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German City Planning in the 1920'S: a North American Perspective of the Frankfurt Experience John Mullin, University of Massachusetts - Amherst

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German City Planning in the 1920'S: a North American Perspective of the Frankfurt Experience John Mullin, University of Massachusetts - Amherst University of Massachusetts Amherst From the SelectedWorks of John R. Mullin February, 1975 German City Planning in the 1920's: A North American Perspective of the Frankfurt Experience John Mullin, University of Massachusetts - Amherst Available at: https://works.bepress.com/john_mullin/69/ German City Planning in the 1920’s: A North American Perspective of the Frankfurt Experience John R. Mullin, MCP, MSBA Introduction German city planning has been characterized in most of the Twentieth Century by such words as “authoritarian”, “militaristic”, “megalomania” and “teutonic”. These words accurately describe attributes considered characteristic of the Bismarck-Wilhelmian years (1871-1918) and the years of the Third Reich (1933-1945). Yet, for a brief interlude, between these two eras, during the period of the Weimar Government (1919-1933), the nation underwent an intellectual and spiritual catharsis which rejected the above attributes. New concepts and approaches towards architecture, urban design, and planning flourished. Many of these have had a lasting impact upon the western world. Nowhere were these new ideas so readily accepted as in the city of Frankfurt am Main. Years of neglect due to war and economic crises, coupled with the strong support of the administration and citizenry, had helped to create an atmosphere which was highly conducive to radical planning measures. The plans that were created were indeed unique and, according to Giedeon and Mumford, the program was of such high quality that the results were among the world’s best during this period. 1 A natural question occurs upon review of this experience: Why did this happen in Frankfurt? This paper endeavors to answer this question by reviewing and analyzing the planning tradition, the social, governmental and cultural setting, and the application of the new planning concepts. Background Long before the 1920’s, Frankfurt had an effective tradition of city planning. With home rule powers resulting from the Stein Reforms of 1808, 2 a strong city-state foundation, 3 the Prussian Lines Act of 1875, 4 and Laws against the Disfigurement of Landscape (1902) and Buildings (1904), 5 the city leaders were able to plan for its needs. For example, the one major flaw in national planning legislation at the turn of the century – a lack of comprehensive expropriation powers – was first overcome in Frankfurt 1 Sigfried Giedion, Space Time and Architecture (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 5 th ed., 1967), p. 793, and: Lewis Mumford, The Culture of Cities (New York: Harcourt Brace and Jovanovich, 1970), photo caption before p. 454. 2 Named after Karl Frieherr vom Stein (1757-1831), the reforms included social, economic, administrative, educational and military elements. Perhaps the most important proposals were those that called for the emancipation of the Prussian peasantry and that established a system of municipal self-government with the participation of the citizens of the town (See Seeley, John R. The Life and Times of Stein . Cambridge: 1878, 3 vols.). 3 Prior to 1866, several cities were, in essence, “independent city-states”. Among these were the cities of the Hanseatic League and Frankfurt. 4 Officially called the Gesetz betreffend die Anlegung und Veraenderung von Strassen und Plaetzen in Staedten und Laendlichen Ortschaften vom 2 July 1875 , a description of it can be found in Michael Hugo-Brunt, The History of City Planning (Montreal, Harvest House, 1972), p. 234. 5 Officially called the Preussisches Gesetz Gegen die Verunstaltung Landschaftlich Hervooragender Gegenden vom 2 Juni, 1902 and the Preussisches Gesetz Gegen die Verunstaltung von Ortschaften in Landschaftlich Hervorragenden Gegender vom 15 July, 1907 , descriptions can be found in Sidney Cohn, Practice of Architectural Control in Northern Europe (Chapel Hill University of North Carolina, 1968), p. 86. through the creation of the famed Lex Adickes (1902). 6 This law enabled Frankfurt to expropriate property for development purposes, to retain 40% of it for municipal use, and to resell the property to the former owners. 7 At the same time as the development of the Lex Adickes, Frankfurt was in the midst of physical expansion. An entire new quarter of the city was developed, 8 a new harbor was constructed, 9 and over ten communities were annexed. 10 The Frankfurt pre-war experience was viewed with great respect by North American planners and reformers, including Dawson, 11 Foulke, 12 Burnham 13 and Olmstead. 14 However, as World War I approached, there appeared to be less and less praise. As Lasky wrote: “The kindly last century image of our ‘German cousins’ gave way to the bitter modern view of the incorrigible Teuton.” 15 World War I and its aftermath inflicted grave hardships upon the German city. Nowhere was this more evident than in the non-availability of housing. 