Caietele Echinox, vol. 30, 2016 : Repenser le politique… 286 Adrian G. Matus The Reception of the American Counterculture in Communist (1960-1975) The Rebels with a Cause

ABSTRACT 1. Introduction In my research I want to shed light on a marginal phenomenon that emerged in East- In the Eastern Europe of the 1960s, an ern Europe in 1960s. I will focus on the interesting youth phenomenon emerged. reception of the American counterculture Influenced by the American counterculture, and, more specifically, I will explain which the youngsters from the Communist countries ideas were imported. Through a multidisci- rioted against the Communist authority plinary approach, I will try to show how the through music and literature. The new political and social context determined some cultural wave was widely received behind variations of the American original phenom- the Iron Curtain. In Romania, the reception enon. Therefore, in the first part I will of the American counterculture had some present the birth of the Romanian counter- particularities. The hippies refused Marxism, culture. I will ask myself which concepts insisting rather on the mystic and nationalist were assimilated by the Romanian artists dimensions. Therefore, the American “or- (Marxism, and mysticism). I thodox” counterculture suffers a form of will use two cases as examples: Dorin Liviu hybridization with other ideas and with the Zaharia and Phoenix. local mentalities. The political context KEYWORDS played an essential role in this equation. Phoenix; Counterculture; Dorin Liviu Zaharia; Romanian Hippies; Nicolae Ceausescu. 1.1. What Do We Understand through Counterculture? The Definition ADRIAN G. MATUS of the Main Concepts Université Sorbonne Paris IV, France [email protected] We understand through the concept of counterculture the social, literary and aes- thetic movement that started in 1950s in the USA. In our research, we will follow the definition suggested by Theodore Roszak, the first American scholar that dealt with the subject, as a reaction to excessive technology1. The movement was born in the late 1950s

The Reception of the American Counterculture in Communist Romania (1960-1975) and continued during the 1960s as a strong for travelling in novels like 287 reaction against the state, which is seen as On the Road and Dharma the oppressor. The literary and philosophical Bums5. William Seward Bur- sources are very eclectic: psychoanalysis, roughs is another key writer of this gen- Zen Buddhism, Henry David Thoreau, Her- eration, even though his aesthetic line is mann Hesse, Friedrich Nietzsche and different than the Beat Generation one. He Oswald Spengler. One may ask oneself writes about his own experience with hard what may unite all these authors. We drugs (heroin particularly), in novels like consider that on the cultural level, all the Junky and The Naked Lunch. sources of the American counterculture deal However, the biggest revolution was with the theme of modernity, being against brought by the counterculture movement in the industry and technology2. The argument music, not in literature. Influenced by jazz is taken further, by proposing different types and blues, rock music determined a revolu- of spiritual, cultural, spiritual and even ur- tion in the popular culture. This movement ban alternatives. We have to take into was started in late 1950s, being influenced account that the counterculture has a power- by the American blues and jazz. In the early ful Leftist dimension, influenced by the 1960s already many groups emerged. The writings of the Frankfurt School of philo- rock revolution was accomplished by iconic sophy, particularly Herbert Marcuse (Eros groups like The Mamas & The Papas, Jef- and Civilization and The One-dimensional ferson Airplane, The Doors, Led Zeppelin, Man). In his writings, he is interested in The Beatles or individual musicians like mixing Freud’s conception referring to op- Joan Baez, Janis Joplin, Jimi Hendrix, pression with Marx’s view on the state. To Carlos Santana and others. Moreover, these resume, he insists that the State in general new music trends influenced the masses. creates a frustrated individual, through two Therefore, the last aspect of the counterculture main mechanisms: “surplus repression” and we discuss is the social aspect, namely the “basic repression”3. This large phenomenon big movements that occurred from 1965 to is present on three levels: in music, in 1970 in big cities like San Francisco or New literature and on a social scale. York. The street movements had a strong When we are talking about the literary Leftist position and soon they influenced counterculture, we take into consideration similar movements from Europe, especially the works of Allen Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac, in the Netherlands, France and Germany. Lawrence Ferlinghetti and, partly, William James Dean from the movie The Rebel Seward Burroughs. They are known as The without a Cause could be considered an Beat Generation. The literary dimension of emblematic figure of the American counter- counterculture refuses rational thinking, culture. He is the ultimate insubordinate which, according to them, belongs to the against an invisible authority. In our research, Modern State. For them, the solution was to we will discuss only about the literary, be found in alternative religious movements, social and musical phenomenon that emerged new for the time in USA: Zen Buddhism in America and later found unexpected roots and Hinduism. More specifically, Allen in Eastern Europe. For this reason, we will Ginsberg uses a mixture between Hinduism, try to understand how this cultural and Buddhism and the Christian heritage, in social phenomenon modifies its content poems like Sunflower Sutra, Kaddish and when it is assimilated in Eastern Europe. Howl4. Jack Kerouac will explore the Zen Therefore, the subject of our research Buddhist movement mixed with the passion is the reception and the hybridization of

