WOMEN IN OCEANOGRAPHY

An Experiment in Institutional Transformation THE NSF ADVANCE PROGRAM FOR WOMEN AT THE EARTH INSTITUTE AT COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

BY ROBIN BELL, JENNIFER LAIRD, STEPHANIE PFIRMAN, JOHN MUTTER, ROBERTA BALSTAD, AND MARK CANE

Following the Civil War, women in New economic importance of the common companions turned the estate house York City began to clamor for advanced mineral found in building stones: The into a geochemistry laboratory and the education at Columbia University. Al- relative effects of frost and the sulphate swimming pool into a seismic vault, a though the professors of the classics felt soda tests on building stones.” In 1929, small group of women—including re- that women in the classroom were a Katharine Fowler was the fi rst woman to nowned oceanographic cartographer distraction, women were welcomed into receive her Ph.D. from Columbia Uni- Marie Tharp—were fi nding their niche geology, physics, and chemistry classes versity based on major geological fi eld- at the Observatory. Women are promi- (Rosenberg, 2004). For almost thirty work studying anorthosites in Laramie, nent in the early photographs, but their years, women learned, side by side with Wyoming. She conducted two summers men, in geology classes until the School of fi eldwork with only a pistol and a dog Robin Bell ([email protected]) is of Engineering—then one of the largest as her fi eld assistants (Figure 1); no man Senior Research Scientist, Lamont-Doherty schools at Columbia University—deter- would accompany her to the fi eld. Fowl- Earth Observatory, Palisades, NY, USA. mined that it was improper for women er later went on to map Sierra Leone and Jennifer Laird is ADVANCE Coordina- and men to conduct fi eldwork together. to teach at Wellesley College. tor, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, The School enacted a ban on women in Opportunities for women in the Palisades, NY, USA. Stephanie Pfi rman is the later 1890s, a ban enforced until the geosciences grew with the creation Chair of Environmental Science, Barnard height of the Second World War. De- of Columbia University’s Lamont- College, New York, NY, USA. John Mutter spite this deterrent, women continued to Doherty Earth Observatory (LDEO). is Deputy Director Earth Institute, Columbia study geology at both Columbia College The Observatory was founded in 1949 University, New York, NY, USA. Roberta and Barnard College. The fi rst woman on a 125-acre Hudson River estate do- Balstad is Senior Research Scientist, Center to receive her Ph.D. in geology from nated by Columbia graduate Florence for International Earth Science Information, Columbia University was Lea McIlvaine Corliss Lamont upon the death of her Palisades, NY, USA. Mark Cane is G. Unger Luquer, who submitted a thesis in 1894 husband, Wall Street fi nancier Thomas Vetlesen Professor of Earth Climate Sciences, entitled, “The optical recognition and W. Lamont. As Maurice Ewing and his Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.

Th is article has been published in Oceanography, Volume 18, Number 1, a quarterly journal of Th e Oceanography Society. Copyright 2005 by Th e Oceanography Society. All rights reserved. Reproduction of any portion of this article by photo- copy machine, reposting, or other means without prior authorization of Th e Oceanography Society is strictly prohibited. Oceanography Vol.18, No.1, Mar. 2005 25 Send all correspondence to: [email protected] or Th e Oceanography Society, PO Box 1931, Rockville, MD 20849-1931, USA. Figure 1. Katharine Fowler, the fi rst woman to receive a Co- lumbia University Ph.D. in geol- ogy based on major geologic fi eldwork, mapping anortho- sites in Laramie, Wyoming in BOX 1. THE HISTORY OF the 1920s. Th e pistol was con- sidered necessary in her fi eld- WOMEN IN THE GEOSCIENCES work to keep the rattlesnakes AT COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY under control. Image from Polk and Tiegreen (2001). Reprinted with permission by M. Polk. 1890s: Columbia School of Engineer- ing bans women due to concerns about women working in the fi eld

1894: Lea McIlvaine Luquer becomes the fi rst woman to receive her Ph.D. in geology from Columbia University

