While Snyder’s hope theory and the child measurement are Ethical Approval All procedures performed in this study were in accordance with the ethical standards of the university and with the both empirically supported, the potential for response 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable biases like social desirability remains. While it is a ethical standards. potential methodological strength that an additional assessment included the observations of camp counselors, Informed Consent Informed consent was obtained for all individual participants included in the study. potential biases limited the generalizability of the findings. In particular is the significant limitation in the camp counselor ability to meaningfully provide a pre-observa- References tional assessment on the first day of camp. Additionally, while the participating children were recruited from nine Benavides, L. E. (2015). Protective factors in children and adoles- geographically separated Family Justice Center communi- cents exposed to intimate partner violence: An empirical research review. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, ties, the participants from this study reflect a limited 32, 93–107. sample of children exposed to domestic violence from the Bryant, F. B., & Harrison, P. R. (2015). Measures of hope and west coast of the US. Finally, while improvements in hope optimism: Assessing positive expectations of the future. In G. and character strength were statistically significant; the J. Boyle, D. H. Saklofske, & G. Matthews (Eds.), Measures of personality and social psychological constructs (pp. 47–73). effect size estimates found in this study were small and is New York, NY: Academic Press. yet unclear if these changes can be sustained across time. Carlson, B. (1990). Adolescent observers of marital violence. Journal Clearly, replications, refinements and extensions are of Family Violence, 5, 285–299. desired. These preliminary findings set the stage for Chang, E. C. (1998). Hope, problem-solving ability, and coping in a college student population: Some implications for theory and researchers to engage in quasi-experimental or experi- practice. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 54(7), 953–962. mental evaluations to examine the impact of Camp HOPE Chang, E. C., & DeSimone, S. L. (2001). The influence of hope on on children exposed to domestic violence. appraisals, coping, and dysphoria: A test of thope theory. Journal of Clinical and Social Psychology, 20, 117–129. Ciarrochi, J., Heaven, P. C. L., & Davies, F. (2007). The impact of Discussion and Implications for Research hope, self-esteem, and attributional style on adolescents’ school grades and emotional well-being: A longitudinal study. Journal Empirical evidence demonstrates the significance between of Research in Personality, 41, 1161–1178. exposure to domestic violence and a child’s potential for Ciarrochi, J., Parker, P., Kashdan, T. B., Heaven, P. C. L., & Barkus, E. (2015). Hope and emotional well-being: A six-year study to physical, psychological, social, and behavioral difficulties (Evans et al., 2008; Summers, 2006). Research supported 123 276 C. M. Hellman, C. Gwinn

distinguish antecedents, correlates, and consequences. The Litrownik, A. J., Newton, R., & Hunter, W. M. (2003). Exposure to Journal of Positive Psychology, 10, 520–532. family violence in young at-risk children: A longitudinal look at Collins, S. (2015). Hope and helping in social work. Practice: Social the effects of victimization and witnessed physical and psycho- Work in Action, 27, 197–213. logical aggression. Journal of Family Violence, 18, Special Evans, S. E., Cavies, C., & DiLillo, D. (2008). Exposure to domestic issue: LONGSCAN and family violence, 59–73. violence: A meta-analysis of child and adolescent outcomes. Marques, S. C., Lopez, S. J., & Pais-Ribeiro, J. L. (2011). ‘‘Building Aggression and Violent Behavior, 13, 131–140. hope for the future’’: A program to foster strengths in middle- Fantuzzo, J. W., & Mohr, W. K. (1999). Prevalence and effects of school students. Journal of Happiness Studies, 12, 139–152. child exposure to domestic violence. Future of Children, Special McCarter, A. K. (2007). The impact of hopelessness and hope on the Issue: Domestic Violence and Children, 9, 21–32. social work profession. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Felitti, V. J., & Anda, R. F. (2010). The relationship of adverse Environment, 15, 107–124. childhood experiences to adult medical disease, psychiatric Ong, A. D., Edwards, L. M., & Bergeman, C. S. (2006). Hope as a disorders and sexual behaviors: Implications for healthcare. In R. source of resilience in later adulthood. Personality and Individ- A. Lanius, E. Vermetten, & C. Pain (Eds.), The impact of early ual Differences, 41, 1263–1273. life trauma on health and disease: The hidden epidemic (pp. Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2009). Character strengths: Research and 77–87). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. practice. Journal of College & Character, 10, 1–9. Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R. K., & Turner, H. A. (2007). Poly- Pedrotti, J. T., Edwards, L., & Lopez, S. J. (2008). Promoting hope: victimization and trauma in a national longitudinal cohort. Suggestions for school counselors. Professional School Coun- Development and Psychopathology, 19, 149–166. seling, 12, 100–107. Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R., Turner, H., & Holt, M. (2009). Pathways Rapp, C. A., Saleebey, D., & Sullivan, W. P. (2005). The future of to poly-victimization. Child Maltreatment, 14, 316–329. strengths-based social work. Advances in Social Work, 6, 79–90. Finkelhor, D., Turner, H., Hamby, S., & Ormrod, R. (2011). Reavis, J. A., Looman, K. A., Franco, A., & Rojas, B. (2013). Polyvictimizatin: Children’s exposure to multiple types of Adverse childhood experiences and adult criminality: How long violence, crime, and abuse. Juvenile Justice Bulletin (October, must we live before we process our own lives? The Permanente 2011). Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Journal, 17, 44–48. (OJJDP), U.S. Department of Justice. Saleebey, D. (1996). The strengths perspective in social work Ford, D. C., Merrick, M. T., Parks, S. E., Breiding, M. J., Gilbert, L. practice: Extensions and cautions. Social Work, 41, 296–305. K., Edwards, V. J., … Barile, J. P. (2014). Examination of the Saleebey, D. (2000). Power in the people: Strengths and hope. factorial structure of adverse childhood experiences and recom- Advances in Social Work, 1, 127–136. mendations for three subscale scores. Psychology of Violence, 4, Smaldino, A. (1975). The importance of hope in the casework 432–444. relationship. Social Casework, 56, 328–333. Friere, P. (1996). Pedagogy of hope: Reliving pedagogy of the Snyder, C. R. (1995). Conceptualizing, measuring, and nurturing oppressed. New York, NY: Bloomsbury. hope. Journal of Counseling & Development, 73, 355–360. Gwinn, C. (2015). Cheering for the children: Creating pathways to Snyder, C. R. (2000). The past and possible futures of hope. Journal hope for children exposed to trauma. Tuscon, AZ: Wheatmark of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19(1), 11–28. Press. Snyder, C. R. (2002). Hope theory: Rainbows of the mind. Hamby, S., Finkelhor, D., Turner, H., & Ormrod, R. (2011). Psychological Inquiry, 13, 249–275. Children’s exposure to intimate partner violence and other Snyder, C. R. (2005). Measuring hope in children. In K. A. Moore & family violence. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency L. H. Lippman (Eds.), What do children need to flourish: Prevention (OJJDP) Bulletin (NCJ232272). Washington, D.C.: Conceptualizing and measuring indicators of positive develop- US Department of Justice. ment. New York: Springer. Hellman, C. M., Pittman, M. K., & Munoz, R. T. (2013). The first Snyder, C. R., Hoza, B., Pelham, W. E., Rapoff, M., Ware, L., twenty years of the will and the ways: An examination of score Danovsky, M., … Stahl, K. J. (1997). The development and reliability distribution on Snyder’s dispositional hope scale. validation of the children’s Hope Scale. Journal of Pediatric Journal of Happiness Studies, 14, 723–729. Psychology, 22, 399–421. Horton, T. V., & Wallander, J. L. (2001). Hope and social support as Sullivan, W. P., & Floyd, D. F. (2013). Animating hope: An essential resilience factors against psychological distress of mothers who ingredient of strengths-based practice. In D. Saleeby (Ed.), The care for children with chronic physical conditions. Rehabilitation strengths perspective in social work perspective (6th ed., Psychology, 46, 382–399. pp. 221–234). Boston, MA: Pearson. Kizmann, K. M., Gaylord, N. K., Holt, A. R., & Kenny, E. D. (2003). Summers, A. (2006). Children’s exposure to domestic violence: A Child witnesses to domestic violence: A meta-analytic review. guide to research and resources. Reno, NV: National Council of Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 7, 339–352. Juvenile and Family Court Judges. Kwok, S. Y. C. L., Gu, M., & Kit, K. T. K. (2016). Positive Valle, M. F., Huebner, E. S., & Suldo, S. M. (2004). Further psychology intervention to alleviate child depression and validation of the Children’s Hope Scale. Journal of Psychoed- increase life satisfaction: A randomized clinical trial. Research ucational Assessment, 22, 320–337. on Social Work Practice, 26, 350–361. Wolfe, D. A., Crooks, C. V., Lee, V., & McIntyre-Smith, A. (2003). Kwon, P. (2000). Hope and dysphoria: The moderating role of The effects of children’s exposure to domestic violence: A meta- defense mechanisms. Journal of Personality, 68, 199–223. analysis and critique. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Lichter, E. L., & McCloskey, L. A. (2004). The effects of childhood Review, 6, 171–187. exposure to marital violence on adolescent gender-role beliefs. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28, 344–357.