16 Factors such as overcrowding caused by compulsory military billeting, the influx of German citizens from the captured German colonies, speculation, reparations, inflation, lack of manpower, and a shortage of supplies were all contributory. 17 Towards the end of the war (1918), the Wilhelmian government endeavored to improve the housing crisis by passing a law which declared that housing was henceforth a “public utility”. 18 The pressures of speculation were thus removed and housing construction could begin anew. This law prevented the crisis from increasing in intensity. Based upon the principle of “the right of every citizen to a sound dwelling within his means,” 19 the law greatly facilitated the development of building cooperatives which, with funding assistance, were to begin constructing new housing immediately. The collapse of the Wilhelmian Empire occurred not long after the law was drafted. It thus did not have a widespread effect on relieving the housing shortage. However, the planning programs and planning legislation undertaken at both state and local level throughout the Wilhelmian years were quite important in the new era. Most laws remained in effect and the traditions and attitudes towards planning changed little. 6 “Lex Adickes” can be translated as “Lex” meaning law and “Adickes” being the mayor of Frankfurt. It was named in honor of Mayor Adickes because of his persistent efforts in obtaining comprehensive planning assistance from the Prussian Government. 7 R.W. Bryant, Land, Private Property, Public Control (Montreal: Harvest House, 1972), p. 203. 8 Erhard Weiss, Neue Stadtteile. Ruckblick und Ausblick (Frankfurt: Europaische Verlaganstalt, 1966), p. 18. 9 Patrick Geddes, Cities in Evolution (New York: Howard Fertig, 1968, first published in 1913), pp. 196-198. 10 Gerhard Stoeber, Struktur und Function der Frankfurter City: Eine Okologische Analyse der Stadtmitte (Frankfurt: Europaische Verlaganstalt, 1964), p. 202. 11 W.H. Dawson, The Evolution of Modern Germany (London: Unwin, no date given), pp. 73-75. 12 William D. Foulke. “A German City Worthy of Emulation,” American City , vol. 6, no. 1 (January, 1912), pp. 412- 419. 13 Charles Moore. Daniel H. Burnham: Architect, Planner of Cities (New York De Capo Press, 1968 (first published 1921), vol. 1, p. 154. 14 Frederick Law Olmstead, “Methods of Taxation of Land and Municipal Ownership in Continental Countries,” Proceedings of the First National Conference on City Planning, 1909 (Chicago: American Society of Planning Officials, 1967), p. 41. 15 Melvin J. Lasky, “Germany,” Encounter , vol. xxii, no. 4, April, 1964), p. 1. 16 Albrecht Batholdy, The War and German Society (New York: Howard Fertig, 1937), p. 142. 17 Walter C. Behrendt, Modern Building (New York: Harcout, Brace and Co., 1937), p. 201. 18 See Albert Gut, Der Wohnungsbau in Deutschland nach dem Weltkriege (Munich: F. Bruckmann Verlag, 1928). 19 Barbara M. Lane, Architecture and Politics in Germany 1918-1945 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968), p. 88. The end of the war brought revolution, financial instability, reparations and the Allied Occupation. 20 Little planning was accomplished. Yet a new spirit had developed. It was a time when the “outsider became insider,” 21 and technics reigned supreme. Housing shortages, more than any of the many others, were not only compounded by the very serious inflation (1923), but also by a rigid system of nationally imposed rent controls. Private incentives to build were absent. The crisis prompted one director of a municipal housing commission to issue the following warning with some degree of levity: “Don’t get married! If you do, you will be forced to live with in-laws. You know what that means. There is no such thing as a ‘home of your own.’ The commission cannot promise you a place to live alone for eight to ten years.” 22 It was not until 1924, when the Weimar Government enabled local governments to impose a fifteen percent tax on present dwellings, that the housing program, as envisioned in the pre-Weimar “Right to a Sound Dwelling Law”, became operational. Frankfurt and the Post-War Setting The first city in Germany to undertake large-scale development under the new financing arrangement was Frankfurt. Two key personnel changes made this possible. They involved the selection of Ludwig Landmann as the new mayor, and his appointment of the architect/planner Ernst May. As a Social Democrat, Landmann was an enthusiastic reformer concerned with public welfare, and, as well, an advocate of large-scale city planning. Landmann then selected Ernst May as his Director of Municipal Construction. This appointment was to have a lasting effect on the city for he re-designed the total city fabric. Since medieval times, only the destruction of the city walls by Napoleon’s troops had a greater impact than May’s upon the city’s physical development and form. Ernst May Prior to coming to Frankfurt, May was responsible for the development of public housing in Silesia and, more importantly, worked with Sir Raymond Unwin on the development of the new English Garden City of Hempstead. He was a member of the Deutsche Werkbund and Der Ring , two prominent architectural organizations which espoused the creation of a totally new approach to design.
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