1929: Katharine Fowler is the fi rst wom- an to receive her Ph.D. in geology from Columbia University based on major geological fi eldwork

1948: Lamont-Doherty Earth Observa- tory is founded

1965: Women fi rst permitted on a Lamont cruise

1975: Ellen Herron becomes the fi rst woman chief scientist on a Lamont ship

2000: The on-site childcare facility at Lamont opens its doors

Figure 2. Ellen Herron securing the heat-fl ow 2001: Lamont-Doherty Earth Observa- probe on the deck of the R/V Eltanin during a tory bestows the Heritage Award cruise from New Zealand to Chile in 1965. Th is was the fi rst Lamont cruise to permit women on oceanographic cartographer scientists. Image courtesy of Ellen Herron. Marie Tharp, just a few weeks before her 81st birthday

2004: The Earth Institute at Columbia University (of which Lamont is a part) is awarded the National Science Foundation ADVANCE grant for institutional transfor- mation

26 Oceanography Vol.18, No.1, Mar. 2005 roles at the Observatory were limited to ceive her Ph.D., and eventually become the graduate population. Since the early that of illustrators, human computers, the Observatory’s only woman assistant 1970s, the percentage of women post- and telephone operators. Renee Brilliant, director. In 1975, Herron returned to sea doctoral scientists has grown from 0 to a persistent young geologist, worked for aboard the Robert D. Conrad research 38 percent, associate research scientists several years testing pressure cases for vessel, this time as the fi rst woman chief from 18 percent to 29 percent, and the cameras and installing land-based seis- mometers with Doc Ewing’s wife Midge while the ship shot explosives offshore. Women were permitted on a Lamont cruise Eventually frustrated with limitations on for the first time in 1965. fi eldwork and comments like, “women cannot wear pants in the fi eld,” Brilliant decided to pursue a different career path scientist on a Lamont cruise. tenured staff from 3 percent to 13 per- becoming a successful pediatrician in By the late 1970s, the incoming grad- cent (Figure 4). While the Lamont re- Rockland County. uate student population was consistently search population has remained relative- Women were permitted on a Lamont 40 percent women. By the mid 1980s, ly constant over this same time period, cruise for the fi rst time in 1965. Jessica the institution was making great prog- the percentage of women has more than Donahue and Ellen Herron, both mar- ress toward matriculating more women, doubled from 10 to 22 percent. ried graduate students, sailed on the 60- with graduating classes of 30 percent LDEO has undergone signifi cant day cruise on the Eltanin from Auckland, women. Today the average population change in other ways related to the pres- New Zealand to Valparaiso, Chile. An in- of graduating Ph.D.s is closer to 40 per- ence of women. During the past thirty jury to one of the shipboard technicians cent women. In the past 25 years, 96 years, the institution has made mater- allowed Herron to become the heat-fl ow women have graduated from Columbia nity leave available to both research and technician, acquiring soldering skills and with Ph.D.s in geology and geophysics teaching scientists, established an on-site other practical training (Figure 2). Upon (Figure 3). Box 1 provides a timeline of daycare facility, and enacted a stop-the- her return from the Eltanin, Herron historical events of women in the geosci- clock policy that accommodates tenure- would later write one of the early papers ences at Columbia University. track women with children. Although on mid-ocean ridge segmentation, re- This growth has not been limited to the camaraderie among women graduate

Women Receiving PhDs from Columbia University in Geosciences 10 Figure 3. Number of Women 9 granted Ph.D.s in geosciences at 8 Columbia University from 1890 7 to 2005. Th is graphic shows the 6 signifi cant increase in women 5 graduate students beginning 4 in the 1970s and continuing

Degrees Granted 3 through the present. 2 1 0 5 5 0 5 0 5 5 95 95 96 75 90 95 05 1890 1895 1900 1905 1910 1915 1920 192 1930 193 1940 1945 1 1 196 1 1970 19 1980 198 19 19 2000 20 Year