123 J Happiness Stud (2011) 12:139–152 DOI 10.1007/s10902-009-9180-3

RESEARCH PAPER

‘‘Building Hope for the Future’’: A Program to Foster Strengths in Middle-School Students

Susana C. Marques • Shane J. Lopez • J. L. Pais-Ribeiro

Published online: 10 December 2009 Ó Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009

Abstract The authors investigated the effectiveness of a 5-week hope-based intervention designed to enhance hope, life satisfaction, self-worth, mental health and academic achievement in middle school students. The study includes a sample of 31 students from a community school, a matched comparison group of 31 students, and 2 secondary groups— guardians and teachers of the students’ intervention group. Students completed a questionnaire packet that included demographic information, the Portuguese versions of the Children’s Hope Scale, Students’ Life Satisfaction Scale, Mental Health and Self-Worth Scales. Academic achievement was obtained from school records. At baseline, groups are statistically similar on the variables of interest. At post-test the intervention group had enhanced hope, life satisfaction and self-worth. In the intervention group, beneﬁts in hope, life satisfaction and self-worth were maintained at the 18-month follow up. Results suggest that a brief hope intervention can increase psychological strengths, and participants continue to beneﬁt up to 1-year and 6-months later.

Keywords Academic achievement Intervention Mental-health Middle-schoolers Positive thinking variables

1 Introduction

In Snyder’s hope theory, hope has gone beyond wishful thinking to an understanding of how intentional thought leads to adaptive action. Snyder et al. (1991) characterized hope as a human strength manifested in capacities to: (a) clearly conceptualize goals (goals thinking), (b) develop the speciﬁc strategies to reach those goals (pathways thinking), and (c) initiate and sustain the motivation for using those strategies (agency thinking).

S. C. Marques (&) J. L. Pais-Ribeiro Department of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Dr. Manuel Pereira da Silva, 4200-392 Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected]

S. J. Lopez The Clifton Strengths School and Gallup, 1001 Gallup Drive, Omaha, NE 68102, USA 123 140 S. C. Marques et al.

Goals-thinking is ubiquitous in youth, but often unrefined. Pathways and agency thinking are both necessary, but neither by itself is sufficient to sustain successful goal pursuit. As such, pathways and agency thoughts are additive, reciprocal, and positively related, but they are not synonymous (Snyder et al. 1991). Both components are necessary for hopeful thinking. Hope reflects relative enduring, cross-situational subjective appraisals of goal- related capabilities (Snyder 2000). People with high hope tend to be successful in their goal pursuits and, as a result, tend to experience more positive emotions. People with low hope tend to have more difficulty in overcoming the barriers to goal attainment and, therefore, tend to experience more negative emotions (Lopez et al. 2003; Snyder 2002). Hope predicts many important outcomes, from physical and mental health to academic and athletic success (see Snyder 2002 for a summary review). Research has shown that a child’s hopeful thinking is positively associated with perceived competence and self-esteem or self-worth (Marques et al. 2009a), and negatively associated with symptoms of depression (Snyder et al. 1997). Children and adolescents who report higher levels of hope also view themselves in a favorable light and have slightly positive self-referential illusions. Accumulating evidence suggests that hope is related to life satisfaction and well-being (e.g., Gilman et al. 2006). In a related study, Marques et al. (2009a) found that hope is significantly and positively correlated with global life satisfaction and mental health in a sample of 367 Portuguese middle-school students. Higher levels of hope are also related to greater reported scholastic and social competence (Onwuegbuzie 1999), and positively correlated with greater academic achievements (e.g., Lopez et al. 2000a; Marques et al. 2009b, c; Snyder et al. 1997). Recent research has shown that hope reports of adolescents moderate the relationship between their global life satisfaction and their later internalizing behaviors (Valle et al. 2006) providing preliminary evidence that hope, as a strengths, can buffer against the effects of acute negative life events. Hope theory and research with students can be aggregated into three categories—goals, pathways, and agency. Goals, whether short-term or long-term, provide the targets of mental action sequences and vary in the degree to which they are specified, but all goals must be of sufficient value to warrant sustained conscious thought about them (Snyder 2002). High-hope people appear to infuse a certain amount of uncertainty into their goal- pursuits and set goals with moderate levels of difficulty that appear to maximize the pathways and agency components of hope more enthusiastically than easier goals. Path- ways thinking refer to a person’s perceived ability to generate workable routes to desired goals (Snyder et al. 2002b). The production of several pathways is important when encountering impediments and is more likely to be present in high-hope individuals. It is characterized by affirming internal messages, such as ‘I’ll find a way to get this done!’ Agency thinking is the motivational component in hope theory that reflects a person’s cognitions about his or her ability to begin and sustain goal-directed behavior (Snyder et al. 2003). Agency thinking is especially important when people encounter impediments (Snyder 2002). Self-referential thoughts can be seen in internal speech, such as ‘I can do this’ and ‘I am not going to be stopped’ (Snyder et al. 1998). See Lopez et al. (2009), McDermott and Snyder (1999, 2000) or Snyder et al. (2002a, b) for detailed information on imparting goal setting, pathways and agency thinking to students. Recent studies have provided preliminary evidence for the efficacy of fostering hope in different samples. In a sample of adults that previously had completed some form of psychological treatment, a protocol designed to increase hopeful thinking and enhance goal-pursuit activities produced increases in hope, purpose in life and self-esteem and decreases in depressive and anxiety symptoms (Cheavens et al. 2006). In a sample of adults 123 Fostering Strengths in Middle-Schoolers 141 from the community, an intervention focused on developing goal setting and planning skills, showed significant increases in subjective well-being (MacLeod et al. 2007). In another study, a college class aimed at teaching hopeful thinking (Curry et al. 1999), students experienced increases in levels of hope, academic performances and self-esteem. Klausner et al. (1998, 2000) conducted a hope-based intervention for older adults diagnosed with depression or residual depressive symptoms. The hope-based group resulted in significant improvements on all measured outcomes (e.g., hope, anxiety, family interactions). Finally, Lopez et al. (2000a) designed an intervention to enhance hope in children and adolescents and the results showed that all students (low, medium and high hope) raised their levels of hope after participating in the program. The goal of the current study is to evaluate the effectiveness of a 5-week hope-based intervention with regard to hope, life satisfaction, self-worth, mental-health and academic achievement in middle school students up to 18 months following the intervention. We hypothesized that, compared to the comparison group, the intervention group would have significant increases in hopeful thinking, life satisfaction, self-worth, academic achievement and better mental-health at post- and follow-up assessments. Compared to other studies seeking to improve goal-directed thinking (Cheavens et al. 2006; Curry et al. 1999; Klausner et al. 1998, 2000; Lopez et al. 2000a; MacLeod et al. 2007), this study includes a broad-scale hope intervention through the collaboration of key stakeholders (Huebner 2004) such as parents, teachers and school peers. Parents and teachers were included because past research indicates (or it is theorized that) children develop hope through learning to trust in the predictability of cause and effect interactions with parents and caregivers, as does building hope through learning to trust in the ordered predictability and consistency of their interactions with their teachers (Lopez et al. 2009). Moreover, multiple factors are involved in the positive thinking of children and adolescents, and research clearly demonstrates the importance of ecological factors (Huebner 2004) embedded in an interpersonal, social-familial, and institutional context (Gordon and Crabtree 2006; Sara- son 1997). Such findings are inconsistent with programs that focus exclusively on changing individuals rather than environments. Thus, comprehensive efforts at modifying children’s hope and related behavior should not only include direct work with students, but also include efforts to modify environments.

2 Methods

2.1 Participants

A total of 62 participants took part in the study, 31 in the intervention group and 31 in the matched comparison group. All participants were Caucasian, in year 6 at school, the majority were female (71%) and the mean age was 10.96 years (range 10–12 years; SD = .31). Our study represents a quasi-experimental design with a matched comparison group, selected from a student body of 336 students. We sought to match the two groups as closely as possible, with no differences in variables of interest between the two groups (age, gender, school year, ethnicity, hope, mental-health, life satisfaction, self-worth and academic achievement). To evaluate the post-intervention outcomes and durability of change over time participants completed assessments at pre-, post-, 6-, and 18-month follow-up. There was no sample attrition at post-assessment. At 6-month follow-up the intervention group included 28 students (attrition rate = 9.68%), and the comparison group included 26 123 142 S. C. Marques et al. students (attrition rate = 16.13%). At the 18-month follow-up the intervention group consisted of 27 students attrition rate = 12.91%) and the comparison group consisted of 24 students (attrition rate = 22.59%). Of the 12.91% of eligible students from the intervention group who did not participate at Time 4, 100% had moved/withdrawn from the school district. Of the 22.59% of eligible students from the comparison group who did not participate at Time 4, school ofﬁcials reported that 95.84% had moved/withdrawn from the school district; the remaining 4.16% of students were absent on data collection dates during Time 4. T-tests were conducted to test the potential effects of sample attrition. Comparisons of mean scores on the variables of hope, life satisfaction, self-worth, mental-health and academic achievement between students who completed all assessment (Time 1–4) and those students lost to attrition indicated no signiﬁcant differences between the two groups. There are two secondary groups, 29 student parents/guardians of the intervention group (68.4% females, 89.47% married or in a long-term committed relationship, and 10.53% divorced) and 8 teachers of the intervention group (8 teachers, 62.5% females, 100% married or in a long-term committed relationship).

2.2 Measures

This study employed translated and validated measures of the target constructs (hope, satisfaction with life, self-worth, and mental-health) linked to child well-being (Huebner 2004; Riesen and Porath 2004; Snyder et al. 2000). Moreover, these positive thinking variables are generally regarded as key protective factors in early-adolescent psychological development (e.g., Snyder et al. 2000; Suldo and Huebner 2004; Valle et al. 2006). For example, life satisfaction has been linked with several adaptive outcomes and is associated with positive development (Huebner 2004). Self-worth is regarded as an important aspect of one’s social and cognitive development and it has consistently been found to be related to positive behavioral, academic, and psychological outcomes (e.g., Harter 1999). Mental health represents salient dimensions of individual adjustment and level of functioning and positive indicators of mental health has been associated with psychological well-being (Ware et al. 1993).