Adrian G. Matus 288 counterculture in Communist counterculture in the Eastern Europe11. For Romania. Through the a- the Romanian case, Caius Dobrescu and nalogy with the ‘rebel with- Madigan Fichter presented the issue in con- out a cause’, we will try to explain that temporary journals. Dobrescu analyzed the counterculture can be understood in a case of the Phoenix band12 and Madigan different way. We suggest the term ‘rebel Fichter offered a synthetic approach of the with a cause’, in order to explain why Romanian counterculture13. practicing counterculture was a risky act in In order to understand the dynamics of Eastern Europe. Moreover, we will reveal this phenomenon, we will use methods from how counterculture was assimilated with different fields of study. Our approach is nationalism, through force. In other words, clearly an historical one, but at the same our question is the following one: how the time we use literary and musical references. cohabitation (or even the synthesis) between In order to understand the dynamics of this the American counterculture and the Na- phenomenon, we are interested more in the tional Communism of Nicolae Ceauşescu social and cultural structures than in the was possible? Other questions equally rise: richness of the archives. In other words, we what determines this odd mixture between will be interested in the methodology pro- nationalism, Marxism and counterculture in moted by the Annales School of History. Romania? Lastly, we have to be honest and We are interested in re-creating the micro- question ourselves to what extent practicing history shaped by the outsiders, who were counterculture was a phenomenon of escape not conscripted into official papers. Likewise, from the communist routine. we consider that the phrase of Jim Sharpe “the history from below” can explain our 1.2. The Historiography of the Theme path. We are interested in explaining how and the Scientific Position the outsiders from a specific society can reflect the real image of a society. Therefore, The issue of the marginal youth groups we will start from the following theoretical from communist societies was not debated assumption: the members of an excluded until the early 2000. The explanation is a group of society do not obey unconditionally very simple one. After the fall of the Com- the dominant group. In contrast, there is munist regimes, the academic research always a negotiation and a dialectic dynam- focused on the repression of the individuals6. ic between the two14. Only after this strong, emotional aspect was clarified, the investigation of the social mutations done by communist regimes began. Only after 2000, were studies broad- ened, treating themes like childhood in communism, the architectural mutations or the Roma communities7. The new inquiries used a larger variety of sources, not only archives: interviews, photos and literary texts8. In Romania, the issue of the counter- culture was treated by Ştefan Borbély9 and Adi Dohotaru10. After 2010, even some academic journals published articles that focused on the reception of the American

The Reception of the American Counterculture in Communist Romania (1960-1975) actually a member of the 289 2. The Establishment Stalinist faction (like Vasile Luca, Ana Pauker or 2.1. The Political and Cultural Context Lucreţiu Pătrăşcanu), he was strongly influenced by the Stalinist heritage. A After Stalin’s death, one may see a double tactic was used by Dej: he accused weakening of political control from the Stalinism only to reinforce his own power USSR. The countries from the Eastern bloc inside the Party. Other two aspects may also started to have their own distinctive position. explain the birth of the nationalist direction. In 1956, riots against the system emerged in Stelian Tănase, Romanian writer and , Hungary and Eastern Germany. In political analyst, in Elite şi societate. this context, Romania played a double role: Guvernarea Gheorghiu-Dej16 [Elites and on one hand, the country wanted to gain Society. Gherghiu-Dej’s Government] states more independence, but at the same time, it that the collectivization ended in 1962 – had to prove that it was still a faithful therefore, and at that point an ideology was partner of Moscow. Therefore, during the needed that could be more appealing for the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, Romania peasants. Moreover, Ştefan Borbely17 strongly accused the counter-revolution. suggests that through freeing the political Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, the leader of the right-wing prisoners (known as legionari), country, was aware that the ideas could the system had to anticipate the radical spread in the nearby region of Transylvania, nationalist trend that could have been set, due to the large community of the Hungar- through a more controlled line. By taking ians that lived there. Some street movements into consideration all these aspects and the arose in larger Transylvanian cities, like fact that other communist countries had a Cluj-Napoca or Timişoara. However, the similar interest (for instance, China and brought the workers from the Yugoslavia), we may observe that the roots nearby factories to control the people. The of the nationalist version of Communism were riot ended in a general fight and the leaders more profound than those visible in 197118. were punished. Consequently, the Soviet When Nicolae Ceauşescu took power army retreated from the Romanian territory in 1965, he wanted to enforce his domina- in 1958, considering this country as a tion on the national and international levels. faithful and loyal ally. His first interest was to legitimate his power We consider that 1958 was the starting with regard to the Soviet Union19. At the point for the nationalist direction in the same time, his arguments of autonomy were Romanian communist ideology. At that melted in an appealing form for the public. moment, it could be seen only at diplomatic In order to understand the emergence of the and international level, but gradually it Romanian counterculture, we have to see could be spotted also in culture and ideology. how the Romanian leader created, for a few For instance, the Leninist-Marxist dogma years, the impression of being a rebel with a was modified. This aspect is widely explained political cause. Adam Burakowski’s study by Mihai Retegan: for the historian, the on the Romanian leader proposes four argu- moment of 1958 was a turning point for ments upon which the personality of Nicolae Romanian Communism15. When Khrushchev Ceausescu becomes appealing: nationalism, accused the Stalinist cult, Gheorghe Gheor- directed economy, international recognition ghiu-Dej saw this maneuver as a menace to and anti-Soviet attitude20. First of all, his own position. Even though he was not financially the new leader wanted to separate

Adrian G. Matus 290 his country from the Valev plan. This plan had as a 2.2. Oddly Mixing Nationalism purpose to subdue the with Marxism national production to the supervision of Moscow. Basically, in the 1960s, Nicolae We consider that the last aspect, the Ceauşescu was interested in creating an nationalistic approach, was one of the most autonomous and viable economy. Secondly, important pillars on which Ceausescu man- the Romanian leader legitimized his power aged to control effectively the country. Still through destroying some of his main today, the traces of the nationalistic program enemies, such as Alexandru Drăghici, the are still highly visible in the Romanian head of the Secret Services. At the same culture22. Where may we spot the germs of time, he surrounded himself by faithful and this ideology? intelligent leaders, like Ion Maurer and Paul The main aim of all totalitarian re- Nicolescu-Mizil. gimes is to control the cultural discourse The third aspect that gave credibility to through which the masses can be more Nicolae Ceausescu was his anti-Soviet easily corrupted. The artistic act is by defi- attitude. Even though his position was not nition individual and difficult to manipulate. as radical as that of Tito, it was still present. However, the Communist regime was inter- The double game was justified by the prox- ested in controlling the writers, painters and, imity of the USSR. Ceausescu wanted to broadly, all the artists, in order to promote avoid an open position against the Soviets. the desired message. Therefore, the Party Yet, when the Romanian leader had the had to be a messenger between socialism opportunity to challenge the Soviet actions, and the proletariat23. We may easily observe he did it only in discourse, never through that, beyond the Hegelian dialectics, we are engaged conflicts. His main tactic was to dealing with a phenomenon which borrows maintain good relationships with as many many religious aspects. For instance, the states as possible. He saw himself as a individual has the duty to obey to the in- mediator, but he always knew where his stance that has the ultimate version of truth: ideological camp was21. When Charles de the Party. That is the reason why Lucian Gaulle came in Romania (14-18 May 1968), Boia considers Communism as a religion the French president proposed to the com- without transcendence24. munist leader to create a specific alliance Hence, the concept of the hybridization between the two countries. However, Ceau- of ideology by Katherine Verdery may ex- sescu was cautious and he declined the plain how nationalism and Marxism were proposition of the French president. At the mixed up together in the cultural sphere25. same time, he maintained good commercial For the American historian Katherine Ver- and even cultural relationships with the dery, between 1947 and 1989 through the French state. wooden language26 we may see a constant battle between the Marxist speech and the nationalist one. The fight was won by the nationalist terminology, starting from 1970s, when the new political culture promoted by Ceausescu emerged. In other words, the role of the Party (in discourse) was slowly reduced. The concept of the nation became more appealing27.