Oceanography Vol.18, No.1, Mar. 2005 27 Figure 4. Percentage of women on the Lamont research staff . Th e research staff includes the research faculty who make up the majority of the scientists at Lamont (90). Although the Lamont research population has remained relatively con- stant over this same time pe- riod, the percentage of women has more than doubled from 10 to 22 percent. Tenured research scientists include research scientists, senior re- search scientists, and senior scholars.

students has been in place since Ellen MOTIVATION FOR AN unique to Lamont, Columbia, or the Herron and Jessica Donahue fi rst sailed EXPERIMENT IN INSTITUTIONAL geosciences. A study of doctorate recipi- on the Eltanin in the 1960s, there is now CHANGE ents across the country found that from a vibrant community of women scientists Despite this progress, some challenges 1979 to 1995, men had a steady 14-per- at the Observatory. In addition, a num- remain. There are now seven senior centage point advantage over women in ber of Lamont alumnae now hold senior women scientists on the tenured staff at obtaining faculty positions (Long, 2001). positions at major institutions including Lamont. This is a relatively recent jump: The fi ndings of A Study On The Sta- Scripps Institution of Oceanography and over the past two decades, the average tus of Women Faculty In Science at MIT Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. number of women on the senior staff (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, They are also full professors at research was only two. Of Columbia’s 26 Earth 1999) transformed the issue of persis- universities and liberal art colleges. and environmental science teaching fac- tent gender inequity in academia into Some of the other accomplishments of ulty members, there is only one woman. a front-page news story. The fi ndings Lamont women include founding a pe- There have been no women among the documented frequent experiences of troleum service company, directing a six most recent external hires into this marginalization among women faculty major seafl oor-imaging center, becom- group. All of the leadership positions at across MIT quantifi ed by disparities in ing a National Science Foundation (NSF) Lamont are fi lled by men. To be sure, the resource allocation, access to leadership program manager, and being selected as absence of women in leadership posi- roles, and exclusion from high-level de- an AGU fellow. Today, Lamont is the top tions is pervasive across the university. cision-making processes (MIT, 1999). school for women geoscientists in tenure- The administration of Columbia is ex- In addition to increasing public aware- track positions at Ph.D.-granting institu- clusively white men, with the exception ness of the problems faced by women tions (Holmes and O’Connell, 2004). of the Vice Provost for Diversity and a scientists, the MIT study also focused single Dean. These conditions are not attention on the importance of using the

28 Oceanography Vol.18, No.1, Mar. 2005 institution, rather than the individual, as ing and established women leaders in versal strategies for institutional change the unit of analysis when evaluating the the Academy, (2) providing support to seem to be emerging: (1) generate aware- status of women in science. women scientists and engineers through ness of the problem, (2) develop a wide- demanding life transitions (e.g., elder spread understanding of the underlying NSF ADVANCE AWARD BRINGS care, adoption, birth of a child), (3) behaviors, (3) create and codify strate- INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE TO enhancing mentoring and networking gies to recruit and retain more women COLUMBIA opportunities for women scientists and into academia, (4) provide the tools that In response to the subsequent demands engineers, (4) increasing the transpar- will enable women to succeed, and (5) for systemic change across academia, ency of promotion procedures and poli- institutionalize accountability. (Box 2) NSF developed the ADVANCE Institu- cies, and (5) conducting an institutional tional Transformation Awards in 2001. self-study that will establish a baseline GENERATING AWARENESS The objective of these awards is to in- for the program’s evaluation, help iden- AND UNDERSTANDING THE crease the representation and advance- tify targets areas that require special at- UNDERLYING BEHAVIORS ment of women in academia. While this tention, and assess working assumptions The initial two steps of raising aware- ambition might seem far-reaching, it about the work environment at Colum- ness of gender inequities and develop- is rooted in a framework of social sci- bia upon which ADVANCE programs ing an understanding of the underlying ence research, with an emphasis on in- have been developed. These goals were behaviors are underway here at Lamont stitutional self-studies and data collec- developed after extensive analysis of the and at the EI. As part of this process, the tion. The fi ve-year awards are a major experiences of ADVANCE programs at ADVANCE program is working with all investment: since its inception in 2001, other universities, including the Univer- levels of Columbia University’s admin- the NSF ADVANCE Program has made sity of Michigan and the University of istration, from senior administrators to awards to 19 institutions at $3 million to Washington. The ADVANCE programs department chairs and research institute $4 million each. The awards also require at these institutions have been underway directors. By collaborating with these a substantial commitment from the in- stitutions themselves. In the summer of 2004, the Earth To broaden the network of women scientists and Institute (EI) at Columbia University engineers who might apply and be considered became the 19th institution to receive an ADVANCE Institutional Transforma- for hires into the tenured ranks, the EI ADVANCE tion grant. The EI ADVANCE Program Program is awarding several Marie Tharp Visiting is unique because it addresses the chal- lenges specifi c to advancing women in Fellowships each year to promising women scientists. the geosciences. As the largest research unit within the EI, LDEO is the setting for many of the ADVANCE program’s for three years now. At the University of groups, ADVANCE is developing a coali- intervention efforts. The intent of this Michigan, successful offers to women tion, securing buy-in for intervention ef- program is to develop strategies within professors in science and engineering forts, and instilling a sense of ownership the EI and LDEO that can then be trans- have doubled since the launch of the of the program’s activities across the in- ferred to the rest of the university and ADVANCE Program. stitution. Because our expertise is in geo- the geosciences community. The goals Based on the brief experience of the sciences and not gender studies, we have of the EI ADVANCE program are to ADVANCE Program at Columbia and also developed an internal advisory board achieve institutional change by (1) iden- the collective experiences of ADVANCE of gender scholars from various depart- tifying methods for targeting emerg- Programs at other universities, fi ve uni- ments at the university. Through this