2.3 Children Hope Scale

The Children Hope Scale (CHS) is a dispositional scale developed by Snyder et al. (1997) to measure hopeful thinking in children and adolescents aged 8–16. The measure contains six items (each item is presented as an afﬁrmation) responded to on a 6-point scale ranging from 1 = none of the time, to 6 = all of the time. This self-report measure contains three questions to evaluate pathways thinking (e.g., I can think of many ways to get the things in life that are most important to me) and three questions to examine agentic thinking (e.g., I am doing just as well as other kids of my age). Possible scores range from 6 to 36, with higher scores denoting higher levels of hope. In this study, the CHS is called ‘‘Questions About Your Goals’’ and respondents are asked to answer the questions based upon how they are in most situations. Previous studies with the CHS revealed adequate psychometric properties, including internal consistencies ranging between .72 and .86 for the total score (see Snyder et al. 2003 for a review).The CHS has been validated for Portuguese children (Marques et al. 2009a) with a Cronbach’s alpha of .81 for the total score.

123 Fostering Strengths in Middle-Schoolers 143

2.4 Students’ Life Satisfaction Scale

The Students’ Life Satisfaction Scale (SLSS) (Huebner 1991) is a self-report measure to evaluate the satisfaction with life as a whole (e.g., My life is better than most kids’ vs. My family life is better than most kids’) in individuals ranging in age from 8 to 18 years. Respondents are asked to answer the questions based on the thoughts that had in the last few weeks. For each of the seven items of the scale, presented as an afﬁrmation, there are six response choices ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree. Items are summed to produce a global index of life satisfaction. The scale scores range from 7 to 42, with higher scores denoting higher levels of global satisfaction with life. The internal consistency of the SLSS has been reported as .82 (Huebner 1991) and .86 in a subsequent exploratory study (Dew and Huebner 1994).The SLSS has been validated for Portuguese children (Marques et al. 2007) with a Cronbach’s alpha of .89.

2.5 Global Self-Worth Sub-Scale

The Self-Worth Sub-Scale (SWS) is one of the six sub-scales of the Self Perception Profile for Children (Harter 1985), which is a self-report measure focused on children’s (aged 8–16 years) domain-specific judgments of their competence, as well as a global perception of self-worth. The SWSS taps the extent to which the child likes self as a person, and constitutes a global judgment of personal worth. The sub-scale can be administered in groups as well as individually, and children respond based on a specific question format. As the authors considered the tendency for socially desirable responses as a major problem in self-concept scales, they applied a new format where the child is first asked to decide from two sentences which kind of child is most like him- or herself. Once the child has decided which of the two sentences describes his or her self-perception better, they are asked whether the sentence chosen is sort of true or really true. The general procedures are to score each item (e.g., ‘‘some kids like the person they are but other kids often wish they were someone else’’) on a 4-point scale, with a score of 4 reflecting high self-worth and a score of 1 designating low self-worth. Earlier data from Harter (1985) show acceptable internal consistency ranging from .78 to .84 for this sub-scale. The Self Perception Profile for Children with it six sub-scales has been validated for Portuguese children (Alves- Martins et al. 1995) with a reported Cronbach’s alpha of .62.

2.6 Mental Health Inventory—5

MHI-5 is a short version of the Mental Health Inventory with 38 items developed in 1975 for the ‘‘Rand Health Insurance Experiment’’ and it is included in both versions of the Medical Outcome Study (MOS) questionnaires: MOS Short Form 20 (SF-20; Stewart et al. 1988) and MOS Short Form 36 (SF-36; Ware and Sherbourne 1992). MHI-5 is one of the eight dimensions (designated as ‘‘mental-health’’) of the SF-36 (Short Form-36 Health Survey) questionnaire (Ware et al. 1993), a valuable generic tool to describe the perceived health state and life quality of respondents (McHorney et al. 1994). The MHI-5 was developed for use in the general population and designed to improve upon other instruments by including items that assessed psychological well-being (Veit and Ware 1983). This inventory comprises five questions (e.g., How much of the time, during the last month, have you been a happy person?) about mood over the past month, measuring the experience of psychological well-being and the absence of psychological distress. Each of the items requires a response on a 6-point rating scale (all of the time to none of the time), 123 144 S. C. Marques et al. with possible scores range from 6 to 30, and the instrument is scored such that higher scores indicate better mental health. Internal consistency reliability coefficients range from .67 to .95 from the five items on the SF-36 scale (Ware et al. 1993). The MHI-5 has been validated for Portuguese children (Marques et al. 2009d) with a reported Cronbach’s alpha of .82.

2.7 Academic Achievement

Students’ academic achievement (AA) reports were obtained from students school records; grades were calculated by summing the numerical values of each subjects scores (i.e., Portuguese and English languages, Mathematic, Natural Sciences, History and Geography, and Musical, Physical, Visual and Technological Education) and dividing by the total number of subjects, resulting in an average score for each student. Students’ academic achievement reﬂects their school records over the current grade with possible range of scores between 1 and 5, with 1 reporting the lowest achievement and 5 reporting the highest achievement.

2.8 Procedure

Approval to collect data was secured through the administrator from each school (N = 7), students and their parents. A letter describing the project and requesting permission for student participation was sent home to parents of potential participants. A total of 367 children and their parents consented to participate in the project. Each student who obtained parental consent and gave assent to participate in the study was administered each of the measures described above in groups of 15–30 students. The size of the group was dependent upon the space available within each school, as well as the amount of adult assistance present to promote the full understanding of instructions and the confidential completion of all measures. The measures completed by all participants were presented in a counterbalanced order. The students were first asked to complete the demographic survey and then the psychological scales. They were then thanked for their participation and dismissed. Research assistants were available during all administration sessions to answer questions and ensure confidentiality. At times 2, 3, and 4 students consent was re-obtained and survey administration procedures were the same as for time 1. Students’ academic achievement records were provided by school with the permission of students, parents and schools administration. Intervention groups met after school once each week for a total of five 60-min sessions. Teachers and guardians of the students of the intervention group participated in a session of 1 h during the first week of the students’ intervention. There was no commu- nication between guardians and teachers of the intervention and comparison groups during intervention and follow-up.

2.9 Building Hope for the Future

The program was designed for a group format delivered over 5 weekly sessions, to help students to (1) conceptualize clear goals; (2) produce numerous range of pathways to attainment; (3) summon the mental energy to maintain the goal pursuit; and (4) reframe seemingly insurmountable obstacles as challenges to be overcome (Lopez et al. 2000b). The intervention is conducted in a group setting because it has been theorized that 123 Fostering Strengths in Middle-Schoolers 145 hopeful thinking reflects a transactional process (Snyder et al. 1997). The first session ‘‘Learning about Hope’’ was dedicated to the introduction of the hope theory and its relevance to the change process and to positive outcomes (e.g., learn the vocabulary used in the model though acting out the hope picture). In the second session ‘‘Structuring Hope’’, participants were encouraged to learn how to recognize goals, pathways and agency components of hope; obstacles; and to identify personal goals (salient and attain- able) they could work with for the next 4 weeks (e.g., learn to identify goals, obstacles, pathways and agency from stories or examples). The third session ‘‘Creating Positive and Specific Goals’’ was dedicated to practice the model, talking about hope and goals, refine personal workable goals in order to be more specific, positive and clearer and by creating multiple pathways and identifying agency thoughts for each goal (e.g., reorganize goals in a ‘‘goal enhancer worksheet’’ by making it more specific and positive). The fourth session ‘‘Practice Makes Perfect’’ was spent learning to identify and create an ‘‘hopeful talk’’; the hope model was reinforced and; personal workable goals were reviewed and introduced in a personal hope story (e.g., follow the progress of the goals through a ‘‘Hope Buddy Journal’’). In the fifth session ‘‘Review and Apply for the Future’’, participants were encouraged to review and share personal hope stories and to plan future steps (e.g., evaluate the process and discuss next steps with the hope buddy and share with the group). Each session started with a 10 min segment dedicated to modeling and developing enthusiasm for the program and to reinforcing ideas learned in the previous session. Examples of personal goals that participants selected were increased performance in school subjects, improving interpersonal relationships, and involvement in extra curricula activities. The program is based on the theoretical work (Snyder 1994) and applied work (e.g., Lopez et al. 2000a, b; Snyder et al. 2002a; McDermott and Snyder 1999). This program integrates solution-focused, narrative and cognitive-behavioral techniques. It offers psycho-educational, skills training and group process components, and includes structured activities, roleplaying, and guided discussion. Building Hope for the Future (BHF) was designed to control for adult attention, group cohesion, social support, the discussion of hope components, sharing thoughts and feelings with peers, and engagement in session’s activities. In the intervention condition, participants attended five 1-h sessions. Groups had between 8 and 12 participants and two leaders. The group leaders were doctoral students in psychology. Standardization among trainers was ensured through the use of a detailed and structured manual for trainers, used in combination with 10 h of didactic training carried out over a 2-days period. At the first and fifth sessions, intervention condition participants were administered the assessment measures. The assessment measures were administered to the comparison group at the beginning and at the end of the 5 weeks but without any kind of intervention. The manual for parents and the manual for teachers were designed to: (1) increase parents and teachers awareness of the principles of hope and enhance their goal-setting behavior; and (2) promote goal-setting behavior in their children/students. In a 1-h session, 2 psychologists explained the three segments of the manuals to the parent/guardians (8–10 per group) of the intervention group: The first segment was dedicated to learning about hope (e.g., hope concept, research on hope, how hope can be cultivated, reflection questions). In the second segment, ‘‘Instilling Hope’’, participants were taught ‘‘Hope Finding’’ (e.g., self-evaluation with the Hope Scale from Snyder 1991) and ‘‘Hope Bonding’’ (how to build hopeful relationships). The third segment, ‘‘Increasing Hope’’, was dedicated to ‘‘Hope Enhancing’’ (basic steps associated with hope enhancement) and ‘‘Hope 123 146 S. C. Marques et al.