The Reception of the American Counterculture in Communist Romania (1960-1975) How was this particular form of Marx- 291 ism implemented in the Romanian cultural system? This was accomplished through the illusory liberalization – a clever politics of 3. The Rebels with a Cause manipulation done by Nicolae Ceauşescu. From 1965 until 1971, the contacts with the Even though some scholars argue that foreign culture were permitted, as long as the access to the American counterculture they were not too harmful for the existence was too restricted to create hybrid forms29, of the system. At the same time, we have to the biographies and the existent research take into consideration the fact that during show that the situation is more complex. 1948-1958, culture had another pattern, totally different than the situation before the 3.1. The Making of the Romanian war. However, starting from 1963, Western Counterculture foreign cultural products were translated more and more in Romanian. This was the Acknowledging the phenomenon that moment when American counterculture was just happening across the Atlantic started to be adapted and practiced by the Ocean was the first step in shaping the youth. Nonetheless, in the 1970s another Romanian counterculture. As we stated cultural approach appeared. In some docu- before, after 1953, the Stalinist cult was ments from 1970 (Protocolul nr. 2 al Şedin- slowly becoming past. In consequence, ţei Secretariatului din 10.02.1970 [Minutes there was a permission of approaching more No.2 of the Office Meeting from 10.02.1970] delicate subjects, like the issue of the the final decision of changing the movie outsiders of the Western societies. However, themes was stated28. The participants dis- the first article that promoted the Beat cussed about the new cinematographic di- Generation literature was very acid regarding rection. This was the first stage in imple- this phenomenon. It was published in the menting the nationalistic approach. The revue Secolul 20 [20th Century], with the cultural intervention was far more intrusive title Ce este The Beat Generation? [What is starting from the following year, 1971, after the Beat Generation?] in the 2nd issue of the visit of the Romanian leader in China 1961. The author, named Horia Bratu (a and North Korea. freshly converted Communist, who became a ‘specialist’ in Communist dogma, particu- larly on the works of Constantin Dobro- geanu-Gherea)30, wanted to offer a broad explanation about this literary trend. Mean- while, we notice a more subtle way in which the wooden language is being implemented. After he presents the main writers of the movement (Ginsberg, Kerouac, Ferlinghetti), the author offers a sociological explanation for the name of this literary group. For Horia Bratu, the Beat Generation means the “beaten Generation”, those who did not manage to impose themselves in the literary canon of the 1950s and started to live on the edge of society as compensation. This

Adrian G. Matus 292 argument is partly valid, but the European jazz and other trends on his reductionist. We may also weekly radio show called Metronom, started explain the name Beat from in July 1967. From 1969, when he noticed Kerouac’s version: Beat can equally mean that the cultural direction was changing, he Beatified. In a conversation with John Clel- moved to Western Germany. He died in lon Holmes, Jack Kerouac proposed for the suspect conditions in 1975. first time the word “beat”, with the meaning Besides , other powerful centers of ‘exhausted’, ‘tired’. However, during for the Romanian counterculture were Timi- 1950s, the whole poetic generation understood şoara and Cluj-Napoca, and to a lesser through the word Beat a shorter form of the extent, Iaşi. Timişoara, for instance, had the word Beatified31. advantage of the proximity with the Yugo- This aspect was not taken into account slavian border. Due to a more relaxed policy by the Romanian journalist. For him, the of border circulation in Tito’s country, a poetic generation comes from “the middle powerful traffic of discs and blue-jeans bourgeoisie (…), has graduated at small arose in this region. Soon, the musicians provincial universities (…) and from an early from Timişoara imitated the new songs that age, they experience the falling of their high they heard on the radio or on pick-ups. They ideals”32. We may see that his interpretation were strongly influenced by the mystical, is always given from a radical, moral per- Oriental songs of the Beatles. Among them, spective. The conclusion of the author is the most famous band is Phoenix, a group that the Romanian system cannot create which passed through all the periods of the these odd hybrids, because a better system Romanian counterculture and had a huge is emerging: Communism. We may spot the musical impact. wooden language in a structure like: 3.2. The Main Particularities first of all, we don’t have the golden of the Romanian Counterculture: youth, the rich children who don’t do Nationalism and Interest in Mysticism. anything, or the aesthetic bohemians, The High-Counterculture who have failed in fascist bands33. During the period 1960-1970, counter- The structure “tinereţe aurită” [golden culture was mainly an elitist phenomenon. youth] is an archaic form that reflects a We suggest seeing this period by naming it stereotypical way of thinking. Therefore, the the high-counterculture period, opposed to phrase is not credible for the intellectuals of the following period, after 1971, which we the 1960s. will name “low-counterculture”. Through However, a more delicate aspect was “high-counterculture”, I understand the period the integration of nationalism into the Ro- which gathered intellectuals and artists manian counterculture, mainly through the around the personalities of Dorin Liviu musical dimension of the Romanian coun- Zaharia and Ioan Petru Culianu. It was an terculture. The quick assimilation of elitist, high movement. Before the Phoenix counterculture in music can be explained mass-phenomenon, some small intellectual very easily. It came, practically, on an groups were already using some of the empty ground. Moreover, from 1965, strong countercultural patterns and elements. They voices that promoted the new musical trends were highly educated and had already read emerged. The most famous cultural journalist carefully the literary sources of the Ameri- was Cornel Chiriac, who was popularizing can counterculture. They were synchronized