Oceanography Vol.18, No.1, Mar. 2005 29 BOX 2. STRATEGIES FOR INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE

As ADVANCE programs are being im- (2) Develop a widespread understand- (4) Provide the tools that will enable plemented, proven strategies for institu- ing of the underlying behaviors. Cogni- women to succeed. Academic institu- tional change are emerging: tive science explains behaviors associ- tions must build and maintain an infra- ated with gender bias as complex, largely structure that enables women to advance. (1) Generate awareness of the prob- unconscious, and common to both men This infrastructure includes transpar- lem. Awareness that gender bias persists and women (Valian, 1998). Repeated ent promotion policies, equal access even today and that it results in a loss of psychological experiments have illustrat- to resources, and an active community human capital from the academic com- ed that both genders tend to overesti- of women with a collective identity. In munity is a necessary starting point for mate men and underestimate women in oceanography, polar sciences, and marine institutional change in academia. In the a variety of contexts, from assessments geosciences, data collection and experi- geosciences, women comprise 33 percent of height to professional ability (Biernat, mentation require that scientists spend of Ph.D. recipients but only 20 percent of 1991; Valian, 1998). These differences weeks and often months on research ves- assistant professor positions (NSF, 2004; are small, but they build up over time. sels in remote locations. Institutions need Holmes et al., 2003). Salary gaps persist, Models have shown that a 1 percent bias to recognize the fi nancial constraints that with women earning 15 to 20 percent can accumulate into a major disparity fi eldwork places on young parents, and less than men even after rank and pro- over time (Martell et al., 1996), much in explore alternative ways of supporting ductivity are taken into account (Ginther the same way that the accumulation of young parents in the fi eld. 2001, 2004). These data illustrate the past interest is realized in a compound problem, but institution-specifi c data interest rate. (5) Institutionalize accountability. are necessary to make a case for change Institutional change requires that uni- at the institutional level. One of the (3) Create and codify strategies to re- versities, professional associations, and best ways to capture this type of data is cruit and retain more women into government agencies assume leadership through institutional self-studies, which academia. Institutions need to develop and accountability for the problem. The can surface gender imbalances within and codify strategies for recruiting, re- interventions at MIT and the University institutions and disciplines. A number taining and advancing women. Because of Michigan would not have been suc- of ADVANCE institutions, including women are often under-represented in cessful if both administrations had not the University of Michigan and the Uni- applicant pools, institutions need to put taken responsibility for the problem. versity of Washington, have found that the “search” back into search commit- Calls for accountability have also been systematic self-studies not only demon- tees. Specifi c tactics include keeping the heard at the federal level. Recent Con- strate a need for intervention, but they search broad to produce a more diverse gressional hearings and a 2004 report by also establish a baseline against which applicant pool, promoting proactive the General Accounting Offi ce support future progress can be measured. searches, and developing procedures that the enforcement of Title IX, or the Edu- ensure all candidates are evaluated based cation Amendments of 1972 that ban sex on a thorough review of their scholar- discrimination at federally funded aca- ship. Intellectually engaging search com- demic institutions. mittees with social science research on stereotypes and unconscious bias can also incite decision-makers to come up with their own strategies for innovating recruitment and hiring processes.