Table 1 Means and standard deviations on dependent variables by group and time Measure Group Time 1 Time 2 Time 3 Time 4

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

CHS Intervention 21.83 5.07 26.21 4.35 26.00 4.18 25.62 4.17 Comparison 22.94 3.55 24.06 3.85 23.44 4.47 23.43 4.45 SLSS Intervention 29.12 4.95 32.21 4.65 32.04 4.15 31.75 4.14 Comparison 29.28 6.16 29.28 5.25 28.83 5.28 29.33 5.97 SWS Intervention 17.03 3.00 19.79 2.94 18.95 2.07 18.90 2.05 Comparison 18.06 2.07 18.06 1.98 18.22 2.55 18.16 2.35 MHI-5 Intervention 22.21 3.92 23.84 3.50 23.79 3.76 23.58 3.06 Comparison 23.83 3.52 21.61 3.55 22.16 3.14 22.05 2.83 AA Intervention 3.92 .65 4.28 .71 4.09 .66 4.10 .78 Comparison 4.28 .71 4.11 .54 3.97 .61 3.94 .45 CHS Children Hope Scale; SLSS Students’ Life Satisfaction Scale; SWS Self-Worth Sub-Scale; MHI-5 mental health inventory; AA academic achievement

Reminding’’ (strategies and practical exercises to improve their own hope and in their children/students).

3 Results

Statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS version 16. The distribution of the variables was examined. Because the data were normally distributed and were without significant outliers, no transformations were made for the remaining analyses. Additionally, there were no significant differences between groups on any of the variables of interest at time 1, suggesting that the matching procedure was effective. Means and standard deviations on dependent variables by group and time are presented in Table 1. Correlation analyses reveal that at Time 1, hope had significant correlations with life satisfaction r(62) = .55, p \ .01, self-worth r(62) = .51, p \ .01, mental health r(62) = .47, p \ .01 and academic achievement r(62) = .33, p \ .01.1 Repeated measures ANOVAs was conducted to test for any group differences on participants’ hope, life satisfaction, self-worth, mental-health and academic achievement, over time, with treatment condition as the between-subject factor and assessment point as the within-subjects dependent variable. In order to investigate differences between conditions at each occasion of measurement, independent sample t-tests were computed. For post-test, 6- and 18-month follow-up, differences in change from baseline between each of the two conditions were tested using paired sample t-tests (Figs. 1, 2, 3). Type I error rate was set at .05.

3.1 CHS

A repeated measures ANOVA showed a signiﬁcant interaction between group and time on the CHS, Wilks’ Lambda = .79, F(3,120) = 3.00, p = .03, partial eta squared = .07,

1 Correlations among the variables at pre-test, post-test, 6-month and 18-month follow-up are available upon request. Requests should be made to the ﬁrst author. 123 Fostering Strengths in Middle-Schoolers 147

27 intervention comparison

24 CHS Scores

1 2 3 4 Time

Fig. 1 CHS means by group at time 1 (pre), time 2 (post) time 3 (6-month follow-up) and time 4 (18-month follow-up)

intervention 32 comparison

31 SLSS Scores 30

1 2 3 4 Time

Fig. 2 SLSS means by group at time 1 (pre), time 2 (post) time 3 (6-month follow-up) and time 4 (18- month follow-up) 123 148 S. C. Marques et al.

20 intervention comparison

19,5

19 SWS Scores 18,5

17,5

1 2 3 4 Time

Fig. 3 SWS means by group at time 1 (pre), time 2 (post) time 3 (6-month follow-up) and time 4 (18-month follow-up)

indicating different patterns of change of the intervention and comparison groups over time. Statistically significant difference was found between the intervention and comparison groups on post-test (p \ .05), 6-month (p \ .04), and 18-month follow-up (p \ .05). The intervention group showed a significant increase in hope from pre- to post-assessment t(60) =-4.29, p \ .001 (two-tailed) and to 6-month t(52) =-4.03, p = .001 (two-tailed) and 18-month follow-up t(49) =-3.38, p = .003 (two-tailed). The comparison group showed no significant change over time. These results are summarized in Fig. 1.

3.2 SLSS

A repeated measures ANOVA showed a significant interaction between group and time on the SLSS, Wilks’ Lambda = .77, F(3, 120) = 2.66, p = .05, partial eta squared = .06, indicating different patterns of change of the intervention and comparison groups over time. Statistically significant difference was found between the intervention and comparison groups on post-test (p \ .05), 6-month (p \ .05), and 18-month follow- up (p \ .05). The intervention group showed a significant increase in life satisfaction from pre- to post-assessment t(60) =-4.49, p \ .001 (two-tailed) and to 6-month t(52) =-3.83, p = .001 (two-tailed) and 18-month follow-up t(49) =-3.81, p \ .001 (two-tailed). The comparison group showed no significant change over time. These results are summarized in Fig. 2. 123 Fostering Strengths in Middle-Schoolers 149

3.3 SWS

A repeated measures ANOVA showed a significant interaction between group and time on the SWS, Wilks’ Lambda = .77, F(3,120) = 2.57, p = .05, partial eta squared = .06, indicating different patterns of change of the intervention and comparison groups over time. Statistically significant difference was found between the intervention and comparison groups on post-assessment (p \ .01). The intervention group showed a significant increase in self-worth from pre- to post-assessment t(60) =-5.27, p \ .001 (two-tailed) and to 6-month t(52) =-2.42, p = .02 (two-tailed) and 18-month follow-up t(49) = -2.42, p = .02 (two-tailed).. The comparison group showed no significant change over time. These results are summarized in Fig. 3.

3.4 MHI-5

A repeated measures ANOVA showed no significant interaction between group and time on the MHI, Wilks’ Lambda = .77, F(3,120) = 1.51, p = .21, partial eta squared = .03. The main effect for time was not significant, Wilks’ Lambda = .94, F(1,40) = .55, p = .98, partial eta squared = .01. The main effect for group was not significant, F(1,40) = 2.30, p = .13, partial eta squared = .05.

3.5 AA

A repeated measures ANOVA showed no significant interaction between group and time on the AA, Wilks’ Lambda = .05, F(3,120) = .87, p = .45, partial eta squared = .02. The main effect for time was significant, Wilks’ Lambda = .45, F(1, 40) = 6.54, p = .00, partial eta squared = .13. The main effect for group was not significant, F(1,40) = .35, p = .55, partial eta squared = .00.

4 Discussion

The significant changes in Children Hope Scale, Students0 Life Satisfaction Scale, and Self Worth Sub-Scale scores suggest that interventions designed to increase students’ strengths (in this case, hope), influence other psychological constructs. The increase in hope was expected and is consistent with other studies that seek to foster goal-directed thinking (Cheavens et al. 2006; Curry et al. 1999; Klausner et al 1998, 2000; Lopez et al. 2000a; MacLeod et al. 2007). This intervention is a strengths-oriented approach to help students realize goals for a more satisfactory life (Lopez et al. 2000a) and it is plausible that an increase in life satisfaction is a by-product of the increase in goal-directed thinking. These results are consistent with the study of MacLeod et al. (2007). The intervention also intended to increase student confidence in their ability to achieve desired goals which in turn helps to develop a positive attitude toward the self (Lopez et al. 2000a) which may explain the increase in self-worth. These results are consistent with the study of Curry et al. (1999). As hypothesized, the comparison group demonstrated no change in hope, life satisfaction and self-worth from baseline to post- or follow-up assessment (in that developmental time window). The MHI-5 was included in this study for exploratory purposes as there is no known longitudinal intervention data for this measure; mental-health indicators has previously been used as an outcome variable (Cheavens et al. 2006) and as a mediator (Shorey et al. 123 150 S. C. Marques et al.

2003) between parenting styles and mental health outcomes in youth. It was hypothesized that mental-health would increase for the strengths intervention group only, however while there was a trend in the predicted direction, the result was not significant. We suggest further research include mental health measures to inspect this relationships. It was also hypothesised that academic achievement would increase for the intervention group compared to the control group, however, while there was a trend in the predicted direction, the result was not significant. Academic achievement is very stable over time (Marques et al. 2009c), and as a result may be less amenable to change. However, these results are not consistent with the findings reported by Curry et al. (1999) with college students, but consistent with the relationships between hope and academic achievement (e.g., Marques et al. 2009c; Snyder et al. 1997). Hope predict academic achievement at a single time point (Marques et al. 2009b; Snyder et al. 1997) but does not contribute significantly to the prediction of students’ academic achievement 1- and 2-years later when initial academic achievement was controlled for (Marques et al. 2009c). Alternatively, these results may be because it takes longer to see a shift in academic achievement. Nevertheless future studies are needed to further examine this issue. In the present study the result is statistically significant by time but unlikely to be a meaningful finding.