The Reception of the American Counterculture in Communist Romania (1960-1975) with this phenomenon, when it was imported a specific kind of revivalism. 293 in Romania. Ioan Petru Culianu, the future The artist was interested in historian of religions, was the main intel- exploring the cultures that lectual of the group, and Dorin Liviu existed before modernity (for instance, Zaharia was seen by all as a strong spiritual shamanism). A first influence may come force34. The second was known to all as from the albums of The Beatles, but he also Chubby and he was strongly interested in had some other sources of inspiration. mixing the theatrical act with music. His He chose the songs upon their poetic intention was to mingle folklore with the and aesthetic meaning. The interest towards new musical trends. However, the projects tradition and folklore can be explained were strongly conceptual and elitist. For through the influence of Culianu and their instance, Andrei Oişteanu remembers Dorin common interest in reading Nietzsche, Liviu Zaharia’s odd, shamanic appearances Spengler, Mircea Eliade and Hermann Hesse. on the stages: They belonged to an elitist Bucharest group whose members were interested in reading he was a lonely hermit, with a fragile these authors. We have to mention that silhouette, who was wearing a big these names were highly read also by the traditional blouse, long to his ankles, intellectuals of the American counterculture. with his irregular hair and beard. He Partly, they read these authors influenced by was singing unbelievable, tall, intense counterculture, but they knew about their sounds, with an acute pitch.35 ideas from the 1950s, particularly Culianu, as Mircea Florian, a famous underground In the history of the Romanian coun- musician of the period, stated in an terculture in music, he is seen as a Socratic interview: figure. Actually, he did not record many of his live performances. It was only in the We were reading Nietzsche, equally following decades that he created some we were interested by the writings of soundtracks for a few national movies. This Far Right orientation, like the poems of does not mean that his presence was not Radu Gyr. We were devouring almost vital. All the testimonies about the Romanian everything. 37 counterculture mention his role as a mentor36. For the first time in the Romanian culture, Of course, the cultural debates were Dorin Liviu Zaharia managed to mix Roma- organized in secret and with discretion. As a nian mysticism with the American psyche- small observation, the first years of the Ro- delic trend. This may be easily observed in manian counterculture had many similarities the song Cantic de Haiduc, which was with the Czechoslovakian counterculture recorded in this first period of the Romanian after Charta 77 (with common aspects like counterculture (1960-1970). The Oriental the underground movement, highly intel- music is already integrated into the melodic lectual themes and interest for mysticism)38. line, but the song is first of all a reinterpret- We may ask ourselves what deter- tation of a traditional song. Chubby was mined this interest for mysticism and for the interested not in interpreting traditional songs exploration of the mythological features in already present in the official cultural the Romanian counterculture. This may discourse but in exploring the mythical and appear as a paradox in a society which was mystical parts of traditions. Before the apparently atheist (during the Communist Phoenix group, Dorin Liviu Zaharia promoted regime). In order to fully understand this

Adrian G. Matus 294 phenomenon, we have to go counterculture was imported, they also took back to the definition of the spiritual aspect of this phenomenon counterculture as a reaction (Buddhism, interest in Oriental religions, against the Establishment. One of the key etc.). Finally, we have to make one essential aspects of the Romanian communist Estab- observation: this interest could only be lishment was that it wanted to create a found in some elitist, highly-educated students society less influenced by religion. However, and artists, who were meeting in bigger before 1945, Romania had a powerful reli- cities. Nonetheless, the nationalistic dimen- gious tradition, through the Orthodox Church sion was strongly integrated into the Roma- and in Transylvania also through the Greek- nian counterculture, starting gently from Catholic Church, Roman-Catholic Church 1965, but with force from 1971 through the and the Protestant denominations (particularly Party directed youth movement called for the national minorities)39. Also, the Cenaclul Flacăra [The Flame Literary Romanian mentality was strongly determined Society]. by religiousness. The facts are multiple: a rural population, strong religious centers 3.3. The Low-Counterculture and a sense of cohesion that was given by the Church40. Therefore, when the Communist We consider that a bigger permeability regime discouraged practicing the religion, of ideas arose when Nicolae Ceauşescu took many compensatory acts emerged. Some of power. Therefore, counterculture and its the Romanians practiced their own tradi- adjacent topics were available at a larger tional beliefs in secret, but others forgot the scale. During the period of the “low-coun- old customs. However, we consider that a terculture”, the American counterculture psychological need for a religious system41 was strongly received by the Romanian was present in the post-war Romania. In public. As we have stated before, this was other words, by having a strongly religious also partly due to the activity of Cornel mentality, the atheist “feature” could not be Chiriac, through his radio show Metronom. imposed during only one generation. The He was also engaged in coordinating the interest in a religious form of knowledge local and regional music festivals. He saw at was still present to the youth of the 1960s. a National Music Festival held in Iaşi That is why many religious marginal (Festivalul naţional Studenţesc de la Iaşi) a groups that had existed since the interwar band which he considered representative for period became highly appealing when Com- the Romanian counterculture. The musical munism arrived (Rugul Aprins, Oastea group was Phoenix and it came from Timi- Domnului, etc.). This may be one possible soara. At the beginning, they were influenced explanation for the fascination with mysti- by The Beatles and The Shadows43. In 1968, cism. This was determined by a mentality when their first album was edited, 120.000 which was focused on the religious phe- discs were sold. One interesting aspect nomenon. However, the intellectuals could about the Romanian counterculture is the not return to the old beliefs that were presence of censorship. The counterculture present in pre-war Romania due to two main in USA and Western Europe could be openly causes: the Christian religion was not against the dominant system, but this attitude tolerated in the public discourse (schools, was not possible in Romania. Therefore, we newspapers, books) and moreover, the laicism have to specify a particularity that emerged promoted by modernity, as a paradigm, had in all the countries of the Eastern European emerged42. Therefore, when the American bloc that were affected by interdiction. The