30 Oceanography Vol.18, No.1, Mar. 2005 group, we are building a solid intellectual that has surfaced as the result of several PROVIDING THE TOOLS FOR foundation for ADVANCE at Columbia failed efforts to recruit and retain women SUCCESS University and a network of internal am- at Lamont. The STRIDE Committee will In order to compete, the players need to bassadors for change at the university. address this and other similar cases, as it know the rules of the game. When the Matching the right message to the works to identify strategies for recruiting rules of advancement and promotion are right audience has proven to be a critical and retaining emerging and established informal, women experience dispropor- component of our strategy to generate women leaders in the Academy. tionate setbacks. Because women are of- awareness and understanding of institu- To broaden the network of women ten not included in informal networks of tional gender disparities. Models of in- scientists and engineers who might ap- information exchange about promotion cremental bias effectively convey the is- ply and be considered for hires into the possibilities and job openings (Ragins sue to theoreticians, while fi ndings from social experiments resonate more with observationalists. The EI ADVANCE Program will only have a long-term impact if accountability for gender CREATING AND CODIFYING NEW STRATEGIES FOR disparities is institutionalized. RECRUITMENT The third crucial stage of institutional change is to create and codify strate- tenured ranks, the EI ADVANCE Pro- and Sundstrom, 1989), procedures need gies to recruit and retain more women gram is awarding several Marie Tharp to be clearly defi ned, well documented, into academia. To increase the number Visiting Fellowships each year to prom- and widely disseminated. Over the past of women in both entry-level and se- ising women scientists. The fellowship decade at LDEO, efforts to clarify and nior-level applicant pools, the EI AD- is named after Marie Tharp, the mother codify performance review procedures VANCE program is forming a senior of modern ocean fl oor cartography. A have increased the transparency of pro- faculty working group to develop new pioneer of modern oceanography (Fig- motion criteria for the research faculty. approaches to recruitment. Modeled af- ure 5), Marie Tharp was the fi rst to map The process now includes provision for ter the University of Michigan’s Science details of the ocean fl oor on a global both written and oral feedback for ju- & Technology Recruiting to Improve scale. She published the pivotal inter- nior scientists so that promotion criteria Diversity and Excellent (STRIDE) Com- pretation of mid-ocean ridges and her are discussed before the candidate comes mittee, the Columbia STRIDE Commit- observations were crucial to the eventual up for promotion (i.e., before tenure tee will consist of men and women who acceptance of the theories of plate tec- panels). The ADVANCE program is ex- have direct infl uence over search com- tonics and continental drift in the Earth tending this process beyond Lamont to mittees, hiring decisions, and retention sciences. The purpose of the fellowship all the EI units. Most recently, a policy at the university. This group will use the is to provide an opportunity for women mandating mid-term reviews for all as- latest social science literature to tackle scientists outside of Columbia to con- sociate research scientists was imple- the major gender questions facing uni- duct research at one or more of the units mented across the Institute. This effort versity search committees. or related departments within the EI for is ongoing, and it will be particularly Since the inception of the ADVANCE a period of one to three months during important for researchers working in in- program at the EI, the dual-career issue their career-building years. Fellows will terdisciplinary fi elds or with multidisci- has blossomed into a major stumbling have the opportunity to work with EI plinary teams. These teams often involve block for search committees seeking to research scientists, faculty, postdocs, and more than one department, each with its hire mid-career women as either research graduate students. own implicit as well as explicit set of ex- scientists or teaching faculty, an issue pectations and criteria.