5 Conclusions and Implications

Results suggest that an intervention designed to foster hope in middle schoolers can produce psychological benefits, by increasing hope, life satisfaction and self-worth. These results do not support there being significant changes in mental-health or academic achievement as a result of the intervention. These findings are consistent with previous interventions to enhance goal-directed thinking and strongly support the application of group-based approaches for raising the hopeful thinking of all students (e.g., the curriculum and school environment for students could be arranged and improved in the direction of supporting hopeful thinking). Moreover, this intervention has the potential to address issues of efficacy, accessibility (students, teachers, and parents) and sustainability (low cost to deliver in a group-setting and with 5 weeks only). There are no studies, of which we are aware, promoting hope in students with the collaboration of key stakeholders (parents and teachers); therefore, we hope that this research can be a first step to stimulate further research with an holistic approach in order to provide a positive development and better educational contexts for students. Further, it would be interesting for future studies to have feedback on what the benefits of using this holistic approach (e.g., increased hope for parents and teachers). One limitation of this study is that it was not possible to use a randomized control trial design; given the study’s 18-month duration a wait-list control group was also not feasible and the study had neither a placebo group nor a competing treatment group. In this connection, it would have been interesting to observe an additional group in which only children (and not their guardians and teachers) receive the intervention. This important limitation may cloud the interpretation of the findings. This study is also limited by its reliance on a small, exclusively white, disproportionately female sample, and future research on larger and more diverse samples is important for determining the generalizability of the findings. Nonetheless, the results have important scientific and social implications. They contribute to researchers’ emerging scientific understanding of the basic nature and longitudinal development of children’ hope and other positive thinking 123 Fostering Strengths in Middle-Schoolers 151 variables though deliberation action, and they provide critically important information for educators and clinicians attempting to understand and develop psychological strengths.

Acknowledgments This research was funded via a Foundation for the Science and Technology (FCT) grant obtained by the ﬁrst author. We wish also to address our thanks to Joanna Mitchell (Monash Uni- versity, Australia) for her comments on the manuscript and to Dr. Isabel Pinto (Porto University, Portugal) for her comments on the statistical analysis of the manuscript.

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123 The positive impact and development of hopeful leaders

Suzanne J. Peterson Department of Management, Miami University, Oxford, USA Fred Luthans Department of Management, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, USA

Keywords relationship between leader hope and work Introduction Organizational behavior, unit financial performance and subordinate Psychology, Leadership, Individual satisfaction and retention. The last part of behaviour, Personality In today's turbulent environment facing organizations uncertain, slumping economy, the paper discusses the implications and Abstract rampant mergers and acquisitions, constant future of the role of the hopeful leader in the Although hope is commonly used competitive pressures, escalating technology, workplace. in terms of wishful thinking, as a and especially, post-9/11 trauma), the word positive psychological concept consisting of the dimensions of hope seems to be in every presentation and both willpower 1agency) and conversational interaction. The common, The meaning and measures of hope waypower 1pathways), it has been everyday use of the word refers to the found to be positively related to feeling that things will turn out okay or for Hope has been historically used in academic, athletic and health psychology as general expectations of outcomes. The impact of hopeful the best. However, in the emerging positive leaders, however, has not been psychology movement see special issues in meeting goals Lewin, 1935; Stotland, 1969). empirically analyzed. This the January 2000 and March 2001 American However, in recent years clinical exploratory study 1N = 59) found Psychologist and the Winter 2001 Journal of psychologist C. Rick Snyder and his that high- as compared to low- Humanistic Psychology) and Luthans' recent colleagues Snyder, 1994a, b, 2000; Snyder hope leaders had more profitable work units and had better proposal for positive organizational behavior et al., 1991a, 1996) have suggested that hope is satisfaction and retention rates or POB see Luthans, 2001, 2002a, b; Luthans made up of two necessary dimensions. First, among their subordinates. The and Jensen, 2001) and positive approach to people act on goals they set by using their implications of these preliminary leadership or PAL Luthans et al., 2002) agency motivation and drive). Second, findings of the positive impact that hopeful leaders may have in the hope is included as a core construct. This alternate pathways different ways or paths) workplace are discussed. growing literature on hope is based on a rich are formed to reach these goals or other theoretical foundation, operational definition goals. In this definition that we use from and valid measures. Specifically, the POB positive psychology for POB Luthans, 2002b) and PAL articles propose that this hope and PAL Luthans et al., 2002), hope consists construct has direct relevance to the of both willpower agency) and waypower workplace. However, although there is alternate pathways). The two will and way considerable evidence that hope strongly dimensions are iterative, additive, and relates to academic and athletic success, positively related, but are still conceptually mental and physical health, and coping with distinct constructs Snyder, 2000). Thus, it is difficult situations, to date there is no direct not sufficient in terms of this definition of empirical evidence that a leader's hope hope to have just agency or pathways; both positively relates to performance outcomes must be present. Consider, for example, a in the workplace. The purpose of this article is to first define sales associate who can think of many Received: May 2002 exactly what is meant by hope as a positive different ways to get new customer accounts Accepted: July 2002 psychological construct and howit differs i.e. high pathways), but who is not motivated from closely related constructs of goal to take any of these paths lowagency). setting, self-efficacy, optimism, and positive Conversely, another sales associate is highly affectivity. Next, the hope measures are motivated to call on customers i.e. high briefly reviewed. Then, the relevance and agency), but cannot think of methods to work done so far on hope in the workplace actually close the deal i.e. lowor no sets the stage for the description of the pathways). It follows that a high-hope sales associate will have both the willpower and Leadership & Organization methods and results of, to our knowledge, Development Journal the first empirical study to examine the the waypower. 24/1 [2003] 26-31 # MCB UP Limited The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at [ISSN 0143-7739] [DOI 10.1108/01437730310457302] http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0143-7739.htm