The Reception of the American Counterculture in Communist Romania (1960-1975) lyrics were expressing hidden messages, Cromatic (in Cluj-Napoca), 295 only known by some keen listeners. For Roşu şi Negru (in Iaşi) and instance, the album Floarea stâncilor [The Sideral Modal Quartet (in Flower of the Rocks], which appeared in Bucharest). 1969, had some subversive allusions against However, at the same time, a new the Communist system. For instance, the political direction was indicated. Nicolae song Nebunul cu ochii închişi [The Fool Ceauşescu wanted a larger control of the with Closed Eyes] created a myth of contes- population, and this had to be done also tation around it44. The title may refer to the through culture. Therefore, the degenerate, Romanian leader, who ruled the country Western products had to be severely con- without any judgment. However, the text trolled. This aspect was clearly stipulated in passed the censorship due to the lack of a official documents regarding the development specific reference. In other words, the lyrics of the culture: describe an old man, who is holding a speech that no one listens to. Therefore, the the need not to remain behind the latest situation may be read in different ways: a trends and fads gets to a sort of ideo- critique to Nicolae Ceauşescu or simply a logical snobbism, to attitudes that lack reference to a mythical tale. discipline and to the uncritical assimi- However, the first lyricist of the group, lation of the most odd ideas from Paul Şuvagău, admitted that not all the texts different philosophical, political and were against the system, even though they aesthetical sources47. were understood like that45. In order for their texts to be allowed by censorship, the Behind the strong wooden language, an composers used a double-tactic. Their texts external enemy of the system was shaped: were always ambiguous enough in order to American capitalism. Therefore, the Roma- have multiple interpretations and justifica- nian leader imposed new directions of tions. For instance, the lyrics : The whole approach, through the famous speech called world/ Is not stopping to listen to him/ they Tezele din Iulie 1971 [July Theses]. However, see him as a fool/ who talks only non- as we stated before, this was not an un- sense46 can have multiple ways of reading. expected maneuver, but its roots could be The text can refer to various situations, not found in the evolution of the country on the only to the Romanian leader. Moreover, international relations scene in the 1960s. when the musicians proposed the lyrics, In this context, Phoenix tried to adjust they said that it was a Romanian interpretation to the new cultural context. From this point, of the song The Fool on a Hill by The the subversive aspect was far more Beatles. sophisticated. For instance, in the album Due to their spirit of contestation and Mugur de Fluier [Whistle Bud] from 1974, their innovative line, the Phoenix became the musicians mixed the folkloric patterns very popular. However, at the end of 1969, with the new instrumentation. At this point, the vocalist Moni Bordeianu emigrated, and they were highly influenced by Jethro Tull the aesthetic approach of the band changed. and other Western bands who were them- In 1970s, the group became more and more selves exploring the traditional elements. engaged in the local theatre scene, with However, we have to mention the difference projects such as 36:80. At the same time, between Phoenix and Chubby: while in the they influenced similar projects in the other first years of counterculture the interest was main Romanian cities, with groups like to explore the mythical aspects, from 1971,

Adrian G. Matus 296 the national and folk refer- [“without any sky and any years”]). In other ences were present due to an words, the authors translated the ideals of imposition from the Party. the hippies to a community that could be For instance, the album Mugur de referred to without any problems in Com- Fluier [Whistle Bud] has some interesting munist Romania. A text about hippies was lyrics, which were written by two poets: highly improbable to pass the censorship Andrei Ujică and Şerban Foarţă. They were due to the radical ‘heritage’ that this cultural highly-prepared to play along the official current promoted: rebellion against the World line, but by subverting it. For instance, the of adults, sexual promiscuity and most im- song Andrii Popa from the mentioned album portant, challenging the system. The refer- refers to an outlaw from the south of ences for the hippies were few and they Romania, who recovers stolen girls by the were mostly admitted in journals, just to Turks48. The idea of a Romanian rebel may depict the decadence of the Western world. be interpreted in various ways, depending The Communist Youth Party leaders, like on the needed context. For instance, the Virgil Trofin and Ion Iliescu (the future structure “seven years with bravery/ he President of Romania) forbade these ref- mocked on the lords”49 may be read as a erences in 1971. depiction of the brave Romanian who We agree with Caius Dobrescu’s always fought against the foreigners (ideal observation: the most important album was for passing through censorship) or as the Cantofabule from 1975. The subversion rebel who fought against the system (pos- against the system was coded to the extent sible interpretation of the public). However, that the censors could not do anything about the reference against the Communist system it, since they did not understand it. It was became more and more sophisticated written in an 18th-century version of Roma- throughout time. Concerning the instrumen- nian, with sophisticated cultural references tation, the declared aim of the musicians (European mysticism, Gnosticism and esoteric was to explore the traditional patterns, symbols). The aim of the authors of the starting from pastoral songs to fast rhythms. lyrics (Andrei Ujică and Şerban Foarţă, two For instance, in one of these tracks, poets from Timişoara) was to revive old the rhythm is heavily influenced by the Romanian literature, through rock music. Balcanic beats. Initially, this song was The title refers to a Medieval literary genre, played in private parties, but the fans fabula that used to criticize specific public insisted heavily to be included on the characters. Moreover, the author creates a recording. We are talking about the song vast system of mythical creatures, which Mica Ţiganiadă [Little Roma Epic], where shape a spiritual universal hierarchy50. We we may spot a very subtle reference to the may again see the fascination of the Roma- countercultural hippies, through the com- nian counterculture towards myths and parison with the Roma. For Ujică, the foreign mythologies. However, the poets author of the lyrics, the Roma population mix, adjust and mingle symbols that come was, just like the hippies, a Dionysian from totally different backgrounds: Medieval community that was enjoying the moment France, Byzantine Empire, Romanian folk- (“Ei se duc la pas/ Spre un alt popas,/ şatra lore and Classical mythology. This method de pripas”)[“They go by step/ To another was specific to the American counterculture stop/ The refugee caravane”] and living itself: Allen Ginsberg mixed references without any calendar (“fără niciun sfanţ” from Judaism, Buddhism and Hinduism, in [“without any money”], “fără cer şi ani” poems like Kaddish. Equally, Jack Kerouac