Oceanography Vol.18, No.1, Mar. 2005 31 Figure 5. Marie Th arp, re- nowned oceanographic car- tographer, working on Ocean Floor Map in Lamont Hall. From the Lamont-Doherty collection.

In order to identify the factors that In an effort to enable women scientists with children. The EI ADVANCE Pro- most infl uence a scientist’s career de- to maintain their research productivity gram has developed a competitive fund velopment, we are using the rubric of during times of transition, the EI AD- for women seeking childcare while they key events associated with prolifi c pub- VANCE Program will provide research are in the fi eld or at sea. If the impact of lishing that vary by gender developed assistance for women scientists during this funding is positive, we envision that by Elizabeth Creamer at Virginia Tech periods in which they are forced to limit support of childcare during extended (1998) (Figure 6). Publication output is their research time because of family life fi eldwork will ultimately become an al- the measure of success in science. It is transitions such as childbirth, adoption, lowable expense on NSF grants, in the the principal metric used to determine or elder care responsibilities. For the geo- same way that sea pay is now routinely tenure status, promotions, pay raises, sciences, fi eldwork and time at sea are budgeted into grants to cover the hard- and access to resources. Creamer’s analy- critical activities that determine access ships of sea-going experiences. sis presents a career trajectory with the to resources, professional networks, vis- In response to another key factor in key events that individually account for ibility, and eligibility for leadership roles. Creamer’s analysis “interaction with small career advancements, but which Fieldwork is a major attraction to gradu- infl uential colleagues,” the ADVANCE accumulate over time into large dispari- ate students in the geosciences, but it be- program has developed a program of ties in professional visibility, productiv- comes increasingly diffi cult for early and career development through research. ity, access to resources, and salary. mid-career scientists, particularly women This competitive program will enable

32 Oceanography Vol.18, No.1, Mar. 2005 Figure 6. Model of key events that vary by gen- der that impact pro- ductivity. Adopted from Creamer (1998). Reprint- ed with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

women scientists to broaden their pro- on topics which were formally taboo, verge from men’s has been observed over fessional networks by convening small, alleviated feelings of marginalization, several decades at Lamont. One-time ad- focused research workshops in collabo- and cultivated a community capable justments, while welcome at the time, do ration with senior scientists at Columbia of providing critical support for a uni- not change the system. Annual reviews University, as well as with other scientists versity-wide institutional change effort of the gender distribution of salaries are and professional organizations around through its commitment and activism. necessary to alleviate long-term and per- the world. These workshops will not only The topics covered in these meetings sistent disparities. Institutionalization enable women to develop leadership include work/life balance, publication requires a commitment from leaders and skills, but it will also give them an op- productivity and impact, and tactics for decision-makers. A crucial component portunity to defi ne the research agenda effective negotiation. of the ADVANCE proposal process at in their fi eld. Columbia was securing the support of In addition to providing funding op- INSTITUTIONALIZING the university—from the President on portunities, the ADVANCE program is ACCOUNTABILITY down—to fi nancially contribute to the strengthening the network of women The EI ADVANCE Program will only ADVANCE program over its fi ve years scientists at Lamont and at EI through a have a long-term impact if accountability and then to independently fund the suc- series of monthly meetings. These meet- for gender disparities is institutionalized. cessful facets of the ADVANCE program ings have opened the door to discussion The tendency for women’s salaries to di- across the entire university.