[26] Suzanne J. Peterson and While there are some similarities, Snyder's Moreover, confirmatory factor analyses Fred Luthans 2000) hope theory is conceptually distinct reveal the agency and pathways components The positive impact and from several other related positive development of hopeful to be distinct constructs that combine to leaders constructs. First, while hope has some reflect the theorized overall construct of Leadership & Organization common roots with goal-setting theory hope Babyak et al., 1993). To date, research Development Journal Lee et al., 1989; Locke and Latham, 1990), has shown that hope as measured by both the 24/1 [2003] 26-31 hope has been demonstrated to have dispositional as well as the state scales is an discriminant validity Magaletta and Oliver, effective predictor of various academic and 1999; Scioli et al., 1997). For example, the coping activities for reviews see Snyder, emphasis on goal setting theory is on the 1994b; Snyder et al., 1991b) and that hope outcome expectancies related to howone makes such predictions beyond variance due attains the desired goal. While this to other related psychological capabilities. component of goal setting is similar to the pathways component of hope, it ignores the agency component of hope. Second, there is Indirect support for the potential also similarity between hope and self-efficacy power of hope in the workplace Bandura, 1997). Specifically, the willpower As indicated in the introductory comments, or agency component of hope is similar to efficacy expectancies and the hope pathways hope has been demonstrated to have a are close to efficacy outcome expectancies. positive impact on many nonwork-related However, Bandura 1997) would argue that outcomes Snyder, 2000). Particularly the efficacy expectancies are all important, relevant to the workplace are the findings while Snyder's 2000) hope theory treats that high hope individuals tend to be more agency efficacy) and pathways outcomes) as certain of their goals and challenged by them; equally important that operate in a value progress toward goals as well as the combined, iterative manner. goals themselves; enjoy interacting with Optimism is also commonly equated with others and readily adapt to newand hope. Optimism expectancies are formed collaborative relationships; are less anxious, through others and forces outside the self especially in evaluative, stressful situations; Seligman, 1998), while Snyder's 2000) hope and are more adaptive to environmental is initiated and determined through the self. change Snyder, 1997; Snyder et al., 2000). Thus, while optimism can be considered as a While such a profile would seem to be ideal vital part of hope, it too, is conceptually for leaders faced with today's turbulent distinct. Positive and negative affectivity environment, to date, except for Luthans' PANA) e.g. see Russell and Carroll, 1999) is POB and PAL articles and some emerging another construct seemingly related to hope attempts to begin to examine hope in the whereby one's derived sense of positive and workplace context Adams et al., in press), negative emotions are related to perceptions hope has received virtually no attention in of success or failure in a given situation. the OB and HRM literature nor has it been While affectivity also includes notions about directly researched as to its impact on outcome expectancies, the emphasis is on leadership performance. one's situational thoughts and emotions Hope has remained virtually unexplored related to perceptions of goal success and in organizational leadership for two main failure as being the major causes of behavior reasons. First, until recently, a theoretical George, 1990). As such, positive and negative model of hope and the associated measures affectively may be similar to the agency have not been available. Second, like component in hope theory, but like other psychology, the field of organizational similar constructs, ignore the pathways behavior and HRM has traditionally been component of hope. dominated by understanding and Using the theory of hope detailed above, ameliorating human dysfunctions and Snyder and his colleagues have developed a problems in the workplace. Representative reliable, valid individual difference measure examples include discovering howto better of dispositional Snyder et al., 1991a) as well motivate and lead marginal, inert employees; as state ongoing, situational) hope see correct deficient organizational strategies, Snyder et al., 1996). Each of these self-report cultures, structures and job designs; howto instruments has items reflecting pathways improve dysfunctional employee attitudes thinking as well as agency thinking toward and behaviors such as resistance to change; goals. These scales have undergone rigorous and howto more effectively manage conflict psychometric analyses regarding internal and cope with stress and burnout Luthans, and temporal consistency, and the items 2001). In contrast, the aim of the proposed consistently yield two factors pathways and POB and PAL Luthans, 2002b; Luthans et al., agency) as well as a summation factor hope). 2002) which incorporate the hope construct [27] Suzanne J. Peterson and along with optimism, self-efficacy, subjective now'' and `Ì can think of many ways to reach Fred Luthans well-being, and emotional intelligence is to my current goals''). Participants are asked to The positive impact and select the number from 1 = definitely false, development of hopeful move away from a negative to a positive leaders approach that is open to development and to 8 = definitely true) that best describes, Leadership & Organization effective performance management. ``howyou think about yourself right now''. Development Journal Based on the considerable indirect The state hope is derived from the sum of the 24/1 [2003] 26-31 evidence, face validity and even one study of six item scores. social workers which found those with high The state hope scale has been demonstrated hope were less emotionally exhausted, had to have high internal reliability, as well as higher levels of job satisfaction and concurrent validity in relation to other retention, and simply seemed to perform related state measures. It has discriminant better Kirk and Koeske, 1995), we felt a direct utility that has been determined through test of the relationship between the hope empirical research to be sensitive enough to level of leaders and work unit outcomes was capture the variability in level of hope at overdue. Thus, the purpose of the present particular points in time and does so beyond study was to begin to investigate the role of projections due to other state indices Snyder leader hope in work-unit performance and et al., 1996). The Cronbach's alpha for the employee retention and job satisfaction. state hope scale in this study was 0.76. More specifically, the study was conducted to test the propositions from POB and PAL The job satisfaction measure that high-hope leaders should: have higher Job satisfaction of the employees in the units performing work units; have higher was measured using three items taken from retention rates in these units; and have more the Hackman and Oldham 1980) job satisfied subordinates. diagnostic scale. These three items were chosen in an attempt to capture overall job satisfaction, and together for this study they The method used in the exploratory had an alpha coefficient of 0.98. study Procedures used in the study For this initial exploratory study, we used The participants were given a generic not a large chain of a well-known fast-food specifically mentioning hope) management franchise company that had 21 restaurants development type of description of the study in two midwestern states. Our study group and were told that their participation was was the 59 managers of these work units voluntary. After signing the consent form, restaurants). Of this sample 75 per cent were the study participants completed the state male. Their mean age M = 34.8 years), level hope scale. They completed these prior to of education M = 15.3 years) and tenure with receiving their monthly work-unit sales the company 4.2 years) did not significantly reports that document several different differ; F < 1.00, in all cases. measures of work unit performance including gross profits and employee The state hope measure turnover. The study was designed for them to The state hope scale Snyder et al., 1996) complete these surveys prior to receiving has been shown to be theoretically related their statistics so as not to interfere with to the more traditional measure of hope their state hope. i.e. dispositional hope). Moreover, previous The study participants were identified as research has shown that state hope scores high or lowhope leaders on the basis of their have related positively to various areas of scores on the state hope scale. Leaders achievement Snyder et al., 1996). State hope scoring one or more standard deviations was used in this study in order to meet the belowor above the mean on the state hope criterion of POB of being open to scale were categorized into low-hope and development and change Luthans, 2002b). high-hope study groups. The averages for This easy to administer scale has six items these two hope groups were as follows: low that include three agency items and three hope M = 21.4, SD = 1.59, N = 35; high hope pathways items. The items are reworded M = 39.23, SD = 1.62, N = 24. from the dispositional hope scale which puts In the same time period, the leaders' statements in a more generalized sense) so as subordinates N = 685) completed the job to tap the present state e.g. two agency items satisfaction scale. This process was are `àt the present time, I am energetically completed on company time. To ensure pursing my goals'', and `àt this time, I am anonymity, participants placed completed meeting the goals that I have set for myself''; questionnaires in a sealed envelope two pathways items are ``there are lots of addressed to the researchers at their ways around any problem that I am facing university address. The work unit [28] Suzanne J. Peterson and performance, measured in gross profitability or disappear for perfect mediation) when the Fred Luthans figures, as well as the turnover statistics mediator past work unit profitability) is in The positive impact and 2 development of hopeful were provided to the researchers by the the equation, which did not occur ÁR = 0.04, leaders company. t = 2.11, p = 0.034. Therefore, given that the 2 Leadership & Organization ÁR is still 0.04 as compared to 0.04 before Development Journal entering past work unit profitability into the 24/1 [2003] 26-31 Results equation, there is no support for the mediational role of past work unit State hope effects profitability. Using gross profitability, retention, and subordinate job satisfaction as the criterion variables and the state hope scores as the Discussion predictor, the results indicated that high- hope leaders had significantly better work The results of this exploratory study suggest unit financial performance, subordinate that a leader's state hope may be a robust retention and satisfaction outcomes than predictor of work-unit performance, low-hope readers: R2 = 0.12, t = 2.91, p = 0.012 subordinate retention, and job satisfaction. correct item Ms= 62.21, 79.32 respectively, In other words, hopeful leaders seem to have for the low- vs high-hope leaders for gross a positive impact on desirable workplace profitability); R2 = 0.14, t = 2.12, p = 0.015 outcomes. Specifically, work units run by correct item Ms = 291.31, 186.54 for the low- leaders with high hope had better profits, vs high hope leaders for subordinate retention of their employees a big problem turnover/retention, where the lower the in this industry) and satisfied employees score the better); and R2 = 0.17, t = 2.87, than their lower hope counterparts, in the p = 0.001 correct item Ms = 2.10, 3.98 for the same environments. These results suggest low- vs high hope leaders for subordinate job that leader hope may prove to be a powerful satisfaction). force in improving work unit performance, retention, and attitudes. Possible mediational effects of previous Although exploratory, it is still important work unit profitability to recognize the study's limitations. First, The possibility that the state hope this study was conducted with leaders in a relationship may be simply driven by the lowtask complexity service setting. It is general superiority of past work-unit possible that the results of this study may not performance needs to be addressed. generalize to other settings with greater task Specifically, an argument might be that if a complexity. Second, the majority of the high-hope leader's work unit was highly leaders were male. While previous research profitable in the past, then these leaders has failed to find a gender differences in might likely have a reason to stay hopeful in hope, it is possible that this study speaks to the present or future compared to those male leaders' hope rather than leader hope in leaders of traditionally lower performing general. Another limitation of this study units. In fact, these two variables related relates to our inability to measure hope at positively in the present study. State hope more than one point in time. Due to the and the past the average of the three months reality of field as opposed to laboratory) prior) work unit profitability had R2 = 0.04, studies, we were only allowed to survey t = 3.63, p = 0.02 past work unit profitability leaders and employees one time. Since Ms = 61.42 and 77.89, respectively, for low- dispositional hope is thought to be static and hope and high-hope leaders). trait-like, we would expect this to stay Subsequent regression analyses following constant over time. In contrast, state-hope is the approach of Baron and Kenny 1986) considered to be a dynamic construct that were performed in order to examine the can change. Hence, in this study we would potential mediational role of past work unit have expected to see state hope change profitability. Accordingly, beyond the before depending upon situational factors such as mentioned significant relationship that state the overall performance of the company, hope predicted work-unit profitability, state macroeconomic issues, or events such as 9/11 hope must also affect the mediator i.e. past although the data for this study was work unit profitability), which it did, gathered before 9/11). However, previous R2 = 0.06, t = 2.11, p = 0.034. Additionally, the research has clearly demonstrated the state- mediator past work-unit profitability) must like nature of hope. For example, a study of also predict current work unit profitability, athletes has successfully measured state which it did, R2 = 0.09, t = 3.11, p = 0.022. hope on a weekly basis to track ongoing Finally, the state hope and current work states of hope with the purpose of uncovering unit profitability relation should be reduced what triggers may contribute to enhanced or [29] Suzanne J. Peterson and inhibited athletic performance. Such pathways thinking i.e. hope) that this study Fred Luthans research has aided with coaching methods in indicates may result in positive The positive impact and athletic endeavors. Similarly, in the development of hopeful organizational outcomes. leaders workplace, it may be beneficial for In conclusion, this exploratory study Leadership & Organization organizations to knownot only what suggests that hopeful leaders may have a Development Journal employees bring to the workplace in terms of positive impact on performance challenges 24/1 [2003] 26-31 predisposed levels of hope dispositional) for facing today's organizations. Although these selection purposes, but also to understand results are promising, they offer only a first that hope can also be state-like and thus meet step in what may become an expanded field the POB criterion of being open to leadership of research opportunities and effective development Luthans, 2002b). application of positive psychology concepts Drawing from Snyder's 2000) work and to help organizational leaders meet the recent POB Luthans, 2002a, b; Luthans and challenges of today's turbulent, Jensen, 2001) and leadership development unprecedented environment. applications Luthans et al., 2002), three specific development guidelines are offered References to develop hopeful leaders: Adams, V.H., Snyder, C.K., Rand, K.L., King, E.A., 1 To facilitate the agency component of Sigmon, D.R. and Pulvers, K.M. 2002), ``Hope hope, use participative techniques and in the workplace'', in Giacolone, R. and empowerment to set specific stretch goals. Jurkiewicz Eds), Workplace Spirituality and 2 To facilitate the pathways component of Organizational Performance, Sharpe, New hope require thought-through York, NY. contingency plans and action plans for Babyak, M.A., Snyder, C.R. and Yoshinobu, L. attaining goals. 1993), ``Psychometric properties of the hope 3 For overall hope development, borrow scale: a confirmatory factor analysis'', from successful clinical psychology Journal of Research in Personality, Vol. 27, techniques such as: the ``stepping'' method pp. 154-69. to break down complex, long-term Bandura, A. 1977), ``Self-efficacy: toward a strategies and goals into manageable unifying theory of behavioral change'', substeps; develop through cases, Psychological Review, Vol. 84, pp. 191-215. experiential exercises, and modeling the Baron, R.M. and Kenny, D.A. 1986), ``The skill of ``regoaling'' to recognize the moderator-mediator variable distinction in futility of persistence in the face of social psychological research: conceptual, absolute goal blockage; and through cases strategic, and statistical considerations'', and exercises practice the skill of mental Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, rehearsals that will then transfer to Vol. 51, pp. 1173-82. important events back on the job. George, J.M. 1990), ``Personality, affect, and behavior in groups'', Journal of Applied These and other guidelines can be relatively Psychology, Vol. 75 No. 2, p. 108. easily implemented to develop hopeful Hackman, J.R. and Oldham, G.R. 1980), Work leaders. Redesign, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. Kirk, S. and Koeske, G. 1995), ``The fate of optimism: a longitudinal study of case Conclusion leaders' hopefulness and subsequent morale'', Research in Social Work Practice, Vol. 5, For work organizations, this exploratory pp. 47-61. study suggests that hope may tap a type of Lee, T.W. Locke, E.A. and Latham, G.P. 1989), positive thinking and action in leaders that is ``Goal setting theory and job performance'', in significantly related to important workplace Pervin, L.A. Ed.), Goal Concepts in outcomes. Certainly, accomplishing work- Personality and Social Psychology, Erlbaum, related goals in this case, areas such as Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 291-326. faster drive-thru times or better customer Lewin, K. 1935), Dynamic Theory of Personality, service ratings that lead to higher revenues McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. and profits) entails the establishment of Locke, E.A. and Latham, G.P. 1990), A Theory of pathways to goals i.e. waypower) as well as Goal Setting and Task Performance, Prentice- the agentic motivation i.e. waypower) to Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. initiate and sustain the use of these Luthans, F. 2001), ``The case for positive pathways. Thus, state hope, because it is organizational behavior POB)'', Current malleable, and thus open to change and Issues in Management, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 10-21. development, has implications for leadership Luthans, F. 2002a), ``Chapter 9: positive approach training and coaching. As suggested by POB to OB'', in Luthans, F. Ed.), Organizational and PAL, organizations can develop in Behavior, 9th ed., McGraw-Hill/Irwin, New leaders a stronger sense of agency and York, NY, pp. 286-322. [30] Suzanne J. Peterson and Luthans, F. 2002b), ``Positive organizational and Forsyth D.R. Eds), Handbook of Social Fred Luthans behavior POB): developing and managing and Clinical Psychology: The Health The positive impact and psychological strengths'', Academy of Perspective, Pergamon Press, Elmsford, NY, development of hopeful leaders Management Executive. pp. 285-305. Luthans, F. and Jensen, S.M. 2001), ``Positive Leadership & Organization Snyder, C.R., Sympson, S.C., Ybasco, F.C., Development Journal organizational behavior: a newapproach to Border, T.F., Babyak, M.A., and Higgins, R.L. 24/1 [2003] 26-31 global management'', Nanyang +Singapore) 1996), ``Development and validation of the Business Review, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 18-30. state hope scale'', Journal of Personality and Luthans, F., Luthans, K.W., Hodgetts, R.M. and Social Psychology, Vol. 70, pp. 321-35. Luthans, B.C. 2002), ``Positive approach to Snyder, C.R., Tran, T., Schroeder, L., Pulvers, D., leadership PAL): implications for today's Adams, J. and Laub, L. 2000), ``Teaching the organizations'', Journal of Leadership Studies, hope recipe: setting goals, finding pathways Vol. 8 No. 2, pp. 3-20. Magaletta, P.R. and Oliver, J.M. 1999), ``The hope to those goals, and getting motivated'', construct, will and ways: their relations with National Education Service, pp. 46-50. self-efficacy, optimism, and generalized well- Snyder, C.R., Harris, C., Anderson, J.R., being'', Journal of Clinical Psychology, Vol. 55 Holleran, S.A., Irving, L.M., Sigmon, S.T., No. 5, pp. 539-51. Yoshinobu, L., Gibb, J., Langelle, C. and Russell, J.A. and Carroll, J.M. 1999), `Òn the Harney, P. 1991a), ``The will and the ways: bipolarity of positive and negative affect'', development and validation of an individual- Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 125 No. 1, pp. 3-30. differences measure of hope'', Journal of Scioli, A., Chamberlin, C., Samor, C.M., Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 60 LaPointe, A.B., Campbell, T.L., LacLeod, A.R. No. 4, pp. 570-85. and McLenon, J.A. 1997), `À prospective Stotland, E. 1969), The Psychology of Hope, study of hope, optimism, and health'', Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA. Psychological Reports, Vol. 81, pp. 723-33. Seligman, M.E.P. 1998), Learned Optimism, Further reading Pocket Books, NewYork, NY. Farran, C.J., Herth, A.K. and Popovich, J.M. Snyder, C.R. 1994a), ``Hope and optimism'', in 1995), Hope and Hopelessness: Critical Clinical Ramachandran, V.S. Ed.), Encyclopedia of Constructs, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA. Human Behavior, Academic Press, Orlando, Scheier, M.F. and Carver, C.S. 1992), `Èffects of FL, pp. 535-42. optimism on psychological and physical well- Snyder, C.R. 1994b), The Psychology of Hope: You being: theoretical overviewand empirical Can Get There From Here, Free Press, New York, NY. update'', Cognitive Therapy and Research, Snyder, C.R. 1997), ``Hope: an individual motive Vol. 16 No. 2, pp. 201-28. for social commerce'', Group Dynamics, Vol. 1 Seligman, M.E.P. and Csikszentmihalyi, M. 2000), No. 2, pp. 107-18. ``Positive psychology'', American Psychologist, Snyder, C.R. 2000), Handbook of Hope, Academic Vol. 55 No. 1, pp. 5-14. Press, San Diego, CA. Snyder, C.R. 1995), ``Conceptualizing, measuring, Snyder, C.R., Irving, L.M. and Anderson, J.R. and nurturing hope'', Journal of Counseling 1991b), ``Hope and health'', in Snyder, C.R. and Development, Vol. 73, pp. 355-60.