The Reception of the American Counterculture in Communist Romania (1960-1975) explored different religions in his novel and educated in the Com- 297 Dharma Bums. munist spirit by the state. Therefore, in this album we may spot Certainly, the nostalgia for the two dimensions of the Romanian coun- the past was transmitted through the older terculture: the fascination with mysticism generation, in their private lives, in their and the exploration of the nationalist pat- own families. However, at this point, the tern. In other words, the heritage of Dorin existing, dominant discourse (in the written Liviu Zaharia is mixed with the nationalist press, media and culture) at that time was approach proposed by Nicolae Ceauşescu. the Marxist-Leninist one. On the other hand, For instance, the song Nunta [The Wedding] the youth period was strongly determined refers to a rural episode, but at the same by a sense of rebellion against the existing time includes other sources. At this point, dominant discourse. In other words, the the group was influenced by Jethro Tull, a essence of the counterculture is rebelling British rock band that included folk ele- against the world of the adults. Many ments. However, the band’s increasing studies from different psychological schools popularity was not seen with good eyes by prove that the teenage period can be in- the Romanian secret police. The Communists herently stressful and that teenagers can be accused the group of being ‘mystics’. More- aggressive against the world of the adults over, they were repeatedly menaced by the (particularly between the age of 12 to 17 agents. In this situation, the band fled the years)51. Long story short, we consider that country, hidden in guitar stations, in 1977. rebellion is an inherent psychological be- Phoenix reunited in Western Germany, but havior. As well, upon this psychological they never reached the same success as in existing pattern, a cultural layer can appear52. Romania. The explanations are multiple: the This psychological explanation may market laws were different, the competition offer us a clue why the youth from 1965- was much more intense and in 1970s other 1970 were not interested into the Marxist- trends were emerging (punk, hardcore, etc.). Leninist ideas, which were highly present in counterculture. The Establishment and im- 3.4. Two Explanations for the Refusal plicitly, the society of the adults were of Marxism in the Romanian dominated by a strong Communist discourse. Counterculture Even the Marxist iconic personalities were used by the Communist state in order to When talking about Romanian counter- enforce its own power. For example, the culture, we have to notice some interesting figure of Che Guevara was always presented aspects. Normally, American counterculture in a good way. His ideals were useful for the had a strong Leftist dimension, through the ideological frame of the Communist state. New Left movement. The first particularity For instance, his figure is strongly glorified of Romanian counterculture is that from its in the newspaper Contemporanul from 1968: starting point, the Marxist dimension was absent. Therefore, a question occurs: what I have met Che Guevara during one generated the refusal of this essential aspect night; he was wearing a kaki blouse from the original phenomenon? Two pos- and aviator boots. He was wearing the sible explanations may arise. The first answer liberty at his belt and the red star on his comes from a psychological perspective. black beret. His thoughts were cover- The youth from this period (1965-1970) was ing his figure as the globe pushed the the first generation who was born, raised shoulders of Atlas 53

Adrian G. Matus 298 We may notice in this created a new class, that of the workers. fragment the use of the Therefore, the socialist movements were wooden language, especially more present in Central Europe than in in the structures “libertatea la cingătoare” Romania. Moreover, the intelligentsia ignored [the liberty to his belt] and “steaua roşie la the socialist dimension. bereta neagră” [the red star at his black beret]. The words used are from an archaic register. Therefore, while trying to promote 4. Final Aspects Marxist iconic figures, the Romanian ideology managed to do the contrary. The articles 4.1. Conclusions: Can We Spot the Rebel about Che Guevara were abundant: in the with a Cause? revue Secolul 20 [20th Century], poems by Mario Benedetti, Cesare Zavattimi, Silva We saw what the main aspects of the Herzog or Abelardo Castillo about him were Romanian counterculture were determined translated54. However, they were not appeal- by. After clarifying the key-terms, like ing for the youth, because they were not counterculture, we tried to argue that in subversive. Eastern Europe another type of rebel e- On the other hand, this psychological merged: the rebel with a cause. In order to explanation is not complete. If we cross the demonstrate the thesis, we tried to explain borders of Romania, we may see some real why the issue of the outsiders from the Marxist interests in the other countries from Communist societies was not properly the Communist bloc. For instance, in the researched until early 2000s. We defined Czechoslovakian counterculture, a significant our methodological approach through which part used Leftist concepts with fluency and we can access to the “history of below”. In pertinence55. Equal interests can be found in our first part, we argued that the nationalistic Poland or in Hungary. The interest was to discourse was already present in 1960s. It reform the Stalinist-type of Communism, began as a form of protection against the with new refreshing ideas (for instance, the Khrushchev’s accusations of Stalin’s crimes. project of the “Communism with a human When Ceausescu came to power, the concept face”). How may we understand this region- of “national direction” already existed. We al paradox? One of the explanations for an have seen the four points upon which he interest in Marxism in these countries can became famous: directed economy, interna- be found in regional history. Poland, Czech- tional recognition, anti-Soviet attitude and oslovakia and Hungary belonged, before nationalism. We have seen how this mech- 1918, to the Austro-Hungarian Empire or to anism emerged and how it was cleverly Germany. In contrast with Romania, Bulgaria spread in the whole public speech. or URSS, these parts were significantly In our second part, we explored two of more industrialized. Even though Transy- the key figures of the Romanian counter- lvania also was a part of the Austro-Hungarian culture: Dorin Liviu Zaharia and the group Empire, its economy was significantly more Phoenix. While Dorin Liviu Zaharia was influenced by agriculture than industry. This using sophisticated mythical references, the region was one of the poorest from the group Phoenix managed to mix the rock Austro-Hungarian Empire. Moreover, the music with the nationalistic pattern. We saw culture was formed, to a certain extent, in how the double-game with the censorship the other regions of Romania (Wallachia was won: through proposing texts with and Moldavia)56. The industrialization multiple lines of interpretations.

