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Adrian G. Matus the Reception of the American Counterculture in Communist Romania (1960-1975) the Rebels with a Cause

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Adrian G. Matus the Reception of the American Counterculture in Communist Romania (1960-1975) the Rebels with a Cause Caietele Echinox, vol. 30, 2016 : Repenser le politique… 286 Adrian G. Matus The Reception of the American Counterculture in Communist Romania (1960-1975) The Rebels with a Cause ABSTRACT 1. Introduction In my research I want to shed light on a marginal phenomenon that emerged in East- In the Eastern Europe of the 1960s, an ern Europe in 1960s. I will focus on the interesting youth phenomenon emerged. reception of the American counterculture Influenced by the American counterculture, and, more specifically, I will explain which the youngsters from the Communist countries ideas were imported. Through a multidisci- rioted against the Communist authority plinary approach, I will try to show how the through music and literature. The new political and social context determined some cultural wave was widely received behind variations of the American original phenom- the Iron Curtain. In Romania, the reception enon. Therefore, in the first part I will of the American counterculture had some present the birth of the Romanian counter- particularities. The hippies refused Marxism, culture. I will ask myself which concepts insisting rather on the mystic and nationalist were assimilated by the Romanian artists dimensions. Therefore, the American “or- (Marxism, nationalism and mysticism). I thodox” counterculture suffers a form of will use two cases as examples: Dorin Liviu hybridization with other ideas and with the Zaharia and Phoenix. local mentalities. The political context KEYWORDS played an essential role in this equation. Phoenix; Counterculture; Dorin Liviu Zaharia; Romanian Hippies; Nicolae Ceausescu. 1.1. What Do We Understand through Counterculture? The Definition ADRIAN G. MATUS of the Main Concepts Université Sorbonne Paris IV, France [email protected] We understand through the concept of counterculture the social, literary and aes- thetic movement that started in 1950s in the USA. In our research, we will follow the definition suggested by Theodore Roszak, the first American scholar that dealt with the subject, as a reaction to excessive technology1. The movement was born in the late 1950s The Reception of the American Counterculture in Communist Romania (1960-1975) and continued during the 1960s as a strong for travelling in novels like 287 reaction against the state, which is seen as On the Road and Dharma the oppressor. The literary and philosophical Bums5. William Seward Bur- sources are very eclectic: psychoanalysis, roughs is another key writer of this gen- Zen Buddhism, Henry David Thoreau, Her- eration, even though his aesthetic line is mann Hesse, Friedrich Nietzsche and different than the Beat Generation one. He Oswald Spengler. One may ask oneself writes about his own experience with hard what may unite all these authors. We drugs (heroin particularly), in novels like consider that on the cultural level, all the Junky and The Naked Lunch. sources of the American counterculture deal However, the biggest revolution was with the theme of modernity, being against brought by the counterculture movement in the industry and technology2. The argument music, not in literature. Influenced by jazz is taken further, by proposing different types and blues, rock music determined a revolu- of spiritual, cultural, spiritual and even ur- tion in the popular culture. This movement ban alternatives. We have to take into was started in late 1950s, being influenced account that the counterculture has a power- by the American blues and jazz. In the early ful Leftist dimension, influenced by the 1960s already many groups emerged. The writings of the Frankfurt School of philo- rock revolution was accomplished by iconic sophy, particularly Herbert Marcuse (Eros groups like The Mamas & The Papas, Jef- and Civilization and The One-dimensional ferson Airplane, The Doors, Led Zeppelin, Man). In his writings, he is interested in The Beatles or individual musicians like mixing Freud’s conception referring to op- Joan Baez, Janis Joplin, Jimi Hendrix, pression with Marx’s view on the state. To Carlos Santana and others. Moreover, these resume, he insists that the State in general new music trends influenced the masses. creates a frustrated individual, through two Therefore, the last aspect of the counterculture main mechanisms: “surplus repression” and we discuss is the social aspect, namely the “basic repression”3. This large phenomenon big movements that occurred from 1965 to is present on three levels: in music, in 1970 in big cities like San Francisco or New literature and on a social scale. York. The street movements had a strong When we are talking about the literary Leftist position and soon they influenced counterculture, we take into consideration similar movements from Europe, especially the works of Allen Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac, in the Netherlands, France and Germany. Lawrence Ferlinghetti and, partly, William James Dean from the movie The Rebel Seward Burroughs. They are known as The without a Cause