[31] HOPE NAVIGATOR Train the Trainer

Wednesday, January 27, 2021

Session 3 9:00 am - 12:00 pm Hope at Work: Building a Hope Centered Organization

1. Check-In: Big Group Discussion a. Tell us one thing that stands out to you about hope? b. Describe one thing about hope that is not clear or causes some doubt. 2. The Science and Power of Hope at Work a. 10-minute Breakout rooms: (Where do you see hope in your work, in the community hope center? What are the potential detractors to integrating hope?) 3. Characteristics of a Hope Centered Organization a. 6 Guiding Principles of a Hope Centered Organization 4. Measuring Hope a. Take and score the adult hope scale. 5. Hope Reading Review a. Discussion on Camp Hope, Building Hope for the Future, and Hope & Leadership

Discussion Focus:

1. What is the big take away from each article? 2. Where is there a risk for hope to decrease? 3. How have the authors of the readings used Hope to build programs and organizations? What was the result of their effort? 12/7/2020

CREATING A HOPE CENTERED FRAMEWORK

Chan M. Hellman, PhD Angela Pharris, PhD

What does it mean to be Hope Centered?

BECOMING HOPE CENTERED

Hope theory provides the foundation for understanding human behavior in the social environment and provides the framework taken by practitioners, community leaders, and policy makers to engage, assess, intervene, and evaluate action.

1 1 12/7/2020

BECOMING HOPE CENTERED

Hope provides a unifying framework to create a positive culture grounded in setting goals, finding and navigating pathways, and supporting the willpower necessary to pursue those goals.

BECOMING HOPE CENTERED

A hope centered Hope organization seeks to infuse values, policy, practices, and structure Policy & Values Procedure with the science of hope creating an environment where Structures both customers and staff thrive.

Hope Centered and Trauma-Informed Executive Vision Statement

As a hope centered and trauma-informed organization, we recognize that childhood trauma negatively affects many in Oklahoma. We believe that hope provides a unified framework to create a positive organizational culture for our customers and staff. We strive to infuse our values, policy, practices, and structure with the science of hope by setting the pathways for success and creating an environment for our customers and staff to thrive. As leaders, we use the science of hope to build a hope centered organization by developing, modeling, and serving in a manner that nurtures the hope for tomorrow.

2 2 12/7/2020

GUIDING PRINCIPLES IN Hope is a cognition not an emotion. HOPE CENTERED Imagination is the instrument of Hope. WORK Hope is not wishful thinking.

Hope begets Hope.

Hope is a social gift.

Hope can be taught.

CREATING A CULTURE OF HOPE

Create an awareness Hope becomes a Staff meetings of hope among valued character incorporate a hope stakeholders. strength. agenda.

Develop hope Hope Finding, Hope Readings, book orientation program. Building, Hope clubs, Continuing Modeling Education.

THE SCIENCE AND POWER OF HOPE

3 3 12/7/2020

MEASURIN G HOPE

Chan M. Hellman, PhD Angela Pharris, PhD

“You Can’t Measure Hope!”

MEASUREMENT IS THE HEART AND SOUL OF SCIENCE

Hope is grounded in a robust foundation of science.

• Hope is measurable: Prof. C. R. Snyder developed the self report measures. • Hope is distinct from Self-Efficacy and Optimism. • Strength based (Hope vs. Hopelessness)

• Adult Hope Scale: • Dispositional Self-Report Measure.

• Children’s Hope Scale: • Dispositional Self-Report Measure.

4 1 12/7/2020

ADMINISTERING THE HOPE SCALES

• Adult Hope Scale • 8-item Self-Report Measure – Takes less than 10 minutes to take and score. • 4 items measure pathways; 4 items measure willpower.

• Children’s Hope Scale • 6-item Self-Report Measure – Takes less than 10 minutes to take and score.

ADULT HOPE SCALE

SCORES CAN BE ADDED FOR A TOTAL HOPE SCORE LOW OF 8 TO A HIGH OF 64.

GROUPING SCORES:

LOW HOPE (8-16) SLIGHT HOPE (17-39) MODERATE HOPE (40-55) HIGH HOPE (56-64)

ADULT HOPE SCALE:

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

5 2 12/7/2020

CHILDREN’S HOPE SCALE.

SCORES CAN BE ADDED TO GENERATE A TOTAL SCORE RANGING FROM LOW OF 6 TO HIGH OF 36.