The Reception of the American Counterculture in Communist Romania (1960-1975) To sum up, we may see that the 299 nationalist discourse was strongly present in the Romanian music counterculture. This case was not singular in Eastern Europe: References and primary sources: similar cases can be spotted in Poland and Hungary. The Romanian case is interesting Horia Bratu, “Ce este The Beat because we may spot a clear difference Generation”, Secolul 20, Nr. 2/1961. between the elitist movement (named high- Mihnea Berindei, Dorin Dobrincu, Ar- counterculture) and the mass movement mand Goşu, Istoria comunismului din Ro- (named low-counterculture). The high-coun- mânia, Volumul II, Documente Nicolae terculture was visible through the hap- Ceauşescu (1965-1971). Iaşi, Editura Polirom, penings done by Dorin Liviu Zaharia. The 2012. low-counterculture is represented by the Gavin Bowo, La France et la Roumanie mixture between nationalism and American communiste, Paris, L’Harmattan, 2008. counterculture. In order to be allowed by the Adam Burakowski, Dictatura lui Nico- censorship, in the lyrics was always played lae Ceauşescu (1965-1989). Geniul Capa- a double-game through proposing texts with ţilor. Traducere de Vasile Moga. Iaşi, Editura multiple interpretations. Polirom, 2012. Sanda Cordoş, Literatura între revoluţie 4.2. Limits and Further Research şi reacţiune. Problema crizei în literatura română şi rusă a secolului XX. Cluj-Napo- The first limit of our research is the ca, Biblioteca Apostrof, 1999. fact that we did not focus on the latter Denis Deletant, Communist Terror in decades (1970s and 1980s). It would have Romania: Gheorghe-Gheorghiu Dej and the been interesting to see the evolution of Police State.1948-1965. London, Hurst, nationalism through Cenaclul Flacăra [The 1999. Flame Literary Circle] and in the last decade Caius Dobrescu, “The Phoenix that of the communist regime. Moreover, we did Could Not Rise: Politics and Rock Culture not focus on the literary dimension of the in Romania, 1960-1989”, East Central Romanian counterculture, represented by Europe (1/2011), CEU, Budapest. G80 movement (or, in Romanian, optze- Doru Ionescu, Timpul chitarelor elec- ciştii). In future, some interviews and testi- trice: jurnal de călătorie în arhiva TVR. monies about this period would be helpful Volumul 1. Bucureşti, Humanitas Educaţional, in understanding better the dynamics of this 2005. phenomenon. A research on the relationship Andrei Oişteanu, “Ioan Petru Culianu: between the counterculture and the state- ‘Cel mai bun prieten al meu, Dorin Liviu directed Cenaclul Flacăra would help us Stanciu Zaharia’”, 2014, Revista 22: understand how the Communist state tried http://www.revista22.ro/ioan-petru-culianu- to control its youth. Finally, the literary -8222cel-mai-bun-prieten-al-meu--dorin-li- aspect of the Romanian counterculture has viu-zaharia8221-47577.html, verified at to be further examined. More exactly, it 26.02.2015, 12h15. would be interesting to see to what extent Personal interview with Mircea Florian. the G80 movement may be called “late- August 2015. counterculture”. Dorina Rădulescu, “Che Guevara”, Contemporanul. Bucureşti, 26 January 1968.

Adrian G. Matus 300 Sabrina Petra Ramet, So- cial Currents in Eastern Romania, 1960-1989”, East Central Europe Europe. Durham and London, (1/2011). Duke University Press, 1995. 13 Madigan Fichter. “Rock n roll nation: counterculture and dissent in Romania, 1965-1975”, Nationalities Papers, Vol. 39, Notes No. 4. 14 Nicolau, op. cit., p. 29. 1 Theodore Roszak. The Making of a 15 Mihai Retegan. 1968 – din primăvară Counter Culture. Anchor Books, Doubleday până în toamnă, Bucuresti: Editura Rao, Company Inc., Garden City, New York, 2014, Ediţia a doua revăzută şi adăugită. 1969, pp. 10-20. 16 Tănase 1998, p. 187. 2 Ibid. 17 Stefan Borbély, Homo Brucans şi alte 3 Ibid., p. 102. eseuri. 4Jonah Raskin. American Scream: Allen 18 Mihai Retegan, op. cit., p. 62. Ginsberg’s Howl and the Making of the 19 Mihnea Berindei, “La position singulière Beat Generation. Berkeley: University of de la Roumanie en 1968: Ceausescu et la California Press, 2004. Printemps de Prague”, Revue Roumaine 5 Eduard Vlad. American Literature, Re- d’Histoire, 1999, Janvier-Décembre, No. 1- sponses to the Po-Mo void. Ovidius Univer- 4. Editura Academiei Romane, Bucharest, sity Press, Constanta, 2004. Roumanie. 6 Adrian Nicolau. La vie quotidienne en 20 Adam Burakowski, Dictatura lui Nicolae Roumanie sous le communisme. Préface de Ceauşescu (1965-1989). Geniul Carpaţilor, Serge Moscovici, Edition L’Harmattan, Traducere de Vasile Moga, Editura Polirom, Paris, 2008, p. 32. Iaşi, p. 27. 7 Ibid., but also Kati Jutteau. L’enfance 21 Ibid., p. 150. embrigadée dans la Hongrie communiste. 22 Ibid. Le mouvement de pionniers, L’Harmattan, 23 Leszek Kolakowski. Main Currents of 2007. Marxism. Vol. I. The Founding Fathers, 8 Sabrina Ramet. Rocking the State: Rock Translated from the Polish by P.S. Falla, Music and Politics in Eastern Europe and Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1978, p. 40. Russia. Westview Press, Boulder, 1994 or 24 Lucian Boia. Pentru o istorie a imagi- Sabrina Petra Ramet (ed.). Eastern Europe. narului. Editura Humanitas, Bucureşti, 2007. Politics, Culture, and Society since 1939, This theory also may be found in in other Indiana University Press, Bloomington and writings by Boia. Indianapolis. 1998. 25 Katherine Verdery. National Ideology 9 Ştefan Borbély, Visul lupului de stepă. Under Socialism. Identity and Cultural Poli- Cluj-Napoca: Editura Dacia, 1999 and Şte- tics in Ceauşescu’s Romania. University of fan Borbély. Homo Brucans şi alte eseuri. California Press, Berkeley, 1991. Editura Contemporanul, Bucuresti, 2011. 26 The concept of wooden language was 10 Adi Dohotaru. Anii 1960: mişcări con- originally proposed by Françoise Thom in testatare în SUA. Editura Eikon, Cluj- order to explain the discourse present in Napoca. 2011. Communist press, lacked of any referential 11 East Central Europe (2011), pp. 255-290. truth. The structure was already circulating 12 Caius Dobrescu. “The Phoenix that Could in the Eastern Europe countries. However, Not Rise: Politics and Rock Culture in in the academic field this was firstly presented