could be considered an Beat Generation. The literary dimension of emblematic figure of the American counter- counterculture refuses rational thinking, culture. He is the ultimate insubordinate which, according to them, belongs to the against an invisible authority. In our research, Modern State. For them, the solution was to we will discuss only about the literary, be found in alternative religious movements, social and musical phenomenon that emerged new for the time in USA: Zen Buddhism in America and later found unexpected roots and Hinduism. More specifically, Allen in Eastern Europe. For this reason, we will Ginsberg uses a mixture between Hinduism, try to understand how this cultural and Buddhism and the Christian heritage, in social phenomenon modifies its content poems like Sunflower Sutra, Kaddish and when it is assimilated in Eastern Europe. Howl4. Jack Kerouac will explore the Zen Therefore, the subject of our research Buddhist movement mixed with the passion is the reception and the hybridization of Adrian G. Matus 288 counterculture in Communist counterculture in the Eastern Europe11. For Romania. Through the a- the Romanian case, Caius Dobrescu and nalogy with the ‘rebel with- Madigan Fichter presented the issue in con- out a cause’, we will try to explain that temporary journals. Dobrescu analyzed the counterculture can be understood in a case of the Phoenix band12 and Madigan different way. We suggest the term ‘rebel Fichter offered a synthetic approach of the with a cause’, in order to explain why Romanian counterculture13. practicing counterculture was a risky act in In order to understand the dynamics of Eastern Europe. Moreover, we will reveal this phenomenon, we will use methods from how counterculture was assimilated with different fields of study. Our approach is nationalism, through force. In other words, clearly an historical one, but at the same our question is the following one: how the time we use literary and musical references. cohabitation (or even the synthesis) between In order to understand the dynamics of this the American counterculture and the Na- phenomenon, we are interested more in the tional Communism of Nicolae Ceauşescu social and cultural structures than in the was possible? Other questions equally rise: richness of the archives. In other words, we what determines this odd mixture between will be interested in the methodology pro- nationalism, Marxism and counterculture in moted by the Annales School of History. Romania? Lastly, we have to be honest and We are interested in re-creating the micro- question ourselves to what extent practicing history shaped by the outsiders, who were counterculture was a phenomenon of escape not conscripted into official papers. Likewise, from the communist routine. we consider that the phrase of Jim Sharpe “the history from below” can explain our 1.2. The Historiography of the Theme path. We are interested in explaining how and the Scientific Position the outsiders from a specific society can reflect the real image of a society. Therefore, The issue of the marginal youth groups we will start from the following theoretical from communist societies was not debated assumption: the members of an excluded until the early 2000. The explanation is a group of society do not obey unconditionally very simple one. After the fall of the Com- the dominant group. In contrast, there is munist regimes, the academic research always a negotiation and a dialectic dynam- focused on the repression of the individuals6. ic between the two14. Only after this strong, emotional aspect was clarified, the investigation of the social mutations done by communist regimes began. Only after 2000, were studies broad- ened, treating themes like childhood in communism, the architectural mutations or the Roma communities7. The new inquiries used a larger variety of sources, not only archives: interviews, photos and literary texts8. In Romania, the issue of the counter- culture was treated by Ştefan Borbély9 and Adi Dohotaru10. After 2010, even some academic journals published articles that focused on the reception of the American The Reception of the American Counterculture in Communist Romania (1960-1975) actually a member of the 289 2. The Establishment Stalinist faction (like Vasile Luca, Ana Pauker or 2.1. The Political and Cultural Context Lucreţiu Pătrăşcanu), he was strongly influenced by the Stalinist heritage. A After Stalin’s death, one may see a double tactic was used by Dej: he accused weakening of political control from the Stalinism only to reinforce his own power USSR. The countries from the Eastern bloc inside the Party. Other two aspects may also started to have their own distinctive position. explain the birth of the nationalist direction. In 1956, riots against the system emerged in Stelian Tănase, Romanian writer and Poland, Hungary and Eastern Germany. In political analyst, in Elite şi societate. this context, Romania played a double role: Guvernarea Gheorghiu-Dej16 [Elites and on one hand, the country wanted to gain Society. Gherghiu-Dej’s Government] states more independence, but at the same time, it that the collectivization ended in 1962 – had to prove that it was still a faithful therefore, and at that point an ideology was partner of Moscow.
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