GROUPING SCORES:

LOW HOPE (6-12) SLIGHT HOPE (13-23) MODERATE HOPE (24-29) HIGH HOPE (30-36)

CHILDREN’S HOPE SCALE

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

A MEASURE IS ONLY USEFUL IF IT CAN SHOW DISTINCT DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HIGH AND LOW LEVELS High Hope Low Hope • Mental Health: • Mental Health: • Higher well-being, emotional regulation, • Depression, Anxiety, maladaptive coping adaptive coping • Physical Health: • Physical Health: • Lower life expectancy, reduced health seeking • Improved physical health, higher compliance behaviors with treatment. • Social Health: • Social Health: • Loneliness/Isolation, increased criminality • Higher social connectedness • Education: • Education: • Absenteeism, truancy, drop-out • Higher GPA, attendance, graduation rates

6 3 12/7/2020

MEASURING HOPE IN YOUR WORK

Individual Assessment:

• When working with a child, adult, or family. • Scores can be used during intake and used in conjunction with the worksheets. • Total scores, Pathways and Willpower scores. • Scores can be used during follow up to demonstrate change.

MEASURING HOPE IN YOUR WORK

Group or Organizational Scores:

• Baseline staff assessment prior to implementing hope strategies. • Hope scores can be collected in conjunction with other measures (e.g., burnout, well-being, cohesion)

MEASURING HOPE IN YOUR WORK

Community Scores:

• Baseline community assessment prior to implementing hope strategies. • Hope scores can be collected in conjunction with other measures (e.g., Public Health, Social Action, )

7 4 12/7/2020

MEASURING HOPE IN YOUR WORK

Hope is a science (Research Informed Practice, Practice Informed Research)

• Client Impact • Outcomes Measurement • Fundraising • Local, State, National Regulators • Advocacy • Community Relations • Social Policy

THE SCIENCE AND POWER OF HOPE

8 5

10 HOPE NAVIGATOR Train the Trainer

Wednesday, January 27, 2021

Session 4 1:00 pm - 4:00 pm Hope Centered Implementation and Change

1. Where do we go from here? Using the tenants of Hope to implement a Hope Centered framework in the center. 2. Hope Centered Model for Project Implementation a. Large group brainstorming of ideas to use Hope in the CHC. b. 25-minute break out by center teams to complete the goal setting worksheet. c. Debrief the goals in large group. d. 35-minute break out by center teams to complete pathways to goals worksheet. 3. Determining your implementation goals and selecting pathways a. On boarding new employees. b. Lunch and learn awareness presentations. c. Stakeholder presentations. d. Etc.

Discussion Focus:

1. What are the opportunities to use Hope in your project? 2. Are there policy strategies or structural strategies that can be adapted to help with Hope finding, Hope enhancing and Hope modeling? 3. As a team, what do you think needs to happen next?

Hope Centered and Trauma Informed ™ Implementation & Change

HOPE NAVIGATOR TRAINING ANGELA PHARRIS, PHD & CHAN HELLMAN, PHD

1 Hope Centered and Trauma-Informed Project Implementation Model

Hope is a valuable framework to enhance the current research on change and implementation practice. Leaders can use the process to understand concepts and apply them to promote change.

Hope

Evaluate Progress Identify & Adjust Goals Deficiencies

Select Collective Goal(s) and Build Measure Hope Imagination of the Future

Identify Improvement Strategies (Pathways)

2 Hope: Hope is the signal best predictor of well-being and satisfaction for individuals in the workplace. Hope is a cognitive process in which goals are valued and identified, pathways are considered and selected, and leaders ensure that team has the collective energy and motivation to pursue the chosen goals. Hope is the centerpiece of the organization and the implementation teams core values.

Identify Deficiencies: What needs to change to meet the project priorities? How does the current program or services offered cultivate and increase Hope? What are the potential areas of the program or services which are at risk of creating a loss of Hope or a deficit of Hope? Consider applying the core tenants of Hope through self-reflection, observation, and listening. What are some specific indicators of goal deficiencies, pathway deficiencies (including problem-solving barriers), and willpower.

Select Goals: Identify goals and work collectively to create a shared vision or imagination of the future. What will the services, customers, clients, or employees be like when the goal is achieved? What will be the outcome when Hope is able to increase, and employees or customers are flourishing?

Identify Improvement Strategies (Pathways): Once your goals(s) have been identified, it is time to brainstorm a list of all the potential pathways you can pursue to achieve the desired goals. The selection of appropriate, viable, and impactful pathways leads your group to an implementation strategy. Along with the selection of pathways consider the best team to advance the project. Pathways will help you evaluate the capacity building and sequencing of steps to reach your goals for the project. Strategies to manage and nurture willpower to increase Hope and sustain the collective goal are also necessary. What is the causal link or the change that leads to improved Hope?

Measure Hope: We suggest you measure Hope to assess your pathways and willpower changes. But Hope is not the only outcome. What else will change when you achieve your desired goals? What will be the evidence of that change?

3 Evaluate Progress and Adjust (re) Goals: Use Hope assessments along with other outcome measures to evaluate the changes in your program goals, pathways, and willpower. You can use this information to refine your strategies as you begin to see Hope rising.

4 Project Implementation Goal Worksheet

Purpose: To implement a Hope Centered and Trauma-Informed project or program, it is essential to identify and clarify goals. Goals should be described in as much detail as possible and refined among the team members to become shared goals for collective Hope. The initial stage of goal clarification allows the work team to nurture Hope and create a shared imagination of the future that will enable your project to flourish.

Describe the specific policy, program, or another aspect of your organization that you will use the Hope- Centered framework in as much detail as possible?

Goal 1: ______

Goal 2: ______

Goal 3: ______

Adding Detail to your Goals Specifics Goal 1 Goal 2 Goal 3 Achievement or Avoidance Degree of Difficulty

Stretch v. Mastery

Time to Completion

Degree of Change Involved Support Networks or Available Resources

Potential Barriers

Beneficiaries

As a team, how successful do you think you will be in pursing these goals?

1 2 3 4 5 6 Not successful A little Somewhat Moderately Mostly Very at All successful successful successful successful successful

5 Project Implementation Worksheet

This worksheet is to assist your project time in establishing pathways to your desired goal, and to consider strategies to build and sustain willpower to pursue the goals. By describing your desirable goal in as much detail as possible, your team will be more likely to communicate motivation and interest.

Goal 1: ______

 Why do you want to achieve this goal? Describe what is motivating you?

 Imagine you have just achieved the project goals. Describe how you will feel? What will change in your program? How will other employees see or experience this change? What about your customers?

1. List the pathways (actions/strategies) that will help you achieve the desired goal.

Pathway 1: ______

Pathway 2: ______

Pathway 3: ______

2. What are potential barriers for each of the pathway you have listed?

Pathway 1: ______

Pathway 2: ______

Pathway 3: ______

3. Describe how you can overcome barriers to the pathways.

4. Describe the benchmarks that you need to achieve to attain the goal. What are the steps that must be accomplished to attain this project goal?

Benchmark 1 Benchmark 2 Benchmark 3 Benchmark 4 Goal

6 5. Identify the people and/or resources you need to access or reach out to for support in pursuing the goal? Who will lead your group in this goal for the project?

People Resources

Goal Navigator

Goal 2: ______

 Why do you want to achieve this goal? Describe what is motivating you?

 Imagine you have just achieved the project goals. Describe how you will feel? What will change in your program? How will other employees see or experience this change? What about your customers?

1. List the pathways (actions/strategies) that will help you achieve the desired goal.

Pathway 1: ______

Pathway 2: ______

Pathway 3: ______

2. What are potential barriers for each of the pathway you have listed?

Pathway 1: ______

Pathway 2: ______

Pathway 3: ______

3. Describe how you can overcome barriers to the pathways.

4. Describe the benchmarks that you need to achieve to attain the goal. What are the steps that must be accomplished to attain this project goal?

Benchmark 1 Benchmark 2 Benchmark 3 Benchmark 4 Goal

5. Identify the people and/or resources you need to access or reach out to for support in pursuing the goal? Who will lead your group in this goal for the project?

People Resources

Goal Navigator

Goal 3: ______

 Why do you want to achieve this goal? Describe what is motivating you?

 Imagine you have just achieved the project goals. Describe how you will feel? What will change in your program? How will other employees see or experience this change? What about your customers?

1. List the pathways (actions/strategies) that will help you achieve the desired goal. Pathway 1: ______

Pathway 2: ______

Pathway 3: ______

2. What are potential barriers for each of the pathway you have listed? Pathway 1: ______

8 Pathway 2: ______

Pathway 3: ______

3. Describe how you can overcome barriers to the pathways.

4. Describe the benchmarks that you need to achieve to attain the goal. What are the steps that must be accomplished to attain this project goal?

Benchmark 1 Benchmark 2 Benchmark 3 Benchmark 4 Goal

5. Identify the people and/or resources you need to access or reach out to for support in pursuing the goal? Who will lead your group in this goal for the project?

People Resources

Goal Navigator

9 PATHWAYS TO GOAL PLANNING WORKSHEET 1. List your goal identified from the goal worksheet and identify each successive step (sub goal) that will lead to success. 2. For each step, identify a potential barrier that may block success. 3. Describe solutions to barriers and the supports that will help you stay on track to success. 4. Identify multiple pathways to the goal using this sheet. Then prioritize each pathway based upon the potential for success.

STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 3 STEP 4 STEP 5 GOAL

SELECTED PATHWAY

IDENTIFY POTENTIAL BARRIER FOR EACH STEP

SOLUTION SOLUTION SOLUTION SOLUTION SOLUTION

SUPPORTS SUPPORTS SUPPORTS SUPPORTS SUPPORTS