Oceanography Vol.18, No.1, Mar. 2005 33 ADVANCE is a social experiment. graphic and geoscience institutions seek- Geoscientists, available from http://www.awg. NSF designed the program so that uni- ing to support a diverse research and org/gendereq.html#wwgp. Holmes, M.A., S. O’Connell, C. Frey, and L.K. Ong- versities could develop solutions that fi t teaching faculty. ley. 2003. Academic specialties shifting; Hiring their culture and organizational topog- of women geoscientists stagnating, Eos, Transac- tions American Geophysical Union 84(42):457, raphy. What works at one ADVANCE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 460-461. institution might not work at every in- The Earth Institute at Columbia Univer- Long, J.S., ed. 2001. From Scarcity to Visibility: Gen- der Differences in the Careers of Doctoral Sci- stitution. However, NSF has made great sity ADVANCE Program is supported by entists and Engineers. National Academy Press, efforts to make sure that all of the AD- NSF grant SBE 02-45014. LDEO contri- Washington, D.C. Martell, R.F., D.M. Lane, and L.E. Emrich. 1996. VANCE institutions learn from each oth- bution #6731. Male-female differences: A computer simula- er. As part of the EI ADVANCE Program, tion. American Psychologist 51:157-158. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). we are discovering the factors that enable REFERENCES 1999. A study on the status of women faculty in women oceanographers and geoscien- Biernat, M., M. Manis, and T. Nelson. 1991. Ste- science at MIT. The MIT Faculty Newsletter XI (4/March). [Online] available at http://web.mit. tists to succeed. This process often raises reotypes and standards of judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 66:5-20. edu/fnl/women/women.pdf. personal and political issues that scien- Creamer, E.G. 1998. Assessing faculty publica- McCracken, D.M. 2000. Winning the talent war for women: Sometimes it takes a revolution. Har- tists would prefer to ignore. As Douglas tion productivity: Issues of equity. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report 26(2):1-91. vard Business Review 78(6):159-167. McCracken, the former CEO of con- Ginther, D.K. 2001. Does Science Discriminate National Science Foundation (NSF). 2004. Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Sci- Against Women? Evidence From Academia: 1973- sulting powerhouse Deloitte & Touche, ence and Engineering: 2004. NSF 04-317. Na- 1997. Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta Working tional Science Foundation, Division of Science once noted, “the key to inciting cultural Paper. Resources Statistics, Arlington, VA. [Online] Ginther, D.K. 2004. Why women earn less: Eco- change is turning taboo subjects at work available at http://www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/wmpd. nomic explanations for the gender salary gap in Polk, M. and M. Tiegreen. 2001. Women of Dis- into acceptable topics of discussion” science. AWIS Magazine 33(1/Winter):6-10. covery; A Celebration of Intrepid Women Who Holmes, M.A. and S. O’Connell. 2004. Where are (2000). The lessons learned here and at Explored the World. Random House, Inc., New the Women Geoscience Professors, Report on a the other ADVANCE institutions are a York, NY. Workshop, sponsored by the National Science Ragins, B.R. and E. Sundstrom. 1989. Gender and tremendous resource for other oceano- Foundation and the Association for Women power in organizations: A longitudinal perspec- tive. Psychological Bulletin 105:51-88. Rosenberg, Rosalind. 2004. Changing the Subject: How the Women of Columbia Shaped the Way We Think about Sex and Politics. Columbia Uni- versity Press, New York, NY. Valian, V. 1998. Why So Slow? The Advancement of Women. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

RELEVANT LITERATURE Applegate, J., L. Drotning, N. Gajee, J. Howard, K. Kastens, J. Metcalfe, and D. Partridge. 2001. Advancement of Women Through the Academic Ranks of the Columbia University Graduate School of Arts and Sciences: Where are the Leaks in the Pipeline? The Commission on the Status of Women Report. Columbia University, N.Y. [Online] Available at http://www.columbia.edu/ cu/senate/committees/commission/main.html. Ely, R.J. 1994. The effects of organizational demo- graphics and social identity on relationships among professional women. Administrative Sci- ence Quarterly 39:203-238. Ridgeway, C.L. 1988. Gender differences in task groups: A status and legitimacy account. Pp. 188-206 in Status Generalization: New Theory and Research, M. Webster, Jr., and M. Foschi, eds. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA.

34 Oceanography Vol.18, No.1, Mar. 2005