The Reception of the American Counterculture in Communist Romania (1960-1975) 301

in 1987 by Françoise Thom. In French, the 39 Simona Nicoară. Reperele unei istorii a concept is known as langue du bois. Françoise vieţii religioase. Studii de antropologie reli- Thom. La langue du Bois. Julliard, collec- gioasă, vol. I-II. Editura Accente, Cluj tion Commentaire, Paris, 1987. Napoca, 2011. 27Katherine Verdery, op.cit., p. 4. 40 See for instance, Sorin Mitu. Transilvania 28 Protocolul nr. 2 al şedinţei Secretaria- mea. Istorii, mentalităţi, identităţi. Editura tului din ziua de 10 februarie 1970 [Minutes Polirom, Iasi, 2013 but also, from a more No.2 of the Office Meeting from 10.02.1970] theoretical perspective, Clifford Geertz, The in Berindei, Dobrincu, Goşu 2012:559. Interpretation of Cultures, Selected Essays, 29 Martin Klimke. Joachim Scharloth. 1968 New York: Basic Books, 2006. in Europe: A History of Protest and Activ- 41 We follow here Clifford Geertz’s under- ism, 1956-1977. Palgrave Macmillan Print. standing the religion as a cultural system 2008. that shapes mentalities on the long term. 30 Eugen Negrici. Literature and propagan- Ibid., p. 87-121. da in Communist Romania. The Romanian 42 In this regard, Emile Durkheim explains Cultural Foundation Publishing House, Bu- very well the relationship between the emer- curesti, 1999; Eugen Negrici. Literatura gence of modernity, urbanism and the changes română sub comunism.1956-1964. Volumul that occur in the religious sphere due to the I. Cartea Românească, Bucureşti, 2010. change of paradigm: traditional vs. modern. 31 Eduard Vlad, op. cit., p. 38. Emile Durkheim. Le suicide. Presses Uni- 32 Our translation in Horia Bratu, “Ce este versitaires de Paris, Paris, 2007 (1897). Generatia Beat?”, Secolul 20, Nr. 2/1961. 43 Bela Kamocsa. Blues de Timişoara, 33 Our translation. The original in ibid., p. 119. Editura Brumar. Timişoara. 2010. 34 „Culianu era liderul intelectual incontes- 44 Dobrescu, op. cit. tabil al grupării studenţeşti, iar Zaharia era 45 Interview with Paul Șuvagău, during the liderul ei spiritual – şamanul micii comuni- TV documentary Remix (Phoenix 50), done tăţi”, Oişteanu 2014. by the National Romanian Television: 35 Our translation. The original text is pres- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CiJDT ent in Andrei Oişteanu, “Ioan Petru Culianu: w6H_zc. ‘Cel mai bun prieten al meu, Dorin Liviu 46 Our translation. Stanciu Zaharia’” (2014), Revista 22: 47 The original version is present here: http://www.revista22.ro/ioan-petru-culianu- “Tematica pentru Raportul ce va fi prezentat -8222cel-mai-bun-prieten-al-meu--dorin-li- la Plenara CC al PCR privind activitatea viu-zaharia8221-47577.html, verified at ideologică, politico-educativă şi cultural- 26.02.2015, 12h15. artistică, 26 iulie 1971” in Berindei, Do- 36 Andrei Oişteanu, op. cit., Caius Dobrescu, brincu, Goşu, op. cit., 638. op. cit., and Mircea Florian, personal inter- 48 Dobrescu, op. cit., p. 270. view August 2015. 49 Our translation. “Şepte ani cu voinicie/ şi- 37 Personal interview with Mircea Florian, au bătut joc de domnie”, available at done in August 2015. http://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Andrii-Popa, 38 Martin Machovec, Czech Underground 11.07.2015, 17h15. Musicians in Search of Art Innovation in 50 Dobrescu, op. cit., p. 271. East Central Europe 38 (2011), p. 222. 51 Raymond Montemayor. Ausubel, D.P.

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Svajian P. Theory and Problems of the Ado- 54 Revista Secolul 20, nr.6/1968. lescent. Grune &Stratton. New York. 1977. 55 Machovec, op. cit., p. 222. 52 Ibid. 56 Sorin Mitu, op. cit. 53 Our translation. The original text, Dorina Rădulescu. “Che Guevara”. Contemporanul. Bucureşti, 26 January 1968.